Chemistry 10th Edition by Chang PDF

10th EDITION
CHEMISTRY
Raymond Chang
Williams College
CHEMISTRY, TENTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Chang, Raymond.
Chemistry. — 10th ed. / Raymond Chang.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978–0–07–351109–2 — ISBN 0–07–351109–9 (hard copy : acid-free paper) 1. Chemistry—
Textbooks. I. Title.
QD31.3.C38 2010
540—dc22
2008033016 www.mhhe.com
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Raymond Chang was born in Hong Kong and grew up in

Shanghai and Hong Kong. He received his B.Sc. degree in chemistry
from London University, England, and his Ph.D. in chemistry from Yale
University. After doing postdoctoral research at Washington University
and teaching for a year at Hunter College of the City University of
New York, he joined the chemistry department at Williams College,
where he has taught since 1968.
Professor Chang has served on the American Chemical Society
Examination Committee, the National Chemistry Olympiad Examination
Committee, and the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) Committee.
He is an editor of The Chemical Educator. Professor Chang has written
books on physical chemistry, industrial chemistry, and physical science.
He has also coauthored books on the Chinese language, children’s pic
ture books, and a novel for young readers.
For relaxation, Professor Chang maintains a forest garden; plays ten
nis, Ping-Pong, and the harmonica; and practices the violin.
iii
iv Contents
1 Chemistry: The Study of Change 2

2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 40
3 Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions 78
4 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 120
5 Gases 172
6 Thermochemistry 228
7 Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms 274 8
Periodic Relationships Among the Elements 322
9 Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts 364
10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry and Hybridization of
Atomic Orbitals 408
11 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids 460
12 Physical Properties of Solutions 512
13 Chemical Kinetics 556
14 Chemical Equilibrium 614
15 Acids and Bases 658
16 Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria 712
17 Chemistry in the Atmosphere 768
18 Entropy, Free Energy, and Equilibrium 800
19 Electrochemistry 836
20 Metallurgy and the Chemistry of Metals 884
21 Nonmetallic Elements and Their Compounds 912
22 Transition Metals Chemistry and Coordination Compounds 952 23
Nuclear Chemistry 986
24 Organic Chemistry 1024
25 Synthetic and Natural Organic Polymers 1060
APPENDIX 1 Derivation of the Names of Elements A-1
APPENDIX 2 Units for the Gas Constant A-7
APPENDIX 3 Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C A-8
APPENDIX 4 Mathematical Operations A-13
iv
List of Applications xviii
List of Animations xx
Preface xxi
Tools for Success xxviii
A Note to the Student xxxii
Chemistry: The Study

of Change 2
1.1 Chemistry: A Science for the
Twenty-First Century 4
1.2 The
Study of
Chemistry 7
1.3 The
Scientifi c
Method 8
CHEMISTRY in Action
Primordial Helium and the Big Bang Theory 10
1.4 Classifi cations of Matter 10

1.5 The Three States of Matter 13
1.6 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter 14
1.7 Measurement 16
CHEMISTRY in Action
The Importance of Units 21
1.8 Handling Numbers 22

1.9 Dimensional Analysis in Solving Problems 27
Key Equations 31
Summary of Facts and Concepts 31
Key Words 31
Questions and Problems 32
CHEMICAL Mystery
The Disappearance of the Dinosaurs 38
Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions 40
2.1 The
Atomic
Theory 42
2.2 The
Structure of the
Atom 43
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number,
and Isotopes 49
2.4 The
Periodic Table 51
CHEMISTRY in Action
Distribution of Elements on Earth and in Living Systems 52
2.5 Molecules and Ions 53

2.6 Chemical Formulas 55
2.7 Naming Compounds 59
v
vi Contents
2.8 Introduction to Organic Compounds 68

Key Equation 70
Key Words 70
Mass
Relationships in
Chemical
Reactions 78
3.1 Atomic Mass 80
3.2 Avogadro’s Number and Molar
Mass of an Element 81
3.3 Molecular Mass 85
3.4 The
Mass
Spectrometer 88
3.5 Percent Composition of Compounds 88
3.6 Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas 92
3.7 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 94
3.8 Amounts of Reactants and Products 99
3.9 Limiting Reagents 103
3.10 Reaction Yield 106
CHEMISTRY in Action
Chemical Fertilizers 108
Key Equations 109
Key Words 109
Reactions in Aqueous
Solutions 120
4.1 General Properties of
Aqueous Solutions 122
4.2
Precipitation Reactions 124

CHEMISTRY in Action
An Undesirable Precipitation Reaction 129
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions 129

4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 135
CHEMISTRY in Action
Breathalyzer 146
4.5 Concentration of Solutions 147

4.6 Gravimetric Analysis 151
4.7 Acid-Base Titrations 153
4.8 Redox Titrations 156
CHEMISTRY in Action
Metal from the Sea 158
Key Equations 159
Contents vii
Key Words 160

CHEMICAL Mystery
Who Killed Napoleon? 170
Gases 172
5.1 Substances That
Exist as Gases 174
5.2
Pressure
of a Gas
175
5.3
The
Gas
Laws 179
5.4 The Ideal Gas Equation 185
5.5 Gas Stoichiometry 194
5.6 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 196
CHEMISTRY in Action
Scuba Diving and the Gas Laws 202
5.7 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 201

CHEMISTRY in Action
Super Cold Atoms 210
5.8 Deviation from Ideal Behavior 211

Key Equations 214
Key Words 215
CHEMICAL Mystery
Out of Oxygen 226
Thermochemistry 228
6.1 The Nature of Energy and Types of Energy 230
6.2 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions 231
6.3 Introduction to Thermodynamics 233
CHEMISTRY in Action
Making Snow and Infl ating a Bicycle Tire 239
6.4 Enthalpy of Chemical Reactions 239

6.5 Calorimetry 245
CHEMISTRY in Action
Fuel Values of Foods and Other Substances 251
6.6 Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction 252

CHEMISTRY in Action
How a Bombardier Beetle Defends Itself 257
6.7 Heat of Solution and Dilution 258

Key Equations 261
viii Contents
Key Words 262
CHEMICAL Mystery
The Exploding Tire 272
Quantum
Theory and
the
Electronic Structure
of Atoms 274
7.1 From Classical Physics to
Quantum Theory 276
7.2 The
Photoelectric Effect 280
7.3 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 282
CHEMISTRY in Action
Laser—The Splendid Light 288
7.4 The Dual Nature of the Electron 288

CHEMISTRY in Action
Electron Microscopy 292
7.5 Quantum Mechanics 293

7.6 Quantum Numbers 294
7.7 Atomic Orbitals 297
7.8 Electron Confi guration 300
7.9 The Building-Up Principle 307
Key Equations 311
Key Words 312
CHEMICAL Mystery
Discovery of Helium and the Rise and Fall of Coronium 320
Periodic
Relationships
Among the Elements 322
8.1 Development of the Periodic Table 324
8.2 Periodic Classifi cation of the Elements 326
8.3 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties 330
CHEMISTRY in Action
The Third Liquid Element? 337
8.4 Ionization Energy 337

8.5 Electron Affi nity 341
8.6 Variation in Chemical Properties of the Representative
Elements 344
CHEMISTRY in Action
Discovery of the Noble Gases 355
Contents ix
Key Equation 356

Key Words 356
Chemical Bonding I: Basic

Concepts 364
9.1 Lewis
Dot
Symbols
366
9.2
The
Ionic
Bond
367
9.3 Lattice Energy of Ionic
Compounds 369
CHEMISTRY in Action
Sodium Chloride—A Common and Important Ionic Compound 373
9.4 The Covalent Bond 374

9.5 Electronegativity 377
9.6 Writing Lewis Structures 380
9.7 Formal Charge and Lewis Structure 383
9.8 The Concept of Resonance 386
9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 389
CHEMISTRY in Action
Just Say NO 393
9.10 Bond Enthalpy 394

Key Equation 399
Key Words 399
Chemical Bonding II: Molecular
Geometry and Hybridization of
Atomic Orbitals 408
10.1
Molecular
Geometry
410
10.2
Dipole
Moment 420
CHEMISTRY in Action
Microwave Ovens—Dipole Moments at Work 424
10.3 Valance Bond Theory 424

10.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 428
10.5 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Double and Triple Bonds 437
10.6 Molecular Orbital Theory 440
10.7 Molecular Orbital Confi gurations 443
10.8 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals 448
CHEMISTRY in Action
Buckyball, Anyone? 450
Key Equations 452
Key Words 453
x Contents
Intermolecular
Forces and Liquids
and Solids 460
11.1 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of
Liquids and Solids 462
11.2
Intermolecular Forces 463

11.3 Properties of Liquids 469
CHEMISTRY in Action
Why Do Lakes Freeze from the Top Down? 473
11.4 Crystal Structure 472

11.5 X-Ray Diffraction by Crystals 480
11.6 Types of Crystals 482
CHEMISTRY in Action
High-Temperature Superconductors 486
11.7 Amorphous Solids 486

CHEMISTRY in Action
And All for Want of a Button 488
11.8 Phase Changes 489

11.9 Phase Diagrams 498
CHEMISTRY in Action
Hard-Boiling an Egg on a Mountaintop, Pressure Cookers,
and Ice Skating 500
CHEMISTRY in Action
Liquid Crystals 501
Key Equations 503
Key Words 504
Physical Properties of
Solutions 512
12.1
Types
of
Solutions 514
12.2 A Molecular View of the Solution Process 515
12.3 Concentration Units 517
12.4 The Effect of Temperature on Solubility 521
12.5 The Effect of Pressure on the Solubility of Gases 524
CHEMISTRY in Action
The Killer Lake 526
12.6 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions 526

12.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 539
CHEMISTRY in Action
Desalination 541
Contents xi
12.8 Colloids 541

Key Equations 545
Key Words 545
CHEMICAL Mystery
The Wrong Knife 554
Chemical
Kinetics
556
13.1 The Rate
of a Reaction
558
13.2
The
Rate
Law
565
13.3 The Relation Between Reactant Concentration and Time 569
CHEMISTRY in Action
Determining the Age of the Shroud of Turin 580
13.4 Activation Energy and Temperature Dependence of Rate Constants 582

13.5 Reaction Mechanisms 588
CHEMISTRY in Action
Femtochemistry 593
13.6 Catalysis 594

Key Equations 601
Key Words 602
Chemical
Equilibrium
614
14.1 The Concept of Equilibrium and the
Equilibrium Constant 616 14.2 Writing
Equilibrium Constant Expressions 618
14.3 The Relationship Between Chemical
Kinetics and Chemical Equilibrium 630
14.4 What Does the Equilibrium
Constant Tell Us? 632
14.5 Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium 638
CHEMISTRY in Action
Life at High Altitudes and Hemoglobin Production 645
CHEMISTRY in Action
The Haber Process 646
Key Equations 646
Key Words 647
xii Contents
Acids
and
Bases
658
15.1
Brønsted
Acids and
Bases 660
15.2 The Acid-Base
Properties of Water
661
15.3 pH—A Measure of Acidity 663
15.4 Strength of Acids and Bases 666
15.5 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constants 670
15.6 Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constants 678
15.7 The Relationship Between the Ionization Constants of Acids and Their
Conjugate Bases 680
15.8 Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids 681
15.9 Molecular Structure and the Strength of Acids 685
15.10 Acid-Base Properties of Salts 689
15.11 Acid-Base Properties of Oxides and Hydroxides 695
15.12 Lewis Acids and Bases 697
CHEMISTRY in Action
Antacids and the pH Balance in Your Stomach 698
Key Equations 701
Key Words 702
CHEMICAL Mystery
Decaying Papers 710
Acid-Base Equilibria
and Solubility
Equilibria 712
16.1 Homogeneous versus Heterogeneous
Solution Equilibria 714
16.2 The
Common
Ion Effect
714
16.3 Buffer Solutions 717
CHEMISTRY in Action
Maintaining the pH of Blood 724
16.4 Acid-Base Titrations 723

16.5 Acid-Base Indicators 732
16.6 Solubility Equilibria 735
16.7 Separation of Ions by Fractional Precipitation 742
16.8 The Common Ion Effect and Solubility 744
16.9 pH and Solubility 746
16.10 Complex Ion Equilibria and Solubility 749
CHEMISTRY in Action
How an Eggshell Is Formed 753
Contents xiii
16.11 Application of the Solubility Product Principle to

Qualitative Analysis 754
Key Equation 756
Key Words 757
CHEMICAL Mystery
A Hard-Boiled Snack 766
Chemistry in the
Atmosphere 768
17.1
Earth’s
Atmosphere
770
17.2 Phenomena in the Outer Layers of the
Atmosphere 773 17.3 Depletion of Ozone
in the Stratosphere 775
17.4 Volcanoes 780

17.5 The Greenhouse Effect 781
17.6 Acid Rain 785
17.7 Photochemical Smog 789
17.8 Indoor Pollution 791
Key Words 794
Entropy, Free Energy, and

Equilibrium 800
18.1 The Three Laws of
Thermodynamics 802
18.2
Spontaneous
Processes 802
18.3 Entropy 803
18.4 The Second Law of
Thermodynamics 808
CHEMISTRY in Action
The Effi ciency of Heat Engines 814
18.5 Gibbs Free Energy 814

18.6 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium 821
CHEMISTRY in Action
The Thermodynamics of a Rubber Band 826
18.7 Thermodynamics in Living Systems 825

Key Equations 828
Key Words 828
xiv Contents
Electrochemistry 836
19.1 Redox Reactions 838
19.2 Galvanic Cells 841
19.3 Standard Reduction Potentials 843
19.4 Thermodynamics of Redox Reactions 849
19.5 The Effect of Concentration of Cell Emf 852
19.6 Batteries 857
CHEMISTRY in Action
Bacteria Power 861
19.7 Corrosion 862

19.8 Electrolysis 866
CHEMISTRY in Action
Dental Filling Discomfort 871
Key Equations 872
Key Words 873
CHEMICAL Mystery
Tainted Water 882
Metallurgy and the Chemistry

of Metals 884
20.1 Occurrence of Metals 886
20.2 Metallurgical Processes 886
20.3 Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity 894
20.4 Periodic Trends in Metallic Properties 896
20.5 The Alkali Metals 897
20.6 The Alkaline Earth Metals 901
20.7 Aluminum 903
CHEMISTRY in Action
Recycling Aluminum 906
Key Words 907
Contents xv
Nonmetallic
Elements and Their
Compounds 912
21.1 General Properties of Nonmetals 914
21.2 Hydrogen 914
CHEMISTRY in Action
Metallic Hydrogen 919
21.3 Carbon 920

CHEMISTRY in Action
Synthetic Gas from Coal 923
21.4 Nitrogen and Phosphorus 924

CHEMISTRY in Action
Ammonium Nitrate—The Explosive Fertilizer 931
21.5 Oxygen and Sulfur 932

21.6 The Halogens 939
Key Words 946
Transition Metals Chemistry and

Coordination Compounds 952
22.1 Properties of the Transition Metals 954
22.2 Chemistry of Iron and Copper 957
22.3 Coordination Compounds 959
22.4 Structure of Coordination Compounds 964
22.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Crystal Field Theory 967
22.6 Reactions of Coordination Compounds 973
22.7 Applications of Coordination Compounds 974
CHEMISTRY in Action
Coordination Compounds in Living Systems 976
CHEMISTRY in Action
Cisplatin—The Anticancer Drug 978
Key Equation 976
Key Words 978
CHEMICAL Mystery
Dating Paintings with Prussian Blue 984
xvi Contents
Nuclear
Chemistry 986
23.1 The Nature of Nuclear Reactions 988
23.2 Nuclear Stability 990
23.3 Natural Radioactivity 995
23.4 Nuclear Transmutation 999
23.5 Nuclear Fission 1001
CHEMISTRY in Action
Nature’s Own Fission Reactor 1006
23.6 Nuclear Fusion 1007

23.7 Uses of Isotopes 1010
23.8 Biological Effects of Radiation 1012
CHEMISTRY in Action
Food Irradiation 1014
CHEMISTRY in Action
Boron Neutron Capture Therapy 1015
Key Equations 1015
Key Words 1016
CHEMICAL Mystery
The Art Forgery of the Twentieth Century 1022
Organic
Chemistry
1024
24.1 Classes of
Organic
Compounds 1026
24.2
Aliphatic
Hydrocarbons 1026
CHEMISTRY in Action
Ice That Burns 1038
24.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1039

24.4 Chemistry of the Functional Groups 1042
CHEMISTRY in Action
The Petroleum Industry 1048
Key Words 1051
CHEMICAL Mystery
The Disappearing Fingerprints 1058
Contents xvii
Synthetic and
Natural Organic
Polymers 1069
25.1 Properties of Polymers 1062
25.2 Synthetic Organic Polymers 1062
25.3 Proteins 1067
CHEMISTRY in Action
Sickle Cell Anemia—A Molecular Disease 1074
25.4 Nucleic Acids 1076
CHEMISTRY in Action
DNA Fingerprinting 1079
Key Words 1080
CHEMICAL Mystery
A Story That Will Curl Your Hair 1084
APPENDIX 1 Derivation of the Names of Elements A-1

APPENDIX 2 Units for the Gas Constant A-7
APPENDIX 3 Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C A-8
APPENDIX 4 Mathematical Operations A-13
Glossary G-1
Answers to Even-Numbered Problems AP-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1
The opening sentence of this text is, “Chemistry is an active, evolving science that
has vital importance to our world, in both the realm of nature and the realm of soci
ety.” Throughout the text, Chemistry in Action and Chemical Mysteries give specifi c
examples of chemistry as active and evolving in all facets of our lives.
CHEMISTRY in Action
Primordial Helium and the Big Bang Theory 10
The Importance of Units 21
Distribution of Elements on Earth and in Living Systems 52
Chemical Fertilizers 108
An Undesirable Precipitation Reaction 129
Breathalyzer 146
Metal from the Sea 158
Scuba Diving and the Gas Laws 202
Super Cold Atoms 210
Making Snow and Infl ating a Bicycle Tire 239
Fuel Values of Foods and Other Substances 251
How a Bombardier Beetle Defends Itself 257
Laser—The Splendid Light 288
Electron Microscopy 292
The Third Liquid Element? 337
Discovery of the Noble Gases 355
Sodium Chloride—A Common and Important Ionic Compound 373
Just Say NO 393
Microwave Ovens—Dipole Moments at Work 424
Buckyball, Anyone? 450
Why Do Lakes Freeze from the Top Down? 473
High-Temperature Superconductors 486
And All for the Want of a Button 488
Hard-Boiling an Egg on a Mountaintop, Pressure Cookers, and Ice Skating 500
Liquid Crystals 501
The Killer Lake 526
Desalination 541
Determining the Age of the Shroud of Turin 580
Femtochemistry 593
Life at High Altitudes and Hemoglobin Production 645
The Haber Process 646
Antacids and the pH Balance in Your Stomach 698
xviii
List of Applications xix
Maintaining the pH of Blood 724

