NYU Press

Chapter Title: A Doll’s House and Hedda Gabler

Book Title: Imagined Human Beings

Book Subtitle: A Psychological Approach to Character and Conflict in Literature
Book Author(s): Bernard J. Paris
Published by: NYU Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qffv8.6

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 PART I I

Characters an d
Relationships

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 3

A DolVs House an d
Hedda Gabler

The firs t perso n t o loo k a t literatur e fro m a Horneya n per -

spective wa s Kare n Horne y herself . Sh e taugh t course s a t th e Ne w
School fo r Socia l Researc h tha t wer e focuse d o n literar y works , an d sh e
frequently use d literatur e fo r illustrativ e purpose s i n he r writings . A n
admirer o f Henri k Ibsen , sh e cite d hi s work s mor e ofte n tha n thos e o f
any othe r author . Thi s i s not surprising , fo r Ibse n i s the greates t psycho -
logical dramatis t nex t t o Shakespeare , an d ther e i s a remarkable congru -
ence betwee n hi s play s an d he r theory . Man y o f Ibsen' s character s see m
to hav e stepped fro m th e pages o f Our Inner Conflicts an d Neurosis and
Human Growth. I coul d easil y devot e a boo k t o a Horneya n stud y o f
Ibsen, bu t I shal l confin e mysel f her e t o tw o o f hi s mos t famou s an d
enigmatic characters , Nor a Helme r an d Hedd a Gabler . A t th e cente r o f
Ibsen's plays , there i s often a relationship, th e psychodynamic s o f whic h
are portraye d wit h remarkabl e subtlety . I shal l analyz e Nora' s relation -
ship with he r husband , Torvald , an d Hedda' s wit h Ejler t Lovborg .
Although Horne y initiall y devote d hersel f t o th e stud y o f feminin e
psychology, sh e stoppe d writin g o n thi s topi c i n th e mid-1 9 30s an d
developed a theor y tha t sh e regarde d a s gender-neutral . Sh e di d no t se e
any defensiv e strategie s a s essentiall y masculin e o r feminin e bu t fel t tha t
all wer e employe d b y member s o f bot h sexes . Th e greate r incidenc e o f
self-effacement i n wome n an d aggressio n i n me n i s a product , sh e felt ,
of culture . Horney's positio n i s borne ou t b y the stud y o f literature. Self -
effacement i s mor e commo n i n femal e character s an d aggressio n i n
males, but ther e ar e many aggressiv e women an d self-effacin g men .
One o f th e majo r objective s o f women' s liberatio n movement s ha s
been to fre e wome n fro m th e cultura l deman d fo r self-effacemen t an d t o
establish thei r righ t t o ful l huma n development . A t th e themati c level ,
this seem s t o b e wha t A Doll's House i s about . I n th e first tw o act s o f
the play , Nor a Helme r i s a strikin g exampl e o f feminin e compliance ,

39
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40 | A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

while i n th e las t ac t sh e rebel s agains t he r doll-lik e rol e an d assert s he r

claim to ful l humanity .
Indeed, the most difficul t thin g to understand abou t Nor a i s the spee d
of he r transformatio n fro m a submissive , self-sacrificin g woma n wh o
lives onl y fo r lov e an d famil y int o a self-assertiv e perso n wh o reject s al l
responsibility t o he r husban d an d childre n i n th e nam e o f he r dut y t o
herself. A t th e en d Nor a seem s s o differen t fro m he r earlie r sel f tha t
some hav e fel t tha t Ibse n sacrifice d consisten t characterizatio n t o hi s
thematic concerns . Nor a learn s tha t sh e ha s bee n unjustl y treate d b y a
male-dominated societ y an d tha t sh e must rebel against th e conventiona l
view o f he r natur e i f sh e i s t o realiz e herself . "Yo u an d Fathe r hav e
done m e a grea t wrong, " sh e tell s Torvald . "You'v e prevente d m e fro m
becoming a rea l person " (ac t 3). 1 She decide s tha t sh e mus t leav e hom e
if sh e i s to hav e a chanc e o f discoverin g wha t sh e really think s an d wh o
she reall y is . Nora's speeche s ar e stirring , bu t ha s Ibse n pu t word s int o
her mout h tha t ar e inconsisten t wit h he r previousl y draw n character ? I s
her transformatio n psychologicall y plausible ? How , exactly , doe s he r
disillusionment wit h Torval d produc e he r amazin g turnabout ? Ca n a
woman wh o intende d t o drow n hersel f nea r th e beginnin g o f th e las t ac t
become a s strong a person a s Nora seem s to b e at the end ?
I believe that Nor a i s a well-drawn mimeti c character whos e transfor -
mation i s intelligibl e i f w e understan d he r defensiv e strategie s an d th e
nature o f he r relationshi p wit h he r husband . Sh e neve r become s a mer e
mouthpiece bu t remain s a n inwardl y motivate d character , ful l o f incon -
sistencies an d blin d spot s that ar e psychologically realistic . Her transfor -
mation i s plausibl e whe n w e recogniz e tha t wit h th e collaps e o f he r
predominant solution , he r previousl y represse d tendencie s emerge .
Nora experience s genuin e growth a t the end o f the play, but sh e is not
as clear-heade d a s sh e think s sh e is . Sh e fail s t o see , fo r example , tha t
she ha s als o participate d i n th e creatio n o f he r destructiv e relationshi p
with he r husban d an d tha t Torval d ha s bee n n o mor e o f a rea l perso n
for he r tha n sh e ha s bee n fo r him . Sh e inform s Torval d tha t sh e mus t
leave hom e becaus e h e ha s no t treate d he r a s a real person , bu t sh e als o
says tha t sh e stoppe d lovin g hi m whe n th e wonderfu l thin g di d no t
happen. I f Torval d ha d behave d heroicall y o n th e receip t o f Krogstad' s
letter, Nor a woul d hav e bee n delighted , bu t suc h behavio r o n hi s par t
would no t hav e show n respec t fo r he r a s a person. Nor a seem s unawar e
of this , an d o f muc h els e besides . Sh e says that sh e ha s neve r bee n mor e
sure o f herself , bu t sh e i s ful l o f self-doubt , an d he r fligh t fro m Torval d

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 4 1

and he r childre n i s compulsive . Turnin g agains t he r faile d self-effacin g

solution, Nor a i s no w drive n b y defensiv e need s fo r aggressio n an d
withdrawal, a s wel l a s b y he r newl y awakene d desir e fo r self-actualiza -
tion.

Nora initiall y develop s int o a predominantl y self-effacin g perso n no t

only becaus e o f th e attitude s towar d wome n i n he r societ y bu t als o
because o f th e particula r condition s o f he r childhood . Sh e ha s n o
mother, an d he r fathe r i s a domineering ma n wh o want s he r t o remain a
"doll-child" an d wh o woul d b e "displeased " i f sh e expresse d an y idea s
contrary t o hi s ow n (ac t 3) . Nora canno t affor d t o rebel ; sh e i s strongl y
attached t o her fathe r an d doe s her utmos t t o pleas e him. Sh e retains th e
childlike playfulnes s an d docilit y tha t h e finds s o charmin g an d eithe r
adopts hi s opinion s o r remain s silent . I t seem s likel y tha t th e absenc e o f
a mothe r increase s he r dependenc e o n he r father ; sh e ha s n o on e els e t o
turn t o fo r lov e an d protection . Moreover , sh e ha s n o mode l o f matur e
womanhood t o emulate , an d sh e acquire s fe w skill s o n whic h t o bas e
her self-esteem . Whe n sh e become s a mother herself , sh e depend s o n he r
old nurse , Anne-Marie , t o car e fo r he r children , who m sh e treat s a s
playmates. Nora' s fathe r reward s he r complianc e wit h fondnes s an d
indulgence, an d sh e grow s u p feelin g tha t th e wa y t o gai n safety , love ,
and approva l i s to pleas e a powerful male .
In Torval d Helmer , Nor a finds a ma n wh o i s muc h lik e he r father ,
and sh e relate s t o hi m i n a simila r way . Sh e i s conten t t o b e hi s "lark, "
his "squirrel, " hi s "doll-baby, " hi s "littl e featherbrain, " hi s "craz y littl e
thing" (ac t 1) . Nora doe s no t fee l demeane d b y these epithets, a s we fee l
her t o be , althoug h a t a n unconsciou s leve l the y ar e destructive . Sh e
lives, a s sh e says , "b y performin g tricks " fo r Torvald , an d sh e i s prou d
of her abilit y to keep him charmed. Fo r Torvald ther e is "somethin g ver y
endearing abou t a woman' s helplessness " (ac t 3) , an d Nor a i s a t grea t
pains t o concea l th e fac t tha t sh e has save d hi s life an d almos t pai d of f a
large loa n b y he r ow n efforts : "Torval d coul d neve r bea r t o thin k o f
owing anythin g t o me ! It would hur t hi s self-respect—woun d hi s pride .
It would rui n everything between us." It is important t o Nora t o preserv e
Torvald's feelin g o f mastery , fo r thi s i s th e pric e o f hi s lov e an d protec -
tion. Sh e i s keeping he r heroi c effor t "i n reserve, " however , fo r th e da y
when sh e i s "n o longe r s o prett y an d attractiv e . . . whe n i t n o longe r
amuses hi m t o se e [her ] dance an d dress-u p an d ac t for him " (ac t 1) .
In th e meantime , i t give s he r "somethin g t o b e prou d an d happ y

