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Manufacturing-induced Boundary Layers in Rolling Contacts

C. Brecher, C. Löpenhaus, R. Greschert*

Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering (WZL), RWTH Aachen
*corresponding Author, r.greschert@wzl.rwth-aachen.de

ABSTRACT

Boundary layers, which develop on the surfaces of work pieces during manufacturing and
operation, can reduce friction and wear in solid-state contacts. The characteristics of
boundary layers and, therefore, the running behavior of machine elements are determined by
the manufacturing process. In this paper, the influence of the manufacturing process and the
metal-working fluid on the characteristics of boundary layers and on the running behavior of
the manufactured parts is investigated. By combining measurement and test results, possible
correlations between the manufacturing process and the running behavior are investigated to
establish a more sustainable and economical design of gears considering the influence of the
manufacturing process.

KEYWORDS: Boundary Layers, Gears, Manufacturing, Tribology, Tribomutation, Coolant

1 INTRODUCTION

It has been shown that the manufacturing process influences the boundary layer of the manufactured parts
as well as their running behavior in their later application /1,2/, Figure 1. To analyze the forming
mechanisms and the impact of boundary layers on the running behavior, analogy disk test parts are
manufactured with varying process parameters and coolants. The test parts are measured regarding their
boundary layer properties. Furthermore, the effects of the different resulting boundary layers on the
running behavior are evaluated in finite life fatigue testing (pitting) and efficiency measurement (friction)
on the two-disk test rig.

Manufacturing Operation Component Properties

Cylindrical Grinding Two-Disk Test
F Not distinguishable by
 Topography
Micro

 Micro hardness
 Residual stresses

Feed Rate Variation Friction Coefficient Distinguishable by

boundary layer?
0.05
High Feed Rate
Nano

Low Feed Rate 0.03

0.01
0 Runtime [min] 75

Influence of the manufacturing process on the running behavior?

© WZL

Figure 1: Motivation and Research Aim

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2 TEST PARTS MANUFACTURING

The specimens in the form of gear analogy test parts (two-disk contact, Figure 2) are all ground on the
same grinding machine using the same process conditions except for the composition of the grinding fluid
and the grinding feed rate. The pre-machining is constant for all shafts. The shafts are made of the case
hardened steel 16MnCr5 (1.7131), which is a common material for gears. After grinding, nital etching is
applied at several parts for grinding burn detection (no damage detected) /3/.

Test Shafts Cylindrical Grinding Machine Studer S12

Test shaft

Counter shaft Studer AG

 Test Parts  Grinding Wheel  Grinding Parameters

16MnCr5, case hardened 53A 120 L 15 V PMF vc = 50 m/s
Hardness = 58 HRC White fused alumina (53A) nw = 200 min-1
EHT550V = 1.0 mm Fine grain (120) vf = variable
d = 42 mm Moderate hardness (L)
 Manufacturing Fluid
b = 18 mm Open structure (15)
variable
Ceramic bonding (V)

© WZL

Figure 2: Test Parts and Finishing Process

The variation of the metalworking fluid involves hydrocrack and ester oil as base fluids and sulfur and
phosphor as additives. The fluids are composed in ways that resemble products on the real market. In
total, nine different compositions of grinding oils and three different grinding feed rates are applied,
Figure 3. For each variant, a set of shafts is ground. The variation parameters are chosen in a way that the
ground surfaces still bear comparable roughness, residual stress and micro hardness values /1/.

Variant Base Oil Additives [vol-%] Research Aim

1 None Unpolar Base Oil

2a 2b 2c 2% Sulfur Feed Rate Variation

Hydrocrack Oil
3 5% Sulfur Additive Concentration
(ISO VG 8)
4 5% Sulfur + 1% Phosphor
Synergisms/Antagonisms
5 5% Sulfur + 4% Phosphor

6 None Polar Base Oil

7 Ester Oil 2% Sulfur

Additive Concentration
8 (ISO VG 8) 5% Sulfur

9 5% Sulfur + 1% Phosphor Synergisms/Antagonisms

© WZL

Figure 3: Variation Plan (Metalworking Fluid and Grinding Feed Rate)

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3 BOUNDARY LAYER ANALYSIS

To investigate the forming mechanisms of boundary layers, seven selected specimens are analyzed
regarding microstructure and chemical composition after grinding. All analyses are carried out by NMI
Tübingen. The boundary layer structure is analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and
Focused Ion Beam (FIB) preparation. A fine-grained, approx. 300 nm thin layer is observed on the
surface of all analyzed specimens. The coarse-grained base structure follows underneath the fine-grained
layer. While the layer thicknesses do not differ significantly between the manufactured variants, the layer
transitions from fine-grained to coarse-grained structures are distinguishable. Four variants show fluent
transitions, the other three variants show abrupt transitions, Figure 4.

