20AG401: UNIT OPERATIONS IN AGRICULTURAL PROCESSING

UNIT III: SIZE REDUCTION

3.1. Size Reduction

Size reduction refers to an operation wherein particles of solids are cut or broken into smaller
pieces. Size reduction is a mechanical process of breakdown of solids into smaller size particles
without altering the state of aggregation of solids. It is also called comminution.

The term “Size reduction” is applied to all the ways in which particles of solids are broken or
cut to smaller pieces. Commercial products must sometimes meet very specific requirements as to
the size and sometimes the shape of the product. On the other hand, particles are ground to
increase the reactivity of solids in some industrial reactions. Also, this permits separation of
unwanted large impurities by mechanical methods. Finally, it reduces the bulk of fibrous materials
for easier handling.

3.1.1. Criteria for Size Reduction

Crushers and grinders are used for size reduction (also known as comminution). An ideal
crusher or grinder should have a large capacity, consume as little energy as possible and the product
particles should practically have the same size. In practice all these criteria are hardly met. As a
matter of fact, the actual capacity of any crusher or grinder is always several times less than its ideal
capacity, also the power required for crushing or grinding is much higher than the calculated
theoretical power. Finally, it is not uncommon to have products having a very large particle size
distribution. Sometimes, a screen can be put at the outlet of the crusher or grinder so as to remove
the coarsest particles in the product but this provision cannot eliminate the too fine particles
produced.

Figure 3.1. Size reduction as flow sheet.

 3.1.2. Importance of Size Reduction

In the process industries, this operation is usually carried out in order,

 To increase the surface in order to increase the rate of a physical or chemical process.
In most reactions and unit operations (e.g., leaching) involving solid particles, the rate
increases by increasing the area of contact between solid and second phase since the
rate is proportional to the area of contact between the phases involved. In combustion
process, the rate of combustion is proportional to the area presented to the gas. Thus,
the rate of combustion of solid particles is high if the particles are of small size. In
leaching, the rate of extraction increases because of the increased area of contact
between the solid and the solvent.
 To effect the separation of two constituents in cases where one is dispersed in small
isolated pockets.
 To meet stringent specifications regarding the size of commercial products.
 To accomplish intimate mixing of solids in a solid-solid operation since the mixing is
more complete if the particle size is small.
 To improve dissolution rate, solubility, binding strength and dispersion properties.
 Many solid materials exist/present in sizes that are too large to be used directly. Thus,
such materials must be reduced in size before use.

Size reduction machines more commonly reduce the size of solids by (a) compression, (b)
impact, (c) attrition, or rubbing, and (d) cutting.

In general, compression is used for the coarse reduction of hard solids (to yield relatively few
fines), impact gives coarse, medium, or fine products, attrition gives very fine products from soft,
non-abrasive materials and cutting produces a product of a definite particle size and sometimes a
definite shape, with few or no fines.

3.1.3. Applications of Size Reduction (Examples):

 Size reduction operation is carried out in coal washeries, ore processing industries, chemical
industry, paint industry, cement industry and food processing industry.
 Cutting is only used whenever the product is to be of some definite shape with little or no
fines.

3.2. Grinding and cutting 

Grinding and cutting reduce the size of solid materials by mechanical action, dividing them
into smaller particles. Perhaps the most extensive application of grinding in the food industry is in the
milling of grains to make flour, but it is used in many other processes, such as in the grinding of corn
for manufacture of corn starch, the grinding of sugar and the milling of dried foods, such as
vegetables.

3.2.1. Cutting

Size reduction is accomplished by forcing a sharp and thin knife through the material. In this
process, minimum deformation and rupture of the material results and the new surface created is
more or less undamaged. For example: Cutting of fruits and vegetable by sharp knife to reduce the
size.
3.2.2. Grinding

In the grinding process, materials are reduced in size by fracturing them. The mechanism of
fracture is not fully understood, but in the process, the material is stressed by the action of mechanical
moving parts in the grinding machine and initially the stress is absorbed internally by the material as
strain energy. When the local strain energy exceeds a critical level, which is a function of the
material, fracture occurs along lines of weakness and the stored energy is released. Some of the
energy is taken up in the creation of new surface, but the greater part of it is dissipated as heat. Time
also plays a part in the fracturing process and it appears that material will fracture at lower stress
concentrations if these can be maintained for longer periods. Grinding is, therefore, achieved by
mechanical stress followed by rupture and the energy required depends upon the hardness of the
material and also upon the tendency of the material to crack - its friability.

The force applied may be compression, impact, or shear, and both the magnitude of the force
and the time of application affect the extent of grinding achieved. For efficient grinding, the energy
applied to the material should exceed, by as small a margin as possible, the minimum energy needed
to rupture the material. Excess energy is lost as heat and this loss should be kept as low as practicable.
The important factors to be studied in the grinding process are the amount of energy used and the
amount of new surface formed by grinding.

3.3. Principle of Size Reduction or comminuting

The objective of comminution is to produce smaller particles from larger ones. Smaller
particles are the desired product either because of their large surface or because of their shape, size,
and number. The energy efficiency of the operation can be related to the new surface formed by the
reduction in size. The geometric characteristics of particles, both alone and in mixtures, are important
for product evaluation after comminution.

In an actual process, a given unit does not yield a uniform product, whether the feed is
uniformly sized or not. The product normally consists of a mixture of particles, which may contain a
wide variety of sizes and even shapes. Some types of equipment are designed to control the
magnitude of the largest particles in their products, but the fine sizes are not under such control. In
some machines, fines are minimized, but they cannot be totally eliminated. In comminuted products,
the term “diameter” is generally used to describe the characteristic dimension related to particle size.
The shape of an individual particle is conveniently expressed in terms of the sphericity Φ, which is
independent of particle size. For spherical particles Φ equals unity, while for many crushed materials
its value lies between 0.6 and 0.7.

The term size reduction is applied to all procedures in which particles of solids are cut or
broken into smaller pieces. Size reduction of solids involves creating smaller mass unit from larger
mass units of the same material. Size reduction is a mechanical process of breakdown of solids into
smaller size particles without altering the state of aggregation of solids. Many solid materials
exists/present in sizes that are too large to be used directly. Thus such material must be reduced in
size before use.

3.3.1. Necessity of size reduction

In process industries, this operation is usually carried out in order:

  To increase the surface area to enhance the rate of a physical or chemical process. In most of
the reactions and unit operations (e.g., leaching) involving solid particles, the rate increases by
increasing the area of contact between solid and second phase since the rate is proportional
to the area of contact between the phases involved. In leaching, the of extraction increases
because of the increased area of contact between solid and the solvent.
 To effect the separation of two constituents in cases where one is dispersed in small isolated
pockets.
 To meet stringent specifications regarding the sizes of commercial products.
 To accomplish intimate mixing of solids in a solid-solid operation since the mixing is more
complete if the particle size is small.
 To improve dissolution rate, solubility, binding strength and dispersion properties.

3.3.2. Size reduction procedures

In comminution of food products, the reduction mechanism consists of deforming the food
piece until it breaks or tears and such breaking may be achieved by applying diverse forces. The types
of forces commonly used in food processes are compression (crushing), impact, attrition or rubbing,
cutting and shearing. In a comminution operation, more than one type of force is usually acting. For
example, crushing, grinding, and milling take place in powdered sugar, flour, mustard, and cocoa
production.