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42 I A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

about." Sh e i s prou d partl y becaus e "workin g lik e tha t an d earnin g

money" ha s give n he r a feelin g o f strength , ha s mad e he r "fee l almos t
like a man " (ac t i) , bu t mostl y becaus e i t fulfill s he r nee d t o b e goo d
and loving . Lik e Mrs . Linde , an d mos t wome n i n he r culture , Nor a
glorifies sacrificin g sel f fo r others , an d sh e reveal s he r secre t onl y whe n
Mrs. Lind e make s he r fee l inferio r b y contrastin g Nora' s eas y lif e wit h
her ow n nobl e suffering .
Nora als o ha s need s fo r powe r an d mastery , whic h sh e fulfill s i n a
typically self-effacin g wa y b y identifyin g wit h Torvald . Sh e exults i n th e
fact tha t "al l th e employee s a t th e Ban k [will ] b e dependen t o n Torval d
now": "Wha t fu n t o thin k tha t we—tha t Torvald—ha s suc h powe r
over s o man y people " (ac t i) . Sh e bristle s whe n Krogsta d speak s disre -
spectfully o f her husban d becaus e sh e participates i n Torvald's glory , an d
any threa t t o hi s statu s i s a threa t t o he r own . He r identificatio n i s s o
intense tha t sh e i s read y t o commi t suicid e t o preserv e he r husband' s
high position .
Nora begin s t o thin k o f suicid e a s soo n a s Krogsta d threaten s t o
reveal tha t sh e ha s obtaine d a loa n fro m hi m b y forgin g he r father' s
signature. Sh e becomes panic-stricke n when , ignorin g he r pleas , Torval d
dismisses Krogstad , sayin g tha t h e will bea r "th e whol e burden " o f an y
retaliation. "He' d d o i t too ! He' d d o it—i n spit e o f anything! " sh e
exclaims t o Dr . Rank . "Bu t h e mustn't—never , never ! Anythin g bu t
that!" (ac t 2) . Nora i s convinced tha t Torval d love s her s o "deeply " an d
"intensely" tha t "h e wouldn' t hesitat e fo r a momen t t o giv e u p hi s lif e
for [her ] sake. " Sh e thinks tha t on e wa y o f savin g hi m woul d b e t o pa y
off he r debt , thereb y securin g th e incriminatin g papers . Sh e consider s
asking Dr . Ran k fo r th e money , bu t whe n Ran k declare s hi s love , sh e
can accep t nothin g fro m him , eve n thoug h th e alternativ e i s s o terrible .
Apparently, he r romanticis m i s so intens e tha t sh e would rathe r commi t
suicide tha n tain t he r devotio n t o Torvald . Sh e i s afrai d t o kil l herself ,
however, unti l Krogsta d boast s tha t withi n a yea r h e wil l b e Torvald' s
"right han d man . It'l l b e Nils Krogstad , no t Torval d Helmer , who'l l ru n
the Join t Stoc k Bank. " " I hav e th e courag e fo r i t now, " Nor a declare s
(act 2) .
Nora's relationshi p wit h he r husban d i s base d o n a bargai n sh e ha s
made i n he r ow n mind . Sh e will b e a charming , obliging , self-sacrificin g
wife, an d Torval d wil l lov e an d protec t her . Nor a delight s i n bein g
babied, coddled , an d indulged . Everythin g Torval d doe s fo r he r show s
how valuabl e sh e i s t o hi m an d assure s he r tha t sh e wil l b e take n car e

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gable r | 4 3

of. Sh e does not mind bein g weak a s long as his strength i s at her service .
She controls hi m throug h he r dependency . Whe n h e become s directo r o f
the bank , sh e doe s no t regre t th e fac t tha t sh e wil l n o longe r hav e t o
earn money secretl y but is overjoyed tha t ther e will be "n o mor e trouble !
No mor e worry ! I'l l b e abl e t o pla y an d rom p abou t wit h th e children "
(act 1) . Sh e doe s expec t t o b e rewarde d fo r he r year s o f devotion ,
however. Som e day , somehow , Torval d i s goin g t o mak e a magnificen t
sacrifice fo r her , an d the n sh e wil l se e ho w stron g an d nobl e h e i s an d
how muc h h e love s her . Thi s i s the "wonderfu l thing " tha t wil l validat e
her bargai n an d mak e he r drea m o f glory com e true .
Nora i s certain tha t when Torvald open s Krogstad's threatenin g letter ,
the wonderfu l thin g wil l happen . Torval d i s to o brave , to o nobl e t o
submit t o Krogstad's demands . In order t o protect he r fro m prosecution ,
he will take responsibilit y fo r th e forger y o n himself . In Nora's romanti c
fantasy Torval d i s her knigh t an d sh e is his lady. Just befor e h e reads th e
letter, h e tell s her : "D o yo u kno w something , Nora . I ofte n wis h yo u
were i n som e grea t danger—s o I could ris k bod y an d soul—m y whol e
life—everything, everythin g fo r you r sake " (ac t 3) . Torvald' s equall y
romantic versio n o f thei r relationshi p reinforce s Nora's . Sh e believe s hi s
professions an d i s convince d tha t h e wil l sacrific e himsel f fo r her . Nor a
wants th e wonderfu l thin g t o happen , bu t sh e i s terrifie d o f i t a s well ,
for Torval d wil l becom e a socia l outcast , lik e Krogstad . H e wil l los e hi s
power an d position , an d lif e wil l becom e unbearabl y blea k an d mean . A
ruined Torval d coul d satisf y neithe r Nora' s complian t need s for car e an d
protection no r he r expansiv e need s fo r powe r an d glory .
The severit y o f Nora' s neurosi s i s clearl y reveale d b y he r determina -
tion t o kil l herself. B y committing suicid e sh e wil l preven t Torval d fro m
taking th e blam e o n himself . He r heroi c sacrific e wil l forestal l his . In -
stead o f havin g t o endur e guil t an d self-hat e fo r havin g ruine d Torvald ,
she will sav e hi s caree r a s sh e ha d earlie r save d hi s life . Th e rewar d wil l
be hi s undyin g gratitud e an d devotion . Sh e wil l b e enshrine d foreve r i n
his memory an d wil l no t hav e t o fea r th e los s o f hi s lov e when sh e i s n o
longer s o attractive . He r suicid e wil l secur e Nor a fro m th e ravage s o f
time an d th e vicissitude s o f fortune . Sh e will di e in ful l possessio n o f th e
two thing s sh e values most, Torvald's lov e and hi s glory.
In a relationshi p o f morbi d dependency , suc h a s tha t betwee n Nor a
and Torvald , ther e i s a turnin g point , say s Horney , fo r th e self-effacin g
partner, "a s th e stak e sh e i s gamblin g fo r fail s t o materialize " (1950 ,
252). Th e turnin g poin t fo r Nor a come s wit h Torvald' s reaction s t o

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44 I A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

Krogstad's letter . H e neithe r praise s he r fo r havin g earne d s o muc h

money an d save d hi s life no r offer s t o tak e th e blam e fo r he r forger y o n
himself. Instea d h e call s he r a hypocrite , a liar , an d a crimina l an d tell s
her tha t sh e "won' t b e allowe d t o brin g u p th e children " (ac t 3) . "Al l
thought o f happiness " betwee n the m i s over. Sh e ha s pu t hi m i n Krogs -
tad's power , an d h e "mus t find som e wa y t o appeas e him. " I f w e hav e
understood wha t ha s bee n goin g o n i n Nora u p t o thi s moment , w e ca n
see wh y Torvald' s reaction s hav e suc h a tremendou s impac t upo n her .
Her drea m ha s bee n shattered ; he r imag e o f Torvald , he r bargain , he r
hopes ar e al l explode d illusions . He r sens e o f injustic e i s overwhelming ,
since sh e ha s bee n read y t o di e fo r him , an d h e i s thinkin g onl y o f
himself. Enraged , sh e feel s no w tha t sh e doe s no t lov e Torval d an d
that h e ha s neve r love d her . Nothin g h e say s coul d possibl y repai r th e
relationship; she has los t al l faith i n his assurances an d regard s hi m wit h
contempt.
With th e collaps e o f he r self-effacin g solution , hithert o represse d
trends i n Nora' s personalit y begi n t o emerge . Al l th e tim e sh e wa s
submitting t o Torval d an d he r father , sh e wa s unconsciousl y resentin g
their constraint s an d hatin g the m fo r makin g he r self-abandonmen t th e
price o f thei r love . Sh e rebelle d i n smal l ways , suc h a s sneakin g maca -
roons, an d wa s awar e o f a desir e t o say , in fron t o f Torvald , "Damn ! —
damn!—damn i t all! " (ac t 1) . Now tha t ther e i s n o priz e t o b e won b y
compliance, sh e canno t bea r th e though t o f continuin g t o b e treate d i n
degrading, patronizin g ways . No r ca n sh e repres s he r resentmen t an y
longer. Sh e accuse s bot h Torval d an d he r fathe r o f havin g grievousl y
wronged he r an d seem s to wan t Torval d t o suffer . Whe n h e say s that h e
"can't endur e th e thought " o f partin g wit h her , sh e replies : "Al l th e
more reaso n i t should happen " (ac t 3) .
Torvald i s not th e onl y objec t o f Nora's rage ; she is angry with hersel f
and ful l o f self-hate . He r self-effacin g sid e is horrified a t the thought tha t
she ha s bee n "livin g her e fo r eigh t year s wit h a stranger " an d tha t sh e
has "born e hi m thre e children" : " I can' t bea r t o thin k abou t it ! I coul d
tear mysel f t o pieces! " (ac t 3) . B y leavin g immediatel y sh e remove s
herself fro m sexua l temptatio n an d restore s he r prid e i n hersel f a s a
woman wh o i s intimate onl y wit h a man sh e loves . She see s her bargai n
in a ne w light , an d now , t o avoi d feelin g tha t sh e ha s sol d herself , sh e
must rejec t Torvald' s help : " I can' t accep t anythin g fro m strangers. "
Torvald's attac k o n he r mora l characte r exacerbate s he r doubt s abou t
her fitness a s a mother .