 Method: FIB-SEM Transition Between Surface Layers

 Fine-grained surface Fluent
layer (0-300 nm)
Variants
 Underneath: coarse- Hydrocrack +2%S
grained base material Ester
Ester +2%S
Ester +5%S +1%P
fine-grained
Abrupt
Variants
Hydrocrack
Hydrocrack +5%S +1%P
Grinding Feed Rate: High
fine-grained surface

abrupt
transition

coarse-grained coarse-grained substract

Cross-section 1 µm 1 µm
Measurement: NMI Tübingen

© WZL

Figure 4: Boundary Layer Structure of the Manufactured Parts

Furthermore, element spectra of the specimen surfaces are recorded by Secondary Neutral Mass
Spectrometry (SNMS). Compared to the chemical composition of the base structure (97% Fe), the surface
layer shows increased amounts of the constituents of the metalworking fluid (C, S, P), the grinding wheel
(Si) and the surrounding (O, OH). Depth profile measurements show that the changes of the chemical
composition affect the first 10 nm in depth, which indicates an adsorption and/or reaction layer /4/. Since
the specimens are cleaned in hexane and analyzed in vacuum, the detected elements seem to have strong
bindings to the surface.

Figure 5 shows that even the specimens ground without additives show increased contents of carbon (C)
and oxygen (O) on their surfaces. While carbon originates from hydrocrack oil molecules (hydrocarbons),
oxygen is brought in from the atmosphere. This effect is also observed by Brinksmeier /5/, who explains
it by means of adsorption (C) and oxidation (O) mechanisms. The specimens ground with hydrocrack oil
with additives show increased contents of all elements except for iron (Fe). The specimen ground with
hydrocrack oil +5% S +1% P shows an increased content of silicium (Si) on its surface. Since this
quantity of Si cannot originate from the base structure, it indicates wear of the ceramic bond of the
grinding wheel /6/. The chemical compositions of the specimens ground under ester oil lubrication bear
higher values of iron and carbon on their surfaces. One possible explanation is that the adsorption of oil
molecules to the surface is increased and the oxidation and corrosion is decreased in comparison to the
hydrocrack specimen. This indication is supported by the polar molecular configuration of ester oils /4/.
Adding 2% sulfur additives to the ester oil causes no significant changes to the chemical composition of
the ground surface, except for an increased amount of sulfur. 5% sulfur and 1% phosphor additives effect
changes to the chemical composition of the ground surface. The contents of all other elements are
increased, so that only 75.5% Fe remains. The phosphor additives seem to work better in ester oil, since
their content on the surface is more than doubled.
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 Method:SNMS Hydrocrack oil Ester oil

Element
 Depth:0-2 nm [m-%] No add. 2S 2S+High 5S + 1P No add. 2S 5S + 1P
 Error: Fe: 2%
Other 20% Fe 88.6 84.5 83.4 76.3 90.9 90.4 75.5

 Oil Ele- C 1.5 1.4 1.2 2.6 2.0 2.0 2.7

ments
S 0.2 1.5 1.6 2.4 0.4 1.1 2.1
P 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.7 0.2 0.2 4.0
 Grinding
wheel Si 0.4 0.6 0.6 1.5 0.3 0.4 0.9
O 2.1 3.8 4.9 3.8 0.3 0.3 3.3

Measurement: NMI Tübingen OH 0.9 1.2 1.5 2.4 0.3 0.3 2.2
© WZL

Figure 5: Chemical Composition of the Surface after Manufacturing

(S=Sulfur Additive, P=Phosphor Additive, High=High Grinding Feed Rate)

4 RUNNING BEHAVIOR TESTS

The running behavior of the manufactured parts is investigated in low cycle fatigue tests (pitting) and
friction force measurements (efficiency) on the two-disk test rig, which is designed to simulate gear-like
conditions regarding pressure, kinematics and lubrication /1/, Figure 6. The sliding contact between the
gear flanks is simulated by different rotational speeds of the disks (shafts). To investigate fatigue strength,
pitting damages on the test shafts are induced. The test is run under circulatory lubrication using
conventional transmission oil classified as CLP 68. Every test run is started with new oil and a run-in
procedure of the shafts at a reduced load level.