How an Eggshell Is Formed 753
The Effi ciency of Heat Engines 814
The Thermodynamics of a Rubber Band 826
Bacteria Power 861
Dental Filling Discomfort 871
Recycling Aluminum 906
Metallic Hydrogen 919
Synthetic Gas from Coal 923
Ammonium Nitrate—The Explosive Fertilizer 931
Coordination Compounds in Living Systems 976
Cisplatin—The Anticancer Drug 978
Nature’s Own Fission Reactor 1006
Food Irradiation 1014
Boron Neutron Capture Therapy 1015
Ice That Burns 1038
The Petroleum Industry 1048
Sickle Cell Anemia—A Molecular Disease 1075
DNA Fingerprinting 1079
CHEMICAL Mysteries
The Disappearance of the Dinosaurs 38
Who Killed Napoleon? 170
Out of Oxygen 226
The Exploding Tire 272
Discovery of Helium and the Rise and Fall of Coronium 320
The Wrong Knife 554
Decaying Papers 710
A Hard-Boiled Snack 766
Tainted Water 882
Dating Paintings with Prussian Blue 984
The Art Forgery of the Twentieth Century 1021
The Disappearing Fingerprints 1058
A Story That Will Curl Your Hair 1084
The animations below are correlated to Activity found in the open
Chemistry within each chapter in two ing pages of every chapter. Then within the chapter
ways. The fi rst is the Student Interactive are icons letting the student and instructor know that
an ani mation is available for a specifi c topic. Equilibrium vapor pressure (11.8) Galvanic cells
Animations can be found online in the Chang ARIS (19.2)
website. The gas laws (5.3)
Heat fl ow (6.2)
Chang Animations Hybridization (10.4)
Hydration (4.1)
(Chapter/Section) Ionic vs. covalent bonding (9.4)
Absorption of color (22.5) Le Châtelier’s principle (14.5)
Acid-base titrations (16.4) Limiting reagent (3.9)
Acid ionization (15.5) Making a solution (4.5)
Activation energy (13.4) Millikan oil drop (2.2)
Alpha, beta, and gamma rays (2.2) Nuclear fi ssion (23.5)
Alpha-particle scattering (2.2) Neutralization reactions (4.3)
Aluminum production (20.7) Orientation of collisions (13.4)
Atomic and ionic radius (8.3) Osmosis (12.6)
Base ionization (15.6) Oxidation-reduction reactions (4.4) Packing spheres
Buffer solutions (16.3) (11.4)
Catalysis (13.6) Polarity of molecules (10.2)
Cathode ray tube (2.2) Precipitation reactions (4.2)
Chemical equilibrium (14.1) Preparing a solution by dilution (4.5) Radioactive
Chirality (22.4 & 24.2) decay (23.3)
Collecting a gas over water (5.6) Resonance (9.8)
Diffusion of gases (5.7) Sigma and pi bonds (10.5)
Dissolution of an ionic and a covalent compound Strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes, and
(12.2) Electron confi gurations (7.8) nonelectrolytes (4.1)
Emission spectra (7.3) VSEPR (10.1)
xx
illustrate basic principles with everyday examples
F rom the fi rst edition, my aim has been to write a
general chemistry text that provides a fi rm foun

whenever possible.
In this tenth edition, as in previous editions, my goal is
to create a text that is clear in explaining abstract con
cepts, concise so that it does not overburden students
with unnecessary extraneous information, yet
dation in chemical concepts and principles and to instill comprehensive enough so that it prepares students to
in students an appreciation of the vital part chem istry move on to the next level of learning. The encouraging
plays in our daily life. It is the responsibility of the feedback I have re ceived from instructors and students
textbook author to assist both instructors and their stu has convinced me that this approach is effective.
dents in their pursuit of this objective by presenting a
broad range of topics in a logical manner. I have tried to
strike a balance between theory and application and to What’s New in This Edition?
— Revised the discussion of entropy in Chapter 18. —
• NEW to the chapters is Review of Concepts. This is a Added a new Chemistry in Action (Boron Neutron
quick knowledge test for the student to gauge his or Capture Therapy) in Chapter 23.
her understanding of the concept just presented. The
answers to the Review of Concepts are available in
the Student Solutions Manual and on the companion Problem Solving
ARIS (Assessment, Review, and Instruction System)
The development of problem-solving skills has always
website.
been a major objective of this text. The two major catego
• NEW are powerful connections to electronic home ries of learning are the worked examples and end of chap
work. All of the practice exercises for the Worked ter problems. Many of them present extra tidbits of
Examples in all chapters are now found within the knowledge and enable the student to solve a chemical
ARIS (Assessment, Review, and Instruction System) problem that a chemist would solve. The examples and
electronic homework system. Each end-of-chapter problems show students the real world of chemistry and
problem in ARIS is noted in the Electronic Home applications to everyday life situations.
work Problem section.
• Worked examples follow a proven step-by-step
• Many NEW end-of-chapter problems with graphical strategy and solution.
representation of molecules have been added to test
the conceptual comprehension and critical thinking — Problem statement is the reporting of the facts
needed to solve the problem based on the
skills of the student. The more challenging problems
question posed.
are listed under the Special Problems section.
— Strategy is a carefully thought-out plan or method to
• NEW computer-generated molecular orbital diagrams serve as an important function of learning. — Solution
are presented in Chapter 10. is the process of solving a problem given in a stepwise
manner.
• Many sections have been revised and updated based — Check enables the student to compare and verify
on the comments from reviewers and users. Some with the source information to make sure the an
examples include: swer is reasonable.
— Revised the treatment of Amounts of Reactants and — Practice Exercise provides the opportunity to solve
Products in Chapter 3. a similar problem in order to become profi cient in this
— Revised the explanation of thermochemical equa problem type. The Practice Exercises are avail able in the
tions in Chapter 6. ARIS electronic homework system. The marginal note
— Expanded coverage on effective nuclear charge in lists additional similar problems to work in the
Chapter 8. end-of-chapter problem section.
— Revised the treatment of orientation factor in
Chapter 13.
xxi
xxii Preface Electrostatic potential maps illustrate the elec tron
density distribution in molecules. Finally, there is the
macroscopic-to-microscopic art, helping stu dents
• End-of-Chapter problems are organized in various understand processes at the molecular level.
ways. Each section under a topic heading begins • Photos are used to help students become familiar with
with Review Questions followed by Problems. The chemicals and understand how chemical reac tions
Additional Problems section provides more appear in reality.
problems not organized by sections. Finally, the
• Figures of apparatus enable the student to visualize
Special Problems section contains more challeng ing
the practical arrangement in a chemistry laboratory.
problems.
Visualization Study Aids

Setting the Stage
• Graphs and Flow Charts are important in science. In
On the two-page opening spread for each chapter the
Chemistry, flow charts show the thought process of chapter outline, Student Interactive Activity, and A Look
a concept and graphs present data to comprehend Ahead appear.
the concept.
• Chapter Outline enables the student to see at a glance
• Molecular art appears in various formats to serve the big picture and focus on the main ideas of the
different needs. Molecular models help to visualize the chapter.
three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a mol ecule.
• Student Interactive Activity shows where the elec
tronic media are used in the chapter. A list of the • End-of-Chapter Problems enable the student to
animations, media player material, and questions in practice critical thinking and problem-solving skills. The
ARIS homework, as well as the questions with ac problems are broken into various types:
cess to an electronic tutorial is given. Within the
— By chapter section. Starting with Review Ques tions
chapter, icons are used to refer to the items shown in
to test basic conceptual understanding, fol lowed
the Student Interactive Activity list.
by Problems to test the student’s skill in solving
• A Look Ahead provides the student with an overview problems for that particular section of the chapter.
of concepts that will be presented in the chapter. — Additional Problems uses knowledge gained from
the various sections and/or previous chapters to
Tools to Use for Studying solve the problem.
Useful aids for studying are plentiful in Chemistry and — The Special Problem section contains more challeng
should be used constantly to reinforce the comprehension ing problems that are suitable for group projects.
of chemical concepts.
Real-Life Relevance
• Marginal Notes are used to provide hints and feed
Interesting examples of how chemistry applies to life are
back to enhance the knowledge base for the student. •
used throughout the text. Analogies are used where ap
Worked Examples along with the accompanying propriate to help foster understanding of abstract chemi
Practice Exercise is a very important tool for learn cal concepts.
ing and mastering chemistry. The problem-solving
• End-of-Chapter Problems pose many relevant
steps guide the student through the critical thinking
questions for the student to solve. Examples include:
necessary for succeeding in chemistry. Using
Why do swimming coaches sometimes place a drop
sketches helps student understand the inner
of alcohol in a swimmer’s ear to draw out water?
workings of a problem. (See Example 6.1 on page
How does one estimate the pressure in a carbonated
237.) A margin note lists similar problems in the
soft drink bottle before removing the cap?
end-of-chapter problems section, enabling the
student to apply new skill to other problems of the • Chemistry in Action boxes appear in every chapter
same type. Answers to the Practice Exercises are on a variety of topics, each with its own story of how
listed at the end of the chapter problems. chemistry can affect a part of life. The student can
learn about the science of scuba diving and nuclear
• Review of Concepts enables the student to evaluate
medicine, among many other interesting cases.
whether they understand the concept presented in the
section. Answers to the Review of Concepts can be • Chemical Mystery poses a mystery case to the stu
found in the Student Solution Manual and online in dent. A series of chemical questions provide clues as
the accompanying ARIS companion website. to how the mystery could possibly be solved. Chem
ical Mystery will foster a high level of critical think
• Key Equations are highlighted within the chapter,
ing using the basic problem-solving steps built-up
drawing the student’s eye to material that needs to be
throughout the text.
understood and retained. The key equations are also
presented in the chapter summary materials for easy
access in review and study.
Instructor’s Resources
• Summary of Facts and Concepts provides a quick ARIS (Assessment, Review, and
review of concepts presented and discussed in detail Instruction System)
within the chapter.
The Assessment, Review, and Instruction System, also
• Key Words are a list of all important terms to help the known as ARIS, is an electronic homework and course
student understand the language of chemistry. management system designed for greater fl exibility,
power, and ease of use than any other system. Whether
you are looking for a preplanned course or one you can
Testing Your Knowledge customize to fi t your course needs, ARIS is your
• Review of Concepts lets the student pause and test solution.
his/her understanding of the concept presented and In addition to having access to all student digital learn
discussed in the section. Answers to the Review of ing objects, ARIS enables instructors to build
Concepts can be found in the Student Solution Man assignments and track student progress, and provides
ual and online in the accompanying ARIS compan more fl exibility.
ion website.
Build Assignments
• Choose from prebuilt assignments or create your own keyword. Simply browse, select, and download the fi les
custom content by importing your own content or you need to build engaging course materials. All assets
editing an existing assignment from the prebuilt are copyrighted by McGraw-Hill Higher Education but
assignment. can be used by instructors for classroom purposes.
Instructors: To access ARIS, request registration infor
• Assignments can include quiz questions, animations, mation from your McGraw-Hill sales representative.
and videos—anything found on the website. • Create
announcements and utilize full course or indi vidual Presentation Center
student communication tools.
Accessed from your textbook’s ARIS website, Presenta
• Assign questions developed following the problem tion Center is an online digital library containing
solving strategy used within the textual material, en photos, artwork, animations, and other media types that
abling students to continue the learning process from can be used to create customized lectures, visually
the text into their homework assignments in a struc enhanced tests and quizzes, compelling course websites,
tured manner. or attractive
Preface xxiii xxiv Preface
• Assign algorithmic questions providing students with printed support materials. All assets are copyrighted by
multiple chances to practice and gain skill at McGraw-Hill Higher Education, but can be used by in
problem solving on the same concept. structors for classroom purposes. The visual resources in
this collection include:
Track Student Progress
• Art Full-color digital fi les of all illustrations in the
• Assignments are automatically graded. book can be readily incorporated into lecture presen
• Gradebook functionality enables full course manage tations, exams, or custom-made classroom materials.
ment including: In addition, all fi les are preinserted into PowerPoint
— Dropping the lowest grades slides for ease of lecture preparation.
— Weighting grades/manually adjusting grades — • Photos The photos collection contains digital fi les of
Exporting your gradebook to Excel, WebCT, or photographs from the text, which can be repro duced
BlackBoard for multiple classroom uses.
— Manipulating data, enabling you to track student • Tables Every table that appears in the text has been
progress through multiple reports saved in electronic form for use in classroom presen
tations and/or quizzes.
Offers More Flexibility
• Animations Numerous full-color animations illus
• Sharing Course Materials with Colleagues— trating important processes are also provided. Har
Instructors can create and share course materials and ness the visual impact of concepts in motion by
assignments with colleagues with a few clicks of the importing these fi les into classroom presentations or
mouse, allowing for multiple section courses with online course materials.
many instructors (and TAs) to continually be in sync
• Media Player The chapter summary and many
if desired.
animations can be downloaded to a media player for
• Integration with BlackBoard or WebCT—once a ease of study on the go.
student is registered in the course, all student activity
within McGraw-Hill’s ARIS is automatically re Also residing on your textbook’s ARIS website are •
corded and available to the instructor through a fully PowerPoint Lecture Outlines Ready-made pre
integrated grade book that can be downloaded to sentations that combine art and lecture notes are pro
Excel, WebCT, or BlackBoard. vided for each chapter of the text.
Access to your book, access to all books! The Presen • PowerPoint Slides For instructors who prefer to
tation Center library includes thousands of assets from create their lectures from scratch, all illustrations,
many McGraw-Hill titles. This ever-growing resource photos, and tables are preinserted by chapter into
gives instructors the power to utilize assets specifi c to an blank PowerPoint slides.
adopted textbook as well as content from all other books
in the library. Computerized Test Bank Online
Nothing could be easier! Accessed from the instruc tor
A comprehensive bank of test questions, revised by Ken
side of your textbook’s ARIS website, Presentation
Goldsby (Florida State University), is provided within a
Center’s dynamic search engine enables you to explore
computerized test bank enabling you to create paper and
by discipline, course, textbook chapter, asset type, or
online tests or quizzes in this easy-to-use program.
Imagine being able to create and access your test or quiz information they need. And they will save money. Con
anywhere, at any time. tact your McGraw-Hill sales representative to discuss
Instructors can create or edit questions, and drag-and E-book packaging options.
drop questions to create tests quickly and easily. The test
can be published automatically online to your course and Primis LabBase
course management system, or you can print them for
The Primis LabBase is by Joseph Lagowski (the Univer
paper-based tests.
sity of Texas at Austin). More than 40 general chemistry
The test bank contains over 2000 multiple-choice and
experiments are available in this database collection of
short-answer questions. The questions, which are graded
in diffi culty, are comparable to the problems in the text.
general lab experiments from the Journal of Chemical

Education and experiments used by Professor Lagowski
Instructor’s Solution Manual at the University of Texas at Austin, enabling instructors
The Instructor’s Solution Manual is written by Brandon to customize their lab manuals.
J. Cruickshank (Northern Arizona University) and
Raymond Chang. The solutions to all of the
end-of-chapter prob lems are given in the manual. The Cooperative Chemistry Laboratory Manual
manual also provides the diffi culty level and category This innovative guide by Melanie Cooper (Clemson Uni
type for each problem. versity) features open-ended problems designed to simu
This manual is online in the text’s ARIS website. The late experience in a research lab. Working in groups,
Instructor’s Manual provides a brief summary of the students investigate one problem over a period of several
contents of each chapter, along with the learning goals, weeks, so that they might complete three or four projects
reference to background concepts in earlier chap ters, and during the semester, rather than one preprogrammed ex
teaching tips. This manual is online in the text’s ARIS periment per class. The emphasis is on experimental
website. design, analysis problem solving, and communication.
Content Delivery Flexibility

Chemistry by Raymond Chang is available in many for
Student Resources
mats in addition to the traditional textbook to give in Designed to help students maximize their learning expe
structors and students more choices when deciding on rience in chemistry—we offer the following options to
the format of their chemistry text. Choices include: students:
Color Custom by Chapter

ARIS
For even more fl exibility, we offer the Chang Chemistry
text in a full-color, custom version that enables instruc ARIS (Assessment, Review, and Instruction System) is
tors to pick the chapters they want. Students pay for only an electronic study system that offers students a digital
what the instructor chooses. portal of knowledge.
Students can readily access a variety of digital learn
ing objects that include:
Electronic Book
• chapter-level quizzing
If you or your students are ready for an alternative ver
sion of the traditional textbook, McGraw-Hill can pro • animations
vide you innovative and inexpensive electronic • interactives
textbooks. By purchasing E-books from McGraw-Hill, • Media Player downloads of selected content
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E-books from McGraw-Hill are smart, interactive, Intelligent Tutors
searchable, and portable. There is a powerful suite of Intelligent Tutors, powered by Quantum Tutors, provides
built-in tools that enable detailed searching, highlight ing, real-time personal tutoring help for struggling and ad
note taking, and student-to-student or instructor vanced students with step-by-step feedback and detailed
to-student note sharing. In addition, the media-rich instruction based on the student’s own work. Immediate
E-book for Chemistry integrates relevant animations and answers are provided to the student over the Internet, day
videos into the textbook content for a true multi media or night, on topics including chemical reactions,
learning experience. E-books from McGraw-Hill will chemical bonding, equation balancing, equilibrium,
help students study smarter and quickly fi nd the oxidation numbers, stoichiometry, and more. Intelligent
Tutors can be accessed through the ARIS book site. Blaha Columbus State Community College Mary
Jo Bojan Pennsylvania State University Steve
Student Solutions Manual Boone Central Missouri State University Timothy
The Student Solutions Manual is written by Brandon J. Brewer Eastern Michigan University Michelle M.
Cruickshank (Northern Arizona University) and Brooks College of Charleston Philip Brucat
Raymond University of Florida
Preface xxv xxvi Preface
Chang. This supplement contains detailed solutions and John D. Bugay Kilgore College
ex planations for all even-numbered problems in the main Maureen Burkhart Georgia Perimeter College
text. The manual also includes a detailed discussion of
different types of problems and approaches to solving William Burns Arkansas State University
chemical prob lems and tutorial solutions for many of the Stuart Burris Western Kentucky University Les
end-of-chapter problems in the text, along with strategies Butler Louisiana State University
for solving them. Bindu Chakravarty Houston Community College
Liwei Chen Ohio University
Student Study Guide Tom Clausen University of Alaska–Fairbanks
This valuable ancillary by Kim Woodrum (University of Allen Clabo Francis Marion University
Kentucky) contains material to help the student practice Barbara Cole University of Maine
problem-solving skills. For each section of a chapter, the W. Lin Coker III Campbell University
author provides study objectives and a summary of the
Darwin Dahl Western Kentucky University
corresponding text. Following the summary are sample
problems with detailed solutions. Each chapter has true Erin Dahlke Loras College
false questions and a self-test, with all answers provided Gary DeBoer LeTourneau University
at the end of the chapter. Dawn De Carlo University of Northern Iowa Richard
Deming California State University–Fullerton Gregg
Schaum’s Outline of College Chemistry This Dieckman University of Texas at Dallas Michael
helpful study aid by Jerome Rosenberg (Michigan State Doughty Southeastern Louisiana University Bill
University) and Lawrence Epstein (University of Durham University of Arkansas
Pittsburgh) provides students with hundreds of solved David Easter Texas State University–San Marcos
and supplementary problems for the general chemistry Deborah Exton University of Oregon
course.
David Frank California State University–Fresno
John Gelder Oklahoma State University
Leanna C. Giancarlo University of Mary Washington
Acknowledgements
Kenneth Goldsby Florida State University Eric Goll
I would like to thank the following reviewers and sympo Brookdale Community College
sium participants whose comments were of great help to
John Gorden Auburn University
me in preparing this revision:
Todor Gounev University of Missouri–Kansas City
Michael Abraham University of Oklahoma Michael
Thomas Gray University of Wisconsin–Whitewater
Adams Xavier University of Louisiana Elizabeth
Alberto Haces Florida Atlantic University Michael
Aerndt Community College of Rhode Island Francois
Hailu Columbus State Community College Randall
Amar University of Maine
Hall Louisiana State University
Taweechai Amornsakchai, Mahidol University Dale E.
Ewan Hamilton Ohio State University at Lima
Arrington Colorado School of Mines Mufeed M. Basti
Gerald Handschuh Kilgore College
North Carolina A&T State University Laurance
Michael A. Hauser St. Louis Community College
Beauvais San Diego State University Vladimir Benin
Daniel Lee Heglund South Dakota School of Mines
University of Dayton
Brad Herrick Colorado School of Mines
Miriam Bennett San Diego State University
Huey Hoon HNG, Nanyang Technological University
Christine V. Bilicki Pasadena City College John J.
Byron E. Howell Tyler Junior College
Lee Kim Hun, NUS High School of Math and Science William Quintana New Mexico State University
Tara Hurt East Mississippi Community College Edward Quitevis Texas Tech University
Wendy Innis-Whitehouse University of Texas at Pan
American
Jeff Rack Ohio University