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 4 5

A good dea l o f self-hat e i s generated als o b y Nora's emergin g aggres -

sive trends . Sh e perceive s tha t i n man y way s Torval d i s righ t whe n h e
calls he r a chil d an d tell s he r tha t sh e ha s "n o understandin g o f th e
society w e liv e in " (ac t 3) . Sh e ha d bee n conten t t o b e a pampere d
darling wh o wa s unfi t t o cop e wit h th e world , bu t no w sh e hate s he r
weakness an d i s determine d t o stan d o n he r ow n feet . Here , too , th e
defense o f he r prid e require s tha t sh e leave home . Sh e feels tha t sh e i s of
no us e t o he r childre n partl y becaus e sh e i s s o childlik e herself . Nor a
defends hersel f agains t he r self-hat e b y puttin g th e whol e blam e o n
Torvald an d he r fathe r an d b y resolvin g t o becom e different . Anythin g
that stand s i n the way o f he r determinatio n t o change , an y clai m o f lov e
or duty , she ruthlessly rejects : "Thi s i s something I must do. "
It seem s likel y tha t Nor a become s aggressive , rathe r tha n wallowin g
in self-pit y an d despair , becaus e he r earlie r experienc e o f workin g ha s
given he r a feelin g tha t sh e can ear n mone y lik e a man . Withou t thi s i n
her background , sh e might hav e reacte d quit e differentl y t o th e collaps e
of he r romance . A s it is , she gives u p he r belie f i n the miraculou s powe r
of lov e an d transfer s he r expansiv e prid e fro m Torval d t o herself . Sh e is
going t o prov e tha t sh e i s as good a s a ma n an d doe s no t nee d anybod y
to tak e car e o f her ! Sh e ha s ver y littl e sens e o f wha t sh e i s goin g t o do ,
but sh e mus t escap e th e dependenc y sh e no w s o despises . He r belie f i n
Torvald seem s t o hav e bee n replace d b y a fait h i n th e magi c powe r o f
her will .
Aggressive trend s ar e not th e onl y hitherto suppresse d component s o f
Nora's personalit y t o surfac e a t th e end . A person livin g in a suffocatin g
environment lik e Nora' s i s boun d t o develo p tendencie s towar d detach -
ment, t o hav e stron g urge s t o ru n away , t o ge t fre e o f th e constan t
pressure o n he r thought s an d feelings . Nor a insist s tha t sh e mus t b e
alone if she is to "thin k thing s out" fo r herself . She rejects al l responsibil-
ity towar d other s an d refuse s Torvald' s hel p partl y becaus e sh e i s afrai d
of anythin g tha t wil l interfer e wit h he r independence : "Yo u mustn' t fee l
yourself boun d an y mor e tha n I shall. Ther e mus t b e complete freedo m
on both sides " (ac t 3) . Torvald wants to write to her, but Nora anxiousl y
pleads wit h hi m no t to . Sh e expresse s n o interes t i n hearin g abou t th e
children an d make s n o effor t t o se e them befor e sh e departs .
Nora's detachmen t i s not onl y a respons e t o pas t oppressio n bu t als o
a defens e agains t presen t conflicts . Sh e ha s t o b e callou s towar d he r
husband an d children , sh e ha s t o ru n awa y fro m them , becaus e the y
threaten t o rous e u p he r self-effacin g side , o f whic h sh e i s no w afraid .

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46 | A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

There i s somethin g decidedl y cold-bloode d abou t Nor a a t th e end . Sh e

is no t allowin g hersel f t o b e awar e o f th e complexitie s o f he r situation ,
to fee l a sense of loss , or to experienc e tender emotions .
Although par t o f Nora' s transformatio n involve s the adoptio n o f ne w
defenses, ther e ar e sign s o f genuin e growth . Nor a ha s see n th e severit y
of he r self-alienatio n an d ha s understoo d som e o f it s causes . Sh e want s
to find herself , t o discove r he r ow n thought s an d feelings , an d t o gro w
from thi s authenti c cente r o f he r being . Sh e see s tha t he r humanit y ha s
been stunte d an d i s determine d t o becom e a capable , functioning , full y
responsible person . He r insistenc e that sh e has a sacred dut y to herself i s
healthy self-assertion .
How fa r Nora ca n grow is a question o n which we can only speculate .
In th e absenc e o f a supportiv e environment , he r prospect s d o no t see m
promising. It will be very difficult fo r he r to arrive at a true knowledge of
herself an d th e worl d aroun d her . Sh e has mad e contac t wit h previousl y
repressed feelings , suc h a s rag e an d th e desir e t o thro w of f he r bonds ,
but thi s i s not th e sam e thin g a s gettin g i n touc h wit h he r rea l self . He r
discovery o f he r self-alienatio n i s an essentia l first step , bu t i t i s difficul t
to se e ho w sh e ca n recogniz e an d relinquis h he r defense s withou t help ,
and non e i s available. A t th e en d o f th e pla y Nor a i s like a person i n a n
early stag e o f therap y wh o i s s o afrai d o f losin g contac t wit h he r ne w
perceptions an d s o determine d tha t nothin g shal l interfer e wit h he r
growth tha t sh e canno t b e worrie d abou t doin g justic e t o other s o r
caring abou t thei r feelings . I t i s a t thi s stage , o f course , tha t man y
marriages brea k up .

If Nora continue d t o grow, there might b e a chance fo r he r marriage , fo r

she would com e t o se e both Torval d an d hersel f mor e clearly . Sh e woul d
relinquish he r over-simpl e perceptio n o f hi m a s a detestabl e tyran t o r a
contemptible weaklin g an d recogniz e tha t hi s defense s ha d comple -
mented her s in many ways bu t had als o been in conflict wit h them . Nor a
and Torval d hav e ha d suc h a n intensel y romanti c relationshi p becaus e
they hav e satisfie d eac h other' s neuroti c needs . Nor a neede d t o merg e
with a powerful , dominan t male , an d Torval d love d bein g master . Sh e
was excited b y his strength an d h e by her weakness an d dependency . Sh e
wished t o b e possesse d an d Torval d wa s extremel y possessive . Sh e
dreamt o f bein g cherishe d an d protecte d an d h e o f rescuin g he r fro m
peril. Eac h wa s th e cente r o f th e other' s existence . Torval d wa s a s
emotionally dependen t o n Nor a a s sh e o n him ; a t th e end , i t i s h e wh o

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 4 7

cannot bea r th e though t o f thei r separation . Eac h wa s "i n love " with a n
idealization o f the othe r rathe r tha n wit h th e rea l person .
When Torvald' s illusor y versio n o f Nor a i s shattered , h e crie s out ,
"God! What a n awakening! " (ac t 3) . The play has bee n buildin g towar d
this moment . W e se e fro m th e beginnin g tha t Nor a an d Torval d hav e
different attitude s towar d borrowin g money , socia l responsibility , an d
scrupulousness i n th e managemen t o f thei r affairs . Althoug h sh e know s
that Torval d i s oppose d t o bein g i n debt , Nor a propose s tha t the y
borrow o n the promis e o f hi s new jo b i n orde r t o splurg e fo r Christmas .
When Torval d ask s wha t woul d happe n i f "o n Ne w Year' s Ev e a til e
blew of f th e roo f an d knocke d m y brain s out, " Nor a replie s tha t unde r
such circumstance s i t woul d no t matte r i f sh e owe d mone y (ac t 1) .
"But," Torval d asks , "wha t abou t th e peopl e I' d borrowe d from? "
"Who care s abou t them? " replie s Nora . "Afte r al l they'r e jus t strang -
ers." Torvald dismisse s her response a s a joke, but Nora i s serious. When
Krogstad ask s if it had no t occurre d t o her tha t sh e was not bein g hones t
with hi m whe n h e len t he r mone y o n th e basi s o f he r father' s signature ,
Nora answers : " I reall y couldn' t concer n mysel f wit h that . Yo u mean t
nothing t o me. "
The Helmer s hav e no t ha d a great dea l o f mone y becaus e a s a lawye r
Torvald ha s refuse d "t o handl e an y case s tha t ar e i n th e leas t bit —
shady" (ac t 1) . Nor a tell s Mrs . Lind e tha t sh e "agree[s ] wit h him , o f
course," bu t sh e does not observ e his code o f rectitude hersel f an d seem s
to fee l tha t h e i s to o strict . Governe d b y th e value s o f he r self-effacin g
solution, Nor a feel s justifie d i n doin g whateve r i s necessar y t o car e fo r
the member s o f he r family . Sh e cannot imagin e tha t " a daughte r ha s n o
right t o spar e he r dyin g fathe r worr y an d anxiety " o r tha t " a wif e ha s
no right to sav e her husband' s life. " Nora' s claim s ar e that sh e cannot b e
adversely judge d becaus e sh e acte d ou t o f lov e an d tha t ther e "won' t b e
any trouble" becaus e sh e has "thre e littl e children" (ac t 2) .
Her belie f syste m i s shaken, however , whe n Torval d attack s Krogsta d
at th e en d o f ac t 1 . Afte r committin g a forgery , Krogsta d ha d escape d
punishment throug h "trick s an d evasions. " Whe n a ma n behave s lik e
that, say s Torvald , "hi s lif e become s a tissu e o f lie s an d deception . He' s
forced t o wea r a mask—eve n wit h thos e neares t t o him—hi s ow n
wife an d children. " Krogsta d "ha s bee n deliberatel y poisonin g hi s ow n
children fo r years , b y surroundin g the m wit h lie s an d hypocrisy. " Nor a
recognizes hersel f i n thi s description , sinc e he r lif e i s a tissu e o f lie s an d
deception. She , too, has committed forgery , an d sh e has deceived Torval d