The low cycle fatigue strength of the specimens is evaluated by three tests per variant and the evaluation
of the lifetime (in load cycles) for a 50% probability of failure. The friction force measurement is
conducted twice for each variant. Based on the measured force, the friction coefficient is calculated.

 Parameters Design / Layout

a = 42 mm
FN,max = 16 kN
n = 1500 / 3000 min-1
s = -80 … 45 %
QOil,max = 5 l/min
TOil,max = 120 °C
 Contact geometry:
Point contact
4
5
5 6
 Legende
1 Test shaft (cylindrical)
2 Counter shaft (crowned)
3 Pressure piston
4 Lever
5 Housing
6 Engine
7
7 Transmission 3 2 1

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Figure 6: Two-Disk Test Rig for the Investigation of the Running Behavior
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The test results of the specimens ground with hydrocrack grinding oil are shown in Figure 7. Variant 2%
S and variant 5% S show increased lifetimes and reduced friction coefficients compared to the variant
ground without additives. The worst running behavior, i.e. the shortest lifetime and highest friction
coefficient, is observed for variant 5% S 1% P. Adding further phosphor to the metalworking fluid results
in longer lifetimes and lower friction coefficients for variants 5% S 4% P. Since the differences in
lifetimes and friction coefficients between the variants are bigger than the scatter of the test results, the
grinding oil is likely to influence the running behavior of the manufactured parts. The findings cannot be
explained by surface roughness, residual stress or micro hardness values of the different variants, which
are all comparable. Regarding the manufacturing-induced boundary layers of the test parts (Figure 4),
abrupt (instead of fluent) structure transitions are observed for those two variants, which show the worst
performance in the test. Furthermore, the chemical composition of the surface (Figure 5) of variant 5% S
1% P bears the highest amount of silicium, which indicates wear of the grinding wheel. Two possible
explanations for the observed behavior are antagonisms between the additives /4/ or over-lubrication
causing thermal loads and wear of the grinding wheel /5/.

 Finite Life Fatigue Running Behavior in Two-Disk Test

Oil: CLP VG 68
n = 3000 min-1 6 0.10
sTS = -28 %
pH = 2500 MPa 5 Lifetime
0.09
Lifetime [·106 Cycles]

Friction coefficient µ
Ntests = 3 (and Spreading)
Run-In: 1h, 1100 MPa 4 0.08

3 0.07

Friction Force Meas. 2 Friction Coefficient 0.06

Öl: CLP VG 68
n = 2445 min-1 1 0.05
sTS = +60 %
pH = 1200 MPa
Ntests = 2 5% S 5% S
None 2% S 5% S
Run-In: 1h, 800 MPa 1% P 4% P
Coolant additives
µ [S = Sulfur, P = Phosphor]

© WZL

Figure 7: Test Results: Coolant Additive Variation, Base Oil: Hydrocrack Oil

Apart from the metalworking fluid variation, three sets of test parts are ground using different grinding
process parameters, Figure 3. The finishing feed rate of the grinding process is varied between 0.03, 0.05
(reference feed rate for all other variants) and 0.10 mm/min. The differently ground parts cannot be
distinguished by their macro- or micro-geometrical properties. However, the test results of the operational
performance differ in finite life fatigue and in friction, Figure 8. The medium feed rate of 0.05 mm/min
delivers the highest lifetime and the lowest friction force for the manufactured parts. The analysis of the
boundary layer after manufacturing (Figure 4, Figure 5) shows that the variant 0.10 mm/min (high feed
rate) bears an abrupt structure transition and a high amount of oxygen on the surface. Therefore, the
reduced lifetime of this variant is possibly caused by higher, unfavourable thermal or mechanical loads
during the grinding process.
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 Finite Life Fatigue Running Behavior in Two-Disk Test

Oil: CLP VG 68
n = 3000 min-1 6 0.10
sTS = -28 %
pH = 2500 MPa 5 Lifetime
0.09

Lifetime [·106 Cycles]

Friction coefficient µ
Ntests = 3 (and Spreading)
Run-In: 1h, 1100 MPa 4 0.08

3 0.07

Friction Force Meas. 2 Friction Coefficient 0.06

Öl: CLP VG 68
n = 2445 min-1 1 0.05
sTS = +60 %
pH = 1200 MPa
Ntests = 2 0.03 0.05 0.10
Run-In: 1h, 800 MPa
Grinding Feed Rate
µ [mm/min]

© WZL

Figure 8: Test Results: Grinding Feed Rate Variation

The test results of the variants ground using ester fluids are shown in Figure 9. The lifetimes of all ester
variants are on a higher level compared to the variants ground with hydrocrack fluids. The variant ground
with ester oil without any additives shows the highest lifetime and lowest friction coefficient. All other
fluid compositions cause decreased lifetimes and increased friction to the ground specimens. Regarding
the boundary layer structure (Figure 4), the ester oil variants show fluent transitions from fine-grained
into coarse-grained structure. The analysis of the chemical composition of the boundary layer reveals that
the best running behavior matches with the lowest concentration of additive constituents on the surface.