Crushing: when an external force applied on a material excess of its strength, the material fails
because of its rupture in many direction. The particles produced after crushing are irregular in shape
and size. The type of material and method of force application affects the characteristics of new
surfaces and particles. For examples: Food grain flour, grits and meal, ground feed for livestock are
made by crushing process. Extraction of oil from oilseeds and juice from sugarcane are also by
crushing process.

Impact: When a material is subject to sudden blow of force in excess of its strength, it fails.
For example, cracking of nut with help of a hammer.

Cutting: Size reduction is accomplished by forcing a sharp and thin knife through the material.
In this process, minimum deformation and rupture of the material results and the new surface created
is more or less undamaged. For example: Cutting of fruits and vegetable by sharp knife to reduce the
size.

Attrition: Rubbing away or wearing down by friction. The material is pulverised between two
toothed metal disks rotating in opposite directions.

Shearing: It is a process of size reduction which combines cutting and crushing. The shearing
unit consists of a knife and a bar. If the edges of knife or shearing edge is thin enough and sharp, the
size reduction process nears to that of cutting, whereas a thick and dull shearing edge performs like a
crusher. In a good shearing unit, the knife is usually thick enough to overcome the shock resulting
from material hitting. In an ideal shearing unit the clearance between the bar and the knife should be
as small as practicable and the knife as sharp and thin as possible.

In general, compression is used for the coarse reduction of hard solids (to yields relatively few
fines), impact gives coarse, medium or fine products, attrition gives very fine products from soft, non-
abrasive materials and cutting produces a product of a definite particle size and sometimes a definite
shape, with few or no fines. In Food processing industry, size reduction operation is carried out for
sugar, spices, grains etc.
3.3.3. Mechanical Resistance Involved in Size Reduction

Mechanical resistance refers to all the properties that describe the behaviour of a solid
material as it deforms and breaks under the influence of an applied stress (Loncin and Merson, 1979).
The deformation of a certain food material can be elastic when the applied stress remains below a
limiting value, or inelastic. The material experiences elastic deformation when it returns to its original
shape when the force is removed. If the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the material undergoes
permanent (inelastic) deformation until it reaches the yield point when it begins to flow (region of
ductility) under the action of the applied stress until it finally breaks. This process defines the elastic
stress limit, yield stress, breaking stress, and the region of ductility.

E is elastic limit, Y is yield point, B is breaking point, OE is elastic region, EY is elastic

deformation, and YB is region of ductility. Different curves are represented for different types of
material depending on their mechanical behaviour: material (1): hard, strong, and brittle; material (2):
hard, strong, and ductile; material (3): hard, weak, and brittle; material (4): soft, weak, and ductile;
material (5): soft, weak, and brittle. (Loncin and Merson, 1979).

The breaking stress or ultimate stress is a property of the material. Breaking occurs along
cracks or defects in the piece structure. A large piece with many defects can be broken with a small
stress with very little deformation. Smaller pieces have fewer defects remaining and will need a
higher breaking strength. In the limit of very small particles, purely intermolecular forces must be
overcome. This is why grinding is so difficult to achieve below a certain size. For example, fine
grinding of roasted coffee (e.g., to less than 50 μm) is best recommended under cryogenic conditions
(i.e., subzero temperatures) in order to accomplish the desired grinding efficiency. The elastic state is
described by Hooke’s law ([stress] = E · [strain]). The most important characteristic is the modulus of
elasticity E, which is the stress causing a unit change in length in the same direction as the applied
force. The Poisson coefficient or bulk modulus permits prediction of the transverse contraction or
expansion that occurs when a stress is applied longitudinally. Inelastic behavior is defined for stresses
greater than the elastic limit but smaller than the breaking limit.

The behavior is described by visco-elastic models (such as the Maxwell model or the Kelvin
model), which combine elements of inelastic behaviour and elements of viscous flow. Stress can be
applied to the particle in a variety of ways such as traction, compression, or shear (or combination of
those methods). Although the stress limits are not the same for these different modes, there is clearly
a relation among them. Consequently, it is often possible to use a compression test as an indication of
the breaking load under tension. Since breaking occurs along cracks, in some materials the breaking
point measured by compression is usually higher than when measured by traction; tension enhances
the cracks, whereas compression tends to close them up.

3.4. Characteristics of comminuted products

The structure and composition of the material to be processed greatly influence the size
reduction mechanisms that can be employed and the equipment used. For example, a crystalline
structure (such as sugar) will break along fracture planes which require compression (using a
crushing technique) to bring about size reduction. If there are no fracture planes present then new
cracks must be developed using impaction. On the other hand a fibrous structure, such as vegetable
matter, suggests the need for cutting or shredding. Similarly, cutting is appropriate for ductile
materials such as flesh foods such as meat.
 The presence of moisture can present problems in size reduction operations. Even small
quantities of moisture on the surface of fine particles inevitably leads to the agglomeration of fines
and therefore a size increase, although such agglomerates will be weak. More seriously, too high
moisture content may lead to the rapid blockage of a mill. Equally, moisture can be useful in
suppressing dust and preventing dust explosions and this is exploited in wet milling techniques for
example in the milling of corn.

In a comminution operation of food materials more than one type of the above-described
forces is actually present. Regardless of the uniformity of the feed material, the product always
consists of a mixture of particles covering a range of sizes. Some size reduction equipment is
designed to control the size of the largest particles in its products, but the fine sizes are not under
control. In spite of the hardness of the comminuted materials, the above-mentioned shape of produced
particles would be subjected to attrition due to inter-particle and particle—equipment contacts within
the dynamics of the operation. Thus, particle angles will smooth gradually, with the consequent
production of fines. In actual practice, any feed material will possess an original particle size
distribution while the obtained product will end with a new particle size distribution having a whole
range finer than the feed distribution.

In comminution practice, particle size is often referred to as screen aperture size. The
reduction ratio, defined as the relation between average size of feed and average size of product, can
be used as an estimate of the performance of a comminution operation. The values for average size of
feed and product depend on the method of measurement, but the true arithmetic mean, obtained from
screen analyses on samples of the feed and product streams, is commonly used for this purpose.
Reduction ratios depend on the specific type of equipment. As a general rule, the coarser the
reduction, the smaller the ratio. For example, coarse crushers have size reduction ratios of below 8:1,
while fine grinders may present ratios as high as 100:1. However, large reduction ratios, such as those
obtained when dividing relatively large solid lumps to ultra-fine powders, are normally attained by
several stages using diverse crushing and grinding machines. A good example of this is the overall
milling of wheat grain into fine flour, in which crushing rolls in series of decreasing diameters are
employed.

3.5. Particle size distribution in comminuted products

There are several single-particle characteristics that are very important to product properties
(Davies, 1984). They include particle size, particle shape, surface, density, hardness, adsorption
properties, and so on. From all these mentioned features, particle size is the most essential and
important one. The term “size” of a powder or particulate material is very relative. It is often used to
classify, categorize, or characterize a powder, but even the term powder is not clearly defined and the
common convention considers that for a particulate material to be considered powder, its approximate
median size (50% of the material is smaller than the median size and 50% is larger) should be less
than 1 mm. It is also common practice to talk about “fine” and “coarse” powders; several attempts
have been made at standardizing particle nomenclature in certain fields.