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48 | A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

about th e loan . Sh e lies habitually, abou t eatin g macaroons , abou t wha t

she does with th e money Torvald give s her, abou t wha t sh e is doing wit h
the tim e sh e spend s working , an d s o on . Sh e justifies man y o f thes e lie s
as bein g i n a goo d caus e an d require d b y Torvald' s rigidity , bu t afte r
Torvald's speec h abou t Krogsta d sh e becomes terrified. Afrai d tha t sh e is
harming he r famil y an d corruptin g he r home , sh e begin s t o withdra w
from he r childre n an d t o contemplate goin g away. The self-hate an d self -
doubt thu s activate d remai n wit h he r throug h th e rest o f the play .
It is because Mrs. Linde is appalled b y the "decei t an d subterfuge " o n
which Nora' s relationshi p wit h Torval d i s base d tha t sh e insist s o n
exposing Nora' s secret , eve n though Krogsta d i s willing t o tak e bac k hi s
threatening letter . Sh e feel s tha t Nor a an d Torval d mus t com e "t o a
thorough understanding, " tha t "Helme r mus t kno w th e truth " (ac t 3) .
She tells Nora tha t sh e has "nothin g t o fear fro m Krogstad " bu t tha t sh e
"must spea k out. " Nora' s reactio n t o thi s i s remarkable : "No w I kno w
what I mus t do"—tha t is , sh e mus t commi t suicide . Why ? I f sh e ha s
nothing t o fea r fro m Krogstad , sh e doe s no t hav e t o kil l hersel f t o sav e
Torvald's caree r an d preven t th e wonderfu l thin g fro m happening . Doe s
she wan t t o di e s o a s t o avoi d a confrontatio n wit h Torvald ? Doe s sh e
sense what hi s reaction wil l be ? Does sh e fear tha t h e will despis e her, a s
he does Krogstad .
Torvald's denunciatio n o f Krogstad ha d bee n extraordinaril y passion -
ate: "I t would hav e bee n impossibl e fo r m e to work wit h him . It literall y
gives m e a feelin g o f physica l discomfor t t o com e i n contac t wit h suc h
people" (ac t 1) . The perfectionisti c Torval d i s pursuing a flawles s excel -
lence i n th e whol e conduc t o f life , an d h e discharge s ont o Krogsta d th e
contempt h e woul d fee l fo r himsel f shoul d h e behav e a s Krogsta d ha s
done. Krogsta d is , in effect , hi s despise d image , wha t h e canno t bea r t o
be, an d h e finds hi s very presenc e disturbing , especiall y whe n Krogstad ,
an ol d schoo l friend , treat s hi m wit h familiarity . Hi s repudiation , con -
demnation, an d defianc e o f Krogsta d confir m hi s hig h standard s an d
solidify hi s sense of identity .
Nora dread s Krogsta d partl y becaus e he r fathe r ha d bee n attacke d i n
the newspapers , an d sh e fear s tha t Krogsta d wil l attac k Torvald . Confi -
dent o f hi s rectitude , Torval d dismisse s he r fears : "M y dea r Nora , ther e
is a distinct difference betwee n your fathe r an d me. Your father's conduc t
was no t entirel y unimpeachable . Bu t min e is ; an d I trus t i t wil l remai n
so" (ac t 2) . Torvald feel s tha t hi s strengt h i s the strengt h o f te n becaus e
his heart i s pure. His bargai n i s that h e will ultimately triump h an d hav e

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 4 9

nothing to fear a s long as his conduct is unimpeachable. At the beginnin g

of th e play , hi s bargai n seem s t o b e working . H e suffere d financially
because h e woul d no t tak e shad y cases , bu t h e ha s receive d a splendi d
new appointmen t a s the reward o f hi s virtue .
Torvald's reactio n t o Krogstad' s lette r i s s o intens e becaus e hi s well -
earned succes s has bee n poisoned, an d h e has bee n put i n the power o f a
man h e detests . Since he will b e in a false positio n whateve r h e does, th e
flawless excellenc e o f hi s lif e ha s bee n los t forever . Perhap s th e greates t
blow fo r hi m i s tha t hi s idealize d imag e o f Nor a an d thei r relationshi p
has bee n shattered . H e ha s awakene d afte r eigh t year s t o discove r tha t
the woman wh o ha d bee n hi s "prid e an d joy " i s "lawless " an d "unprin -
cipled" (ac t 3) . He ha s had intimation s o f the conflic t betwee n hi s value s
and Nora' s before , bu t h e ha s dismisse d the m becaus e o f hi s nee d t o
hold ont o hi s exalte d imag e o f he r an d thei r relationship . Whe n h e
catches he r i n a lie about Krogstad' s no t havin g bee n t o se e her, h e doe s
not tak e th e matte r seriously : " (Threatens with his finger) M y littl e bir d
must neve r d o that again ! A song-bird mus t sin g clear an d true ! No fals e
notes! (Puts arm around her) Isn' t tha t th e wa y i t shoul d be ? O f cours e
it is! (Let's her go) An d no w we'l l sa y no mor e abou t it " (ac t 1) . Torvald
now believe s tha t Nor a ha s inherite d he r father' s lac k o f principle ; sh e
has "n o religion , no mora l code , no sens e of duty " (ac t 3) . She embodie s
everything Torvald abhor s i n othe r peopl e an d i s afraid o f i n himself .
Torvald ca n b e easil y see n a s a cowar d an d hypocrite , bu t th e situa -
tion i s mor e complicate d tha n that . H e ha d mad e a sho w o f courag e
as lon g a s hi s conduc t wa s unimpeachable , bu t Nora' s behavio r ha s
compromised hi s hono r an d undermine d hi s belie f i n hi s powe r t o
control hi s destiny . Horne y observe s tha t fo r th e perfectionisti c perso n
the appearanc e o f rectitud e ma y b e more importan t tha n rectitud e itself ,
and appearance s ar e ver y importan t t o Torvald . Th e "matte r mus t b e
hushed u p a t an y cost " i n orde r t o avoi d a scandal , an d h e an d Nor a
must preten d t o hav e a marriage i n orde r t o "sav e appearances " (ac t 3) .
Nora's drea m wa s tha t Torval d woul d tak e th e responsibilit y fo r th e
forgery o n himself , thu s showin g ho w muc h h e love d her , bu t give n hi s
own defenses , thi s i s somethin g tha t Torval d coul d neve r do . Sh e i s
asking hi m t o presen t hi s despise d imag e t o th e worl d a s his true reality .
When Torval d say s tha t "on e doesn' t sacrific e one' s hono r fo r love' s
sake," Nor a replie s tha t "million s o f wome n hav e don e so. " Sh e i s
expressing value s tha t belon g t o he r defens e syste m an d h e value s tha t
belong to his .

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50 | A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

Krogstad's lette r plunge s Torval d int o a stat e o f psychologica l crisis .

His solutio n ha s faile d an d hi s "whol e worl d seem[s ] t o b e tumblin g
about [his ] ears " (ac t 3) . H e i s goin g t o piece s no t onl y becaus e Nor a
has expose d hi m t o disgrace , bu t als o becaus e hi s misfortune force s hi m
to realiz e tha t h e ha s violate d hi s ow n principles . Hi s cod e i s tha t on e
should not sacrific e hono r fo r love , but tha t i s what h e di d whe n h e wa s
sent t o investigat e Nora' s fathe r an d engage d i n a cover-up fo r he r sake :
"If yo u hadn' t . . . bee n s o kin d an d helpful—h e migh t hav e bee n
dismissed" (ac t 2) . Torval d no w feel s tha t h e i s bein g punishe d "fo r
shielding" Nora' s fathe r (ac t 3) . B y failin g t o liv e u p t o hi s shoulds , h e
has expose d himsel f t o catastrophe . Thi s generate s a sens e o f help -
lessness an d pani c an d als o a grea t dea l o f self-hate , whic h h e external -
izes b y feelin g victimize d an d blamin g hi s wife . Lik e Nora , h e feel s
unjustly treate d b y hi s mate : "An d t o thin k I hav e yo u t o than k fo r al l
this—you who m I'v e don e nothin g bu t pampe r an d spoi l sinc e th e da y
of ou r marriage " (ac t 3) . As we hav e seen , Nora i s also feelin g self-hate ,
which sh e externalizes b y blaming he r fathe r an d Torvald .
Torvald's pani c subside s whe n Krogsta d withdraw s hi s threat, an d h e
immediately resume s hi s patronizin g behavior . Afte r forgivin g Nora , h e
assures he r tha t sh e i s safe an d tha t h e will cheris h he r a s i f sh e were " a
little dove" he had "rescue d fro m th e claws of som e dreadful hawk " (ac t
3). Despite hi s craven behavior , Torval d want s t o reviv e the ol d scenari o
in whic h h e i s Nora' s protector , bu t sh e n o longe r believe s him . H e
becomes eve n mor e paternalisti c tha n h e wa s before . Nor a wil l becom e
his chil d a s wel l a s hi s wife , an d h e wil l b e "bot h wil l an d conscience "
to her .
Torvald's behavio r i s incredibl y inappropriate , an d i t ma y see m t o
some tha t Ibse n i s presentin g a caricatur e o f a chauvinisti c male . I t i s
understandable, however , i n terms o f Torvald's psychology . He i s a mal e
chauvinist, o f cours e (" I a m no t a ma n fo r nothing") , bu t ther e i s
more t o hi s behavio r tha n that . Hi s descriptio n o f Nor a a s hi s "deares t
treasure" i s not a n exaggeratio n (ac t 3) . He i s an emotionally need y ma n
who, spellboun d b y Nora , want s t o posses s he r entirel y an d liv e i n a
world o f thei r own . Whe n the y ar e wit h othe r people , h e romanticall y
pretends tha t the y lov e eac h othe r i n secret , an d h e think s tha t Rank' s
death ma y b e fo r th e best , sinc e no w the y wil l b e "mor e tha n eve r
dependent o n eac h other. " H e i s prou d o f Nora' s beaut y an d charm ,
which bolste r hi s ow n sens e o f worth , muc h a s Torvald' s succes s feed s
Nora's pride . He ha s blinde d himsel f t o anythin g fault y i n Nora becaus e