Lisa Reece Ozarks Technical Community College
Jongho Jun, Konkuk University Michelle Richards-Babb West Virginia University
Jeffrey Keaffaber University of Florida Jim D. Roach Emporia State University
Michael Keck Emporia State University Rojrit Rojanathanes, Chulalongkorn University
MyungHoon Kim Georgia Perimeter College Steve Rowley Middlesex County College Kresimir
Jesudoss Kingston Iowa State University Rupnik Louisiana State University Somnath
Pamela Kraemer Northern Virginia Community College Sarkar Central Missouri State University Jerry
Bette A. Kreuz University of Michigan–Dearborn Jothi Sarquis Miami University
V. Kumar North Carolina A&T State University Joseph Susan Scheble Metropolitan State College of Denver
Kushick Amherst College Raymond Scott University of Mary Washington
Richard H. Langley Stephen F. Austin State University Thomas Selegue Pima Community College Sheila R.
William Lavell Camden County College Smith University of Michigan–Dearborn David
Daniel B. Lawson University of Michigan–Dearborn Speckhard Loras College
Young Sik Lee, Kyung Hee University Rick Spinney Ohio State University
Clifford LeMaster Ball State University David Son Southern Methodist University
Neocles Leontis Bowling Green State University Alan Larry O. Spreer University of the Pacifi c
F. Lindmark Indiana University Northwest Teh Yun Shane Street University of Alabama
Ling, NUS High School of Maths and Science Arthur Satoshi Takara University of Hawaii
Low Tarleton State University Kimberly Trick University of Dayton
Jeanette Madea Broward Community College Bridget Trogden Mercer University
Steve Malinak Washington Jefferson College Cyriacus Uzomba Austin Community College
Diana Malone Clarke College John B. Vincent University of Alabama
C. Michael McCallum University of the Pacifi c Thomas Webb Auburn University
Lisa McCaw University of Central Oklahoma Lyle Wescott University of Mississippi
Danny McGuire Carmeron University Wayne Wesolowski University of Arizona
Scott E. McKay Central Missouri State University Ken Williams Francis Marion University
John Milligan Los Angeles Valley College Jeremy T. W.T. Wong, The University of Hong Kong
Mitchell-Koch Emporia State University John Troy Wood University of Buffalo
Mitchell University of Florida Gloria A. Wright Central Connecticut State University
John T. Moore Stephan F. Austin State University Stephanie Wunder Temple University
Bruce Moy College of Lake County Christine Yerkes University of Illinois
Richard Nafshun Oregon State University Jim Timothy Zauche University of Wisconsin–Platteville
Neilan Volunteer State Community College William Zoller University of Washington
Glenn S. Nomura Georgia Perimeter College Preface xxvii
Frazier Nyasulu Ohio University
MaryKay Orgill University of Nevada–Las Vegas
Special thanks are due to the following individuals for
Jason Overby College of Charleston
their detailed comments and suggestions for specifi c
M. Diane Payne Villa Julie College chapters.
Lester L. Pesterfi eld Western Kentucky University Mufeed Basti North Carolina A&T
Richard Petersen University of Memphis Ken Goldsby Florida State University
Joanna Piotrowska Normandale Community College John Hagen California Polytechnic University
Amy Pollock Michigan State University–East Lansing Joseph Keane Muhlenberg College
Richard Nafshun Oregon State University following members of McGraw-Hill’s College Division:
Michael Ogawa Bowling Green State University Tammy Ben, Doug Dinardo, Chad Grall, Kara
Kudronowicz, Mary Jane Lampe, Marty Lange, Michael
Jason Overby College of Charleston
Lange, Kent Peterson, and Kurt Strand. In particular, I
John Pollard University of Arizona would like to mention Gloria Schiesl for supervising the
William Quintana New Mexico State University production, David Hash for the book design, John Leland
Troy Wood University of Buffalo for photo research, Daryl Brufl odt and Judi David for the
Kim Woodrum University of Kentucky media, and Todd Turner, the marketing manager for his
suggestions and encouragement. I also thank my sponsor
I would also like to thank Dr. Enrique Peacock Lopez ing editor, Tami Hodge, and publisher, Thomas Timp, for
and Desire Gijima for the computer-generated their advice and assistance. Finally, my special thanks go
molecular orbital diagrams in Chapter 10. to Shirley Oberbroeckling, the developmental editor, for
As always, I have benefi ted much from discussions her care and enthusiasm for the project, and supervision
with my colleagues at Williams College and correspon at every stage of the writing of this edition.
dence with many instructors here and abroad. It is a
pleasure to acknowledge the support given to me by the —Raymond Chang
Study Tools
Chapter opening page: Set yourself up for
success by reviewing the chapter outline.
Review “A Look Ahead” to famil

iarize yourself with the chapter
concepts.
Enhance your learning by utilizing

the list of media available for the
chapter.
xxviii
Visuals: Understand the chemical principles
though the various styles of visual aids and
breakdown of important concepts.
Problem Solving Tools

Examples: Master problem-solving and think through prob
lems logically and systematically.
Review of Concepts:
Check your understanding by
using the Review of Concepts
tool found after appropriate
chapter sections.
xxix
Problems at the
end of the chapter:
Practice your skill and
knowledge of concepts by
working problems found
at the end of each chapter.
End of Chapter: Test your knowledge in preparation for exams by utilizing these
tools: Key Equations, Summary, Key Words, Electronic Homework, Questions and
Problems
xxx
Media Tools
Animations: Understand major concepts by viewing Media Player: Learn on the fl y by
animations developed specifi cally to reinforce the text downloading text-specifi c content to
content. your Media Player.
from the textbook questions to
those found in the ARIS
homework solutions.
Practice Problem from Examples
Electronic Homework problem
Test your knowledge using

ARIS, the McGraw-Hill solu
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This system was developed
using time-tested in-chapter
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from Chang 10th edition. The TEXT problem
author’s “voice” is carried
Quantum Tutors: just like

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Get homework help 24/7.
xxxi
G eneral chemistry is commonly perceived to be
more diffi cult than most other subjects. There is some

• At the end of each chapter, you will fi nd a summary
of facts and concepts, the key equations, and a list
of key words, all of which will help you review for
exams.
justifi cation for this perception. For one thing, chemistry • Definitions of the key words can be studied in con text
has a very specialized vocabulary. At fi rst, studying on the pages cited in the end-of-chapter list or in the
chemistry is like learning a new language. glossary at the back of the book.
Furthermore, some of the concepts are abstract. Never • ARIS houses an extraordinary amount of resources.
theless, with diligence you can complete this course suc Go to www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/chang and
cessfully, and you might even enjoy it. Here are some click on the appropriate cover to explore animations,
suggestions to help you form good study habits and mas download content to your Media Player, do your
ter the material in this text. homework electronically, and more.
• Attend classes regularly and take careful notes. • If • Careful study of the worked-out examples in the body
possible, always review the topics discussed in class the of each chapter will improve your ability to analyze
same day they are covered in class. Use this book to problems and correctly carry out the calcula tions needed
supplement your notes. to solve them. Also take the time to work through the
practice exercise that follows each example to be sure
• Think critically. Ask yourself if you really under stand you understand how to solve the type of problem
the meaning of a term or the use of an equation. A good illustrated in the example. The an swers to the practice
way to test your understanding is to explain a concept to exercises appear at the end of the chapter, following the
a classmate or some other person. end-of-chapter problems. For additional practice, you
• Do not hesitate to ask your instructor or your teach ing can turn to similar prob lems referred to in the margin
assistant for help. next to the example.
The tenth edition tools for Chemistry are designed to en • The questions and problems at the end of the chapter
able you to do well in your general chemistry course. The are organized by section.
following guide explains how to take full advantage of • The back inside cover shows a list of important fi g
the text, technology, and other tools. ures and tables with page references. This index
• Before delving into the chapter, read the chapter out makes it convenient to quickly look up information
line and the chapter introduction to get a sense of the when you are solving problems or studying related
important topics. Use the outline to organize your subjects in different chapters.
note taking in class.
If you follow these suggestions and stay up-to-date with
• Use the Student Interactive Activity as a guide to re your assignments, you should fi nd that chemistry is
view challenging concepts in motion. The anima challenging, but less diffi cult and much more interesting
tions, media player content, and electronic than you expected.
homework including tutorials are valuable in
presenting a con cept and enabling the student to —Raymond Chang
manipulate or choose steps so full understanding
can happen.
xxxii
CHEMISTRY exploding when heated with a fl ame. The
Chemistry hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen in air to form

water vapor. Chemistry is the study of the
properties of matter and the changes it undergoes.
The models show hydrogen, oxygen, and water
The Study of molecules.
Change
A hydrogen-fi lled balloon
Chapter
Outline 1.1 Chemistry: A Science for the Twenty-First
Century
1.2 The Study of Chemistry 1.3 The Scientifi c Method 1.4
Classifi cations of Matter 1.5 The Three States of Matter 1.6
Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter
1.7 Measurement
1.8 Handling Numbers 1.9 Dimensional Analysis in Solving
Problems
Student Interactive Activity

Media Player
Chapter Summary
ARIS
Example Practice Problems End of Chapter Problems some time learning how to handle numerical results of chemical
Quantum Tutors measurements and solve numerical problems. In Chapter 2, we will
End of Chapter Problems begin to explore the microscopic world of atoms and molecules.
A Look Ahead
• We begin with a brief introduction to the study of chemistry and
describe
its role in our modern society. (1.1 and 1.2)
Next, we become familiar with the scientifi c method, which is a
•
systematic
approach to research in all scientifi c disciplines. (1.3)
We defi ne matter and note that a pure substance can either be an
•
element
or a compound. We distinguish between a homogeneous
mixture and a het erogeneous mixture. We also learn that, in
principle, all matter can exist in one of three states: solid, liquid,
and gas. (1.4 and 1.5)
To characterize a substance, we need to know its physical
•
properties, which
can be observed without changing its identity and
chemical properties, which can be demonstrated only by chemical
changes. (1.6)
Being an experimental science, chemistry involves
•
measurements. We learn
the basic SI units and use the SI-derived
units for quantities like volume and density. We also become
familiar with the three temperature scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit, and
Kelvin. (1.7)
Chemical calculations often involve very large or very small
•
numbers and a
convenient way to deal with these numbers is the
scientifi c notation. In calculations or measurements, every quantity
must show the proper number of signifi cant fi gures, which are the
meaningful digits. (1.8)
Finally, we learn that dimensional analysis is useful in chemical
•
calculations.
By carrying the units through the entire sequence of
calculations, all the units will cancel except the desired one. (1.9)
C hemistry is an active, evolving science that has vital
importance to our
world, in both the realm of nature and the realm of society. Its roots
are ancient, but as we will see, chemistry is every bit a modern
science. We will begin our study of chemistry at the macroscopic
level, where we can see and measure the materials of which our
world is made. In this chapter, we will discuss the scientifi c
method, which provides the framework for research not only in
chemistry but in all other sciences as well. Next we will discover
how scientists defi ne and characterize matter. Then we will spend
3
4 Chemistry: The Study of Change
1.1 Chemistry: A Science for the Twenty-First Century

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Chemistry is often
called the central science, because a basic knowledge of chemistry is essential for
students of biology, physics, geology, ecology, and many other subjects. Indeed, it is
central to our way of life; without it, we would be living shorter lives in what we
would consider primitive conditions, without automobiles, electricity, computers, CDs,
and many other everyday conveniences.
Although chemistry is an ancient science, its modern foundation was laid in the
conditions, such as an infl amed appendix; and the
The Chinese characters for chemistry mean “The study of change.”
introduction of vaccines and antibiotics that make it
nineteenth century, when intellectual and technological possible to prevent diseases spread by microbes. Gene
advances enabled scientists to break down substances into therapy promises to be the fourth revolution in medicine. (A
ever smaller components and consequently to explain many gene is the basic unit of inheritance.) Several thousand
of their physical and chemical characteristics. The rapid known conditions, including cystic fi brosis and
development of increas ingly sophisticated technology hemophilia, are carried by inborn damage to a single gene.
throughout the twentieth century has given us even greater Many other ailments, such as cancer, heart disease, AIDS,
means to study things that cannot be seen with the naked and arthritis, result to an extent from impairment of one or
eye. Using comput ers and special microscopes, for more genes involved in the body’s defenses. In gene
example, chemists can analyze the structure of atoms and therapy, a selected healthy gene is delivered to a patient’s
molecules—the fundamental units on which the study of cell to cure or ease such disorders. To carry out such a
chemistry is based—and design new substances with specifiprocedure, a doctor must have a sound knowledge of the
c properties, such as drugs and environmentally friendly chemical properties of the molecular components involved.
consumer products. The decoding of the human genome, which com
As we enter the twenty-fi rst century, it is fi tting to ask prises all of the genetic material in the human body and
what part the central sci ence will have in this century. plays an essential part in gene therapy, relies largely on
Almost certainly, chemistry will continue to play a pivotal chemical techniques.
role in all areas of science and technology. Before plunging Chemists in the pharmaceutical industry are researching
into the study of matter and its transformation, let us potent drugs with few or no side effects to treat cancer,
consider some of the frontiers that chemists are currently AIDS, and many other diseases as well as drugs to increase
exploring ( Figure 1.1 ). Whatever your reasons for taking the number of successful organ transplants. On a broader
general chemistry, a good knowledge of the subject will scale, improved understanding of the mechanism of aging
better enable you to appreciate its impact on society and on will lead to a longer and healthier life span for the world’s
you as an individual. population.
Health and Medicine Energy and the Environment

Three major advances in the past century have enabled us Energy is a by-product of many chemical processes, and as
to prevent and treat diseases. They are public health the demand for energy continues to increase, both in
measures establishing sanitation systems to protect vast num technologically advanced countries like the United
bers of people from infectious disease; surgery with
anesthesia, enabling physicians to cure potentially fatal
1.1 Chemistry: A Science for the Twenty-First Century 5
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 1.1 (a) The output from an automated DNA sequencing machine. Each lane displays the
sequence (indicated by different colors) obtained with a separate DNA sample. (b) Photovoltaic
cells. (c) A silicon wafer being processed. (d) The leaf on the left was taken from a tobacco plant
that was not genetically engineered but was exposed to tobacco horn worms. The leaf on the
right was genetically engineered and is barely attacked by the worms. The same technique can
be applied to protect the leaves of other types of plants.
States and in developing ones like China, chemists are actively trying to fi nd new
energy sources. Currently the major sources of energy are fossil fuels (coal, petroleum,
and natural gas). The estimated reserves of these fuels will last us another 50–100
years, at the present rate of consumption, so it is urgent that we fi nd alternatives.
Solar energy promises to be a viable source of energy for the future. Every year
Earth’s surface receives about 10 times as much energy from sunlight as is contained
in all of the known reserves of coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium combined. But
much of this energy is “wasted” because it is refl ected back into space. For the past
30 years, intense research efforts have shown that solar energy can be harnessed
effectively in two ways. One is the conversion of sunlight directly to electricity using
devices called photovoltaic cells. The other is to use sunlight to obtain hydrogen
from water. The hydrogen can then be fed into a fuel cell to generate electricity.
Although our understanding of the scientifi c process of converting solar energy to
electricity has advanced, the technology has not yet improved to the point where we
can produce electricity on a large scale at an economically acceptable cost. By 2050,
however, it has been predicted that solar energy will supply over 50 percent of our
power needs.
Another potential source of energy is nuclear fi ssion, but because of environmental

concerns about the radioactive wastes from fi ssion processes, the future of the nuclear
industry in the United States is uncertain. Chemists can help to devise better ways to
dispose of nuclear waste. Nuclear fusion, the process that occurs in the sun and other
stars, generates huge amounts of energy without producing much dangerous radioactive
waste. In another 50 years, nuclear fusion will likely be a signifi cant source of energy.
Energy production and energy utilization are closely tied to the quality of our
environment. A major disadvantage of burning fossil fuels is that they give off carbon
dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas (that is, it promotes the heating of Earth’s
atmosphere), along with sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which result in acid rain
and smog. (Harnessing solar energy has no such detrimental effects on the environ
ment.) By using fuel-effi cient automobiles and more effective catalytic converters, we
should be able to drastically reduce harmful auto emissions and improve the air quality
in areas with heavy traffi c. In addition, electric cars, powered by durable, long-lasting
batteries, and hybrid cars, powered by both batteries and gasoline, should become
more prevalent, and their use will help to minimize air pollution.
Materials and Technology

Chemical research and development in the twentieth century have provided us with new
materials that have profoundly improved the quality of our lives and helped to advance
technology in countless ways. A few examples are polymers (including rubber and
nylon), ceramics (such as cookware), liquid crystals (like those in electronic displays),
adhesives (used in your Post-It notes), and coatings (for example, latex paint).
What is in store for the near future? One likely possibility is room-temperature
superconductors. Electricity is carried by copper cables, which are not perfect conduc
tors. Consequently, about 20 percent of electrical energy is lost in the form of heat
between the power station and our homes. This is a tremendous waste. Superconductors
are materials that have no electrical resistance and can therefore conduct electricity with
no energy loss. Although the phenomenon of superconductivity at very low temperatures
(more than 400 degrees Fahrenheit below the freezing point of water) has been known
for over 90 years, a major breakthrough in the mid-1980s demonstrated that it is pos
sible to make materials that act as superconductors at or near room temperature. Chem
ists have helped to design and synthesize new materials that show promise in this quest.
The next 30 years will see high-temperature superconductors being applied on a large
scale in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), levitated trains, and nuclear fusion.
If we had to name one technological advance that has shaped our lives more than
any other, it would be the computer. The “engine” that drives the ongoing computer
revolution is the microprocessor—the tiny silicon chip that has inspired countless
inventions, such as laptop computers and fax machines. The performance of a micro
processor is judged by the speed with which it carries out mathematical operations,
such as addition. The pace of progress is such that since their introduction, micro
processors have doubled in speed every 18 months. The quality of any microprocessor
depends on the purity of the silicon chip and on the ability to add the desired amount
of other substances, and chemists play an important role in the research and develop
ment of silicon chips. For the future, scientists have begun to explore the prospect of
“molecular computing,” that is, replacing silicon with molecules. The advantages are
that certain molecules can be made to respond to light, rather than to electrons, so
that we would have optical computers rather than electronic computers. With proper
genetic engineering, scientists can synthesize such molecules using microorganisms
instead of large factories. Optical computers also would have much greater storage
capacity than electronic computers.
1.2 The Study of Chemistry 7
Food and Agriculture
How can the world’s rapidly increasing population be fed? In poor countries,
agricultural activities occupy about 80 percent of the workforce, and half of an average
family bud get is spent on foodstuffs. This is a tremendous drain on a nation’s
resources. The factors that affect agricultural production are the richness of the soil,
insects and diseases that damage crops, and weeds that compete for nutrients. Besides
irrigation, farmers rely on fertilizers and pesticides to increase crop yield. Since the
1950s, treatment for crops suf fering from pest infestations has sometimes been the
indiscriminate application of potent chemicals. Such measures have often had serious
detrimental effects on the environment.
Even the excessive use of fertilizers is harmful to the land, water, and air. To meet the
food demands of the twenty-fi rst century, new and novel approaches in farming must
be devised. It has already been demonstrated that, through biotechnol ogy, it is possible
to grow larger and better crops. These techniques can be applied to many different
farm products, not only for improved yields, but also for better frequency, that is, more
crops every year. For example, it is known that a certain bacterium produces a protein
molecule that is toxic to leaf-eating caterpillars. Incor porating the gene that codes for
the toxin into crops enables plants to protect them selves so that pesticides are not
necessary. Researchers have also found a way to prevent pesky insects from
reproducing. Insects communicate with one another by emitting and reacting to special
molecules called pheromones. By identifying and synthesizing pheromones used in
mating, it is possible to interfere with the normal reproductive cycle of common pests;
for example, by inducing insects to mate too soon or tricking female insects into
mating with sterile males. Moreover, chemists can devise ways to increase the
production of fertilizers that are less harmful to the envi ronment and substances that
would selectively kill weeds.
1.2 The Study of Chemistry

Compared with other subjects, chemistry is commonly believed to be more diffi cult,
at least at the introductory level. There is some justifi cation for this perception; for
one thing, chemistry has a very specialized vocabulary. However, even if this is your fi
rst course in chemistry, you already have more familiarity with the subject than you
may realize. In everyday conversations we hear words that have a chemical
connection, although they may not be used in the scientifi cally correct sense.
Examples are “elec
tronic,” “quantum leap,” “equilibrium,” “catalyst,” “chain reaction,” and “critical mass.”
Moreover, if you cook, then you are a practicing chemist! From experience gained in
the kitchen, you know that oil and water do not mix and that boiling water left on the
stove will evaporate. You apply chemical and physical principles when you use baking
soda to leaven bread, choose a pressure cooker to shorten the time it takes to prepare
soup, add meat tenderizer to a pot roast, squeeze lemon juice over sliced pears to
prevent them from turning brown or over fi sh to minimize its odor, and add vinegar to
the water in which you are going to poach eggs. Every day we observe such changes
without thinking about their chemical nature. The purpose of this course is to make
you think like a chemist, to look at the macroscopic world—the things we can see,
touch, and measure directly—and visualize the particles and events of the microscopic
world that we cannot experience without modern technology and our imaginations.
At fi rst some students fi nd it confusing that their chemistry instructor and textbook
seem to be continually shifting back and forth between the macroscopic and
microscopic worlds. Just keep in mind that the data for chemical investigations most
often come from observations of large-scale phenomena, but the explanations
frequently lie in the
O2
Fe
88n
Fe2O3
Figure 1.2 A simplifi ed molecular view of rust (Fe2O3) formation from iron (Fe) atoms and oxygen molecules (O2). In reality the
process requires water, and rust also contains water molecules.
unseen and partially imagined microscopic world of atoms and molecules. In other
words, chemists often see one thing (in the macroscopic world) and think another (in
the microscopic world). Looking at the rusted nails in Figure 1.2 , for example, a chem
ist might think about the basic properties of individual atoms of iron and how these
units interact with other atoms and molecules to produce the observed change.
1.3 The Scientifi c Method