For example, the following table shows the terms recommended by the British Pharmacopoeia
referred to standard sieves apertures. Also, by convention, particle sizes may be expressed in different
units depending on the size range involved. Coarse particles may be measured in centimeters or
millimeters, fine particles in terms of screen size, and very fine particles in micrometers or
nanometers. However, due to recommendations of the International Organization for Standardization
SI units have been adopted in many countries and, thus, particle size may be expressed in meters
when doing engineering calculations, or in micrometers by virtue of the small range normally covered
or when doing graphs.

Table 1: Mesh sizes

The selection of a relevant characteristic particle size to start any sort of analysis or
measurement often poses a problem. In practice, the particles forming a powder will rarely have a
spherical shape. Many industrial powders are of mineral (metallic or nonmetallic) origin and have
been derived from hard materials by any sort of size reduction process. In such a case, the
comminuted particles resemble polyhedrons with nearly plane faces, 4–7 faces, and sharp edges and
corners. The particles may be compact, with length, breadth, and thickness nearly equal, but,
sometimes, they may be plate-like or needle-like. As particles get smaller, and by the influence of
attrition due to handling, their edges may become smoother and, thus, they can be considered to be
spherical. The term “diameter” is, therefore, often used to refer to the characteristic linear dimension.
All these geometrical features of an important number of industrial powders, such as cement, clay,
and chalk, are related to the intimate structure of their forming elements, whose arrangements are
normally symmetrical with definite shapes such as cubes, octahedrons, and so on.

3.6. Energy and Power Requirement for Size Reduction or comminuting

In the breakdown of hard and brittle food solid materials, two stages of breakage are
recognized: (a) initial fracture along existing fissures within the structure of the material; and (b)
formation of new fissures or crack tips followed by fracture along these fissures. It is also accepted
that only a small percentage of the energy supplied to the grinding equipment is actually used in the
breakdown operation. Thus, grinding is a very inefficient process, perhaps the most inefficient of the
traditional unit operations. Much of the input energy is lost in deforming the particles within their
elastic limits and through inter-particle friction. A large amount of this wasted energy is converted as
heat which, in turn, may be responsible for rise in temperature and damage of nutrients of biological
materials.

Elastic and inelastic properties of a given food material often vary considerably with moisture
content and the distribution of water in the material. Further complications arise because these
properties are often strongly anisotropic, with various layers or parts having extremely different
mechanical resistances. Furthermore, the properties of materials can vary with the rate with which the
stress is applied; some materials are plastic and ductile if the stress is applied slowly, but can be
elastic or brittle if the stress is applied by impact. Consequently, it is not possible, at present, to
describe a food material or furnish the parameters needed to design a size reduction operation. These
parameters must be determined experimentally. The energy needed to cause rupture is the work
needed to deform the material plus the energy needed to form the new surface. The latter is given by:
 E = ∆ (σ A) (3.1)

Where σ is the interfacial energy of the surface and A is the surface area. The minimum work
of distortion can be measured by placing a sample in tension (or compression) in a machine (such as
an Instron testing machine) that simultaneously measures both the applied force and the elongation up
to the breaking point. By plotting force vs. elongation and measuring the area under the curve
between zero elongation and the elongation (∆x) max at rupture, one can evaluate the energy needed
for breaking the piece:

E =\[\int\limits_0^{{{(\Delta x)}_{\max}}}{F\,dx}\] (3.2)

In an actual grinding machine, the particles undergo many elastic or inelastic deformations
that do not exceed the breaking stress and therefore do not cause breakage. These deformations
require work, however, which is entirely wasted except for newly formed cracks that facilitate
breakage on subsequent impacts. In fact, only about 1% of the energy used in grinding is used to
create new surface. The remaining energy is dissipated as heat in the product and equipment, and
high temperatures may result. The cost of power is the major expense in crushing and grinding
operation. Thus accurate estimation of the energy required is important in the design and selection of
size reduction equipment.

During size reduction, the solids particles are first distorted and strained, work required to
strain them is stored temporarily in the solids as mechanical energy of stress. By applying additional
force, the stressed particles are distorted beyond their ultimate strength and suddenly rupture into
fragments. Thus, new surface is generated. As a unit area of solid has a definite amount of the surface
energy, the generation of new surface requires work, which is given by the release of the stress when
the particles break. The energy of stress in excess of the new surface energy created appears as heat.

The energy E required to reduce the size of particulate solids depends upon the energy
absorbed by the solids and the mechanical efficiency of the process ηm which takes account of
frictional losses. Therefore by definition

\[{\eta _m}\]=\[\frac{{energy\,absorbed\,by\,solid}}{E}\] (3.3)

The expression for E can be expanded to give

\[E\]=\[\frac{{{e_s}\,\left({{A_p}-\,{A_f}}\right)}}{{{\eta _m}\,{\eta _c}}}\] (3.4)

Where es are the surface energy per unit area, Ap and Af are the surface areas per unit mass of
the product and feed, respectively, and ηc is a crushing efficiency. The later is likely to be very small,
of the order of 1%. Using the definitions of specific surface and sphericity, the surface area per unit
mass, for non-spherical particles, becomes

\[A\]=\[\frac{6}{{\varphi \,{\rho _s}\,x}}\] (3.5)

Where ρs is the density of the solids and x is the particle size. Now, across n size fractions of the
particle size distribution, the total mass specific surface is

\[A\]=\[\sum\limits_{i = \,1}^{i = \,n} {\frac{{6\,{w_i}}}{{\varphi \,{\rho _s}\,{x_i}}}}\]

(3.6) and assuming that sphericity and density are constant for all size fractions
 \[A\]=\[\frac{6}{{\varphi \,{\rho _s}\,{x_{p,f}}}}\] (3.7)

Substituting into Eq gives the energy input as

\[E\]=\[\frac{{{e_s}}}{{{\eta _m}\,{\eta _c}}}\frac{6}{{\varphi \,{\rho _s}}}\left

( {\frac{1}{{{x_p}}} - \frac{1}{{{x_f}}}\,} \right)\] (3.8)

Where xf and xp are the surface-volume mean particle sizes of the feed and product,
respectively.

Equation (3.8) suggests that energy input is a function of the initial and final size of the
particles.

Theoretical considerations suggest that the energy input dE required to produce a small
change in the size dx of unit mass of material can be expressed as a power function of the size of the
material:

\[\frac{{dE}}{{dx}}\]=\[-\frac{C}{{{x^n}}}\] (3.9)

Where dE is the change in energy, dx is the change in size, C is a constant, n is the power
value and x is the particle size.

Equation (3.9) is often referred to as the general law of comminution and has been used by a
number of researchers to derive more specific laws depending on the application. It has been
developed based on the energy needed for causing deformation, creating new surface, or enlarging
cracks.

It is not possible to estimate accurately the power requirement of crushing and grinding
equipment to effect the size reduction of a given material, but a number of empirical laws have been
put forward e.g., Rittinger’s law, Kick’s law and Bond’s law.

3.6.1. Energy Used in Grinding

Grinding is a very inefficient process and it is important to use energy as efficiently as

possible. Unfortunately, it is not easy to calculate the minimum energy required for a given reduction
process, but some theories have been advanced which are useful.

These theories depend upon the basic assumption that the energy required to produce a change
dL in a particle of a typical size dimension L is a simple power function of L:

dE/dL = KLn (3.6.1)

Where dE is the differential energy required, dL is the change in a typical dimension, L is the
magnitude of a typical length dimension and K, n, are constants.