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 5 1

he does not want t o relinquish hi s idealization o f her o r t o have any flaw

in their relationship .
There is an inner conflic t i n Torvald betwee n his dependency o n Nor a
and hi s perfectionism. H e tries to resolve that conflic t b y treating her lik e
a helpless , uncomprehendin g femal e wh o wa s no t "abl e t o judg e ho w
wrong" he r behavio r wa s (ac t 3) . If h e continue d t o condem n Nora , h e
would los e her. By regarding he r a s too immatur e t o b e held responsible ,
he is able to forgive her and continue their relationship. He will keep Nora
straight, an d thu s protec t himself , b y bein g he r wil l an d conscience . H e
envisions merging with Nora mor e completely than ever before .
Torvald's fantas y i s profoundl y oppressiv e t o Nora , wh o n o longe r
respects hi s judgment . Whe n h e start s regardin g he r a s hi s littl e dol l
again, "who m yo u woul d hav e t o guar d mor e carefull y tha n ever , be -
cause she was s o weak an d frail " (ac t 3) , she realizes the degree to whic h
she ha s bee n infantilize d an d demand s t o b e treate d lik e a rea l person .
This doe s no t produc e a sudde n lea p int o maturit y fo r Nora , no r coul d
it. She herself i s conscious o f her inadequac y an d uncertainty . Sh e know s
that sh e i s no t fi t t o teac h he r children , tha t sh e doe s no t understan d
society o r religion , an d tha t sh e i s bewildere d abou t ethica l questions .
What sh e is clear abou t i s that sh e is not clear . Sh e knows tha t sh e is ou t
of touc h wit h hersel f an d th e worl d an d tha t sh e mus t ge t awa y fro m
Torvald i f sh e i s to "lear n t o fac e reality. " Sh e is aware tha t sh e is at th e
beginning o f a lon g proces s an d tha t sh e doe s no t "kno w wha t sor t o f
person" sh e will become .
I hav e suggeste d tha t i f Nor a continue d t o grow , ther e migh t b e a
chance fo r he r marriage . That woul d depen d o n Torval d a s well, bu t he ,
too, ha s begu n t o chang e an d ma y hav e a s goo d a chanc e a s sh e o f
arriving a t th e necessar y insights . H e doe s no t accep t Nora' s positio n
that h e shoul d hav e sacrifice d hono r fo r love , nor, give n hi s personality ,
is he eve r likel y t o d o so . Nora need s t o se e the source s o f tha t expecta -
tion i n he r ow n psychology . Torval d doe s respond , however , t o Nora' s
indignation a t no t havin g bee n treate d a s a person. H e understand s tha t
there i s " a grea t void " betwee n the m an d ask s Nora t o believ e that h e is
capable o f change . Sh e thinks tha t h e migh t b e when h e "n o longe r [ha s
his] dol l t o pla y with " (ac t 3) . Agai n sh e i s right . Th e separatio n i s a s
essential fo r Torval d a s i t i s fo r her . Nor a appear s t o b e somewha t
vindictive whe n sh e say s tha t hi s inabilit y t o endur e th e though t o f
parting wit h he r i s al l th e mor e reaso n wh y sh e shoul d go , bu t perhap s
she recognizes that sh e must b e cruel i n order t o b e kind .

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52 I A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

The questio n w e ar e lef t wit h a t th e en d o f th e pla y i s whether Nor a

and Torval d ca n chang e enoug h s o tha t thei r "lif e togethe r migh t trul y
be a marriage" (ac t 3) . Unless this happens , say s Nora, the y wil l alway s
be strangers. If it were to happe n i t would b e "th e mos t wonderful thin g
of all, " bu t Nor a say s tha t sh e "n o longe r believe[s] i n miracles. " Tor -
vald, however , cling s t o thi s hope . Th e las t lin e o f th e pla y i s his: "Th e
most wonderfu l thin g o f all—? " Give n th e severit y o f Nor a an d Tor -
vald's problem s an d th e absenc e o f therapeuti c help , i t woul d b e a
miracle indeed .

Hedda Gabler i s above al l a stud y o f character ; t o comprehen d th e play ,

we mus t understan d Hedda . I t i s difficul t t o establis h Ibsen' s themati c
intentions, bu t h e shows wit h brillian t psychologica l insigh t ho w Hed -
da's plight a s a woman i n an extremel y restrictiv e societ y produces inne r
conflicts tha t mak e he r lif e steril e an d lea d t o he r destructiv e behavior .
Hedda i s no t portraye d sympathetically , lik e Nora , bu t psychologica l
analysis reveal s that beneat h he r cold , haughty demeano r sh e is a suffer -
ing human being .
As i n A DolVs House, th e heroine' s relationshi p wit h a ma n i s th e
focus o f th e play . Hedda' s mos t importan t relationshi p i s no t wit h he r
husband bu t wit h Ejler t Lovborg , who m sh e ha d know n befor e he r
marriage. Afte r th e scen e i s se t i n ac t 1 , the dramati c actio n i s initiate d
by The a Elvsted' s visit , whic h lead s t o Lovborg' s reentr y int o Hedda' s
life. Ac t 2 is focused o n Hedda' s rivalr y wit h Thea , a s sh e induce s Ejler t
to tak e a drin k an d g o t o Judg e Brack' s party . Ac t 3 show s u s he r
disappointment whe n Ejler t fail s t o enac t th e scenari o sh e had envisage d
for him , an d i t end s wit h Hedd a urgin g hi m t o kil l himsel f beautifull y
and burnin g hi s manuscript . I n ac t 4 , Hedd a i s drive n t o suicid e whe n
all he r solution s collaps e afte r Ejlert' s death . I f w e ar e t o appreciat e th e
subtlety o f Ibsen' s psychologica l portrai t an d mak e sens e o f wha t hap -
pens in the play, we must understan d Ejlert' s rol e i n Hedda's life .
The mos t widel y hel d vie w o f Hedda' s behavio r i n ac t 2 is that sh e i s
trying t o und o Thea' s constructiv e influenc e o n Ejlert , wh o ha d bee n
leading a wil d bohemia n lif e i n th e day s whe n h e an d Hedd a wer e
friends. Inspire d b y Thea , h e ha s stoppe d drinking , ha s publishe d a
highly acclaime d book , an d ha s writte n anothe r tha t i s mor e brillian t
still. Enviou s o f Thea , Hedd a wishe s t o exercis e a mor e powerfu l influ -
ence of he r ow n b y turning Lovbor g bac k int o th e man h e was when sh e

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 5 3

knew him . Sh e seek s t o disrup t Ejlert' s relationshi p wit h The a an d t o

replace he r a s th e dominan t forc e i n hi s life . The a i s afrai d tha t Ejler t
will b e destroye d i f h e revert s t o hi s ol d ways , an d mos t peopl e see m t o
feel tha t Hedd a i s trying t o undermin e hi m i n orde r t o fee l tha t fo r onc e
in her lif e she , too, has "th e powe r t o shap e a human destiny " (ac t 2) .
There i s much i n this view with whic h I agree, but I do no t thin k tha t
Hedda induce s Lovbor g t o tak e a drin k an d g o to Brack' s part y i n orde r
to undermin e him . In response to Thea's concer n abou t "wha t wil l com e
of al l this, " Hedd a confidentl y predict s tha t "A t te n o'cloc k h e wil l b e
here, wit h vin e leave s i n hi s hair . Flushe d an d fearless! " (ac t 2) . Sh e
envisions hi m a s a triumphan t figure. Hedd a i s disappointe d rathe r
than please d whe n sh e hear s fro m he r husban d tha t th e drunke n Ejler t
carelessly droppe d hi s manuscrip t an d learn s fro m Judg e Brac k tha t h e
finally turne d u p a t Mademoiselle Diana's , where h e insisted tha t h e ha d
been robbed , raise d a row, an d wa s take n awa y b y the police : "S o that' s
what happened ! Then , afte r all , h e ha d n o vin e leave s i n hi s hair! " (ac t
4). H e i s behavin g lik e th e Ejler t o f old , bu t tha t i s not, evidently , wha t
Hedda ha d wanted . I n orde r t o understan d wha t Hedd a wa s hopin g fo r
we mus t examin e he r inne r conflict s an d Ejlert' s rol e i n he r effor t t o
manage them .
Some o f Hedda' s conflict s ar e presente d quit e vividl y i n he r reminis -
cence with Ejler t abou t th e ol d days , when ther e was a "secre t intimacy "
between the m tha t "n o livin g sou l suspected " (ac t 2) . Wit h Genera l
Gabler readin g hi s pape r i n th e sam e room , Ejler t woul d describ e hi s
"days an d night s o f passio n an d frenzy , o f drinkin g an d madness " t o
Hedda. Sh e evoked hi s confessions b y boldly asking "deviou s questions "
that h e perfectl y understood . Rejectin g Lovborg' s ide a tha t sh e wa s
trying t o was h awa y hi s sins , Hedda explain s he r motive : "Isn' t i t quit e
easy to understan d tha t a young girl , especially i f it can b e done i n secre t
. . . shoul d b e tempte d t o investigat e a forbidde n world ? A worl d she' s
supposed t o kno w nothin g about? "
Hedda i s a sociall y prominen t woma n wit h a ver y stron g sens e o f
propriety wh o need s to maintai n he r dignit y a t al l costs an d wh o canno t
bear th e thought o f doin g anythin g tha t woul d diminis h he r respectabil -
ity. A t th e sam e time , sh e ha s powerfu l sexua l an d aggressiv e impulse s
that sh e want s t o expres s a s me n d o an d tha t sh e i s bitte r a t havin g t o
deny. Sh e live s i n a societ y tha t impose s enormou s constraint s upo n a
woman o f he r socia l class, constraints t o which sh e outwardly conform s
but agains t whic h sh e inwardly rebels . Her "secre t intimacy " wit h Ejler t

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54 I A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