 Finite Life Fatigue Running Behavior in Two-Disk Test

Oil: CLP VG 68
n = 3000 min-1 6 Lifetime 0.10
sTS = -28 % (and spreading)
pH = 2500 MPa 5 0.09
Lifetime [·106 Cycles]

Friction coefficient µ
Ntests = 3
Run-In: 1h, 1100 MPa 4 0.08

3 0.07
Friction Coefficient
Friction Force Meas. 2 0.06
Öl: CLP VG 68
n = 2445 min-1 1 0.05
sTS = +60 %
pH = 1200 MPa
Ntests = 2 5% S
None 2% S 5% S
Run-In: 1h, 800 MPa 1% P
Additives of the ester grinding oil
µ [S = Sulfur, P = Phosphor]

© WZL

Figure 9: Test Results: Coolant Additive Variation, Base Oil: Ester Oil

Two conclusions can be drawn regarding the influence of the manufacturing-induced boundary layer on
the running behavior. Firstly, the boundary layer can be used as an indicator of the quality of the grinding
process. For instance, abrupt structure transitions and indications of tool wear imply unfavorable cutting
conditions and damages to the specimen surface. Secondly, even thin adsorption and reaction layers are
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likely to influence the running behavior. Using the example of the ester oil variant, the specimen surface
seems to be chemically well adjusted to the transmission oil of the test rig. This adjustment might be
caused by the orientation of polar constituents of the surface such as proposed by Schulz /4/.

5 SUMMARY

Specimens in the form of gear analogy test parts (two-disk contact) are investigated concerning their
manufacturing-induced boundary layers and their running behavior in two-disk tests under gear-like
conditions. FIB-SEM analyses reveal a fine-grained layer of a thickness of approx. 300 nm on the surface.
All analyzed specimens show fine-grained layers, but the transitions from the fine-grained to the coarse-
grained structures are different between the variants. Furthermore, SNMS analyses indicate an adsorption
or reaction layer of a thickness of approx. 10 nm on the very surface of the specimens. The chemical
composition is dependent on the base fluid and the additives of the applied grinding oil. The lifetimes of
the tested specimens correlate with the metalworking fluid and the process parameters of the grinding
process. High amounts of additive elements (S, P) on the specimen surface do not automatically induce
long lifetimes in the two-disk test. Instead, the highest lifetime is observed for the specimen variant which
has been ground using ester oil without any additives. The polarity of the ester molecules seems to be
sufficient to form a tribological protection film on the specimen surface. Hence, antagonisms or
synergisms between the additives of the metalworking fluid and the transmission oil should be carefully
examined to gain tribologically optimized surfaces.

The investigations are to be transferred to real gears and to generate grinding. At the end of the project a
guideline that describes an optimized preconditioning process for gears is derived to establish a more
sustainable and economical design of gears.

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support by the German Research

Foundation (DFG) [BR2905/44-1 and BR2905/44-2] for the achievement of the project
results.

7 REFERENCES

/1/ C. Brecher, C. Löpenhaus, R. Greschert, 2015, Influence of the metalworking fluid on the running
behavior of gear analogy test parts, Production Engineering - Research and Development, Vol. 9,
Issue 3, S. 425-431
/2/ P. Berlet, Einfluss spanender Endbearbeitungen mit geometrisch unbestimmten Schneiden auf
tribologische Funktionsflächen, 2009, Diss. Universität Karlsruhe
/3/ C. Gorgels, 2011, Entstehung und Vermeidung von Schleifbrand beim diskontinuierlichen
Zahnflankenprofilschleifen, Diss. RWTH Aachen
/4/ J. Schulz, W. Holweger, 2010, Wechselwirkung von Additiven mit Metalloberflächen, Expert
Verlag, Renningen
/5/ E. Brinksmeier, A. Walter, 2000, Generation of Reaction Layers on Machined Surfaces, CIRP
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/6/ F. Klocke, C. Kuwer, C. Zeppenfeld, 2006, Tribological Analysis of Diverse Ceramics in Contact
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