Kick assumed that the energy required to reduce a material in size was directly proportional to
the size reduction ratio dL/L. This implies that n in eqn. (3.6.1) is equal to -1. If

K = KKfc

Where KK is called Kick's constant and fc is called the crushing strength of the material, we
have:
 dE/dL = KKfcL -1

This, on integration gives:

E = KKfc loge (L1/L2) (3.6.2)

Equation (3.6.2) is a statement of Kick's Law. It implies that the specific energy required to
crush a material, for example from 10 cm down to 5 cm, is the same as the energy required to crush
the same material from 5 mm to 2.5 mm.

Rittinger’s, on the other hand, assumed that the energy required for size reduction is directly
proportional, not to the change in length dimensions, but to the change in surface area. This leads to a
value of -2 for n in eqn. (11.1) as area is proportional to length squared. If we put:

K = KRfc

And so,

dE/dL = KRfcL-2

Where KR is called Rittinger's constant, and integrate the resulting form of eqn. (3.6.1), we
obtain:

E = KRfc (1/L2– 1/L1) (3.6.3)

Equation (3.6.3) is known as Rittinger's Law. As the specific surface of a particle, the surface
area per unit mass, is proportional to 1/L, eqn. (3.6.3) postulates that the energy required to reduce L
for a mass of particles from 10 cm to 5 cm would be the same as that required to reduce, for example,
the same mass of 5 mm particles down to 4.7 mm. This is a very much smaller reduction, in terms of
energy per unit mass for the smaller particles, than that predicted by Kick's Law.

It has been found, experimentally, that for the grinding of coarse particles in which the
increase in surface area per unit mass is relatively small, Kick's Law is a reasonable approximation.
For the size reduction of fine powders, on the other hand, in which large areas of new surface are
being created, Rittinger's Law fits the experimental data better.

EXAMPLE 11.1 Grinding of sugar

Sigar is ground from crystals of which it is acceptable that 80% pass a 500m sieve (US Sieve
No.35) down to a size in which it is acceptable that 80% passes a 88m sieve (No .170), and a
5horsepower motor is found just sufficient for the required throughput. If the requirements are
changed such that the grinding is only down to 80% through a 125m sieve (No 120) but the
throughput is to be increased by 50% would the existing motor have sufficient power to operate the
grinder? Assume Bond’s equation.

Using the subscripts 1 for the first condition and 2 for the second, and letting m kgh -1 be the initial
throughout, then if x is the required power
−6 −6 −6
88 μm=88 ×10 m , 125 μm=125 ×10 m, 500 μm=500 ×10 m

E1=5 /m=Ei ¿
E2= x/1.5 m=Ei ¿

1/ 2
( 88 ×10−6 ) [1−(125 /500)1/ 2 ]
E2 E1=x ( 1.5× 5 )= 1/ 2
( 125 ×10−6 ) [1−(88 /500)1/ 2 ]

x/(7.5) = 0.84 × (0.500/0.58)

= 0.72

x = 5.4 horsepower.

So the motor would be expected to have insufficient power to pass the 50% increase throughout,
through it should be able to handle an increase of 40%.

3.7. Crushing efficiency

Crushing efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of surface energy created by crushing during
crushing to the energy absorbed by the solid. Denoted by Ƞc. Laws of reduction. Rittinger’s law –
work (energy) required in crushing is proportional to the new surface created.

EFFICIENCY

Crushing efficiency, ɳc

surface energy created by crushing

ɳ c=
energy absorbed by the solid

e s ( A wb− A wa )
Where ɳ C =
Wn

es = surface energy per unit area

Wn = energy absorbed by a unit mass

A wa , A wb=areas per unit mass of feed∧ product

Mechanical efficiency, ɳm

energy absorbed by the solid

ɳm=
total energy input

W n e s ( A wb− A wa )
ɳm= =
W W n ɳC

e s ( A wb− A wb )
where W =energy input=
ɳm ɳC

Crushing Efficiency

Bond’s Law:
Work required using a large- size feed is proportional to the square root of surface/volume
ration of the product

P
m
=K b
( 1
−
1
√ D pb √ D pa )
Where

P = power required

Kb = constant

m = feed rate

if 80% of the feed passes a mesh size of D pa mm and 80% of the product passes a mesh size of
Dpb mm,

P
m
=0.3162W i
( 1
−
1
√ D pb √ D pa )
Where

Wi = work index

D pa , D pb=dia. of feed∧ product , respectively(mm)

3.8. Laws for crushing

3.8.1. Rittinger’s law

Rittinger’s assumption was based on the fact that particles do not deform before breaking,
therefore being infinitely brittle. Rittinger’s state that the energy required in size reduction is
proportional to new surface created and gave the power n a value of 2 thus by integrating equation
(1.9) obtained the so called Rittinger’s law:

[{
∖ { dE }
∖
}]
{ dx }
∖ =∖ [−C ∖ , X ∖ ]
{− 2}

∖ [ ∖ ∫ ∖ limits 0 E {dE }∖ ] =∖[−C ∖ , ∖∫ ∖ limits { x f }{ } {x {−2 } }∖ , dx ∖]

xp

This can be evaluated to give

[ {{
E=∖ C R ∖ ¿( 1
∖
{XP }}{ }}
−1
∖
{ xf }
∖ , ∖ ¿ ¿) ∖
]
Where, E is the energy per unit mass required for the production of a new surface by
reduction, CR is called Rittinger’s constant which has a unit of J m/kg and is determined for
particular equipment and material, xf is the average initial feed size, and xp is the average final
product size. Rittinger’s law has been found to hold better for fine grinding, where a large increase in
surface results. It suggests that the energy required is proportional to the increase in surface area per
unit mass.

3.8.2. Bond’s law and Work Index

Bond state that the energy required for size reduction is proportional to the square root of the
surface- volume ratio of the product. In Bond’s consideration n takes the value of 3/2, yielding the
following version (Bond’s law), also by integrating Eq. (3.9):

∖ [ ∖ ∫ ∖ limits {dE }∖ ] =∖[−C ∖ , ∖∫ ∖ limits { x f }

E {xp } {− {3 }
∖

{x 2 }}∖ , dx ∖]
0

E=∖ ¿

E=∖[2∖ , C B ∖
({{ { √ } } { { √ }} } )
1
∖
∖
{ x p}
−1
∖
∖
{ xf }
∖ , ∖ ∖]

Where xf and xp are measured in micrometers and E in kWh/ton, Bond put the constant CB = 5Wi,
where Wi is the Bond Work Index, defined as the gross energy requirement in kWh/ton of feed to
reduce a unit mass of material from an infinite particle size to a size such that 80% (i.e., Φ = 2) of the
product passing through a 100 µm sieve (i.e, xp = 100 µm). The Bond Work Index is material
specific and is obtained from laboratory crushing tests on the feed material. Hard and brittle materials
have a work index in the range 4 × 104 − 8 × 104J/kg. Bond’s law holds reasonably well for a variety
of materials undergoing coarse, medium and fine size reduction. (Eq. 14.3a) can also be reduced to

E=∖[0.3162∖ , ∖ , W i ∖
({{ { √ }} { { √ } } } )
1
∖
∖
{ xp }
−1
∖
∖
{ xf }
∖ , ∖ ∖]

Where xf and xp are measured in mm and E in kWh/ton, and Wi is the Bond Work Index,