Lovborg enable d he r t o escap e thes e constraint s vicariously , sinc e h e

acted ou t he r forbidde n impulse s an d the n told he r abou t it . When Ejler t
wonders ho w sh e coul d hav e brough t hersel f "t o as k suc h questions, "
Hedda insist s that sh e did so "i n a devious way," that is , without directl y
violating decoru m (ac t 2) . W e se e Hedd a lookin g fo r a simila r kin d o f
safe, voyeuristi c gratificatio n whe n sh e make s obliqu e reference s t o
Judge Brack' s affairs an d relishe s the thought o f his stag party, which sh e
wishes sh e could atten d unseen .
Hedda's problem , then , i s how t o satisfy he r "cravin g fo r life " (ac t 2) ,
as Ejler t describe s it , withou t sacrificin g he r positio n a s a lady . Hedda' s
need to conform t o the rules of propriety i s so great that i t both alienate s
her fro m he r rea l feeling s an d make s i t impossibl e fo r he r t o expres s
the resultin g rebelliou s impulses . I t i s no t a health y cravin g fo r self -
actualization bu t he r suppresse d neuroti c need s tha t Ejler t Lovbor g i s
acting out . T o Hedda , however , h e i s a ma n wh o ha s "th e courag e t o
live his life" a s he see s fit (act 3) , in a way tha t sh e cannot liv e hers. It i s
not onl y hi s escapade s tha t sh e vicariousl y enjoy s bu t als o wha t the y
symbolize, his freedom fro m th e constraints b y which sh e feels hersel f t o
be suffocated .
Ejlert provide s a solutio n t o Hedda' s proble m unti l h e drag s thei r
intimacy dow n t o realit y b y makin g sexua l advances . Hedd a i s s o
alarmed b y thi s tha t sh e threaten s t o shoo t him , bu t sh e i s afrai d t o d o
so becaus e sh e ha s "suc h a fea r o f scandal " (ac t 2) . Whe n Lovbor g
accuses he r o f bein g " a cowar d a t heart, " sh e wholeheartedl y concurs :
"A terribl e coward. " Sh e confesse s tha t he r "greates t cowardic e tha t
evening" wa s i n not respondin g t o hi s advances .
Hedda i s caught i n a conflict betwee n a desire to act out her rebelliou s
aggression b y leadin g a wild , free , bohemia n life , lik e Lovborg , an d a n
even stronge r nee d t o compl y wit h th e norm s o f he r society , t o b e a
refined, respectabl e lady , th e prope r daughte r o f a n eminen t general . T o
escape th e agon y o f thi s conflict , sh e become s cold , aloof , detached , ou t
of touc h wit h he r ow n emotion s an d indifferen t t o othe r people . Sh e
does no t believ e i n love , marrie s fo r convenience , an d the n i s terribl y
oppressed b y th e boredo m o f he r empt y existence . Whe n sh e return s
from a length y weddin g tri p wit h a husband sh e cannot bear , sh e want s
a butler , a saddl e horse , a new piano , an d a n activ e socia l lif e partl y fo r
reasons o f statu s an d partl y becaus e sh e i s spoiled , bu t mostl y becaus e
she feel s desperat e an d i s searchin g fo r distractions . Sh e become s eve n

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 5 5

more frustrate d whe n sh e learn s tha t the y wil l hav e t o curtai l thei r
expenses.
Hedda's pligh t i s vividl y depicte d i n he r conversatio n wit h Judg e
Brack a t th e beginnin g o f ac t 2 . After greetin g hi m wit h pisto l shot s an d
explaining tha t sh e i s "jus t killin g time " becaus e sh e doesn' t kno w
"what i n heaven's name " sh e is to d o with hersel f "al l da y long," Hedd a
complains abou t th e boredo m o f he r weddin g trip . Sh e make s i t clea r
that she does not "love " Jorgen ("Ugh ! Don' t us e that revolting word!") ,
and tha t sh e marrie d hi m becaus e h e ha d a promisin g caree r an d sh e
"wasn't gettin g an y younger. " Hedd a i s twenty-nine an d ha s a drea d o f
aging. Brac k an d Hedd a the n engag e i n a deviou s exchang e i n whic h
Brack proposes a n affai r an d Hedd a make s i t clear tha t sh e would rathe r
continue he r tete-a-tete wit h Jorgen tha n ente r int o a triangle tha t woul d
compromise he r respectability . Sh e ha s n o objectio n t o Brack' s comin g
over t o amus e her , however .
In respons e t o Hedda' s complain t abou t ho w "incredibl y I shall bor e
myself here, " Brac k suggest s tha t sh e find "som e sor t o f vocatio n i n
life," bu t Hedd a canno t imagin e a vocatio n tha t woul d attrac t her .
Perhaps sh e coul d ge t Jorgen t o g o int o politics , despit e th e fac t tha t h e
is completel y unsuite d fo r suc h a career . Lik e mos t o f th e wome n i n
Ibsen's plays—an d i n hi s culture , n o doubt—Hedd a ca n find a n outle t
for he r expansive tendencies onl y through identificatio n wit h o r manipu -
lation o f a man. Ther e ar e variations o n this theme i n A DolVs House (a s
we have seen) , The Master Builder, an d Rosmersholm.
Hedda feel s that lif e is "s o hideous" becaus e o f her "gentee l poverty" ;
but, sensin g he r detachment , Judg e Brac k astutel y observe s tha t "th e
fault lie s elsewhere, " i n th e fac t sh e ha s neve r "reall y bee n stirre d b y
anything." H e suggest s tha t thi s ma y chang e whe n sh e finds hersel f
"faced wit h what's known i n solemn languag e a s a grave responsibility. "
Hedda angril y replies , "B e quiet ! Nothin g o f tha t sor t wil l eve r happe n
to me. " Sh e i s alread y pregnant , however , an d i s tryin g t o den y he r
condition, bot h t o hersel f an d t o others . No t onl y i s sh e confine d t o a
woman's narro w spher e i n life , bu t sh e ca n find n o satisfactio n i n wha t
her cultur e regards a s feminine joys . She puts of f marriag e a s long as sh e
can, partl y becaus e it s restriction s d o no t appea l t o he r an d partl y
because th e me n wh o attrac t he r ar e no t eligibl e an d th e me n wh o ar e
eligible d o no t attrac t her . Sh e i s appalle d b y th e prospec t o f mother -
hood, agai n becaus e o f he r detachment : "Tha t sor t o f thin g doesn' t

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56 | A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

appeal t o me , Judge . I' m no t fitted fo r it . N o responsibilitie s fo r me! "

Terribly frustrate d herself , sh e ha s nothin g t o giv e a child , wh o wil l
further limi t he r freedom . I n rebellio n agains t th e feminin e rol e bu t
unable t o find an y other , sh e tell s Judge Brac k tha t th e onl y thin g sh e is
"really fitted for " i s "borin g mysel f t o death! "
Hedda i s in despair abou t he r life . From the beginnin g o f the play, she
is ful l o f frustration , irritability , an d anger , whic h sh e displace s a t first
onto th e self-effacin g Aun t Juliane , wh o let s i n to o muc h sunlight , thu s
revealing Hedda' s agin g fac e an d filled ou t figure, an d whos e ha t Jorge n
has indecorousl y lef t o n a drawin g roo m table . Whe n Judg e Brac k
scolds he r fo r tormentin g "tha t nic e ol d lady, " Hedd a explain s tha t sh e
suddenly get s "impulse s lik e that " an d canno t "contro l them " (ac t 2) .
She i s no t callousl y amusin g herself , bu t i s compulsivel y dischargin g
some o f he r pent-u p rage , just a s sh e doe s when sh e fires off he r father' s
pistols, those symbol s o f mal e power .
Constantly lookin g fo r somethin g tha t migh t interes t her , Hedd a
regards th e possibl e competitio n fo r th e professorshi p betwee n Ejler t
and Jorge n a s a n even t i n whic h sh e ca n tak e " a sportin g interest " (ac t
1), despite the fact tha t he r husband's professional an d financial fortune s
are a t stake . The arriva l o f Thea take s her i n a new direction , sinc e The a
announces th e presenc e o f Ejler t Lovborg , wh o ha d onc e provide d
Hedda wit h a wa y o f dealin g wit h he r frustration s an d inne r conflicts .
When sh e learn s tha t Ejler t i s in tow n sh e ha s a vague hop e tha t h e ca n
somehow b e o f hel p t o her , an d sh e immediatel y ask s Jorge n t o invit e
him.
Upon Lovborg' s arrival , Hedd a become s involve d i n a competitio n
with The a fo r influenc e ove r him . Hedd a i s threatened b y The a an d ha s
a powerfu l nee d t o triump h ove r her . Whe n the y kne w eac h othe r a t
school, Hedd a use d t o pul l Thea' s hai r an d onc e sai d sh e was "goin g t o
burn i t al l off" (ac t 1) . Ibse n describe s Thea' s hai r a s "extremel y thic k
and wavy, " whil e Hedda' s i s "no t especiall y abundant. " Thea' s thic k
hair symbolize s fertilit y an d make s Hedd a al l th e mor e consciou s o f th e
sterility o f he r ow n existence , despit e he r pregnancy . Th e contras t be -
tween the two women i s developed throughou t th e play. Whereas Hedd a
reveled i n Lovborg' s debauchery , The a inspire d hi m t o writ e books ,
which h e describe s a s thei r children . Hedda' s fea r o f scanda l mad e he r
afraid o f responding t o Ejlert's advances , but Thea leave s her husband i n
order t o follo w hi m t o town : "But , Thea , m y darling!"—exclaim s
Hedda—"How di d yo u dare d o suc h a thing? " (ac t 1 ; m y emphasis) .

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 5 7

When The a declare s tha t sh e will neve r g o bac k t o he r husband , Hedd a

is shocked : "Bu t wha t wil l peopl e sa y abou t you , Thea? " "The y ca n
say," replie s Thea , "whateve r the y like. " I n pursui t o f wha t i s reall y
important t o her , The a ignore s publi c opinio n i n a wa y tha t Hedd a
cannot. Hedda' s env y i s exacerbated whe n Lovbor g praise s Thea' s "tre -
mendous courage " wher e he r "comrad e i s concerned" :

Hedda: God , yes, courage! If on e onl y had that !