All sciences, including the social sciences, employ variations of what is called the sci
entifi c method, a systematic approach to research. For example, a psychologist who
wants to know how noise affects people’s ability to learn chemistry and a chemist
interested in measuring the heat given off when hydrogen gas burns in air would follow
roughly the same procedure in carrying out their investigations. The fi rst step is to care
fully defi ne the problem. The next step includes performing experiments, making care
ful observations, and recording information, or data, about the system—the part of the
universe that is under investigation. (In the examples just discussed, the systems are the
group of people the psychologist will study and a mixture of hydrogen and air.)
The data obtained in a research study may be both qualitative, consisting of
general observations about the system, and quantitative, comprising numbers obtained
by various measurements of the system. Chemists generally use standardized symbols
and equations in recording their measurements and observations. This form of repre
sentation not only simplifi es the process of keeping records, but also provides a com
mon basis for communication with other chemists.
When the experiments have been completed and the data have been recorded, the
next step in the scientifi c method is interpretation, meaning that the scientist attempts
to explain the observed phenomenon. Based on the data that were gathered, the
researcher formulates a hypothesis, a tentative explanation for a set of observations.
Further experiments are devised to test the validity of the hypothesis in as many ways
as possible, and the process begins anew. Figure 1.3 summarizes the main steps of
the research process.
1.3 The Scientifi c Method 9 Figure 1.3 The
three levels of
Observation Interpretation Representation thinking and working are very much infl uenced by their
background, train ing, and personalities.
The development of science has been irregular and
sometimes even illogical. Great discoveries are usually the
After a large amount of data has been collected, it is often result of the cumulative contributions and experi ence of
desirable to summarize the information in a concise way, many workers, even though the credit for formulating a
as a law. In science, a law is a concise verbal or theory or a law is usually given to only one individual.
mathematical statement of a relationship between There is, of course, an element of luck involved in scientifi
phenomena that is always the same under the same c discoveries, but it has been said that “chance favors the
conditions. For example, Sir Isaac Newton’s second law of pre pared mind.” It takes an alert and well-trained person to
motion, which you may remember from high school recognize the signifi cance of an accidental discovery and
science, says that force equals mass times acceleration ( F to take full advantage of it. More often than not, the public
= ma). What this law means is that an increase in the mass learns only of spectacular scientifi c breakthroughs. For
or in the acceleration of an object will always increase its every success story, however, there are hundreds of cases
force proportionally, and a decrease in mass or accelerationin which scientists have spent years working on projects
will always decrease the force. that ultimately led to a dead end, and in which positive
Hypotheses that survive many experimental tests of their achievements came only after many wrong turns and at
validity may evolve into theories. A theory is a unifying such a slow pace that they went unheralded. Yet even the
principle that explains a body of facts and/or those laws dead ends contribute something to the continually growing
that are based on them. Theories, too, are constantly being body of knowledge about the physical universe. It is the
tested. If a theory is disproved by experiment, then it must love of the search that keeps many scientists in the
be discarded or modifi ed so that it becomes consistent laboratory.
with experimental observations. Proving or disproving a
theory can take years, even centuries, in part because the Review of Concepts
necessary technology may not be available. Atomic theory,
Which of the following statements is true?
which we will study in Chapter 2, is a case in point. It took
more than 2000 years to work out this fundamental (a) A hypothesis always leads to the formulation of a law.
principle of chemistry proposed by Democritus, an ancient (b) The scientifi c method is a rigid sequence of steps in
solving problems. (c) A law summarizes a series of
Greek philosopher. A more contemporary example is the
experimental observations; a theory provides an
Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe discussed on
explanation for the observations.
page 10. studying chemistry and their relationships. Observation deals with
Scientifi c progress is seldom, if ever, made in a rigid, events in the macroscopic world; atoms and molecules constitute
step-by-step fashion. Some times a law precedes a theory; the microscopic world. Representation is a scientifi c shorthand
sometimes it is the other way around. Two scientists may for describing an experiment in symbols and chemical equations.
start working on a project with exactly the same objective, Chemists use their knowledge of atoms and molecules to explain
an observed phenomenon.
but will end up tak ing drastically different approaches.
Scientists are, after all, human beings, and their modes of
CHEMISTRY
in Action
Primordial Helium and the Big
Bang Theory W here did we come
from? How did the universe begin?
Humans have asked these questions for as long as

we
have been able to think. The search for answers provides
an
example of the scientifi c method.
In the 1940s the Russian-American physicist George
Gamow
hypothesized that our universe burst into being billions of
years
ago in a gigantic explosion, or Big Bang. In its earliest moments,
the universe occupied a tiny volume and was unimaginably hot.
This blistering fi reball of radiation mixed with microscopic parti
cles of matter gradually cooled enough for atoms to form. Under
the infl uence of gravity, these atoms clumped together to make
billions of galaxies including our own Milky Way Galaxy.
Gamow’s idea is interesting and highly provocative. It has
been tested experimentally in a number of ways. First, measure
ments showed that the universe is expanding; that is, galaxies
are all moving away from one another at high speeds. This fact
is consistent with the universe’s explosive birth. By imagining
the expansion running backward, like a movie in reverse, as
tronomers have deduced that the universe was born about 13 A color photo of some distant galaxy, including the position of a quasar.
billion years ago. The second observation that supports
Gamow’s hypothesis is the detection of cosmic background ra
diation. Over billions of years, the searingly hot universe has ultraviolet light from a distant quasar (a strong source of light
cooled down to a mere 3 K (or 2270°C)! At this temperature, and radio signals that is thought to be an exploding galaxy at
most energy is in the microwave region. Because the Big Bang the edge of the universe) and found that some of the light was
would have occurred simultaneously throughout the tiny vol absorbed by helium atoms on the way to Earth. Because this
ume of the forming universe, the radiation it generated should particular quasar is more than 10 billion light-years away (a
have fi lled the entire universe. Thus, the radiation should be light-year is the dis
the same in any direction that we observe. Indeed, the tance traveled by light in a year), the light reaching Earth
microwave reveals events that took place 10 billion years ago. Why wasn’t
signals recorded by astronomers are independent of direction. the more abundant hydrogen detected? A hydrogen atom has
The third piece of evidence supporting Gamow’s hypothesis is only one electron, which is stripped by the light from a quasar
the discovery of primordial helium. Scientists believe that he in a process known as ionization. Ionized hydrogen atoms
lium and hydrogen (the lightest elements) were the fi rst cannot absorb any of the quasar’s light. A helium atom, on the
elements formed in the early stages of cosmic evolution. (The other hand, has two electrons. Radiation may strip a helium
heavier ele ments, like carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, are atom of one electron, but not always both. Singly ionized
thought to have originated later via nuclear reactions involving helium atoms can still absorb light and are therefore detectable.
hydrogen and he lium in the center of stars.) If so, a diffuse gas Proponents of Gamow’s explanation rejoiced at the detec tion
of hydrogen and helium would have spread through the early of helium in the far reaches of the universe. In recognition of
universe before many of the galaxies formed. In 1995, all the supporting evidence, scientists now refer to Gamow’s
astronomers analyzed hypothesis as the Big Bang theory.
1.4 Classifi cations of Matter

We defi ned chemistry at the beginning of the chapter as the study of matter and the
changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter
includes things we can see and touch (such as water, earth, and trees), as well as
things we cannot (such as air). Thus, everything in the universe has a “chemical”
connection.
10
1.4 Classifi cations of Matter 11
Chemists distinguish among several subcategories of matter based on composi

tion and properties. The classifi cations of matter include substances, mixtures,
elements, and compounds, as well as atoms and molecules, which we will consider
in Chapter 2.
Substances and Mixtures

A substance is a form of matter that has a defi nite (constant) composition and distinct
properties. Examples are water, ammonia, table sugar (sucrose), gold, and oxygen.
Substances differ from one another in composition and can be identifi ed by their
appearance, smell, taste, and other properties.
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances
retain their distinct identities. Some familiar examples are air, soft drinks, milk, and
cement. Mixtures do not have constant composition. Therefore, samples of air col
lected in different cities would probably differ in composition because of differences
in altitude, pollution, and so on.
Mixtures are either homogeneous or heterogeneous. When a spoonful of sugar
dissolves in water we obtain a homogeneous mixture in which the composition of the
mixture is the same throughout. If sand is mixed with iron fi lings, however, the sand
grains and the iron fi lings remain separate ( Figure 1.4 ). This type of mixture is called
a heterogeneous mixture because the composition is not uniform.
Any mixture, whether homogeneous or heterogeneous, can be created and then
separated by physical means into pure components without changing the identities of
the components. Thus, sugar can be recovered from a water solution by heating the
solution and evaporating it to dryness. Condensing the vapor will give us back the
water component. To separate the iron-sand mixture, we can use a magnet to remove
the iron fi lings from the sand, because sand is not attracted to the magnet [see Fig
ure 1.4 (b)]. After separation, the components of the mixture will have the same com
position and properties as they did to start with.
Elements and Compounds

Substances can be either elements or compounds. An element is a substance that
cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. To date, 117
elements have been positively identifi ed. Most of them occur naturally on Earth. The
Figure 1.4 (a) The mixture

contains iron fi lings and sand.
(b) A magnet separates the iron
fi lings from the mixture. The
same technique is used on a
larger scale to separate iron and
steel from nonmagnetic objects
such as aluminum, glass, and
plastics.
(a) (b)
TABLE 1.1 Some Common Elements and Their Symbols
Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol
Aluminum Al Fluorine F Oxygen O

Arsenic As Gold Au Phosphorus P
Barium Ba Hydrogen H Platinum Pt
Bismuth Bi Iodine I Potassium K
Bromine Br Iron Fe Silicon Si
Calcium Ca Lead Pb Silver Ag
Carbon C Magnesium Mg Sodium Na
Chlorine Cl Manganese Mn Sulfur S
Chromium Cr Mercury Hg Tin Sn
Cobalt Co Nickel Ni Tungsten W
Copper Cu Nitrogen N Zinc Zn
others have been created by scientists via nuclear processes, which are the subject
of Chapter 23 of this text.
For convenience, chemists use symbols of one or two letters to represent the ele
ments. The fi rst letter of a symbol is always capitalized, but any following letters are
not. For example, Co is the symbol for the element cobalt, whereas CO is the formula
for the carbon monoxide molecule. Table 1.1 shows the names and symbols of some of
the more common elements; a complete list of the elements and their symbols appears
inside the front cover of this book. The symbols of some elements are derived from
their Latin names—for example, Au from aurum (gold), Fe from ferrum (iron), and Na
from natrium (sodium)—whereas most of them come from their English names. Appen
dix 1 gives the origin of the names and lists the discoverers of most of the elements.
Atoms of most elements can interact with one another to form compounds. Hydro
gen gas, for example, burns in oxygen gas to form water, which has properties that are
distinctly different from those of the starting materials. Water is made up of two parts
hydrogen and one part oxygen. This composition does not change, regardless of whether
the water comes from a faucet in the United States, a lake in Outer Mongolia, or the
ice caps on Mars. Thus, water is a compound, a substance composed of atoms of two
or more elements chemically united in fi xed proportions. Unlike mixtures, compounds
can be separated only by chemical means into their pure components.
The relationships among elements, compounds, and other categories of matter are
summarized in Figure 1.5 .
Review of Concepts
Which of the following diagrams represent elements and which represent
compounds? Each color sphere (or truncated sphere) represents an atom.
Matter
Separation by Pure
Mixtures
physical methods substances
Homogeneous Heterogeneous Separation by

1.5 The Three States of Matter 13
mixtures
Figure 1.5 Classifi cation of matter.

mixtures Compounds Elements chemical methods
1.5 The Three States of Matter

All substances, at least in principle, can exist in three
states: solid, liquid, and gas. As Figure 1.6 shows, gases
differ from liquids and solids in the distances between
the molecules. In a solid, molecules are held close
together in an orderly fashion with little freedom of Solid Liquid Gas
motion. Molecules in a liquid are close together but are
not held so rigidly in position and can move past one
another. In a gas, the molecules are sepa
rated by distances that are large compared with the size
of the molecules. The three states of matter can be
interconverted without changing the composition of the
substance. Upon heating, a solid (for example, ice) will
melt to form a liquid (water). (The temperature at which
this transition occurs is called the melting point. )
Further heating will convert the liquid into a gas. (This
conversion takes place at the boiling point of the liquid.)
On the other hand, cooling a gas will cause it to condense
into a liquid. When the liquid is cooled further, it will
freeze into the solid form.
Figure 1.6 Microscopic views of a solid, a liquid, and a gas.
Figure 1.7 The three states of

matter. A hot poker changes ice
into water and steam.
Figure 1.7shows the three states of water. Note that the properties of water are unique
among common substances in that the molecules in the liquid state are more closely
packed than those in the solid state.
Review of Concepts
An ice cube is placed in a closed container. On heating, the ice cube fi rst melts
and the water then boils to form steam. Which of the following statements is true?
(a) The physical appearance of the water is different at every stage of change.
(b) The mass of water is greatest for the ice cube and least for the steam.
1.6 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

Substances are identifi ed by their properties as well as by their composition. Color,
melting point, and boiling point are physical properties. A physical property can be
measured and observed without changing the composition or identity of a substance.
1.6 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter 15
For example, we can measure the melting point of ice by heating a block of ice and
recording the temperature at which the ice is converted to water. Water differs
from
ice only in appearance, not in composition, so this is a physical change; we can
freeze
the water to recover the original ice. Therefore, the melting point of a substance is a
physical property. Similarly, when we say that helium gas is lighter than air, we are
referring to a physical property.
On the other hand, the statement “Hydrogen gas burns in oxygen gas to form
water” describes a chemical property of hydrogen, because to observe this property
we must carry out a chemical change, in this case burning. After the change, the
original chemical substance, the hydrogen gas, will have vanished, and all that will
be left is a different chemical substance—water. We cannot recover the
hydrogen from
the water by means of a physical change, such as boiling or freezing.
Every time we hard-boil an egg, we bring about a chemical change. When
subjected to a temperature of about 100°C, the yolk and the egg white
undergo
changes that alter not only their physical appearance but their chemical
makeup as
well. When eaten, the egg is changed again, by substances in our bodies called
enzymes. This digestive action is another example of a chemical change. What
happens during digestion depends on the chemical depend on how much mat ter is being considered. Density,
properties of both the enzymes and the food. defi ned as the mass of an object divided by its volume, is
All measurable properties of matter fall into one of two an intensive property. So is temperature. Suppose that we
additional categories: extensive properties and intensive have two beakers of water at the same temperature. If we
properties. The measured value of an extensive property combine them to make a single quantity of water in a
depends on how much matter is being considered. Mass, larger beaker, the temperature of the larger quantity of
which is the quantity of matter in a given sample of a water will be the same as it was in two separate beakers.
substance, is an extensive property. More matter means Unlike mass, length, and volume, temperature and other
more mass. Values of the same extensive property can be intensive properties are not additive.
added together. For example, two copper pennies will
have a combined mass that is the sum of the masses of
each penny, and the length of two tennis courts is the sum Review of Concepts
of the lengths of each tennis court. Volume, defi ned as
The diagram in (a) shows a compound made up of atoms
length cubed, is another extensive property. The value of
an extensive quantity depends on the amount of matter. of two elements (represented by the green and red
The measured value of an intensive property does not spheres) in the liquid state. Which of the diagrams in
(b)–(d) represents a physical change and which diagrams
represent a chemical change?
Hydrogen burning in air to form water.
1.7 Measurement
The measurements chemists make are often used in calculations to obtain other related
quantities. Different instruments enable us to measure a substance’s properties: The
meterstick measures length or scale; the buret, the pipet, the graduated cylinder, and
the volumetric fl ask measure volume ( Figure 1.8 ); the balance measures mass; the
thermometer measures temperature. These instruments provide measurements of mac
roscopic properties, which can be determined directly. Microscopic properties, on the
atomic or molecular scale, must be determined by an indirect method, as we will see
in Chapter 2.
A measured quantity is usually written as a number with an appropriate unit.
To say that the distance between New York and San Francisco by car along a cer
tain route is 5166 is meaningless. We must specify that the distance is 5166 kilo
meters. The same is true in chemistry; units are essential to stating measurements
correctly.
SI Units
For many years, scientists recorded measurements in metric units, which are related
decimally, that is, by powers of 10. In 1960, however, the General Conference of
Weights and Measures, the international authority on units, proposed a revised metric
system called the International System of Units (abbreviated SI, from the French
S ystème I nternationale d’Unites). Table 1.2 shows the seven SI base units. All other
units of measurement can be derived from these base units. Like metric units, SI units
are modifi ed in decimal fashion by a series of prefi xes, as shown in Table 1.3 . We
will use both metric and SI units in this book.
Measurements that we will utilize frequently in our study of chemistry include
time, mass, volume, density, and temperature.
m
15 10
52
16
Figure 1.8 Some
common measuring 17 mL 100
devices found in a
18 90
chemistry laboratory.
These devices are not 19
drawn to scale relative 80
to one another. We will 20
discuss the uses of 70
these measuring
devices in Chapter 4. 60
mL 0 50
1
40
2
30
3
20
4 1 liter
L
Buret Pipet Graduated cylinder Volumetric flask
TABLE 1.2 SI Base Units
Base Quantity Name of Unit Symbol
Length meter m Mass kilogram kg Time second s Electrical

current ampere A Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol Luminous intensity candela cd
TABLE 1.3 Prefi xes Used with SI Units
Prefi x Symbol Meaning Example
tera- T 1,000,000,000,000, or 1012 1 terameter (Tm) = 1 × 1012 m

giga- G 1,000,000,000, or 109 1 gigameter (Gm) = 1 × 109 m
mega- M 1,000,000, or 106 1 megameter (Mm) = 1 × 106 m kilo- Note that a metric prefi x simply represents a number:
k 1,000, or 103 1 kilometer (km) = 1 × 103 m deci- d 1/10, or 10–1 1 mm = 1 × 10–3 m
1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 m centi- c 1/100, or 10–2 1 centimeter
(cm) = 0.01 m milli- m 1/1,000, or 10–3 1 millimeter (mm) =
0.001 m micro- m 1/1,000,000, or 10–6 1 micrometer (mm) = 1 ×
1026 m nano- n 1/1,000,000,000, or 10–9 1 nanometer (nm) = 1 ×
1029 m pico- p 1/1,000,000,000,000, or 10–12 1 picometer (pm) =
1 × 10212 m
An astronaut jumping on the surface of the moon.
Mass and Weight

1.7 Measurement 17
The terms “mass” and “weight” are often used

interchangeably, although, strictly speaking, they are
different quantities. Whereas mass is a measure of the
amount of matter in an object, weight, technically
speaking, is the force that gravity exerts on an object. An
apple that falls from a tree is pulled downward by Earth’s
gravity. The mass of the apple is constant and does not
depend on its location, but its weight does. For example, on
the surface of the moon the apple would weigh only
one-sixth what it does on Earth, because the moon’s
gravity is only one-sixth that of Earth. The moon’s smaller
gravity enabled astronauts to jump about rather freely on its
surface despite their bulky suits and equipment. Chemists
are interested primarily in mass, which can be determined
readily with a balance; the process of measuring mass,
oddly, is called weighing.
The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Unlike the units
of length and time, which are based on natural processes
that can be repeated by scientists anywhere, the kilogram is Figure 1.9 The prototype kilogram is made of a platinum iridium
defi ned in terms of a particular object ( Figure 1.9 ). In alloy. It is kept in a vault at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures in Sèvres, France. In 2007 it was discovered that the
chemistry, however, the smaller gram (g) is more
alloy has mysteriously lost about 50 mg!
convenient:
1 kg = 1000 g = 1 × 103 g
Volume: 1000 cm3;

1000 mL;
1 dm3;
1L
TABLE 1.4
Densities of Some
Substances at 25°C
Density Substance (g/cm3)
Air* 0.001 Ethanol 0.79 Water 1.00 Mercury 13.6 Table salt
2.2 Iron 7.9 Gold 19.3 Osmium† 22.6
*Measured at 1 atmosphere.
†
Osmium (Os) is the densest element known.
1 cm
Volume
10 cm = 1 dm
The SI unit of length is the meter (m), and the SI-derived
Volume: 1 cm3; unit for volume is the cubic meter (m3). Generally,
1 mL
however, chemists work with much smaller volumes, such
1 cm as the cubic centimeter (cm3) and the cubic decimeter
Figure 1.10 Comparison of two volumes, 1 mL and 1000 mL. (dm3):
1 cm3 5 (1 3 1022 m)3 5 1 3 1026 m3

1 dm3 5 (1 3 1021 m)3 5 1 3 1023 m3
Another common unit of volume is the liter (L). A liter is

the volume occupied by one cubic decimeter. One liter of
volume is equal to 1000 milliliters (mL) or 1000 cm3:
1 L 5 1000 mL
5 1000 cm3
5 1 dm3
and one milliliter is equal to one cubic centimeter:
density 5 mass
volume
or
1 mL = 1 cm3
Figure 1.10 compares the relative sizes of two volumes.

Even though the liter is not an SI unit, volumes are usually
expressed in liters and milliliters.
Density
The equation for density is
m
d 5 V (1.1)
where d, m, and V denote density, mass, and volume,

respectively. Because density is an intensive property and
does not depend on the quantity of mass present, for a given
substance the ratio of mass to volume always remains the
same; in other words, V increases as m does. Density
usually decreases with temperature.
The SI-derived unit for density is the kilogram per cubic
meter (kg/m3). This unit is awkwardly large for most
chemical applications. Therefore, grams per cubic centi
meter (g/cm3) and its equivalent, grams per milliliter
(g/mL), are more commonly used for solid and liquid
1 g/cm3 5 1 g/mL 5 1000 kg/m3
densities. Because gas densities are often very low, we
express them in units of grams per liter (g/L): 1 g/L 5 0.001 g/mL
Table 1.4 lists the densities of several substances.
Examples 1.1 and 1.2 show density calculations.