Material Work index

Bauxite 8.78

Cement clinker 13.45

Clay 6.30

Coal 13.00

Granite 15.13

Gravel 16.06

Limestone 12.74

Table 3.2. Bond’s work index for some materials

3.8.3. Kick’s law

 Kick state that the energy required for a given size reduction was proportional to the size
reduction ratio, and gave the power n a value of 1. Thus by integration of Eq. (13.9), the following
relationship, known as Kick’s law is obtained:

∖ [ ∖ ∫ ∖ limit 0 {dE }∖ ]=∖ ¿

E

this gives

({
E=∖[C K ∖ , ∖1 n ∖ , ∖ { { x f }
∖
})
{ x p}
}∖ ∖]

Where xf/xp is the size reduction ratio and CK is called Kick’s constant which unit of J/kg.
Kick’s law has been found to hold more accurately for coarser crushing, where most of the energy is
used in causing fracture along existing cracks. In Kick’s law the energy input is proportional to the
size reduction ratio. In other words the same energy input is required for a reduction in size from 1
cm to 1 mm as for a reduction from 100 to 10 μm. In using either of the models due to Rittinger and
Kick the relevant constant must be obtained by experiment using both the same equipment and the
same material.

3.8.4. Problems

Problem 1:

In dry crushing of limestone, lumps of 50 mm size have their size reduced to 10 mm.
Estimate the theoretical power required for a feed rate of 20 tph.

Solution

According to Bond’s law, the power is:

P=
36 ×20000 ×12.74
3600
.
( √ 0.01
1
−
√0.05 )
1
=14100 W (19.2 hp)

Since dry operation is efffected, this figure has to be multiplied by 4/3 to give a power
consumption of 18800 Watt (25.6 hp).

Problem 2:

A batch crusher is run at constant power input. It was found that 30 minutes of operation were
necessary to reduce the average particle size from 100 mm to 10 mm. how long would it take
to reduce the particle size to 5 mm?

Solution:

1. Using Rittinger’s law:

Since the amount to be crushed and the power are constant then the law can be rewritten as :

P×t
m
=K
1
−
1
D2 D1 ( )
Hence,

P ×30=M . K . ( 101 − 1001 )(1)

P ×30=M . K . ( 51 − 1001 )(2)
Dividing (2) by (1) we get

Total time, t = 63.3 min.

2. Using Kick’s law:

Here also, the equation can be written twice to give;

P ×30=log 100/10(3)

P ×t =log 100/5 ( 4 )

Dividing we get:

Total time, t = 39 min

Using Bond’s law, on the assumption that the average diameters can be identified with the
Bond’s diameters:

P ×30=36 ×m× W i × ( √1❑ − √0.11 )( 5)

P ×t =36 × m×W i ×
( √1❑− √10. )(6)
Dividing we get:

Total time, t = 48..2 min.

This example shows the discrepancies that are associated with the application of the different
formulae to predict power on, alternatively, the time required to achieve certain fineness. It
also shows that the result predicted by Bond’s law is roughly an average value of those
predicated by the two other formulae.

3.9. Industrial Size Reduction Equipments

Size reduction equipment is divided into Crushers, Grinders, Ultrafine grinders and Cutting
machines. Crushers do the heavy work of breaking large pieces of solids into smaller lumps. Primary
crushers are run on materials out of mine the size of which may reach more than one meter and
breaking it into 150 – 300 mm lumps. A secondary crusher reduces those lumps to particles in the
size range of 5 – 10 mm. Grinders reduce crushed feed to powder. The product from an intermediate
grinder will usually pass a 40 mesh screen (about 0.35 mm) while most of the product of a fine
grinder will pass 200 mesh screen (0.074 mm). Ultrafine grinders will accept a feed of a few mm in
size and reduce it to a product of sizes in the range 1 – 50 mm. Cutters will deliver particles of
definite shape and size, typically a few mm in length.

The principal types of size reduction machines are:

1. Crushers:
a) Jaw crusher
b) Impact crushers
c) Gyratory crushers
d) Crushing rolls
2. Grinders:
a) Hammer mills and other impact types
b) Ball mills, Tube mills and Rod mills.
c) Roller mills and bowl mills
d) Attrition mills
3. Ultrafine grinders:
a) Hammer mills with internal classification
b) Fluid energy mills
c) Agitated mills.
4. Cutting machines:
a) Knife cutters.

In the following, some of these of machines will be considered in details:

3.10. Crushers
3.10.1. The jaw crusher

In a jaw crusher, feed is admitted between two jaws, a stationary jaw or anvil and a movable
jaw, which reciprocates in a horizontal plane. It makes an angle of 20 - 30 o with the stationary jaw.
It is driven by an eccentric so that it applies great compressive force on the lumps caught between
the jaws. Large lumps caught between the upper parts of the jaws are broken, drop in the narrower
space below and are re-crushed the next time the jaws close. After sufficient reduction they drop out
of the bottom of the machine. The jaws open and close from 250 to 400 times per minute. In the
design shown in Figure, known as “Blake crusher” it is possible to regulate the maximum size of
product by adjusting the maximum clearance between the two jaws at their lower parts using a
spring. In this type, the pivot at which the movable jaw is fixed is located at the top of this jaw. This
decreases the possibility of choking at the outlet of the crusher. Size reduction in jaw crushers
occurs mainly by a compression mechanism and to lower extent by impact. (Figure 3.2).
 Figure 3.2: A Blake Type Jaw Crusher

3.10.2. Impact crushers

While in a jaw crusher breaking of feed lumps takes place mainly by compression, some
crushers operate on an impact principle.

(i) The Hazemag crusher shown in Figure (3.3) is fed from a large inlet opening with large
lumps that are thrown onto abrasion resistant apron blocks, usually made of high
manganese steel (11 to 14%). Two rotors sustain particle motion towards the outlet
opening. Size reduction essentially proceeds by impact on apron blocks. This crusher is of
primary type often handling ore lumps that can reach 1 meter in size.

(ii) The hammer crusher (which can also operate as mill) contains a high-speed rotor turning
inside a cylindrical casing. The shaft is horizontal and swing hammers are pinned to the
rotor disk. As this latter revolves at peripheral speeds reaching 10 m.s-1, these hammers
direct themselves towards the radial directions of the disk and hit the dropping feed
breaking its particles to small fragments. The speed of revolution (rps) depends on the
rotor diameter D. This is since:

v = ωR = πnD

For example for a rotor diameter of 0.25 m, at a linear tip velocity of 8 m.s -1, the speed of
revolution will equal 10.2 rps (612 rpm).

Solid chunks are projected onto the internal walls of the casing and break into smaller pieces,
which can still be subjected to more hammer action. Finally the outgoing solids are discharged
after passing over a bottom screen. The rotor disks are 150 – 450 mm in diameter and can carry 4
to 8 hammers. Hammer crushers can handle solid feed in the 102 mm size range and the discharged
solids are in the size range of 101 mm.