Lovborg: Wha t then ?
Hedda: The n lif e migh t perhap s b e endurable, afte r all . . .
(act 2 )
Thea is Hedda's nemesis , the woman who demonstrates that i t is possible
to hav e a fruitful lif e i f one has the courag e t o def y convention .
There ca n b e n o doub t tha t Hedd a manipulate s Lovbor g int o takin g
a drin k an d goin g to Judge Brack' s party i n order t o disrup t hi s relation -
ship wit h The a an d t o sho w tha t sh e ha s mor e powe r ove r him . Bu t sh e
is no t ye t ou t t o destro y Lovborg , a s sh e i s late r whe n sh e conceal s th e
fact tha t Jorge n ha s foun d hi s manuscript . A t thi s poin t i n th e pla y sh e
wants Ejler t t o enac t a scenari o sh e ha s conceive d fo r hi m i n whic h h e
will b e a triumphant autho r wh o i s free o f self-doub t an d anxiet y abou t
himself. Sh e want s "th e powe r t o shap e a huma n destiny " i n wha t sh e
regards a s a positive way .
Lovborg's refusa l t o tak e a drin k an d g o t o Brack' s part y disturb s
Hedda becaus e i t seem s t o b e motivate d b y th e sam e kin d o f fea r tha t
has mad e he r lif e unendurabl e an d filled he r wit h self-contempt . Hedd a
despises hersel f fo r he r conformity , he r drea d o f scandal , he r cowardice .
She taunt s Ejler t wit h no t darin g t o tak e a drin k o r g o t o th e party :
"Didn't dare ! You say I didn't dare! " (ac t 2) . She cannot bea r t o se e hi m
afraid an d egg s him o n becaus e sh e wants hi m t o lea d th e free , uninhib -
ited lif e tha t sh e canno t lea d herself . Sh e i s caugh t i n a crossfir e o f
conflicting shoulds , sinc e sh e hate s hersel f fo r he r cowardic e bu t know s
that sh e woul d hat e hersel f eve n mor e fo r an y breac h o f propriety . Sh e
wants Lovbor g t o rescu e he r fro m he r impass e b y bein g bot h rebelliou s
and triumphant , b y returnin g "flushe d an d fearless, " "wit h vin e leave s
in hi s hair. " The n h e "wil l hav e regaine d confidenc e i n himself. He'l l b e
a fre e ma n foreve r an d ever. "
Thea ma y hav e reclaime d Ejlert , bu t sh e ha s als o tame d him , mad e
him fearfu l o f spontaneity , jus t a s Hedda is . She acts boldly o n hi s behal f
but i s terribly anxiou s fo r him . Hedd a feel s a simila r anxiet y fo r hersel f

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58 | A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

at the though t o f darin g behavior , bu t sh e wants t o believ e that Lovbor g

can ac t upo n hi s impulse s wit h impunity . Sh e want s t o triump h ove r
Thea, t o shap e a huma n destiny , an d t o gai n a vicariou s fulfillmen t o f
her need s to b e independent an d courageou s b y having Lovbor g ow e hi s
freedom an d fearlessnes s t o her . Havin g n o hop e o f becomin g wha t sh e
wants t o b e herself , sh e seek s t o escap e he r impotenc e an d self-hat e b y
making Ejler t int o a ma n throug h who m sh e ca n liv e an d wit h who m
she can proudly identify .
Hedda's i s an impossible dream . Sinc e Lovborg is an alcoholic, freein g
him o f hi s fear s an d inhibition s i s boun d t o destro y him . Whe n h e
refuses t o joi n th e othe r me n a t th e punc h bowl , Judg e Brac k says ,
"Why, surely , col d punc h i s no t poison. " "Perhap s no t fo r everyone, "
Ejlert replies , with th e implicatio n tha t i t surel y i s for hi m (ac t 2) . The a
is s o anxiou s becaus e sh e understand s Ejlert' s vulnerability . Desperate ,
Hedda blind s hersel f t o hi s condition an d construct s a scenari o tha t wil l
satisfy he r contradictor y need s bu t tha t h e cannot possibl y fulfill .
When Ejler t ha s no t returne d b y th e nex t mornin g The a i s i n panic ,
but, holdin g ont o he r dream , Hedd a envision s hi m a t Judg e Brack' s
"sitting wit h vin e leave s i n hi s hair , readin g hi s manuscript " (ac t 3) .
Tesman come s bac k wit h a glowin g accoun t o f th e ne w work , bu t finds
it "appalling " tha t Lovborg , "wit h al l his great gifts, shoul d b e so utterl y
incorrigible." "Becaus e h e ha s mor e daring, " Hedd a asks , "tha n an y o f
the rest of you?" This is Hedda's idealize d imag e of Lovborg. It is Ejlert' s
excessive drinking , however, t o which Jorgen i s referring, sinc e it has le d
him carelessl y t o dro p hi s preciou s manuscript . Jorge n ha s foun d i t an d
leaves i t wit h Hedd a whe n h e i s summone d t o th e bedsid e o f th e dyin g
Aunt Rina .
Judge Brack' s accoun t o f the evenin g shatters Hedda' s drea m o f livin g
through a liberate d Lovborg . Havin g conceive d o f Lovbor g a s a kind o f
romantic hero , a n untame d superio r being , sh e i s sickened b y his sordi d
fight wit h Mademoisell e Dian a an d hi s arrest . I f Hedd a ha d simpl y
wanted t o sho w he r powe r ove r Lovbor g an d brea k u p hi s relationshi p
with The a b y inducing hi m to rever t t o bohemia n ways , she would hav e
been pleased b y his night o f drinkin g an d madness .
It is at thi s point tha t Hedd a turn s destructive . Sinc e she has no t bee n
able t o mak e Ejler t int o th e her o o f he r dreams , sh e exert s he r powe r i n
a differen t wa y b y first concealin g an d the n burnin g hi s manuscript .
Ashamed t o confes s tha t h e ha s los t thei r "child, " Lovbor g tell s The a
that h e ha s tor n th e manuscrip t int o a thousan d piece s an d tha t h e wil l

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 5 9

"do n o mor e work , fro m no w on " (ac t 3) . The a "despairingly " ask s
what sh e wil l "hav e t o liv e for, " accuse s hi m o f "child-murder, " an d
sees "nothin g bu t darkness " befor e her . Lovbor g i s als o i n despair , fo r
he know s "i t won' t en d wit h las t night, " an d debaucher y n o longe r
appeals to him: "she' s somehow broke n m y courage—my defian t spirit. "
"To think, " say s Hedda , tha t tha t prett y littl e foo l shoul d hav e influ -
enced a man' s destiny."Hedd a migh t hav e bee n abl e t o sav e Lovbor g
had sh e reveale d tha t sh e wa s i n possessio n o f th e manuscript , bu t sh e
allows hi m t o believ e i t i s lost . Whe n h e announce s tha t h e want s "t o
make a n en d o f it, " Hedd a doe s no t tr y t o dissuad e hi m o r produc e th e
manuscript bu t instea d give s hi m a pistol , urge s hi m t o us e it , an d
enjoins hi m t o "le t i t b e beautiful. " Afte r Ejler t leaves , sh e burn s th e
manuscript, callin g it his and Thea' s child .
Hedda's behavio r ca n b e explaine d a s a continuatio n o f he r rivalr y
with The a an d o f he r desir e t o shap e a man' s destiny—fo r il l i f no t fo r
good; bu t thes e ar e no t he r onl y motivations . Wit h th e collaps e o f he r
dream o f triump h fo r Lovborg , an d vicariousl y fo r herself , Hedd a i s
confronted onc e mor e b y he r contradictor y needs , whic h sh e no w ha s
no hop e o f fulfilling . She , too, i s in despair , an d wishe s t o mak e a n en d
of it . Sh e i s afraid t o commi t suicide , however , partl y because , a s Brac k
says a t th e end , "peopl e don' t do suc h things! " Afte r Lovbor g disap -
points her , sh e develop s a ne w scenari o i n which h e will commit suicid e
in jus t th e wa y tha t sh e would lik e t o do , an d sh e will glor y i n thi s ne w
form o f freedo m an d darin g an d i n he r ow n contributio n t o it . Whe n
Brack announce s tha t Lovbor g ha s sho t himsel f throug h th e heart ,
Hedda i s exultant: "I t gives me a sense of freedom t o know that a n act of
deliberate courag e i s still possibl e i n thi s world—a n ac t o f spontaneou s
beauty" (ac t 4) . Hedd a feel s hersel f t o b e incapabl e o f suc h a n act , bu t
Lovborg ha s done i t for her , sh e thinks. Judge Brac k destroy s her "beau -
tiful illusion " b y revealing that Ejler t wa s accidentall y sho t i n the bowel s
while demandin g hi s "los t child " i n Mademoisell e Diana' s boudoir .
"How horrible! " exclaim s Hedda . "Everythin g I touc h become s ludi -
crous an d despicable!—It' s lik e a curse!"

Hedda i s drive n t o kil l hersel f b y th e collaps e o f al l he r solutions . Sh e

can n o longe r hop e t o gai n a sense o f freedo m an d t o satisf y he r suicida l
impulses vicariousl y throug h Lovborg , an d sh e i s put int o a n impossibl e
position b y Judge Brack' s effor t t o blackmai l her .
As soon a s sh e returns fro m he r weddin g journey , Brac k begin s press-

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60 | A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

ing fo r " a triangula r friendship " i n whic h h e wil l b e he r love r (ac t z) .

Hedda welcome s Brack' s attentions , bu t give n he r fea r o f scandal , a n
affair i s unthinkable. Thi s i s the sam e Hedd a wh o ha d draw n a gu n o n
Ejlert Lovbor g whe n h e wante d t o brin g thei r relationshi p dow n t o
earth. Afte r confessin g t o Ejler t tha t sh e doe s no t lov e he r husband , sh e
hastens t o add , "Al l th e same , n o unfaithfulness , remember " (ac t z).
Brack welcome s Lovborg' s disgrac e afte r h e i s arrested a t Mademoisell e
Diana's becaus e h e sense s Ejler t a s a riva l an d hope s tha t Hedda' s hom e
will b e close d t o him , lik e othe r "respectabl e house[s] " (ac t 3) . His ai m
is to b e "cock-of-the-walk, " an d "fo r that, " h e tells Hedda, " I will figh t
with ever y weapo n I ca n command. " Hedd a realize s tha t h e i s " a
dangerous person " an d i s "exceedingl y glad " tha t h e ha s "n o sor t o f
hold" ove r her .
Brack gain s a hol d ove r Hedda , however , whe n h e recognize s th e
pistol wit h whic h Lovbor g wa s shot . Hedd a i s no w face d wit h thre e
possibilities, al l o f whic h ar e unbearable . Brac k suggest s tha t sh e ca n
declare th e pisto l t o hav e bee n stolen , bu t sh e say s tha t "i t woul d b e
better t o die " tha n t o d o tha t (ac t 4) . Brack dismisse s he r speech : "On e
says suc h things—bu t on e doesn' t do them. " Wh y th e threa t o f suicid e
here? Becaus e lyin g abou t havin g give n Lovbor g th e pisto l i s a n ac t o f
cowardice tha t woul d exacerbat e he r self-hate ? I have no bette r explana -
tion. I f th e polic e trac e th e weapo n t o Hedda , say s Brack , sh e will hav e
to appea r i n cour t wit h Mademoisell e Dian a an d explai n wh y sh e gav e
it to Lovborg : "thin k o f th e scanda l . . . . o f whic h yo u ar e s o terrified. "
If Brack keeps quiet, however, the weapon wil l not b e traced, an d Hedd a
will neithe r hav e to li e nor b e exposed t o scandal . This means , however ,
that sh e will be in Judge Brack' s power: "Subjec t t o you r command s an d
wishes. N o longe r free—no t free ! . . . No , I won' t endur e th e thought .
Never!"
Given he r psychologica l needs , Hedd a ca n neithe r def y Brac k no r
submit t o him . Hedd a strike s u s a s a masterfu l perso n wh o know s ho w
to ge t wha t sh e wants , bu t th e fac t i s tha t sh e i s extremel y complian t
where propriet y i s concerned . Sh e coul d no t endur e th e los s o f respect -
ability tha t woul d resul t fro m he r defianc e o f Brack . Confine d t o th e
narrow rang e o f activitie s suitabl e t o a woma n o f he r station , Hedd a
compensates fo r he r lack o f control ove r her destin y b y manipulating th e
people aroun d her , an d especiall y b y seekin g t o influenc e th e fat e o f a n
important man . Bein g subjec t t o Brack' s wishe s an d command s woul d