EXAMPLE 1.1
Gold is a precious metal that is chemically unreactive. It is used
mainly in jewelry, dentistry, and electronic devices. A piece of
gold ingot with a mass of 301 g has a volume of 15.6 cm3.
Calculate the density of gold.
Solution We are given the mass and volume and asked to
calculate the density. Therefore, from Equation (1.1), we write
m
Mercury.
d5 V
Similar problems: 1.21, 1.22.
5 301 g
15.6 cm3
5 19.3 g/cm3
Practice Exercise A piece of platinum metal with a density of

21.5 g/cm3 has a volume of 4.49 cm3. What is its mass?
Three temperature scales are currently in use. Their units
are °F (degrees Fahren heit), °C (degrees Celsius), and K
EXAMPLE 1.2 (kelvin). The Fahrenheit scale, which is the most
commonly used scale in the United States outside the
The density of mercury, the only metal that is a liquid at room laboratory, defi nes the normal freezing and boiling points
temperature, is 13.6 g/mL. Calculate the mass of 5.50 mL of the of water to be exactly 32°F and 212°F, respectively. The
liquid. Celsius scale divides the range between the freezing point
Solution We are given the density and volume of a liquid and (0°C) and boiling point (100°C) of water into 100 degrees.
asked to calculate the mass of the liquid. We rearrange Equation As Table 1.2 shows, the kelvin is the SI base unit of
(1.1) to give temperature: it is the absolute temperature scale. By
absolute we mean that the zero on the Kelvin scale, denoted
m5d3V by 0 K, is the lowest temperature that can be attained
g theoretically. On the other hand, 0°F and 0°C are based on
5 13.6 mL3 5.50 mL
the behavior of an arbitrarily chosen substance, water.
5 74.8 g
Figure 1.11 compares the three temperature scales.
Practice Exercise The density of sulfuric acid in a certain car The size of a degree on the Fahrenheit scale is only
battery is 1.41 g/mL. Calculate the mass of 242 mL of the liquid. 100/180, or 5/9, of a degree on the Celsius scale. To convert
degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius, we write
Temperature Scales
1.7 Measurement 19 ?°C 5 (°F 2 32°F) 35°C
Gold bars.
Similar problems: 1.21, 1.22. 9°F (1.2)

Note that the Kelvin scale does not have the degree sign. Also, temperatures expressed
in kelvins can never be negative.

Boiling point
of water
Figure 1.11 Comparison of the

three temperature scales: Celsius,
and Fahrenheit, and the absolute
(Kelvin) scales. Note that there 373 K
are 100 divisions, or 100 degrees, Body
between the freezing point and
the boiling point of water on
the Celsius scale, and there
are 180 divisions, or 180
degrees, between the same two 100°C 212°F
temperature limits on 310 K 298 K 98.6°F 77°F
the Fahrenheit scale.
0°C Room
The Celsius scale
temperature temperature
was formerly called 273 K 32°F
the centigrade scale. 37°C 25°C
Freezing point of water
Celsius Fahrenheit
Kelvin
degrees Fahrenheit: ?°F 5 9°F
5°C3 (°C) 1 32°F (1.3)

Both the Celsius and the Kelvin scales have units of equal
magnitude; that is, one degree Celsius is equivalent to one
kelvin. Experimental studies have shown that absolute zero
on the Kelvin scale is equivalent to –273.15°C on the
Celsius scale. Thus, we can use the following equation to
convert degrees Celsius to kelvin:
? K 5 (°C 1 273.15°C) 1 K
1°C (1.4)
We will frequently fi nd it necessary to convert between
degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit and between
degrees Celsius and kelvin. Example 1.3 illustrates these
conversions.
The Chemistry in Action essay on page 21 shows why we
must be careful with units in scientifi c work.
Solder is used extensively in the construction of electronic circuits.
The following equation is used to convert degrees Celsius to EXAMPLE 1.3
(a) Solder is an alloy made of tin and lead that is used in

electronic circuits. A certain solder has a melting point of 224°C.
What is its melting point in degrees Fahrenheit? (b) Helium has
3 (224°C) 1 32°F 5 435°F
the lowest boiling point of all the elements at 2452°F. Convert this 5°C
(Continued)
temperature to degrees Celsius. (c) Mercury, the only metal that
exists as a liquid at room temperature, melts at 238.9°C. Convert
its melting point to kelvins.
Solution These three parts require that we carry out temperature
conversions, so we need Equations (1.2), (1.3), and (1.4). Keep in
mind that the lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is zero (0 K);
therefore, it can never be negative.
(a) This conversion is carried out by writing
9°F
Action
The Importance of Units
CHEMISTRY in
said: “This is going to be the cautionary tale that will be
embedded into introduction to the metric system in elementary
school, high school, and college science courses till the end of
time.”
In December 1998, NASA launched the 125-million dollar
Mars Climate Orbiter, intended as the red planet’s fi rst

weather satellite. After a 416-million mi journey, the spacecraft
was supposed to go into Mars’ orbit on September 23, 1999.
Instead, it entered Mars’ atmosphere about 100 km (62 mi)
lower than planned and was destroyed by heat. The mission
controllers said the loss of the spacecraft was due to the failure
to convert English measurement units into metric units in the
navigation software.
Engineers at Lockheed Martin Corporation who built the
spacecraft specifi ed its thrust in pounds, which is an English
unit. Scientists at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, on the
other hand, had assumed that thrust data they received were
expressed in metric units, as newtons. Normally, pound is the
unit for mass. Expressed as a unit for force, however, 1 lb is
the force due to gravitational attraction on an object of that
mass. To carry out the conversion between pound and newton,
we start with 1 lb =
0.4536 kg and from Newton’s second law of motion,
force 5 mass 3 acceleration

5 0.4536 kg 3 9.81 m/s2
Artist’s conception of the Martian Climate Orbiter.
5 4.45 kg m/s2
5 4.45 N
because 1 newton (N) = 1 kg m/s2. Therefore, instead of

convert ing one pound of force to 4.45 N, the scientists treated
it as 1 N. The considerably smaller engine thrust expressed in
newtons resulted in a lower orbit and the ultimate destruction
of the space craft. Commenting on the failure of the Mars
mission, one scientist
1°C 5 234.3 K
(b) Here we have
Practice Exercise Convert (a) 327.5°C (the melting point of
lead) to degrees Fahrenheit; (b) 172.9°F (the boiling point of
(2452°F 2 32°F) 35°C ethanol) to degrees Celsius; and (c) 77 K, the boiling point of
9°F 5 2269°C liquid nitrogen, to degrees Celsius.
(c) The melting point of mercury in kelvins is given by Similar problems: 1.24, 1.25, 1.26.
(238.9°C 1 273.15°C) 31 K
21
Review of Concepts
The density of copper is 8.94 g/cm 3 at 20°C and 8.91 g/cm 3 at 60°C. This
density decrease is the result of which of the following?
(a) The metal expands.
(b) The metal contracts.
(c) The mass of the metal increases.
(d) The mass of the metal decreases.
1.8 Handling Numbers

Having surveyed some of the units used in chemistry, we now turn to techniques for han
dling numbers associated with measurements: scientifi c notation and signifi cant fi gures.
Scientifi c Notation
Chemists often deal with numbers that are either extremely large or extremely small.
For example, in 1 g of the element hydrogen there are roughly
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom has a mass of only
0.00000000000000000000000166 g
These numbers are cumbersome to handle, and it is easy to make mistakes when using
them in arithmetic computations. Consider the following multiplication:
0.0000000056 × 0.00000000048 = 0.000000000000000002688
It would be easy for us to miss one zero or add one more zero after the decimal point.
Consequently, when working with very large and very small numbers, we use a sys
tem called scientifi c notation. Regardless of their magnitude, all numbers can be
expressed in the form
N × 10n
where N is a number between 1 and 10 and n, the exponent, is a positive or negative

integer (whole number). Any number expressed in this way is said to be written in
scientifi c notation.
Suppose that we are given a certain number and asked to express it in scientifi c
notation. Basically, this assignment calls for us to fi nd n. We count the number of
places that the decimal point must be moved to give the number N (which is between
1 and 10). If the decimal point has to be moved to the left, then n is a positive inte
ger; if it has to be moved to the right, n is a negative integer. The following examples
illustrate the use of scientifi c notation:
(1) Express 568.762 in scientifi c notation:
568.762 = 5.68762 × 102
Note that the decimal point is moved to the left by two places and n = 2.
(2) Express 0.00000772 in scientifi c notation:
0.00000772 = 7.72 × 10–6
Here the decimal point is moved to the right by six places and n = –6.
6.9 3 107
25
Keep in mind the following two points. First, n = 0 is 3.0 3 10 5 6.9
used for numbers that are not expressed in scientifi c
3.03 10
72(25)
notation. For example, 74.6 × 100 ( n = 0) is equivalent to
5 2.3 3 1012
74.6. Second, the usual practice is to omit the superscript
when n = 1. Thus, the scientifi c notation for 74.6 is 7.46 8.5 3 104
× 10 and not 7.46 × 101. 9
5.0 3 10 5 8.5
Next, we consider how scientifi c notation is handled in
5.03 10
429
arithmetic operations.
5 1.7 3 1025
Addition and Subtraction
To add or subtract using scientifi c notation, we fi rst write Signifi cant Figures
each quantity—say N1 and N2—with the same exponent n. Except when all the numbers involved are integers (for
Then we combine N1 and N2; the exponents remain the example, in counting the number of students in a class), it
same. Consider the following examples: is often impossible to obtain the exact value of the
quantity under investigation. For this reason, it is
(7.4 3 103) 1 (2.1 3 103) 5 9.5 3 103 important to indicate the margin of error in a
(4.31 3 104) 1 (3.9 3 103) 5 (4.31 3 104) 1 (0.39 3 104) 5 measurement by clearly indicating the number of signifi
4.70 3 104 cant fi gures, which are the meaningful digits in a
(2.22 3 1022) 2 (4.10 3 1023) 5 (2.22 3 1022) 2 (0.41 3 measured or calculated quantity. When signifi cant fi
1022) 5 1.81 3 1022 gures are used, the last digit is understood to be uncertain.
For example, we might measure the volume of a given
Multiplication and Division amount of liquid using a graduated cylinder with a scale
that gives an uncertainty of 1 mL in the measurement. If
To multiply numbers expressed in scientifi c notation, we the volume is found to be 6 mL, then the actual volume is
multiply N1 and N2 in the usual way, but add the exponentsin the range of 5 mL to 7 mL. We represent the volume of
together. To divide using scientifi c notation, we divide N1 the liquid as (6 ; 1) mL. In this case, there is only one
and N2 as usual and subtract the exponents. The following signifi cant fi gure (the digit 6) that is uncertain by either
examples show how these operations are performed: plus or minus 1 mL. For greater accuracy, we might use a
graduated cylinder that has fi ner divisions, so that the
(8.0 3 104) 3 (5.0 3 102) 5 (8.0 3 5.0)(10412) volume we measure is now uncertain by only 0.1 mL. If
5 40 3 106 the volume of the liquid is now found to be 6.0 mL, we
5 4.0 3 107 may express the quantity as (6.0 ; 0.1) mL, and the actual
25 2513 value
(4.0 3 10 ) 3 (7.0 3 10 ) 5 (4.0 3 7.0)(10 )
3
5 28 3 1022 Any number raised to the power zero is equal to one.
5 2.8 3 1021
is somewhere between 5.9 mL and 6.1 mL. We can further improve the measuring
device and obtain more signifi cant fi gures, but in every case, the last digit is always
uncertain; the amount of this uncertainty depends on the particular measuring device
we use.
Figure 1.12 shows a modern balance. Balances such as this one are available in
many general chemistry laboratories; they readily measure the mass of objects to four
decimal places. Therefore, the measured mass typically will have four signifi cant
fi gures (for example, 0.8642 g) or more (for example, 3.9745 g). Keeping track of
the number of signifi cant fi gures in a measurement such as mass ensures that calcula
tions involving the data will refl ect the precision of the measurement.
Guidelines for Using Signifi cant Figures

We must always be careful in scientifi c work to write the proper number of signifi cant
fi gures. In general, it is fairly easy to determine how many signifi cant fi gures a num
Figure 1.12 A single-pan balance. ber has by following these rules:
1. Any digit that is not zero is signifi cant. Thus, 845 cm count as signifi cant fi gures. (d) Two. Same reason as in (c). (e)
Four, because the number is greater than one so all the zeros
has three signifi cant fi gures, 1.234 kg has four signifi cant
written to the right of the decimal point count as signifi cant fi
fi gures, and so on. gures. (f) This is an ambiguous case. The number of signifi cant fi
2. Zeros between nonzero digits are signifi cant. Thus, 606 gures may be four (7.000 × 103), three (7.00 × 103), two (7.0 ×
m contains three signifi - cant fi gures, 40,501 kg contains fi 103),
ve signifi cant fi gures, and so on. 3. Zeros to the left of the
fi rst nonzero digit are not signifi cant. Their purpose is to
indicate the placement of the decimal point. For example,
0.08 L contains one signifi cant fi gure, 0.0000349 g
contains three signifi cant fi gures, and so on. 4. If a number
is greater than 1, then all the zeros written to the right of the
decimal point count as signifi cant fi gures. Thus, 2.0 mg
has two signifi cant fi gures, 40.062 mL has fi ve signifi
cant fi gures, and 3.040 dm has four signifi cant fi gures. If
a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the
end of the number and the zeros that are between nonzero
digits are signifi cant. This means that 0.090 kg has two
signifi cant fi gures, 0.3005 L has four signifi cant fi gures,
0.00420 min has three signifi cant fi gures, and so on.
5. For numbers that do not contain decimal points, the
trailing zeros (that is, zeros after the last nonzero digit) may
or may not be signifi cant. Thus, 400 cm may have one
signifi cant fi gure (the digit 4), two signifi cant fi gures (40),
or three signifi cant fi gures (400). We cannot know which
is correct without more information. By using scientifi c
notation, however, we avoid this ambiguity. In this
particular case, we can express the number 400 as 4 × 102
for one signifi cant fi gure, 4.0 × 102 for two signifi cant fi
gures, or 4.00 × 102 for three signifi cant fi gures.
Example 1.4 shows the determination of signifi cant fi
gures.
EXAMPLE 1.4
Determine the number of signifi cant fi gures in the following
measurements: (a) 478 cm, (b) 6.01 g, (c) 0.825 m, (d) 0.043 kg,
(e) 1.310 × 1022 atoms, (f) 7000 mL.
Solution (a) Three, because each digit is a nonzero digit. (b)

Three, because zeros between nonzero digits are signifi cant. (c)
(Continued)(Continued)
Three, because zeros to the left of the fi rst nonzero digit do not
or one (7 × 103). This example illustrates why scientifi c notation must be used to show
the proper number of signifi cant fi gures. right of the decimal point than either of the original
Practice Exercise Determine the number of signifi cant fi numbers. Consider these examples:
gures in each of the following measurements: (a) 24 mL, (b)
89.332
3001 g, (c) 0.0320 m3, (d) 6.4 × 104 molecules, (e) 560 kg.
+ 1.1 m88 one digit after the decimal point
90.432 m88 round off to 90.4
A second set of rules specifi es how to handle signifi
2.097
cant fi gures in calculations. 1. In addition and
2 0.12 m88 two digits after the decimal point
subtraction, the answer cannot have more digits to the
1.977 m88 round off to 1.98
The rounding-off procedure is as follows. To round off
a number at a certain point we simply drop the digits
that follow if the fi rst of them is less than 5. Thus,
8.724 rounds off to 8.72 if we want only two digits
after the decimal point. If the fi rst digit following the
point of rounding off is equal to or greater than 5, we
add 1 to the preceding digit. Thus, 8.727 rounds off to
8.73, and 0.425 rounds off to 0.43.
2. In multiplication and division, the number of signifi
cant fi gures in the fi nal prod uct or quotient is
determined by the original number that has the
smallest number of signifi cant fi gures. The following
examples illustrate this rule:
2.8 3 4.5039 5 12.61092 — round off to 13
6.85
112.04 5 0.0611388789 — round off to 0.0611

3. Keep in mind that exact numbers obtained from defi
nitions or by counting num bers of objects can be
considered to have an infi nite number of signifi cant fi
gures. For example, the inch is defi ned to be exactly
2.54 centimeters; that is,
1 in 5 2.54 cm
Thus, the “2.54” in the equation should not be
interpreted as a measured number with three signifi
cant fi gures. In calculations involving conversion
between “in” and “cm,” we treat both “1” and “2.54”
as having an infi nite number of signifi cant fi gures.
Sim ilarly, if an object has a mass of 5.0 g, then the
mass of nine such objects is
5.0 g 3 9 5 45 g
The answer has two signifi cant fi gures because 5.0 g
has two signifi cant fi gures. The number 9 is exact
and does not determine the number of signifi cant fi
gures. Example 1.5 shows how signifi cant fi gures
are handled in arithmetic operations.
EXAMPLE 1.5
Carry out the following arithmetic operations to the correct
number of signifi cant fi gures: (a) 11,254.1 g 1 0.1983 g,
(b) 66.59 L 2 3.113 L, (c) 8.16 m 3 5.1355, (d) 0.0154 kg 4
88.3 mL, (e) 2.64 3 103 cm 1 3.27 3 102 cm.
(Continued)
Solution In addition and subtraction, the number of decimal places in the answer is
determined by the number having the lowest number of decimal places. In multiplication
and division, the signifi cant number of the answer is determined by the number having
the smallest number of signifi cant fi gures.
(a) 11,254.1 g
1 0.1983 g
11,254.2983 g m88 round off to 11,254.3 g
(b) 66.59 L
2 3.113 L
63.477 L m88 round off to 63.48 L
(c) 8.16 m 3 5.1355 5 41.90568 m m88 round off to 41.9 m
(d) 0.0154 kg
88.3 mL 5 0.000174405436 kg/mL m88 round off to 0.000174 kg/mL

or 1.74 3 1024 kg/mL
(e) First we change 3.27 3 10 cm to 0.327 3 103 cm and then carry out the addition
2
(2.64 cm 1 0.327 cm) 3 103. Following the procedure in (a), we fi nd the answer is
Method 1 Method 2
2.97 3 103 cm.
3.66 3 8.45 5 30.9 3.66 3 8.45 5 30.93
Practice Exercise Carry out the following arithmetic 30.9 3 2.11 5 65.2 30.93 3 2.11 5 65.3
operations and round off the answers to the appropriate number of
signifi cant fi gures: (a) 26.5862 L 1 0.17 L, (b) 9.1 g 2 4.682 g, However, if we had carried out the calculation as 3.66 3
(c) 7.1 3 104 dm 3 2.2654 3 102 dm, (d) 6.54 g 4 86.5542 mL, (e) 8.45 3 2.11 on a calculator without rounding off the
(7.55 3 104 m) 2 (8.62 3 103 m). intermediate answer, we would have obtained 65.3 as the
answer for E. Although retaining an additional digit past
the number of signifi cant fi gures for intermediate steps
helps to eliminate errors from rounding, this procedure is
The preceding rounding-off procedure applies to one-step not necessary for most calculations because the difference
calculations. In chain calculations, that is, calculations between the answers is usually quite small. Therefore, for
involving more than one step, we can get a different answer most examples and end-of-chapter problems where
depending on how we round off. Consider the following intermediate answers are reported, all answers, intermediate
two-step calculations: and fi nal, will be rounded.
Accuracy and Precision

In discussing measurements and signifi cant fi gures, it is
useful to distinguish between accuracy and precision.
Accuracy tells us how close a measurement is to the true
value of the quantity that was measured. To a scientist there
is a distinction between
First step: A 3 B 5 C
Second step: C 3 D 5 E
Let’s suppose that A 5 3.66, B 5 8.45, and D 5 2.11.