Alternatively, hammer mills can also be designed to work as intermediate crushers in which
case, they will produce a product in the size range of 100 mm.
 Figure 3.3: Hazemag impact crusher

Figure 3.4: Hammer crusher

3.10.3. Gyratory crushers

Gyratory crushers are designated in size either by the gap and mantle diameter or by the size
of the receiving opening. One common type, the gyratory cone crusher can be used for primary or
secondary crushing. The crushing action is caused by the closing of the gap between the mantle line
(movable) mounted on the central vertical spindle and the concave liners (fixed) mounted on the
main frame of the crusher. The gap is opened and closed by an eccentric on the bottom of the
spindle that causes the central vertical spindle to gyrate. The vertical spindle is free to rotate around
its own axis. The crusher illustrated is a short-shaft suspended spindle type, meaning that the main
shaft is suspended at the top and that the eccentric is mounted above the gear. Crushing is mainly
due to compression and attrition mechanisms.

Figure 3.5 Gyratory cone crusher

3.10.4. Crushing rolls

This type of crusher represents what is known as an intermediate crusher. Typically, the
feed consists of particles of size 10 - 75 mm and their product ranges from 1 to 10 mm. It consists
of a pair of smooth face metal rolls turning on parallel horizontal axes. Particles of feed caught
between the two rollers are crushed by compression and drop out below. The two rollers turn at the
same speed towards each other.

Common roller diameters range from 600 mm to 2000 mm while their face length ranges from
300 mm to 1000 mm. The rotational speed ranges from 50 to 300 RPM. The optimum operation of
rollers takes place when they operate at a crushing reduction ratio of 3:1 or 4:1

(DpFeed : Dpproduct)

The roller diameter required for a certain crushing operation can be estimated whenever the
maximum clearance between the two rollers is known; this corresponds to the maximum diameter
of product. An important parameter to be dealt with is the “angle of nip, n” which is the angle
between the roll faces at the level where they will just take hold of a particle and draw it into the
crushing zone. As seen from Figure 3.6. β = 2 degree.

Figure 3.6. (a) Crushing Rolls

D1

Fig. 3.6. (b) Angle of nip

3.11. Grinders
 The term grinder describes a variety of size-reduction machines for intermediate duty. The
product obtained from a crusher is often fed to a grinder to reduce the particle to powder.

The common types of grinders are hammer mills and impactors, rolling-compression
machines, attrition mills, and tumbling mills.

3.11.1. Hammer mills and impactors

These mills consists a high-speed rotor rotating inside a cylindrical casing. The shaft
is usually kept horizontal. Feed is admitted to the mill from the top of the casing. Materials
are broken and fall out through a screen at bottom. The materials are broken by sets of
swinging hammers attached to a rotor disk. A particle of feed entering into grinding zone
cannot escape being struck by the hammers. It make into pieces, which fly against a
stationary anvil plate inside the casing and break into still smaller fragments. These in turn
are rubbed into powder by the hammers and pushed through a screen that covers the
discharge opening.

An impactor, which does not contain any grate or screen is resembles to a heavy-duty
hammer mill. In such particles are broken by impact alone. Impactors are often primary-
reduction machines for rock and ore, processing up to 600 ton/h. They give particles that are
more nearly equi-dimensional (more ―cubical‖) than the slab-shaped particles from a jaw
crusher or gyratory crusher.

The impactor’s rotor may be run in either direction to prolong the efficiency of the
hammers.

3.11.2. Rolling compression mills

In such mill the feed material are caught and crushed between a roller member and
the face of a grinding ring or casing. The most common types are rolling-ring pulverizers,
bowl mills, and roller mills. In the roller mill, cylindrical rollers are vertical which press
outward with a huge force against a stationary anvil ring or bull ring. They are driven at
medium speeds in a circular motion. Plows takes the feed materials from the floor of the
mill and put them between the ring and the rolls, where the size-reduction takes place.
Product is taken out of the mill by a stream of air to a classifier separator, from which
oversize materials are returned to the mill for further reduction. In a bowl mill and some
roller mills the bowl or ring is driven; the rollers rotate on stationary axes, which may he
vertical or horizontal. These kinds of mills are used for the reduction of limestone, cement
clinker, and coal. They pulverize up to 50 ton/h. When classifying separator / screen are
used, the product may be as fine as 99 percent through a 200-mesh screen.

3.11.3. Attrition mills

In attrition mill materials of soft solids are rubbed between the grooved flat faces of
rotating circular disks. These mills are also known as burr or plate mills. The axis of the
disks is may be horizontal or vertical. In a single-runner mill one disk plate is stationary
while other rotates and in a double-runner machine both disks are rotate at high speed in
opposite directions. Feed materials are admitted through an opening in the hub of one of the
disks and it passes outward through the narrow gap between the disks and discharges from
the periphery into a stationary casing. The width of the gap is adjustable, within limits. One
grinding plate is mounted with spring so that the disks can separate if unbreakable material
gets into the mill. A single-runner attrition mill is shown in Fig. 3.7. Single-runner mills
consist disks of buhrstone or emery rock for breaking solids like clay and talc, or disk of
metal for solids like wood, starch, insecticide powders, and carnauba wax. Metal disks are
usually made up of white iron. For corrosive materials, stainless steel disks are used. Double
—runner mills are used to process softer feeds and grind to finer products than single-runner
mills. Air is often drawn through the mill to remove the product and prevent choking. The
heat generated on the disk by the reduction operation may be cooled with water or
refrigerated brine.

Fig. 3.7. Attrition mills

The diameter of disks in a single-runner mill is 250 to 1400 mm, rotating at 350 to
700 rpm. Disks in double-runner mills rotate at about 1200 to 7000 rpm. The feed must
enter at a uniform controlled rate and should be pre-crushed to a maximum particle size of
about 12 mm. Attrition mills grind from 1/2 to 8 ton/h to products that will pass a 200-mesh
screen. The power requirement is depends on the property of the feed and the degree of size-
reduction accomplished and is much higher as comparable to other mills and crushers. In
general, power requirement is between 8 and 80 kWh per ton of product.
3.11.5. Tumbling mills and related types

These types of mills constitute a special category also known as Tumbling mills.
They are constituted of a cylindrical (or conical) shell rotating on a horizontal axis and
are charged with a grinding medium of steel, porcelain, flint balls or steel rods. The
main types in this category are:

a. The ball mill of length almost equal to its diameter

b. The tube mill of length greater than the diameter usually used when a finer
product is desired.

c. The compartment mill which is a combination of the above types consisting

of a cylinder divided into compartments separated by screens such that
preliminary and final grinding take place in the first and in the last
compartment respectively.

d. The rod mill in which the grinding medium consists of rods rather than balls
and is known to deliver a more uniform size distribution.

These mills may be batch or continuous, they may achieve dry or wet grinding. A
batch ball mill will simply consist of a cylinder (D ~ L) rotating round a central shaft
mounted over two bearings brackets.

The balls as well as the feed are charged through an opening in the lateral wall
and discharge is made through an opening just opposite to the charging manhole. In
case of wet grinding, the discharge opening is fitted with a valve to regulate the
flow of slurry. Discharge often takes place by sweeping the ground slurry by means
of a stream of compressed air. Figure shows a batch ball mill used for dry grinding.

Continuous ball mills on the other hand are charged and discharged through
hollow trunnions at both ends. If wet grinding is effected, then the slurry pours out
of the discharge opening continuously. In case of dry grinding, the mill has to be
air swept in order to remove the fine product. In that case, compressed air is blown
at one end and is discharged at the other end entraining the fine product particles.
These have to be separated from the main air stream.

Wet milling is used whenever the material is not water sensitive or will be used
as a slurry on further processing (e.g. in the ceramic industry). This provides better
homogenization, consumes less power and decreases the possibility of
 overgrinding.