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 6 1

render he r utterly powerles s an d would b e as unendurable a s the conse-

quences o f defiance .
Hedda's nee d fo r freedo m i s a s compensator y a s he r cravin g fo r
power. Th e product o f a highly restrictive environmen t tha t ha s allowe d
her fe w choices , sh e has a suppresse d desir e t o rebe l an d a longin g fo r
liberty. As is typical o f detached people , she is hypersensitive t o anythin g
that seem s t o imping e upo n her , such a s the expectations o f others , th e
march o f time, or bein g touched . Sh e recoils fro m th e gentle embrac e of
Aunt Juliane : "Please ! Oh , pleas e le t m e go! " (ac t i) . Sh e cannot bea r
being pregnan t o r th e responsibilitie s tha t parenthoo d wil l entail . Sh e
pursues a freedo m from constrain t rathe r tha n a freedo m to fulfil l her -
self. She is much too alienated fro m hersel f an d dominated b y her culture
to kno w wha t sh e really want s t o d o wit h he r life . Drive n a s sh e is by
both socia l an d psychological coercions , Hedda' s sens e o f freedo m i s an
illusion, o f course , bu t i t i s essentia l t o he r t o preserv e it . Give n he r
phobic reactio n t o ordinar y intrusions , expectations , o r constraints , w e
can imagin e he r desperatio n a t th e prospec t o f bein g a t Brack' s "bec k
and cal l from no w on" (ac t 4).
When Hedd a say s tha t sh e "won' t endure " th e thought o f no t bein g
free, Brac k "hal f mockingly " replies , "Peopl e manag e t o get used t o the
inevitable" (ac t 4). But since Brac k threaten s Hedda' s compulsiv e need s
for respectability , fo r power , an d fo r freedom , sh e canno t possibl y ge t
used to this situation .
To mak e matter s worse , Jorgen an d The a begi n reconstructin g Lov -
borg's manuscript , deprivin g Hedd a o f her triumph ove r The a an d put -
ting her even more int o Brack's hands. Like Hedda, The a ha s been tryin g
to liv e throug h Lovborg . H e acknowledge s he r a s th e co-creato r o f hi s
new book , an d she follows hi m to town partl y ou t of anxiety an d partl y
because sh e wants t o b e wit h hi m whe n i t i s published: " I wan t t o se e
you showere d wit h prais e an d honors—and , th e joy ! I wan t t o shar e
that with you too!" (act 3). When Ejler t announce s that he has destroyed
his manuscript an d will d o no more work , The a feel s sh e has nothing t o
live for. Her reaction t o the news o f Ejlert's deat h i s remarkable. Instea d
of bein g stupefied b y shock an d grief, sh e digs his notes out of the pocket
of he r dres s an d immediatel y begin s rewritin g th e boo k wit h Jorgen .
Ejlert ma y b e dead , bu t Thea' s searc h fo r glor y i s alive. Sh e has gotte n
from hi m wha t Hedd a neve r coul d an d i n th e proces s ha s thwarte d
Hedda's effor t t o gain a sense of power b y burning the manuscript .

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62 I A DOLL'S HOUSE AN D HEDDA GABLER

Thea's triump h i s al l th e mor e complet e becaus e sh e ha s no w begu n

to influenc e Jorgen , wh o say s h e wil l devot e hi s lif e t o rewritin g Ejlert' s
book. The a wil l mov e i n wit h Aun t Juliane , an d Jorge n wil l spen d hi s
evenings ther e workin g wit h he r o n th e project . Whe n Jorge n ask s
Brack t o kee p Hedd a compan y whil e h e i s away , Brac k readil y agrees ,
anticipating " a ver y joll y time " (ac t 4) . "That' s wha t yo u hope, " say s
Hedda fro m th e next room, "No w tha t you ar e cock-of-the-walk." The n
she shoots herself .
Hedda's suicid e i s a desperate ac t o f escape—from th e collapse o f he r
efforts t o fulfil l he r neuroti c need s fo r respectability , power , an d free -
dom, an d fro m th e unresolvabl e conflic t betwee n thes e need s tha t ha d
led he r t o tr y t o liv e vicariousl y throug h Ejler t Lovborg . Sh e i s fleeing
her self-hate , he r boredom , he r marriage , he r unwante d pregnancy , an d
the prospective burde n o f motherhood .
From Hedda' s perspective , he r suicid e i s als o a triumph , o f th e sor t
she thought ha d bee n accomplished b y Lovborg. Her respons e to Brack' s
initial repor t tha t Ejler t ha d sho t himsel f throug h th e hear t give s u s he r
view o f he r ow n act . "A t last, " sh e exclaims , " a dee d wort h doing! " " I
know tha t Ejler t Lovbor g ha d th e courag e t o liv e hi s lif e a s h e sa w it —
and t o en d i t i n beauty. " H e ha s "mad e u p hi s ow n accoun t wit h life "
and don e "th e on e righ t thing " (ac t 4) . Whe n Hedd a learn s th e trut h
about Lovborg' s death , sh e realizes that i f an ac t of "deliberat e courage "
and "spontaneou s beauty " i s t o b e performed , sh e mus t d o i t herself .
She has no t ha d th e courag e t o liv e her lif e a s she sa w it, but sh e escape s
her self-contemp t b y defying publi c opinion an d behavin g with darin g a t
last. Sh e woul d b e please d b y Brack' s commen t tha t "peopl e don' t do
such things." Sh e ends her lif e beautifully , b y her standard s a t least , wit h
a sho t i n th e temple . Sh e thwarts Judg e Brack , wh o ha d counte d o n he r
cowardice, and puncture s he r husband' s complacency . I n the las t fleeting
moment o f he r life , sh e actualize s a n idealize d imag e o f hersel f an d
becomes a person sh e can respect .
Ibsen ha s painte d a brillian t portrai t o f a neuroti c woman , a produc t
of he r restrictiv e society , wh o ca n escap e he r problem s an d attai n th e
glory for whic h sh e is searching onl y b y killing herself .

As w e ca n se e fro m th e precedin g discussions , althoug h character s ca n

be identifie d a s displayin g on e o r anothe r o f Horney' s defensiv e strate -
gies, the y ar e mixe d cases , no t t o b e though t o f simpl y i n term s o f on e

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 A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 6 3

personality type . Nor a Helme r i s strikingl y self-effacin g throug h muc h

of th e play , bu t whe n he r predominan t solutio n fails , he r aggressiv e an d
detached trend s emerge , revealing inner conflict s tha t hav e bee n there al l
along. Th e domineering , perfectionisti c Torval d ha s dependenc y need s
that mak e hi m clin g t o Nor a a t th e end . Conflictin g trend s ar e s o
evenly balance d i n Hedd a Gable r tha t i t i s difficul t t o sa y whic h i s he r
predominant solution . Sh e i s extremel y detached , bu t sh e i s als o ver y
compliant i n relation t o socia l conventions, an d ther e i s so much aggres -
sion i n Hedd a tha t sh e i s mos t commonl y though t o f a s manipulativ e
and domineering . Al l categorie s ar e reductive , o f course . Horney' s ar e
least s o when the y ar e use d no t t o classif y character s bu t t o revea l thei r
individuality an d inne r conflicts .
We ca n als o se e fro m ou r analyse s o f A Doll's House an d Hedda
Gabler tha t a Horneya n approac h enable s u s t o understan d motivatio n
and explai n behavio r eve n whe n w e hav e littl e o r n o knowledg e o f a
character's childhood . W e kno w mos t abou t Nora' s histor y becaus e o f
her reference s t o he r lif e wit h he r father . W e can utiliz e th e informatio n
she supplies , bu t w e ar e no t overl y dependen t upo n it , an d w e d o no t
have t o inflat e it s importance . W e kno w nothin g abou t Torvald' s earl y
life an d no t muc h abou t Hedda's . Hedda's problem s deriv e i n par t fro m
the restriction s tha t he r cultur e place s o n a woma n o f he r socia l class ,
but w e hav e almos t n o informatio n abou t he r earl y experience , an d w e
really cannot sa y why sh e responds to he r situatio n i n the particular wa y
that sh e does. Not al l women i n her positio n wer e drive n t o suc h sterile ,
destructive lives . Although w e kno w littl e abou t th e childhood s o f thes e
characters, thei r personalit y structure s ar e portraye d i n considerabl e
detail, an d wit h th e hel p o f Horney' s synchroni c theor y w e ca n analyz e
them psychologicall y withou t havin g to postulat e a history tha t i s not i n
the text .
A Horneya n approac h help s u s t o understan d no t onl y th e leadin g
characters o f thes e play s bu t als o th e relationship s o n whic h the y ar e
focused. Th e interactio n betwee n Nor a an d Torval d become s intelligibl e
only whe n w e se e ho w thei r defense s bot h harmoniz e an d clash . Th e
relationship betwee n Hedd a an d Ejler t i s a t th e cente r o f th e play , an d
we ca n appreciat e wh y Ejler t i s s o importan t t o Hedd a onl y whe n w e
recognize ho w sh e trie s t o us e hi m t o escap e he r inne r conflict s throug h
the vicarious fulfillmen t o f he r needs .

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