Depending on whether we round off C to three or four
signifi cant fi gures, we obtain a different number for E:
10 30 60 Figure 1.13 The distribution accurate. (a) Good accuracy
of darts on a dart board and good precision. (b) Poor
10 30 60 shows the difference accuracy
10 30 60
between precise and
100
100 100
the same length, this fraction is equal to 1. Similarly, we
can write the conversion factor as
2.54 cm
1 in
(a) (b) (c) and good precision. (c) Poor accuracy and poor precision. The
black dots show the positions of the darts.
accuracy and precision. Precision refers to how closely two

or more measurements of the same quantity agree with one
another ( Figure 1.13 ).
The difference between accuracy and precision is a subtle
but important one. Suppose, for example, that three
students are asked to determine the mass of a piece of
copper wire. The results of two successive weighings by
each student are
Student A Student B Student C

1.964 g 1.972 g 2.000 g
1.978 g 1.968 g 2.002 g
Average value 1.971 g 1.970 g 2.001 g
The true mass of the wire is 2.000 g. Therefore, Student B’s

results are more precise than those of Student A (1.972 g
and 1.968 g deviate less from 1.970 g than 1.964 g and
1.978 g from 1.971 g), but neither set of results is very
accurate. Student C’s results are not only the most precise,
but also the most accurate, because the average value is
closest to the true value. Highly accurate measurements are
usually precise too. On the other hand, highly precise
measurements do not necessarily guarantee accurate
results. For example, an improperly calibrated meterstick or
a faulty balance may give precise readings that are in error.
1.9 Dimensional Analysis in Solving

Problems
Careful measurements and the proper use of signifi cant fi
gures, along with correct calculations, will yield accurate
numerical results. But to be meaningful, the answers also
must be expressed in the desired units. The procedure we
use to convert between units in solving chemistry problems
is called dimensional analysis (also called the factor-label
method). A simple technique requiring little memorization,
dimensional analysis is based on the relationship between
different units that express the same physical quantity. For
example, by defi nition 1 in 5 2.54 cm (exactly). This equiva
lence enables us to write a conversion factor as follows:
Dimensional analysis might also have led Einstein to his famous mass-energy equation
1 in E 5 mc2.
2.54 cm
Because both the numerator and the denominator express

which is also equal to 1. Conversion factors are useful for changing units. Thus, if
we wish to convert a length expressed in inches to centimeters, we multiply the length
by the appropriate conversion factor.
12.00 in 32.54 cm
1 in 5 30.48 cm
We choose the conversion factor that cancels the unit inches and produces the desired
unit, centimeters. Note that the result is expressed in four signifi cant fi gures because
2.54 is an exact number.
Next let us consider the conversion of 57.8 meters to centimeters. This problem
can be expressed as
? cm 5 57.8 m
By defi nition,
1 cm 5 1 3 1022 m
Because we are converting “m” to “cm,” we choose the conversion factor that has
meters in the denominator,
1 cm
1 3 1022 m
and write the conversion as
? cm 5 57.8 m 31 cm
1 3 1022 m
5 5780 cm
5 5.78 3 103 cm
Note that scientifi c notation is used to indicate that the answer has three signifi cant
fi gures. Again, the conversion factor 1 cm/1 3 1022 m contains exact numbers; there
fore, it does not affect the number of signifi cant fi gures.
In general, to apply dimensional analysis we use the relationship
given quantity 3 conversion factor 5 desired quantity
and the units cancel as follows:
At this point you have been introduced to scientifi c
Remember that the unit we want appears in the numerator and the unit we want to
notation, signifi cant fi gures, and dimensional analysis,
cancel appears in the denominator.
which will help you in solving numerical problems.
given unit 3desired unit Chemistry is an experimental science and many of the
problems are quantitative in nature. The key to success in
given unit 5 desired unit problem solving is practice. Just as a marathon runner
In dimensional analysis, the units are carried through the cannot prepare for a race by simply reading books on
entire sequence of calcula tions. Therefore, if the equation is running and a pianist cannot give a successful concert by
set up correctly, then all the units will cancel except the only memorizing the musical score, you cannot be sure of
desired one. If this is not the case, then an error must have your understanding
been made somewhere, and it can usually be spotted by
reviewing the solution.
A Note on Problem Solving

of chemistry without solving problems. The following steps will help to improve your
skill at solving numerical problems.
1. Read the question carefully. Understand the information that is given and what
you are asked to solve. Frequently it is helpful to make a sketch that will help
you to visualize the situation.
2. Find the appropriate equation that relates the given information and the unknown
quantity. Sometimes solving a problem will involve more than one step, and you
may be expected to look up quantities in tables that are not provided in the
problem. Dimensional analysis is often needed to carry out conversions.
3. Check your answer for the correct sign, units, and signifi cant fi gures.
4. A very important part of problem solving is being able to judge whether the
answer is reasonable. It is relatively easy to spot a wrong sign or incorrect units.
But if a number (say 9) is incorrectly placed in the denominator instead of in the
numerator, the answer would be too small even if the sign and units of the cal
culated quantity were correct.
5. One way to quickly check the answer is to make a “ball-park” estimate. The idea
here is to round off the numbers in the calculation in such a way so as to simplify
the arithmetic. This approach is sometimes called the “back-of-the-envelope cal
culation” because it can be done easily without using a calculator. The answer
you get will not be exact, but it will be close to the correct one.
EXAMPLE 1.6
Rounding off 0.0833 lb to 0.1 lb, we get 5 3 104 mg, which is
A person’s average daily intake of glucose (a form of sugar) is close to the preceding quantity.
0.0833 pound (lb). What is this mass in milligrams (mg)? (1 lb 5
453.6 g.) Practice Exercise A roll of aluminum foil has a mass of 1.07
kg. What is its mass in pounds?
Strategy The problem can be stated as
Conversion factors for some of the English system units commonly used in the United
States for nonscientifi c measurements (for example, pounds and inches) are provided
? mg 5 0.0833 lb inside the back cover of this book.
The relationship between pounds and grams is given in the

problem. This relationship will enable conversion from pounds
to grams. A metric conversion is then needed to convert grams to
milligrams (1 mg 5 1 3 1023 g). Arrange the appropriate
conversion factors so that pounds and grams cancel and the unit
milligrams is obtained in your answer.
Solution The sequence of conversions is
pounds ⎯→ grams ⎯→ milligrams
Using the following conversion factors
453.6 g
1 lb and 1 mg
1 3 1023 g
we obtain the answer in one step:
? mg 5 0.0833 lb 3 453.6 g
1 lb31 mg
Similar problem: 1.45.
1 3 1023 g 5 3.78 3 104 mg
Check As an estimate, we note that 1 lb is roughly 500 g and

that 1 g 5 1000 mg. Therefore, 1 lb is roughly 5 3 105 mg.
As Examples 1.7 and 1.8 illustrate, conversion factors can be squared or cubed
in dimensional analysis.
EXAMPLE 1.7
An average adult has 5.2 L of blood. What is the volume of blood in
m3? Strategy The problem can be stated as
? m3 5 5.2 L
How many conversion factors are needed for this problem? Recall that 1 L 5 1000 cm3
and 1 cm 5 1 3 1022 m.
Solution We need two conversion factors here: one to convert liters to cm3 and one to
convert centimeters to meters:
1000 cm3
22
1 L and 1 3 10 m
1 cm
Because the second conversion factor deals with length (cm and m) and we want
volume here, it must therefore be cubed to give
1 3 1022 m
22
1 cm31 3 10 m
22
1 cm31 3 10 m
Remember that when a unit is raised to a power, any conversion factor you
use must also be raised to that power. This means that 1 cm3 5 1 3 1026 m3. Now we can write ?
22
1 cm 5 a1 3 10 m m3 5 5.2 L 31000 cm3
3
1 cm b
3
22
1 L3 a1 3 10 m 1 5 5.2 3 1023 m3
cm b
Similar problem: 1.50(d).
Check From the preceding conversion factors you can show that 1 L 5 1 3 1023 m3. Therefore, 5 L of blood would be
equal to 5 3 1023 m3, which is close to the answer.
Practice Exercise The volume of a room is 1.08 3 108 dm3. What is the volume in m3?
EXAMPLE 1.8
Liquid nitrogen is obtained from liquefi ed air and is used to prepare frozen goods and in low-temperature research.
The density of the liquid at its boiling point (2196°C or 77 K) is 0.808 g/cm3. Convert the density to units of kg/m3.
Strategy The problem can be stated as
? kg/m3 5 0.808 g/cm3
Two separate conversions are required for this problem: g ⎯→ kg and cm3 ⎯→ m3. Recall that 1 kg 5 1000 g and 1 cm
5 1 3 1022 m.
Solution In Example 1.7 we saw that 1 cm3 5 1 3 1026 m3. The conversion factors are 1000 g and 1 cm3
1 kg
1 3 1026 m3
Finally,
1000 g31 cm3
? kg/m3 5 0.808 g
3
1 cm 31 kg 3
1 3 1026 m 5 808
kg/m3 (Continued)
Liquid nitrogen.
Summary of Facts and Concepts
1. The study of chemistry involves three basic steps: ob
servation, representation, and interpretation. Observa
Check Because 1 m3 5 1 3 106 cm3, we would expect much more tion refers to measurements in the macroscopic world;
mass in 1 m3 than in 1 cm3. Therefore, the answer is reasonable. representation involves the use of shorthand notation
symbols and equations for communication; interpreta
Practice Exercise The density of the lightest metal, lithium tions are based on atoms and molecules, which belong
(Li), is 5.34 3 102 kg/m3. Convert the density to g/cm3. to the microscopic world.
2. The scientifi c method is a systematic approach to re
search that begins with the gathering of information
through observation and measurements. In the process,
hypotheses, laws, and theories are devised and tested.
3. Chemists study matter and the changes it undergoes.
The substances that make up matter have unique physi cal
Key Equations properties that can be observed without changing their
m identity and unique chemical properties that, when they are
d 5 V (1.1) Equation for density demonstrated, do change the identity of the
?°C 5 1°F 2 32°F2 35°C

9°F (1.2) Converting °F to °C
?°F 5 9°F
5°C3 1°C2 1 32°F (1.3) Converting °C to °F

Key Words
Media Player
Chapter Summary
? K 5 1°C 1 273.15°C21 K
1°C (1.4) Converting °C to K

substances. Mixtures, whether homogeneous or hetero
Key Words 31
geneous, can be separated into pure components by
physical means.
4. The simplest substances in chemistry are elements.
Compounds are formed by the chemical combination
of atoms of different elements in fi xed proportions.
Similar problem: 1.51.
5. All substances, in principle, can exist in three states:
solid, liquid, and gas. The interconversion between
these states can be effected by changing the
temperature.
6. SI units are used to express physical quantities in all
sciences, including chemistry.
7. Numbers expressed in scientifi c notation have the form
N 3 10n, where N is between 1 and 10, and n is a posi
tive or negative integer. Scientifi c notation helps us
handle very large and very small quantities.
Density, p. 15 Kelvin, p. 19 Precision, p. 27
Element, p. 11 Law, p. 9 Qualitative, p. 8
Extensive property, p. 15 Liter, p. 18 Quantitative, p. 8
Heterogeneous mixture, p. 11 Macroscopic property, p. Scientifi c method, p. 8
16 Mass, p. 15 Signifi cant fi gures, p.
Homogeneous mixture, p. Matter, p. 10 23 Substance, p. 11
Accuracy, p. 26 11 Hypothesis, p. 8 Microscopic property, p. Theory, p. 9
Chemical property, p. 15 Intensive property, p. 15 16 Mixture, p. 11 Volume, p. 15
Chemistry, p. 4 International System of Units Physical property, p. 14 Weight, p. 17
Compound, p. 12 (SI), p. 16
32 Chemistry: The Study of Change 1.5 Give an example for each of the following terms: (a)
matter, (b) substance, (c) mixture.
1.6 Give an example of a homogeneous mixture and an
example of a heterogeneous mixture.
1.7 Using examples, explain the difference between a
physical property and a chemical property.
Electronic Homework Problems 1.8 How does an intensive property differ from an extensive
property? Which of the following properties are inten
The following problems are available at sive and which are extensive? (a) length, (b) volume,
www.aris.mhhe.com if assigned by your instructor as (c) temperature, (d) mass.
electronic homework. Quantum Tutor problems are also 1.9 Give an example of an element and a compound. How
available at the same site. do elements and compounds differ?
ARIS Problems: 1.12, 1.16, 1.22, 1.29, 1.31, 1.33, 1.10 What is the number of known elements?
1.35, 1.36, 1.39, 1.40, 1.44, 1.45, 1.48, 1.56, 1.57, 1.58,
1.61, 1.63, 1.64, 1.65, 1.66, 1.67, 1.76, 1.78, 1.79, 1.80,
1.81, 1.83, 1.88, 1.92, 1.93, 1.94, 1.105.
Quantum Tutor Problems: 1.29, 1.30, 1.33, 1.34.
Questions and Problems

The Scientifi c Method
Review Questions
1.1 Explain what is meant by the scientifi c method. 1.2
What is the difference between qualitative data and
quantitative data?
Problems
1.3 Classify the following as qualitative or quantitative
Problems
statements, giving your reasons. (a) The sun is approx
imately 93 million mi from Earth. (b) Leonardo da 1.11 Do the following statements describe chemical or
Vinci was a better painter than Michelangelo. (c) Ice physical properties? (a) Oxygen gas supports combus
is less dense than water. (d) Butter tastes better than tion. (b) Fertilizers help to increase agricultural pro
mar garine. (e) A stitch in time saves nine. duction. (c) Water boils below 100°C on top of a
1.4 Classify each of the following statements as a hypoth mountain. (d) Lead is denser than aluminum. (e) Ura
esis, a law, or a theory. (a) Beethoven’s contribution nium is a radioactive element.
to music would have been much greater if he had mar 1.12 Does each of the following describe a physical
ried. (b) An autumn leaf gravitates toward the ground change or a chemical change? (a) The helium gas
because there is an attractive force between the leaf inside a bal loon tends to leak out after a few hours.
and Earth. (c) All matter is composed of very small (b) A fl ash light beam slowly gets dimmer and fi nally goes
particles called atoms. out. (c) Frozen orange juice is reconstituted by adding wa
ter to it. (d) The growth of plants depends on the sun’s
Classifi cation and Properties of energy in a process called photosynthesis. (e) A spoonful of
Matter Review Questions table salt dissolves in a bowl of soup.
1.13 Give the names of the elements represented by the 1.25 Convert the following temperatures to kelvin: (a)
chemical symbols Li, F, P, Cu, As, Zn, Cl, Pt, Mg, U, 113°C, the melting point of sulfur, (b) 37°C, the
Al, Si, Ne. (See Table 1.1 and the inside front cover.) normal body temperature, (c) 357°C, the boiling
1.14 Give the chemical symbols for the following elements: point of mercury.
(a) potassium, (b) tin, (c) chromium, (d) boron, (e) 1.26 Convert the following temperatures to degrees Cel
barium, (f) plutonium, (g) sulfur, (h) argon, (i) sius: (a) 77 K, the boiling point of liquid nitrogen,
mercury. (See Table 1.1 and the inside front cover.) (b) 4.2 K, the boiling point of liquid helium, (c) 601
1.15 Classify each of the following substances as an ele K, the melting point of lead.
ment or a compound: (a) hydrogen, (b) water, (c)
gold, (d) sugar. Handling Numbers
1.16 Classify each of the following as an element, a Review Questions
com pound, a homogeneous mixture, or a
heterogeneous mixture: (a) seawater, (b) helium gas, 1.27 What is the advantage of using scientifi c notation
(c) sodium chloride (table salt), (d) a bottle of soft drink, over decimal notation?
(e) a milkshake, (f) air in a bottle, (g) concrete. 1.28 Defi ne signifi cant fi gure. Discuss the importance of
using the proper number of signifi cant fi gures in
Measurement mea surements and calculations.
Review Questions
Problems
1.17 Name the SI base units that are important in chem
istry. Give the SI units for expressing the following: 1.29 Express the following numbers in scientifi c
(a) length, (b) volume, (c) mass, (d) time, (e) energy, notation: (a) 0.000000027, (b) 356, (c) 47,764, (d)
(f) temperature. 0.096.
1.18 Write the numbers represented by the following pre 1.30 Express the following numbers as decimals:
fi xes: (a) mega-, (b) kilo-, (c) deci-, (d) centi-, (e)
(a) 1.52 3 1022, (b) 7.78 3 1028.
milli-, (f) micro-, (g) nano-, (h) pico-.
1.19 What units do chemists normally use for density of 1.31 Express the answers to the following
liquids and solids? For gas density? Explain the calculations in scientifi c notation:
differences. (a) 145.75 1 (2.3 3 1021)
1.20 Describe the three temperature scales used in the labo (b) 79,500 4 (2.5 3 102)
ratory and in everyday life: the Fahrenheit scale, the (c) (7.0 3 1023) 2 (8.0 3 1024)
Celsius scale, and the Kelvin scale. (d) (1.0 3 104) 3 (9.9 3 106)
1.32 Express the answers to the following calculations in
Problems
scientifi c notation:
1.21 Bromine is a reddish-brown liquid. Calculate its (a) 0.0095 1 (8.5 3 1023)
density (in g/mL) if 586 g of the substance occupies 188 (b) 653 4 (5.75 3 1028)
mL. 1.22 The density of ethanol, a colorless liquid
(c) 850,000 2 (9.0 3 105)
that is com monly known as grain alcohol, is 0.798
g/mL. Calcu late the mass of 17.4 mL of the liquid. (d) (3.6 3 1024) 3 (3.6 3 106)
1.23 Convert the following temperatures to degrees Cel 1.33 What is the number of signifi cant fi gures in each of
sius or Fahrenheit: (a) 95°F, the temperature on a hot the following measurements?
summer day; (b) 12°F, the temperature on a cold win
ter day; (c) a 102°F fever; (d) a furnace operating at (a) 4867 mi
1852°F; (e) 2273.15°C (theoretically the lowest at (b) 56 mL
tainable temperature). (c) 60,104 ton
1.24 (a) Normally the human body can endure a tempera (d) 2900 g
ture of 105°F for only short periods of time without (e) 40.2 g/cm3
permanent damage to the brain and other vital organs. (f) 0.0000003 cm
What is this temperature in degrees Celsius? (b) Eth ylene (g) 0.7 min
glycol is a liquid organic compound that is used as an
antifreeze in car radiators. It freezes at 211.5°C. Calculate (h) 4.6 3 1019 atoms
its freezing temperature in degrees Fahren heit. (c) The 1.34 How many signifi cant fi gures are there in each of
temperature on the surface of the sun is about 6300°C. the following? (a) 0.006 L, (b) 0.0605 dm, (c) 60.5
What is this temperature in degrees Fahrenheit? (d) The mg, (d) 605.5 cm2, (e) 960 3 1023 g, (f) 6 kg, (g) 60
ignition temperature of paper is 451°F. What is the m.
temperature in degrees Celsius? 1.35 Carry out the following operations as if they
were cal culations of experimental results, and kilometers per hour? (1 mi 5 1609 m.)
express each answer in the correct units with the 1.47 For a fi ghter jet to take off from the deck of an aircraft
correct number of signifi cant fi gures: carrier, it must reach a speed of 62 m/s. Calculate the
(a) 5.6792 m 1 0.6 m 1 4.33 m speed in miles per hour (mph).
(b) 3.70 g 2 2.9133 g 1.48 The “normal” lead content in human blood is
(c) 4.51 cm 3 3.6666 cm about 0.40 part per million (that is, 0.40 g of lead
per million grams of blood). A value of 0.80 part
(d) (3 3 104 g 1 6.827 g)y(0.043 cm3 2 0.021 cm3)
per million (ppm) is considered to be dangerous.
1.36 Carry out the following operations as if they
How many grams of lead are contained in 6.0 3 103 g
were cal culations of experimental results, and express
each answer in the correct units with the correct of blood (the amount in an average adult) if the lead
number of signifi cant fi gures: content is 0.62 ppm?
(a) 7.310 km 4 5.70 km 1.49 Carry out the following conversions: (a) 1.42 light
years to miles (a light-year is an astronomical measure of
(b) (3.26 3 1023 mg) 2 (7.88 3 1025 mg) distance—the distance traveled by light in a year, or 365
(c) (4.02 3 106 dm) 1 (7.74 3 107 dm) days; the speed of light is 3.00 3 108 m/s), (b) 32.4 yd to
(d) (7.8 m 2 0.34 m)y(1.15 s 1 0.82 s) centimeters, (c) 3.0 3 1010 cm/s to ft/s.
1.37 Three students (A, B, and C) are asked to determine 1.50 Carry out the following conversions: (a) 185 nm to
the volume of a sample of ethanol. Each student meters. (b) 4.5 billion years (roughly the age of
mea sures the volume three times with a graduated Earth) to seconds. (Assume there are 365 days in a
cylin der. The results in milliliters are: A (87.1, 88.2, year.) (c) 71.2 cm3 to m3. (d) 88.6 m3 to liters.
87.6); B (86.9, 87.1, 87.2); C (87.6, 87.8, 87.9).
The true volume is 87.0 mL. Comment on the 1.51 Aluminum is a lightweight metal (density 5 2.70
precision and the accuracy of each student’s results. g/cm3) used in aircraft construction, high-voltage
34 Chemistry: The Study of Change transmis sion lines, beverage cans, and foils. What is
its density in kg/m3?
1.38 Three apprentice tailors (X, Y, and Z) are assigned the