Dry grinding, on the other hand, will be used whenever the material is to be
processed in the dry state (e.g. in coal and cement industries).

Fig. 3.8. A continuous ball

mill

EXAMPLE 3.1 Grinding of sugar

Sugar is ground from crystals of which it is acceptable that 805 pass a 500m sieve(US
standard Sieve No.35), down to size in which it is acceptable that 80% passes a 88 m
(No.170) sieve, and a 5-horsepower motor is found just sufficient for the required
throughout. If the requirements are changed such that the grinding is only down to 80%
through a 125 m (No.120) sieve but the throughout is to be increased by 50% would the
existing motor have sufficient power to operate the grinder? Assume Bond’s equation.

Using the subscripts 1 for the first condition and 2 for the second, and letting m kg h-1
be the initial throughput, then if x is the required power
−6 m , 125 −6 m ,500 −6 m
Now 88 μm=8.8× 10 , μm=125 ×10 μm=500 × 10

−6 1 /2
E1=5 /m=E1 ( 100/88 10 ) [1−(88/500) ]
1/ 2

−6 1 /2
E2= x/1.5 m=E1 ( 100/125 10 ) [1−(125/500) ]
1/ 2
 1/ 2
E2 ( 88 ×10−6 ) [1− (125 / 500 )1/ 2]
=¿ x /(1.5 ×5)=
E1 1 /2 1/ 2
( 125× 10−6 ) [1− ( 88/ 500 ) ]

x/(7.5) = 0.84 × (0.500/0.58)

= 0.72

X = 5.4 horsepower

So the motor would be expected to have insufficient power to pass the 50% increased
throughout, though it should be able to handle an increase of 40%.

EXAMPLE 3.2 surface area of salt crystals

In an analysis of ground salt using Tyler sieves, it was found that 38% of the total salt
passed through a 7 mesh sieve and was caught on a 9 mesh sieve. For one of the finer
fractions, 5 % passed an 80 mesh sieve but was retained on a 115 mesh sieve. Estimate
the surface areas of these two fractions in a 5 kg sample of the salt, if the density of salt is
1050 kg m-3 and the shape factor () is 1.75.

Aperture of Tyler sieves, 7 mesh = 2.83 mm, 9 mesh = 2.00 mm, 80 mesh = 0.177 mm,
115 mesh = 0.125 mm.

Mean aperture 7 and 9 mesh = 2.41 mm = 2.4 × 10-3m

Mean aperture 80 and 115 mesh = 0.151 mm = 0.151 × 10-3m

Now form Eqn. (11.6)

A1= ( 6× 1.75 ×0.38 ×5 ) ( 1050 ×2.41 ×10 )

−3

= 7.88 m2

A2= ( 6 ×1.75 ×0.05 ×5 ) ( 1050 ×0.151 ×10−3 )

= 16.6 m2

3.12. Construction and operations of mills

3.12.1. Hammer mills

A Hammer Mill machine is widely used in the Pharmaceuticals and Food

industries to cutting Materials into small fragments or small pieces (Also called Size
 Reduction). The main component of a hammer mill is a row of hammers that are
hinged on a central shaft and contained in a strong metal container. Size reduction is
achieved by Impact.

Usage of hammer mills

Hammer mill is used in the Pharmaceuticals, Food beverage, and Cosmetic

industries to Reduce material particle size.

Working principle

The principle of the Hammer mill is based on the Impact between a rapidly
moving hammer mounted on the rotor and powder material.

Construction
 Hammers are made up of stainless steel (316L for material contact parts and 304
for non-contact parts).
 A Hammer mill is essentially a steel drum or milling chamber containing a
verticle or horizontally rotating shaft.
 Hammer contains 4 to 5 small size hammer
 The lower part of the hammer mill consists of a screen through which material
can pass after desirable size reduction.
 Finally, after desirable size reduction material passes through the duct screen to
collect in a container.

Working
 Feed the material into the hammer mill through the hopper and press the start
Fig. 9. Construction of Hammer Mills
button.
 The Hammar assembly starts to rotate (with 8000 to 15000 RPM speed), and
particle size reduces into small particles due to dynamic impact.
 After the reduction of particles falling within the container through the screen.
  Feed the material into the hammer mill through the hopper and press the start
button.
 The Hammar assembly starts to rotate (with 8000 to 15000 RPM speed), and
particle size reduces into small particles due to dynamic impact.
 After the reduction of particles falling within the container through the screen.

Types of hammer mill machines

Hammer mills are of two types, Horizontal shaft (Moves horizontally)and

verticle shaft (Moves Vertically) types. They differ only by moving conditions,
although the remaining things are the same.

Types of hammer

Hammers are of two types, Stirrup and Bar shaped. Bar shape hammers are
used extensively in tablet granulation.

Advantages
 It produced rapid action in grinding
 Hammer also useful for hard particles
 East and Fast to use
 Required less space and is easy to dismantle, and clean.

Dis advantages
 Produced more sound.
 Be careful to use heat-sensitive materials because the hammer produced more
heat.
 Can’t be used to grind fiber materials.

3.12.2. Ball mill

A Ball Mill is used to grind the materials to get a course or fine powder. Ball
mill is also known as the tumbling mill and pebble mill.
Principle

Ball mill principle work on Impact and Attrition. Both are responsible for size
reduction, rapidly moving balls are used for reducing the size of brittle materials.

 Impact: Impact mean pressure exerted by two heavy objects.

 Attrition: Reduced the size of the materials when they colloid by heavy weight
(Ball).
Construction:

 Cylinder: cylinder is made of a hollow metal that moves about its horizontal axis.
The cylinder can be made of porcelain, metal, and rubber. The length of the
cylinder slightly higher than its diameter.

 Ball: The ball lies in cylinders, which are made up of stainless steel, the size of the
ball depends on the cylinder diameter. The ball covers 30 to 50% area in the
cylinder.

Working:

 Open the lid and Feed the materials into the cylinder
 Introduced the fixed numbers of balls and closed the lid
 Run the machine and adjust the speed as per required.
 After achieving the desired particle size, stop the machine and remove the
materials.

Ball mill Speed Impact on Size Reduction

 Low speed: At low speed,Fig. the

10.mass
Construction ofslide
of balls will Ball or
Mills
roll up one over another
and will not produce a significant amount of size reduction.
 High Speed: At high-speed balls are thrown to the cylinder wall due to centrifugal
force and no grinding will occur.
 Normal speed: At Normal speed balls are carried almost to the top of the mill and
then fall into a cascade across the diameter of the mill, in this way maximum size
reduction is obtained.
Ball mill usage in Pharmaceuticals:

It is used in reducing the size of the drug.

Advantage:

 Minimum loss of materials

 suitable for the wet and dry grinding process
 Sterility can be maintained due to a close container system, hence useful in the
manufacturing of parenteral and ophthalmic products.
 Particles size is easy to reduce
 Less energy consumed
 Easy to clean
 Required less space to install
 low maintenance cost

Disadvantage:

 It is a slow process
 Produced strong vibration and sound and less in case of rubber ball usage.
 Cannot reduce soft, tacky, and fibers materials
 Wear occurs inside the cylinders hence chances of possible contamination are high
 Less capacity, do not handle the large quantity.

EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1. From measurements on a uniformly sized material form a dryer, it is inferred that the
surface area of the material is 1200 m 2. If the density of the material is 1450 kg m -3
and the total weight is 360 kg calculate the equivalent diameter of the particles if
their value of  is 1.75.
[2200 microns]
2. Calculate the shape factors  for model systems in which the particles are:
(a) cylinders with L = 2D
(b) tetrahedral with their sides being equilateral triangles (the volume of a
tetrahedron being the area of the base multiplied by 1/3 the vertical height)
Base multiplied by 13 the vertical height)
Estimate the specific surface area of a powder consisting of equal numbers of the
above two shapes in which there are 4 × 10 3 particles kg-1. The cylinders have a
density of 1330 kg m-3 and the tetrehedra a density of 1500 kg m-3
.

[ (a) 0.83 ; (b) 2.4 ; (c) 0.81 m2kg-1]

3. It is found that the energy required to reduce particles from a mean diameter of 1
cm to 0.3 cm is 11 kJ kg-1
(a) Kick’s Law,
(b) Rittinger’s Law
(c) Bond’s Equation,
[ (a) 21 kjk g−1 ; ( b ) 423 kjkgk g−1 ; ( c ) 91kjk g−1 ¿
4. It is suspected that for a product of interest the oxidation reactions, which create
off-flavours are surface reactions which proceed at a rate which is uniform with
time, and if the shelf life of the product is directly related to the percentage of the
off-flavours that have produced, estimate the percentage reduction is shelf life
consequent upon the size reductions of example 3, that is from 1 cm to 0.3 cm and
from 0.1 cm to 0.01 cm in diameter, assuming  = 1.5.
[ (a) 10:1 ; (b) 100:1]
5. If it is desired to reduce the separation time for milk to at least one week (before
cream will rise to the top), what maximum diameter of cream droplet would
Stokes ‘Law predict to be necessary for the homogenization to achieve? Assume
the depth is 10 cm.
[0.0567 microns]
 PART – A

1. What is size reduction?

Size reduction is a process of reducing large solid unit masses into small unit masses,
coarse particles or fine particles. Size reduction process is also termed as Comminution or
Diminution or Pulverizations.

2. What are the mechanical methods used for size reduction?

Grinders use shear and impact to grind larger particles into smaller ones.
Examples of grinders include roller mills (used in producing wheat flour), ball mills
(widely used in producing cement, ceramics and pigments), and hammer mills (often
used in waste management to break down large materials).

3. What are the factors affecting size reduction?

Size reduction is influenced by various factors. These include various physical
properties like moisture content, hardness, stickiness, toughness, slipperiness,
abrasiveness etc.

4. What is grinding and cutting size reduction?

If it is solid, the operations are called grinding and cutting, if it is liquid,
emulsification or atomization. All depend on the reaction to shearing forces within
solids and liquids. Grinding and cutting reduce the size of solid materials by
mechanical action, dividing them into smaller particles.

5. What are the size reduction laws?

It may not be well known, but there are three physical laws that describe the
energy required for size reduction. They are the Bond's Law, Rittinger's Law, and
Kick's Law. Rittinger's Law - The energy required for reduction in particle size of a
solid is directly proportional to the increase in surface area.

6. What is the purpose of comminution?

Comminution is particle size reduction by breaking, crushing, or grinding of ore,
rock, coal, or other materials. Comminution is a critical component of most mineral
processing flowsheets and serves several purposes, including: Liberating valuable
minerals that are locked within waste rock.

7. What is particle size distribution in comminuted products?

In comminuted products, the term “diameter” is generally used to describe the
characteristic dimension related to particle size. ... Size reduction is a mechanical
process of breakdown of solids into smaller size particles without altering the state of
aggregation of solids.

8. What is Bond's law?

Bond's Law: The work required to form particles from very large feed is
proportional to the square root of the surface-to-volume ratio.
9. What is crushing efficiency?
Crushing efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of surface energy created by
crushing during crushing to the energy absorbed by the solid. This crushing
efficiency is constant and for a given machine and material, is independent of the
sizes of the feed and product.

10. What is Rittinger's Law?

Rittinger's Law - The energy required for reduction in particle size of a solid
is directly proportional to the increase in surface area. As noted by Ehmer, there is an
inverse relationship between size and strength of particles: as particles get smaller,
their strength increases.

11. What is Kick's Law?

Kick's Law - The amount of energy required to crush a given quantity of
material to a specified fraction of its original size is the same, regardless of the
original size. Therefore, it takes a large amount of energy to produce ultra-fine
particle sizes.

12. What are the size reduction equipments?

 Impact crushers
 Cage mills and Pulverizers
 Hammer mills
 Lump breakers
 Used impact crushers
 Custom reduction systems.

13. What is crusher?

A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks,
gravel, and sand or rock dust. The earliest crushers were hand-held stones, where the
weight of the stone provided a boost to muscle power, used against a stone anvil.
Querns and mortars are types of these crushing devices.

14. What is jaw crusher?

All jaw crushers feature two jaws: one of which is fixed while the other
moves. The working principle of jaw crushers is based on the reciprocating
movement of the movable jaw that compresses and crushes the rock or ore between
itself and the fixed jaw, as the material enters the zone between the jaws.

15. What is a gyratory crusher?

A gyratory crusher includes a solid cone set on a revolving shaft and placed
within a hollow body, which has conical or vertical sloping sides. Material is crushed
when the crushing surfaces approach each other and the crushed products fall
through the discharging opening.
16. What is roll crusher?
A type of secondary or reduction crusher consisting of a heavy frame on
which two rolls are mounted. These are driven so that they rotate toward one another.
Rock fed in from above is nipped between the moving rolls, crushed, and discharged
at the bottom.

17. How does a hammer mill work?

Hammer mills work in the principle that most materials will crush, shatter, or
pulverize upon impact. It repeatedly is struck by ganged hammers which are attached
to a shaft which rotates at high speed inside the mill chamber.

18. What is a roller mill used for?

Roller mills are mills that use cylindrical rollers, either in opposing pairs or
against flat plates, to crush or grind various materials, such as grain, ore, gravel,
plastic, and others. Roller grain mills are an alternative to traditional millstone
arrangements in gristmills.

19. What is critical speed of ball mill?

A Ball Mill Critical Speed (actually ball, rod, AG or SAG) is the speed at
which the centrifugal forces equal gravitational forces at the mill shell's inside
surface and no balls will fall from its position onto the shell.

20. What are ball mills used for?

A ball mill, a type of grinder, is a cylindrical device used in grinding (or
mixing) materials like ores, chemicals, ceramic raw materials and paints. Ball mills
rotate around a horizontal axis, partially filled with the material to be ground plus the
grinding medium.
 PART – B

1. What is size reduction – grinding and cutting? Explain in detail?

2. Explain in detail about particle size distribution in comminuted products?
3. Discuss in detail about energy and power requirements in comminuting?
4. Explain: 1. Crushing efficiency, 2. Rittinger’s law, 3. Bond’s law and 4. Kick’s
law.
5. Discuss in detail about size reduction equipment’s?
6. Explain in detail crushers – jaw crusher, gyratory crushers?
7. Explain with neat diagram of crushing rolls and grinders?
8. Explain with neat diagram of hammer mills and rolling compression mills?
9. Explain with neat diagram attrition, rod, ball and tube mills?
10. What is size reduction? Explain anyone type of size reduction equipment’s?