task of measuring the seam of a pair of trousers. Each
one makes three measurements. The results in inches 1.52 The density of ammonia gas under certain conditions
are X (31.5, 31.6, 31.4); Y (32.8, 32.3, 32,7); Z (31.9, is 0.625 g/L. Calculate its density in g/cm3.
32.2, 32.1). The true length is 32.0 in. Com
ment on the precision and the accuracy of each tai Additional Problems
lor’s measurements. 1.53 Give one qualitative and one quantitative statement
about each of the following: (a) water, (b) carbon, (c)
Dimensional Analysis iron, (d) hydrogen gas, (e) sucrose (cane sugar), (f)
Problems table salt (sodium chloride), (g) mercury, (h) gold, (i)
air.
1.39 Carry out the following conversions: (a) 22.6
m to decimeters, (b) 25.4 mg to kilograms, (c) 556 1.54 Which of the following statements describe physical
mL to liters, (d) 10.6 kg/m3 to g/cm3. properties and which describe chemical properties? (a) Iron
has a tendency to rust. (b) Rainwater in indus trialized
1.40 Carry out the following conversions: (a) 242 regions tends to be acidic. (c) Hemoglobin molecules have
lb to milligrams, (b) 68.3 cm3 to cubic meters, (c) a red color. (d) When a glass of water is left out in the sun,
7.2 m3 to liters, (d) 28.3 mg to pounds. the water gradually disappears. (e) Carbon dioxide in air is
1.41 The average speed of helium at 25°C is 1255 m/s. converted to more com plex molecules by plants during
Convert this speed to miles per hour (mph). photosynthesis.
1.42 How many seconds are there in a solar year (365.24 1.55 In 2008, about 95.0 billion lb of sulfuric acid were
days)? produced in the United States. Convert this quantity
to tons.
1.43 How many minutes does it take light from the sun to
reach Earth? (The distance from the sun to Earth is 1.56 In determining the density of a rectangular metal
93 million mi; the speed of light 5 3.00 3 108 m/s.) bar, a student made the following measurements:
length, 8.53 cm; width, 2.4 cm; height, 1.0 cm; mass,
1.44 A slow jogger runs a mile in 13 min. Calculate 52.7064 g. Calculate the density of the metal to the
the speed in (a) in/s, (b) m/min, (c) km/h. (1 mi 5 correct num
1609 m; 1 in 5 2.54 cm.) ber of signifi cant fi gures.
1.45 A 6.0-ft person weighs 168 lb. Express this 1.57 Calculate the mass of each of the following: (a)
person’s height in meters and weight in kilograms. a sphere of gold with a radius of 10.0 cm [the
(1 lb 5 453.6 g; 1 m 5 3.28 ft.)
volume of a sphere with a radius r is V 5 (4y3)pr3;
1.46 The current speed limit in some states in the United the den sity of gold 5 19.3 g/cm3], (b) a cube of
States is 55 miles per hour. What is the speed limit in
platinum of edge length 0.040 mm (the density of
platinum 5 21.4 g/cm3), (c) 50.0 mL of ethanol (the read at 25°C?
density of ethanol 5 0.798 g/mL). 1.69 A resting adult requires about 240 mL of pure
1.58 A cylindrical glass tube 12.7 cm in length is fi oxygen/min and breathes about 12 times every
lled with mercury. The mass of mercury needed to fi minute. If inhaled air contains 20 percent oxygen by
ll the tube is 105.5 g. Calculate the inner diameter of volume and exhaled air 16 percent, what is the
the tube. (The density of mercury 5 13.6 g/mL.) volume of air per breath? (Assume that the volume of
1.59 The following procedure was used to determine the inhaled air is equal to that of exhaled air.)
volume of a fl ask. The fl ask was weighed dry and 1.70 (a) Referring to Problem 1.69, calculate the total vol
then fi lled with water. If the masses of the empty fl ume (in liters) of air an adult breathes in a day. (b) In
ask and fi lled fl ask were 56.12 g and 87.39 g, a city with heavy traffi c, the air contains 2.1 3 1026 L
respectively, and the density of water is 0.9976 of carbon monoxide (a poisonous gas) per liter. Calcu
g/cm3, calculate the vol late the average daily intake of carbon monoxide in
ume of the fl ask in cm3. liters by a person.
1.60 The speed of sound in air at room temperature is about 1.71 The total volume of seawater is 1.5 3 1021 L. Assume
343 m/s. Calculate this speed in miles per hour. (1 mi that seawater contains 3.1 percent sodium chloride by
5 1609 m.) mass and that its density is 1.03 g/mL. Calculate the
total mass of sodium chloride in kilograms and in
1.61 A piece of silver (Ag) metal weighing 194.3 g is
tons. (1 ton 5 2000 lb; 1 lb 5 453.6 g.)
placed in a graduated cylinder containing 242.0 mL
of water. The volume of water now reads 260.5 mL. 1.72 Magnesium (Mg) is a valuable metal used in alloys, in
From these data calculate the density of silver. batteries, and in the manufacture of chemicals. It is
obtained mostly from seawater, which contains about
1.62 The experiment described in Problem 1.61 is a crude
1.3 g of Mg for every kilogram of seawater. Referring
but convenient way to determine the density of some
to Problem 1.71, calculate the volume of seawater (in
solids. Describe a similar experiment that would en
able you to measure the density of ice. Specifi cally, liters) needed to extract 8.0 3 104 tons of Mg, which
what would be the requirements for the liquid used in is roughly the annual production in the United States.
your experiment? Questions and Problems 35
1.73 A student is given a crucible and asked to prove

1.63 A lead sphere has a mass of 1.20 3 10 g, and
4 whether it is made of pure platinum. She fi rst weighs
the crucible in air and then weighs it suspended in
its vol ume is 1.05 3 103 cm3. Calculate the density
water (density 5 0.9986 g/mL). The readings are
of lead. 1.64 Lithium is the least dense metal known
860.2 g and 820.2 g, respectively. Based on these
(density: 0.53 g/cm3). What is the volume occupied by 1.20 measurements and given that the density of platinum
3 103 g of lithium? is 21.45 g/cm3, what should her conclusion be? ( Hint:
1.65 The medicinal thermometer commonly used An object suspended in a fl uid is buoyed up by the
in homes can be read ;0.1°F, whereas those in the mass of the fl uid displaced by the object. Neglect the
doctor’s of fi ce may be accurate to ;0.1°C. In buoyance of air.)
degrees Celsius, express the percent error expected 1.74 The surface area and average depth of the Pacifi c
from each of these thermometers in measuring a
Ocean are 1.8 3 108 km2 and 3.9 3 103 m, respectively. Cal
person’s body tempera ture of 38.9°C.
culate the volume of water in the ocean in liters.
1.66 Vanillin (used to fl avor vanilla ice cream and
1.75 The unit “troy ounce” is often used for precious metals
other foods) is the substance whose aroma the
human nose detects in the smallest amount. The such as gold (Au) and platinum (Pt). (1 troy ounce 5 31.103
g.) (a) A gold coin weighs 2.41 troy ounces. Cal culate its
threshold limit is 2.0 3 10211 g per liter of air. If the
mass in grams. (b) Is a troy ounce heavier or lighter than an
current price of 50 g of vanillin is $112, determine
ounce? (1 lb 5 16 oz; 1 lb 5 453.6 g.)
the cost to supply enough vanillin so that the aroma
could be detected in a large aircraft hangar with a 1.76 Osmium (Os) is the densest element known
volume of 5.0 3 107 ft3. (density 5 22.57 g/cm3). Calculate the mass in
pounds and in kilograms of an Os sphere 15 cm in
1.67 At what temperature does the numerical
diameter (about the size of a grapefruit). See Problem
reading on a Celsius thermometer equal that on a
1.57 for volume of a sphere.
Fahrenheit thermometer?
1.77 Percent error is often expressed as the absolute value
1.68 Suppose that a new temperature scale has been de
of the difference between the true value and the ex
vised on which the melting point of ethanol
perimental value, divided by the true value:
(2117.3°C) and the boiling point of ethanol (78.3°C)
are taken as 0°S and 100°S, respectively, where S is
the symbol for the new temperature scale. Derive an percent error 5 Ztrue value 2 experimental valueZ Ztrue
equation relating a reading on this scale to a reading
on the Celsius scale. What would this thermometer
atoms are lined up in a straight line, in contact with
valueZ3 100% each other. Round off your answer to an integer.)
The vertical lines indicate absolute value. Calculate the 1.87 One gallon of gasoline in an automobile’s engine pro
percent error for the following measurements: (a) duces on the average 9.5 kg of carbon dioxide, which
The density of alcohol (ethanol) is found to be 0.802 is a greenhouse gas, that is, it promotes the warming
g/mL. (True value: 0.798 g/mL.) (b) The mass of of Earth’s atmosphere. Calculate the annual produc
gold in an earring is analyzed to be 0.837 g. (True tion of carbon dioxide in kilograms if there are 40 mil
value: 0.864 g.) lion cars in the United States and each car covers a
1.78 The natural abundances of elements in the distance of 5000 mi at a consumption rate of 20 miles
human body, expressed as percent by mass, are: per gallon.
oxygen (O), 65 percent; carbon (C), 18 percent; 1.88 A sheet of aluminum (Al) foil has a total area
hydrogen (H), 10 percent; nitrogen (N), 3 percent; of 1.000 ft2 and a mass of 3.636 g. What is the
calcium (Ca), 1.6 per thickness of the foil in millimeters? (Density of Al
cent; phosphorus (P), 1.2 percent; all other elements, 5 2.699 g/cm3.)
1.2 percent. Calculate the mass in grams of each ele 1.89 Comment on whether each of the following is a homo
ment in the body of a 62-kg person. geneous mixture or a heterogeneous mixture: (a) air in a
1.79 The men’s world record for running a mile closed bottle and (b) air over New York City.
outdoors (as of 1999) is 3 min 43.13 s. At this rate, 1.90 Chlorine is used to disinfect swimming pools. The
how long would it take to run a 1500-m race? (1 mi 5 accepted concentration for this purpose is 1 ppm
1609 m.) chlorine, or 1 g of chlorine per million grams of
1.80 Venus, the second closest planet to the sun, has water. Calculate the volume of a chlorine solution (in
a sur face temperature of 7.3 3 102 K. Convert this milliliters) a homeowner should add to her swim
tem perature to °C and °F. ming pool if the solution contains 6.0 percent chlo
1.81 Chalcopyrite, the principal ore of copper (Cu), rine by mass and there are 2.0 3 104 gallons of water
con tains 34.63 percent Cu by mass. How many in the pool. (1 gallon 5 3.79 L; density of liquids 5
grams of Cu can be obtained from 5.11 3 103 kg of 1.0 g/mL.)
the ore? 1.91 The world’s total petroleum reserve is estimated at 2.0
1.82 It has been estimated that 8.0 3 104 tons of gold (Au) 3 1022 J (joule is the unit of energy where 1 J 5 1 kg
have been mined. Assume gold costs $948 per ounce. m2/s2). At the present rate of consumption, 1.8 3 1020
What is the total worth of this quantity of gold? J/yr, how long would it take to exhaust the supply?
1.83 A 1.0-mL volume of seawater contains about 1.92 In water conservation, chemists spread a thin fi lm of
4.0 3 10212 g of gold. The total volume of ocean certain inert material over the surface of water to cut
water is 1.5 3 1021 L. Calculate the total amount of down the rate of evaporation of water in reservoirs.
gold (in grams) that is present in seawater, and the This technique was pioneered by Benjamin Franklin
worth of the gold in dollars (see Problem 1.82). With three centuries ago. Franklin found that 0.10 mL of oil
so much gold out there, why hasn’t someone become could spread over the surface of water of about 40 m2
rich by mining gold from the ocean? in area. Assuming that the oil forms a monolayer, that
1.84 Measurements show that 1.0 g of iron (Fe) contains is, a layer that is only one molecule thick, estimate the
1.1 3 1022 Fe atoms. How many Fe atoms are in 4.9 g length of each oil molecule in nanometers. (1 nm 5
of Fe, which is the total amount of iron in the body of 1 3 1029 m.)
an average adult? 1.93 Fluoridation is the process of adding fl uorine
1.85 The thin outer layer of Earth, called the crust, contains com pounds to drinking water to help fi ght tooth
only 0.50 percent of Earth’s total mass and yet is the decay. A concentration of 1 ppm of fl uorine is suffi
source of almost all the elements (the atmosphere pro cient for the purpose. (1 ppm means one part per
vides elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, and a few million, or 1 g of fl uorine per 1 million g of water.)
other gases). Silicon (Si) is the second most abundant The compound nor mally chosen for fl uoridation is
element in Earth’s crust (27.2 percent by mass). Cal sodium fl uoride, which is also added to some
culate the mass of silicon in kilograms in Earth’s toothpastes. Calculate the quantity of sodium fl
uoride in kilograms needed per year for a city of
crust. (The mass of Earth is 5.9 3 1021 tons. 1 ton 5
50,000 people if the daily consump tion of water per
2000 lb; 1 lb 5 453.6 g.)
person is 150 gallons. What percent of the sodium fl
1.86 The radius of a copper (Cu) atom is roughly 1.3 3 uoride is “wasted” if each person uses only 6.0 L of
10210 m. How many times can you divide evenly a water a day for drinking and cooking? (Sodium fl
piece of 10-cm copper wire until it is reduced to two uoride is 45.0 percent fl uorine by mass. 1 gallon 5
separate copper atoms? (Assume there are ap 3.79 L; 1 year 5 365 days; density of wa ter 5 1.0
propriate tools for this procedure and that copper g/mL.)
1.94 A gas company in Massachusetts charges $1.30 1.100 A graduated cylinder is fi lled to the 40.00-mL mark
for 15.0 ft3 of natural gas. (a) Convert this rate to dol with a mineral oil. The masses of the cylinder before
lars per liter of gas. (b) If it takes 0.304 ft3 of gas to and after the addition of the mineral oil are 124.966 g
boil a liter of water, starting at room temperature and 159.446 g, respectively. In a separate experiment,
(25°C), how much would it cost to boil a 2.1-L kettle a metal ball bearing of mass 18.713 g is placed in the
of water? cylinder and the cylinder is again fi lled to the
40.00-mL mark with the mineral oil. The combined
1.95 Pheromones are compounds secreted by females of
mass of the ball bearing and mineral oil is 50.952 g.
many insect species to attract mates. Typically, 1.0 3 Calculate the density and radius of the ball bearing.
28
10 g of a pheromone is suffi cient to reach all [The volume of a sphere of radius r is (4/3)pr3. ]
targeted males within a radius of 0.50 mi. Calculate
the density of the pheromone (in grams per liter) in a 1.101 A chemist in the nineteenth century prepared an un
cylindrical air space having a radius of 0.50 mi and a known substance. In general, do you think it would be
height of 40 ft. more diffi cult to prove that it is an element or a com
1.96 The average time it takes for a molecule to diffuse a pound? Explain.
distance of x cm is given by 1.102 Bronze is an alloy made of copper (Cu) and tin (Sn).
Calculate the mass of a bronze cylinder of radius 6.44
x2 cm and length 44.37 cm. The composition of the
t5
2D bronze is 79.42 percent Cu and 20.58 percent Sn and
the densities of Cu and Sn are 8.94 g/cm3 and 7.31
where t is the time in seconds and D is the diffusion coeffi g/cm3, respectively. What assumption should you
cient. Given that the diffusion coeffi cient of glu cose make in this calculation?
is 5.7 3 1027 cm2/s, calculate the time it would take
for a glucose molecule to diffuse 10 mm, which is
roughly the size of a cell.
1.97 A human brain weighs about 1 kg and contains about
1011 cells. Assuming that each cell is completely fi
lled with water (density 5 1 g/mL), calculate the
length of one side of such a cell if it were a cube. If
the cells are spread out in a thin layer that is a single
cell thick, what is the surface area in square meters? Answers to Practice Exercises
1.1 96.5 g. 1.2 341 g. 1.3 (a) 621.5°F, (b) 78.3°C, (c)
2196°C. 1.4 (a) Two, (b) four, (c) three, (d) two, (e)
three or two. 1.5 (a) 26.76 L, (b) 4.4 g,
1.98 (a) Carbon monoxide (CO) is a poisonous gas because Answers to Practice Exercises 37
it binds very strongly to the oxygen carrier hemo globin in
blood. A concentration of 8.00 3 102 ppm by volume of
carbon monoxide is considered lethal to humans. Calculate can cause neurological disorders and respiratory prob
the volume in liters occupied by carbon monoxide in a lems. For safe air quality control, the concentration of
room that measures 17.6 m long, 8.80 m wide, and 2.64 m mercury vapor must be under 0.050 mg/m 3 . Convert
high at this concentra tion. (b) Prolonged exposure to this number to g/L. (c) The general test for type II dia
mercury (Hg) vapor betes is that the blood sugar (glucose) level should be
below 120 mg per deciliter (mg/dL). Convert this
number to micrograms per milliliter (mg/mL).
Special Problems
1.99 A bank teller is asked to assemble “one-dollar” sets of
coins for his clients. Each set is made of three quar ters, one 1.103 You are given a liquid. Briefl y describe steps you
nickel, and two dimes. The masses of the coins are: quarter: would take to show whether it is a pure substance or a
5.645 g; nickel: 4.967 g; dime: 2.316 g. What is the homogeneous mixture.
maximum number of sets that can be assembled from 1.104 A chemist mixes two liquids A and B to form a homo
33.871 kg of quarters, 10.432 kg of nickels, and 7.990 kg of geneous mixture. The densities of the liquids are 2.0514
dimes? What is the total mass (in g) of the assembled sets g/mL for A and 2.6678 g/mL for B. When she drops a
of coins? small object into the mixture, she fi nds that the object
becomes suspended in the liquid; that is, it nei ther sinks nor ter at 20°C and tightly capped. It was then left out
fl oats. If the mixture is made of 41.37 percent A and 58.63 doors overnight, where the average temperature was
percent B by volume, what is the density of the metal? Can 25°C. Predict what would happen. The density of wa
this procedure be used in general to determine the densities ter at 20°C is 0.998 g/cm3 and that of ice at 25°C is
of solids? What as sumptions must be made in applying this 0.916 g/cm3.
method?
1.105 Tums is a popular remedy for acid indigestion.
A typ ical Tums tablet contains calcium carbonate
plus some inert substances. When ingested, it reacts
with the gastric juice (hydrochloric acid) in the
stomach to give off carbon dioxide gas. When a
1.328-g tablet reacted with 40.00 mL of hydrochloric
acid (density: 1.140 g/mL), carbon dioxide gas was
given off and the re sulting solution weighed 46.699 (c) 1.6 3 107 dm2, (d) 0.0756 g/mL, (e) 6.69 3 104 m.
g. Calculate the num ber of liters of carbon dioxide 1.6 2.36 lb. 1.7 1.08 3 105 m3. 1.8 0.534 g/cm3.
gas released if its density is 1.81 g/L.
1.106 A 250-mL glass bottle was fi lled with 242 mL of wa
CHEMICAL
Mystery
The Disappearance of the Dinosaurs
D inosaurs dominated life on Earth for millions of years and then disappeared very suddenly.
To solve the mystery, paleontologists studied fossils and skeletons found in rocks in var
ious layers of Earth’s crust. Their fi ndings enabled them to map out which species existed on
38
Earth during specifi c geologic periods. They also revealed no dinosaur skeletons in rocks
formed immediately after the Cretaceous period, which dates back some 65 million years. It is
therefore assumed that the dinosaurs became extinct about 65 million years ago.
Among the many hypotheses put forward to account for their disappearance were disrup
tions of the food chain and a dramatic change in climate caused by violent volcanic eruptions.
However, there was no convincing evidence for any one hypothesis until 1977. It was then that
a group of paleontologists working in Italy obtained some very puzzling data at a site near
Gubbio. The chemical analysis of a layer of clay deposited above sediments formed during the
Cretaceous period (and therefore a layer that records events occurring after the Cretaceous
period) showed a surprisingly high content of the element iridium (Ir). Iridium is very rare in
Earth’s crust but is comparatively abundant in asteroids.
This investigation led to the hypothesis that the extinction of dinosaurs occurred as follows.
To account for the quantity of iridium found, scientists suggested that a large asteroid several
miles in diameter hit Earth about the time the dinosaurs disappeared. The impact of the aster
oid on Earth’s surface must have been so tremendous that it literally vaporized a large quantity
of surrounding rocks, soils, and other objects. The resulting dust and debris fl oated through the
air and blocked the sunlight for months or perhaps years. Without ample sunlight most plants
could not grow, and the fossil record confi rms that many types of plants did indeed die out at
this time. Consequently, of course, many plant-eating animals perished, and then, in turn, meat
eating animals began to starve. Dwindling food sources would obviously affect large animals
needing great amounts of food more quickly and more severely than small animals. Therefore,
the huge dinosaurs, the largest of which might have weighed as much as 30 tons, vanished due
to lack of food.
Chemical Clues
1. How does the study of dinosaur extinction illustrate the scientifi c method?
2. Suggest two ways that would enable you to test the asteroid collision hypothesis.
3. In your opinion, is it justifi able to refer to the asteroid explanation as the theory of dinosaur
extinction?
4. Available evidence suggests that about 20 percent of the asteroid’s mass turned to dust and
spread uniformly over Earth after settling out of the upper atmosphere. This dust amounted
to about 0.02 g/cm2 of Earth’s surface. The asteroid very likely had a density of about
2 g/cm3. Calculate the mass (in kilograms and tons) of the asteroid and its radius in meters,
assuming that it was a sphere. (The area of Earth is 5.1 3 1014 m2; 1 lb 5 453.6 g,) (Source:
Consider a Spherical Cow—A Course in Environmental Problem Solving by J. Harte,
University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA 1988. Used with permission.)
39
Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions
Colored images of the radioactive

emission of radium (Ra). The
models show the nuclei of
radium and the radioactive decay
products—radon (Rn) and an alpha
particle, which has two protons and
two neutrons. Study of radioactivity
helped to advance scientists’
knowledge about atomic structure.
Outline 2.1 The Atomic Theory
Chapter 2.2 The Structure of the Atom 2.3 Atomic Number, Mass
Number, and Isotopes
• We will learn the following ways to identify atoms. Atomic
2.4 The Periodic Table number is the
number of protons in a nucleus; atoms of different
2.5 Molecules and Ions
elements have different atomic numbers. Isotopes are atoms of the
2.6 Chemical Formulas same element having a different number of neutrons. Mass
2.7 Naming Compounds 2.8 Introduction to Organic number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an
Compounds atom. Because an atom is electrically neutral, the number of
protons is equal to the number of electrons in it. (2.3)
Next we will see how elements can be grouped together
•
according to their
chemical and physical properties in a chart
called the periodic table. The periodic table enables us to classify
elements (as metals, metalloids, and nonmetals) and correlate their
properties in a systematic way. (2.4)
We will see that atoms of most elements interact to form
•
compounds, which
are classifi ed as molecules or ionic
compounds made of positive (cations) and negative (anions) ions.
(2.5)
We learn to use chemical formulas (molecular and empirical) to
•
represent
molecules and ionic compounds and models to represent
We learn a set of rules that help us name the
molecules. (2.6) •
inorganic compounds. (2.7) Finally, we will briefl y explore the
•
organic world to which we will return
Student Interactive Activity in a later chapter. (2.8)
Animations
Cathode Ray Tube (2.2)
Millikan Oil Drop (2.2)
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma
S ince ancient times humans have pondered the nature of matter.
Rays (2.2) Our modern

a-Particle Scattering (2.2)
ideas of the structure of matter began to take shape in the early
Media Player nineteenth century with Dalton’s atomic theory. We now know
Rutherford’s Experiment (2.2) Formation of an Ionic that all matter is made of atoms, molecules, and ions. All of
Compound (2.7) chemistry is concerned in one way or another with these species.
Chapter Summary
ARIS
Example Practice Problems
End of Chapter Problems
Quantum Tutors
End of Chapter Problems
A Look Ahead
• We begin with a historical perspective of the search for the
fundamental
units of matter. The modern version of atomic theory
was laid by John Dalton in the nineteenth century, who postulated
that elements are composed of extremely small particles, called
atoms. All atoms of a given element are identical, but they are
different from atoms of all other elements. (2.1)
We note that, through experimentation, scientists have learned
•
that an atom
is composed of three elementary particles: proton,
electron, and neutron. The proton has a positive charge, the
electron has a negative charge, and the neutron has no charge.
Protons and neutrons are located in a small region at the center of
the atom, called the nucleus, while electrons are spread out about
the nucleus at some distance from it. (2.2)
41
42 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
2.1 The Atomic Theory
In the fi fth century b.c. the Greek philosopher Democritus expressed the belief that
all matter consists of very small, indivisible particles, which he named atomos (mean
ing uncuttable or indivisible). Although Democritus’ idea was not accepted by many
of his contemporaries (notably Plato and Aristotle), somehow it endured. Experimen
tal evidence from early scientifi c investigations provided support for the notion of
“atomism” and gradually gave rise to the modern defi nitions of elements and com
pounds. In 1808 an English scientist and school teacher, John Dalton, † formulated a
precise defi nition of the indivisible building blocks of matter that we call atoms.
Dalton’s work marked the beginning of the modern era of chemistry. The hypoth
eses about the nature of matter on which Dalton’s atomic theory is based can be
summarized as follows:
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and
chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of
all other elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound,
the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement
of atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction.
Figure 2.1 is a schematic representation of the last three hypotheses.
Dalton’s concept of an atom was far more detailed and specifi c than Democritus’.
The second hypothesis states that atoms of one element are different from atoms of
all other elements. Dalton made no attempt to describe the structure or composition
of atoms—he had no idea what an atom is really like. But he did realize that the
different properties shown by elements such as hydrogen and oxygen can be explained
by assuming that hydrogen atoms are not the same as oxygen atoms.
The third hypothesis suggests that, to form a certain compound, we need not only
atoms of the right kinds of elements, but specifi c numbers of these atoms as well.
†
John Dalton (1766–1844). English chemist, mathematician, and philosopher. In addition to the atomic
theory, he also formulated several gas laws and gave the fi rst detailed description of color blindness, from
which he suffered. Dalton was described as an indifferent experimenter, and singularly wanting in the
language and power of illustration. His only recreation was lawn bowling on Thursday afternoons. Perhaps
it was the sight of those wooden balls that provided him with the idea of the atomic theory.
Figure 2.1 (a) According to

Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms of
the same element are identical,
but atoms of one element are
different from atoms of other
elements. (b) Compound formed
from atoms of elements X and Y.
In this case, the ratio of the
atoms of element X to the atoms
of element Y is 2:1. Note that a
chemical reaction results only in
the rearrangement of atoms, not
in their destruction or creation. Atoms of element X Atoms of element Y Compounds of elements X and Y
(a) (b)
2.2 The Structure of the Atom 43
On the basis of Dalton’s atomic theory, we can defi ne an
This idea is an extension of a law published in 1799 by atom as the basic unit of an element that can enter into
Joseph Proust, † a French chemist. Proust’s law of defi nite chemical combination. Dalton imagined an atom that was
proportions states that different samples of the same both extremely small and indivisible. However, a series of
compound always contain its constituent elements in the investigations that began in the 1850s and extended into the
same proportion by mass. Thus, if we were to analyze twentieth century clearly demonstrated that atoms actually
samples of carbon dioxide gas obtained from different possess internal structure; that is, they are made up of even
sources, we would fi nd in each sample the same ratio by smaller particles, which are called subatomic particles. This
mass of carbon to oxygen. It stands to reason, then, that if research led to the discovery of three such
the ratio of the masses of different elements in a given particles—electrons, protons, and neutrons.
compound is fi xed, the ratio of the atoms of these elements
in the compound also must be constant.
†
Dalton’s third hypothesis supports another important law, Joseph Louis Proust (1754–1826). French ‡
chemist. Proust was the fi rst
the law of multiple proportions. According to the law, if person to isolate sugar from grapes. According to Albert Einstein, mass
and energy are alternate aspects of a single entity called mass-energy.
two elements can combine to form more than one Chemical reactions usually involve a gain or loss of heat and other forms of
compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fi energy. Thus, when energy is lost in a reaction, for example, mass is also
xed mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole lost. Except for nuclear reactions (see Chapter 23), however, changes of
numbers. Dalton’s theory explains the law of multiple mass in chemical reactions are too small to detect. Therefore, for all
proportions quite simply: Different compounds made up of practical purposes mass is conserved.
Carbon monoxide
the same elements differ in the number of atoms of each
kind that combine. For example, carbon forms two stable
O 1
compounds with oxygen, namely, carbon monoxide and ± C± 1
carbon dioxide. Modern measurement techniques indicate ±±±
that one atom of carbon combines with one atom of oxygen
in carbon monoxide and with two atoms of oxygen in carbon
dioxide. Thus, the ratio of oxygen in carbon monoxide to Carbon dioxide
oxygen in carbon dioxide is 1:2. This result is consistent
with the law of multiple proportions ( Figure 2.2 ). O 2
± C± 1
Dalton’s fourth hypothesis is another way of stating the law ±±±±±±±
of conservation of mass,‡ which is that matter can be
neither created nor destroyed. Because matter is made of
atoms that are unchanged in a chemical reaction, it follows Ratio of oxygen in
that mass must be conserved as well. Dalton’s brilliant carbon monoxide to
insight into the nature of matter was the main stimulus for oxygen in carbon dioxide: 1:2
the rapid progress of chemistry during the nineteenth Figure 2.2 An illustration of the law of multiple proportions.
century.
Review of Concepts
The atoms of elements A (blue) and B (orange) form two
compounds shown here. Do these compounds obey the law
of multiple proportions?
2.2 The Structure of the Atom

Figure 2.3 A cathode ray tube

–
with an electric fi eld perpendicular
to the direction of the cathode
rays and an external magnetic fi
Anode Cathode High voltage
eld. The symbols N and S
denote the north and south poles B S
of the magnet. The cathode rays
will strike the end of the tube at
A in the presence of a magnetic
fi eld, at C in the presence of an N
C
electric fi eld, and at B when
there are no external fi elds
present or when the effects of
the electric fi eld and magnetic fi
eld cancel each other. Fluorescent screen
+
The Electron
Animation In some experiments, two electrically charged plates and a
Cathode Ray Tube
magnet were added to the outside of the cathode ray tube
(see Figure 2.3 ). When the magnetic fi eld is on and the
electric fi eld is off, the cathode ray strikes point A. When
only the electric fi eld is on, the ray strikes point C. When
both the magnetic and the electric fi elds are off or when
they are both on but balanced so that they cancel each
other’s infl uence, the ray strikes point B. According to
electromagnetic theory, a moving charged body behaves
like a magnet and can interact with electric and magnetic fi
elds through which it passes. Because the cathode ray is
attracted by the plate bearing positive charges and repelled
by the plate bearing negative charges, it must consist of
negatively charged particles. We know these negatively
charged particles as electrons. Figure 2.4shows the effect
of a bar magnet on the cathode ray.
Electrons are normally associated with atoms. However, they can also be studied
individually.
An English physicist, J. J. Thomson, † used a cathode ray
tube and his knowledge of electromagnetic theory to
determine the ratio of electric charge to the mass of an
individual electron. The number he came up with was 21.76
3 108 C/g, where C stands for coulomb, which is the unit of
Animation electric charge. Thereafter, in a series of experiments
Millikan Oil Drop
carried out between 1908 and 1917, R. A. Millikan ‡
In the 1890s, many scientists became caught up in the study
succeeded in measur
of radiation, the emission and transmission of energy
through space in the form of waves. Information gained ing the charge of the electron with great precision. His work
from this research contributed greatly to our understanding proved that the charge on each electron was exactly the
of atomic structure. One device used to investigate this same. In his experiment, Millikan examined the motion of
phenomenon was a cathode ray tube, the forerunner of the single tiny drops of oil that picked up static charge from
television tube ( Figure 2.3 ). It is a glass tube from which ions in the air. He suspended the charged drops in air by
most of the air has been evacuated. When the two metal applying an electric fi eld and followed their
plates are connected to a high-voltage source, the
†
negatively charged plate, called the cathode, emits an Joseph John Thomson (1856–1940). British physicist who received the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906 for discovering the electron.
invisible ray. The cathode ray is drawn to the positively ‡
Robert Andrews Millikan (1868–1953). American physicist who was
charged plate, called the anode, where it passes through a awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1923 for determining the charge of
hole and continues traveling to the other end of the tube. the electron.
When the ray strikes the specially coated surface, it
produces a strong fl uorescence, or bright light.
2.2 The Structure of the Atom 45
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 2.4 (a) A cathode ray produced in a discharge tube. The ray itself is invisible, but the fl uorescence of a zinc sulfi de coating
on the glass causes it to appear green. (b) The cathode ray is bent downward when a bar magnet is brought toward it. (c) When the
polarity of the magnet is reversed, the ray bends in the opposite direction.
motions through a microscope ( Figure 2.5 ). Using his knowledge of electrostatics,

Millikan found the charge of an electron to be 21.6022 3 10219 C. From these data
he calculated the mass of an electron:
mass of an electron 5 charge

charge/mass
219
5 21.6022 3 10 C
21.76 3 108 C/g
5 9.10 3 10228 g
This is an exceedingly small mass.
Radioactivity
In 1895, the German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen † noticed that cathode rays caused
glass and metals to emit very unusual rays. This highly energetic radiation penetrated
matter, darkened covered photographic plates, and caused a variety of substances to
fl uoresce. Because these rays could not be defl ected by a magnet, they could not
contain charged particles as cathode rays do. Röntgen called them X rays because
their nature was not known.
†
Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen (1845–1923). German physicist who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901
for the discovery of X rays.
Charged plate Oil droplets Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of Millikan’s oil drop experiment.
Atomizer
Small
hole
()
X ray
to produce Viewing
charge on microscope
oil droplet
()
Charged plate
Figure 2.6 Three types of rays
emitted by radioactive elements.
b rays consist of negatively
charged particles (electrons) and
are therefore attracted by the
positively charged plate. The
opposite holds true for a rays—
β
–
they are positively charged and +
are drawn to the negatively Lead block
Radioactive substance
α
charged plate. Because g rays
have no charges, their path is
unaffected by an external
Animation
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Rays
γ
electric fi eld. Positive charge spread over the entire sphere
–
Not long after Röntgen’s discovery, Antoine
Becquerel, † a professor of physics in Paris, began to
study the fl uorescent properties of substances. Purely
by accident, he found that exposing thickly wrapped
photographic plates to a certain uranium compound
caused them to darken, even without the stimulation
of cathode rays. Like X rays, the rays from the
uranium compound were highly energetic and could
not be defl ected by a magnet, but they differed from
X rays because they arose spontane plate. Beta (b) rays, or b particles, are electrons and
‡
ously. One of Becquerel’s students, Marie Curie, are defl ected by the negatively charged plate. The
suggested the name radioactivity to describe this third type of radioactive radiation consists of
spontaneous emission of particles and/or radiation. high-energy rays called gamma (g) rays. Like X rays,
Since then, any ele ment that spontaneously emits g rays have no charge and are not affected by an
radiation is said to be radioactive. Three types of rays external fi eld.
are produced by the decay, or breakdown, of
radioactive substances such as uranium. Two of the The Proton and the Nucleus
three are defl ected by oppositely charged metal
plates ( Figure 2.6 ). Alpha (a) rays consist of By the early 1900s, two features of atoms had become
positively charged particles, called a particles, and clear: they contain electrons,
therefore are defl ected by the positively charged
–– maintain electric neutrality, an atom Figure 2.7 ). This so-called
must contain “plum-pudding” model –
– was the accepted theory for a number
an equal number of positive and of years.
–– negative charges. Therefore, Thomson
proposed that an atom could be †
Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852–1908). French
thought of as a uniform, positive physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in
and they are electrically neutral. To sphere of matter in which electrons Physics in 1903 for discovering radioactivity in
uranium.
are embedded like raisins in a cake (
again received the Nobel prize, this time in chemistry, for her work on the
Figure 2.7 Thomson’s model of the atom, sometimes described radioactive elements radium and polonium. She is one of only three people
as the “plum-pudding” model, after a traditional English dessert to have received two Nobel prizes in science. Despite her great
containing raisins. The electrons are embedded in a uniform, contribution to science, her nomination to the French Academy of Sciences
positively charged sphere. in 1911 was rejected by one vote because she was a woman! Her daughter
‡
Marie (Marya Sklodowska) Curie (1867–1934). Polish-born chemist and Irene, and son-in-law Frederic Joliot-Curie, shared the Nobel Prize in
physicist. In 1903 she and her French husband, Pierre Curie, were awarded Chemistry in 1935.
the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on radioactivity. In 1911, she
α–Particle emitter turned back. (b) Magnifi ed view of
2.2 The Structure of the Atom 47 a particles passing through and
being defl ected by nuclei.
Gold foil
Figure 2.8 (a) Rutherford’s

experimental design for measuring
the scattering of a particles by a
piece of gold foil. Most of the a
particles passed through the gold
foil with little or no defl ection. A
few were defl ected at wide angles.
Slit
Detecting screen Occasionally an a particle was
particles should have passed through the foil with very
(a) (b)
little defl ection. To quote Rutherford’s initial reaction
when told of this discovery: “It was as incredible as if you
In 1910 the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford, † had fi red a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it
who had studied with Thomson at Cambridge University, came back and hit you.”
decided to use a particles to probe the structure of atoms. Rutherford was later able to explain the results of the
Together with his associate Hans Geiger ‡ and an a-scattering experiment in terms of a new model for the
undergraduate named Ernest Marsden, § Rutherford carried atom. According to Rutherford, most of the atom must be
out a series of experiments using very thin foils of gold empty space. This explains why the majority of a particles
and other metals as targets for a particles from a passed through the gold foil with little or no defl ection.
radioactive source ( Figure 2.8 ). They observed that the The atom’s positive charges, Rutherford proposed, are all
majority of particles penetrated the foil either undefl ected concentrated in the nucleus, which is a dense central core
or with only a slight defl ection. But every now and then an within the atom. Whenever an a particle came close to a
a particle was scattered (or defl ected) at a large angle. In nucleus in the scattering experiment, it experienced a large
some instances, an a particle actually bounced back in the repulsive force and therefore a large defl ection. Moreover,
direction from which it had come! This was a most an a particle traveling directly toward a nucleus would be
surprising fi nding, for in Thomson’s model the positive completely repelled and its direction would be reversed.
charge of the atom was so diffuse that the positive a The positively charged particles in the nucleus are called
protons. In separate experiments, it was found that each
proton carries the same quantity of charge as an electron
and has a mass of 1.67262 3 10224 g—about 1840 times the
mass of the oppositely charged electron.
At this stage of investigation, scientists perceived the atom
as follows: The mass of a nucleus constitutes most of the
mass of the entire atom, but the nucleus occupies only
about 1/1013 of the volume of the atom. We express atomic
(and molecular) dimensions in terms of the SI unit called
the picometer ( pm ) , where
1 pm 5 1 3 10212 m
†
Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937). New Zealand physicist. Rutherford did
most of his work in England (Manchester and Cambridge Universities).
He received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 for his investigations
into the structure of the atomic nucleus. His often-quoted comment to his
students was that “all science is either physics or stamp-collecting.”
‡
Johannes Hans Wilhelm Geiger (1882–1945). German physicist. Geiger’s
work focused on the structure of the atomic nucleus and on radioactivity.
He invented a device for measuring radiation that is now com monly called
the Geiger counter.
§
Ernest Marsden (1889–1970). English physicist. It is gratifying to know
that at times an undergraduate can assist in winning a Nobel Prize.
Marsden went on to contribute signifi cantly to the development of
science in New Zealand.
Animation
a-Particle Scattering
Media Player
Rutherford’s Experiment
A common non-SI unit for atomic length is the angstrom (Å; 1 Å = 100 pm).

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10th EDITION

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Publisher: Thomas D. Timp

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Raymond Chang was born in Hong Kong and grew up in

1 Chemistry: The Study of Change 2

Chemistry: The Study

1.4 Classifi cations of Matter 10

1.8 Handling Numbers 22

2.5 Molecules and Ions 53

2.8 Introduction to Organic Compounds 68

Precipitation Reactions 124

4.3 Acid-Base Reactions 129

4.5 Concentration of Solutions 147

Key Words 160

5.7 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 201

5.8 Deviation from Ideal Behavior 211

6.4 Enthalpy of Chemical Reactions 239

6.6 Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction 252

6.7 Heat of Solution and Dilution 258

7.4 The Dual Nature of the Electron 288

7.5 Quantum Mechanics 293

8.4 Ionization Energy 337

Key Equation 356

Chemical Bonding I: Basic

9.4 The Covalent Bond 374

9.10 Bond Enthalpy 394

10.3 Valance Bond Theory 424

Intermolecular Forces 463

11.4 Crystal Structure 472

11.7 Amorphous Solids 486

11.8 Phase Changes 489

12.6 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions 526

12.8 Colloids 541

13.4 Activation Energy and Temperature Dependence of Rate Constants 582

13.6 Catalysis 594

16.4 Acid-Base Titrations 723

16.11 Application of the Solubility Product Principle to

17.4 Volcanoes 780

Entropy, Free Energy, and

18.5 Gibbs Free Energy 814

18.7 Thermodynamics in Living Systems 825

19.7 Corrosion 862

Metallurgy and the Chemistry

21.3 Carbon 920

21.4 Nitrogen and Phosphorus 924

21.5 Oxygen and Sulfur 932

Transition Metals Chemistry and

23.6 Nuclear Fusion 1007

24.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1039

APPENDIX 1 Derivation of the Names of Elements A-1

Maintaining the pH of Blood 724

F rom the fi rst edition, my aim has been to write a

general chemistry text that provides a fi rm foun

Visualization Study Aids

general lab experiments from the Journal of Chemical

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Jeff Rack Ohio University

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