BIA108S Tutorial Topic2-4 v1.1

Bachelor of Science
Industrial Automation Engineering
BIA108S: Process Instrumentation and Control

Tutorial
Topics 2-4
Pressure, Level, Temperature and Flow
CRICOS Provider Number: 03567C | Higher Education Provider Number: 14008 | RTO Provider Number: 51971
Objectives and Learning Outcomes
Objectives:
1. Pressure units, characteristics and types of pressure
2. Methods of pressure measurement, calibration
3. Level measurement
4. Temperature scales, fixed points
5. Temperature methods, characteristics, calibration
6. Flow measurement
7. Inferential flow methods and characteristics
8. Quantity methods and characteristics
9. Mass flow methods and characteristics, calibration, maintenance and
repair
Objectives and Learning Outcomes
Learning outcomes:
On successful completion of this unit, students are expected to be able to:
1. Understand different types of pressure and relationship between them,
units of pressure and conversion between units
2. Identify different types of pressure detectors, their working procedure,
advantages and disadvantages
3. Identify level measuring instruments - types, calibration and selection
using different parameters
4. Identify different units of temperature measurement, types of
temperature measuring instruments and their advantages and
limitations
5. Understand flow types, characteristics and parameters related to flow
6. Identify different types of flow measuring instruments, their advantages
disadvantages, calibration, servicing and maintenance
Pressure Units, Characteristics and Types of
Pressure
Pressure Units
Recalling that pressure can be measured in:
– SI unit: Pascal (Pa) or newton per square meter (N/m2 or kg.m-1.s-2)
– British units: pounds (force) per square inch (of area)
– CGS unit: barye (Ba) equal to 1 dyn·cm−2 or 0.1 Pa
Pressure Units
Following are commonly used for evaluating high and low pressures:
High pressure:
– 1 newton per square metre (1 N/m2) = One pascal (1 Pa)
– 1 atmospheric pressure (1 atm) = 14.696 psi = 101.325 kPa
– 1 bar = 100,000 N/m²
Low pressure:
– 1 millibar = 100 Pa = 14.5 X 10-3 psi
– 1 micron = 10-6 m Hg = 19.34 X 10-6 psi
– 1 torr = 1mm Hg = 133.322 Pa
Recall: Typical Pressure Conversion Table
Table reading:
For example, 1 mmHg = 0.0075006 Pa
Example: Pressure Unit Conversion
Questions:
Referring to the table in the previous slide, convert the following pressures:
1. 540 mm of Hg convert to Pascal
2. 20.75 bar to atm
3. 1 millli bar to mm of Hg
4. 700 mmH2O to psi
5. 1 atm to Pa
6. 1.05 kg/cm2 to bar
7. 2 in Hg to mm H2O
8. 550 atm to bar
9. 1500 Pa to kg/cm2
Example : Pressure Unit Conversion
Solution:
1. 540 mm of Hg to Pascal 71992.8 Pa
2. 20.75 bar to atm 20.47 atm
3. 1 millli bar to mm of Hg 0.75006 mm Hg
4. 700 mm H2O to psi 9.95 psi
5. 1 atm to Pa 101.20 Pa
6. 1.05 kg/cm2 to bar 1.029 bar
7. 2 in Hg to mm H2O 690.64 mm H2O
8. 550 atm to bar 557.26 bar
9. 1500 Pa to kg/cm2 0.0152 kg/cm2
Example 1 : Pressure Conversion
Problem:
The pressure reading from a barometer is 760 mm Hg. Express this reading
in pascals, Pa.
Solution:
From pressure conversion table given we have:
1 mm of Hg = 133.32 pascals
= 760 mm Hg x 133.32 pascal = 101 323.2 pascals

1 mm Hg
Problem:
Meteorologists state that a “falling” barometer indicates an approaching
storm. Given a barometric pressure of 27.5 in. Hg, express the pressure in
each of the following units of pressure:
(a) Atm (b) mm Hg
Solution:
For each conversion, we apply a unit conversion factor related to units of
standard pressure.
(a) To express the pressure in atmospheres, we derive a unit factor related
to the equivalent relationship 29.9 in. Hg = 1 atm.
(b) To convert to millimeters of mercury, we derive a unit factor related to

the equivalent relationship 29.9 in. Hg = 760 mm Hg.
Characteristics and Types of Pressure
Recalling different types of pressure:
• Static
• Dynamic Static pressure:
Static pressure is the result of the weight
• Gauge of all the air molecules above that point
• Absolute pressing down
• Vacuum or differential
Dynamic (velocity) pressure:

• Quite simply, if you hold your hand up in a strong wind or out of the
window of a moving car, then the extra wind pressure is felt due to the
air impacting your hand.
• This extra pressure is over and above the static pressure, and is called
dynamic pressure
Total pressure:
• Total pressure is the sum of the static pressure
and the dynamic pressure.
Gauge pressure:
A gauge that indicates zero at atmospheric pressure is calibrated measure
the difference between actual and atmospheric pressure, the difference is
called gauge pressure.
• It is abbreviated as pounds per square inch gauge (psig).
• Most liquid pressure gauges uses atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) as a
zero point.
Example: Gauge Pressure Measurement
Gauge (relative) pressure: Filling level measurement
The gauge pressure transmitter measures the hydrostatic pressure (prel) of

the liquid and converts it into an electrical signal.
If the density of the liquid is known, then this signal provides a direct
indication of the filling level h.
Applications include wells, lakes and ponds, swimming baths, reservoirs
and tanks, heating systems.
Recalling:
Absolute pressure:
Absolute pressure is actual total pressure (including atmospheric pressure)
acting on a surface.
• It is abbreviated as Kpa absolute
• Pressure values below zero cannot be measured
Vacuum or differential pressure

• The gauges which are designed
to indicate pressure below zero is
called a vacuum gauge.
Case Study: Vacuum Pressure
Meat Packing Application
Process:
• In meat packing, a vacuum of a defined quality
must be generated, so that a maximum shelf life
can be safely ensured
• The residual amount of oxygen in the packaging
(i.e. the residual pressure gauge to vacuum) is
directly proportional to the shelf-life of the
packaged food
List all the factors which will causes major
fluctuation in expiry date of the food during
packaging of the meat.
Case Study: Vacuum Pressure
Solution:
• If meat is exposed to low pressure during the vacuum process, meat
moisture leaks out. Also, bubbles of gas appear, escaping from the
meat.
• A measurement uncertainty due to atmospheric changes of +/- 30 mbar,
at the usual residual pressure in the food packaging of 65mbar will
cause the major changes in the expiry date of food.
Example: Vacuum Measurement
Level and pressure measurement in the
vacuum system:
A vacuum system is used to perform dewatering
on the high-speed paper machines. The
required high vacuum is generated by a single
or multi-stage centrifugal blower. The strength
of the vacuum is regulated by the rotational
speed of the electric drives.
For this purpose, the vacuum must be
continuously measured. It is also necessary to
monitor the bearing lubrication system to
ensure reliable operation of the vacuum blower
itself. To achieve this, the pressure in the
lubricating lines and the level in the lube oil
supply tank need to be measured.
Example: Differential Pressure Measurement
Differential pressure measurement in
the drying cylinder:
The residual moisture content of the
paper web is removed by steam-heated
cylinders in the drying section of the paper
machine. The drying process removes heat
from the steam, which then forms a thin
layer of condensate on the inner walls of
the cylinder. This layer influences the
transfer of heat to the paper and has to be
skimmed off continuously by siphoning.
The correct level of heat transfer from the
drying cylinder to the paper is monitored
by pressure measurements both at the
inlet and at the outlet.
Methods of Pressure Measurements,
Calibration
Methods of Pressure Measurements
Recalling the different methods of pressure measurement are listed below:
• Manometer method
• Elastic pressure transducers
• Pressure measurement by measuring vacuum
• Pressure measurement by balancing the force produced on a known
area by a measured force
• Electrical pressure transducers
Manometer Method
Recalling the different types of manometers:
1) U tube 2) Well type 3) Barometer
4) Inclined 5) Micro manometer
Summarizing U-tube manometer
From the figure, the differential pressure (P1-P2) is obtained by the relation:
P1  P2  ( ρ  ρ1)(h1  h2)g
P  ( ρ  ρ1)gh
Where: ⍴ = density of fluid in U-tube; ⍴1=

density of the fluid whose pressure is being
measured; h =(h1 – h2), difference in fluid
levels; g = acceleration due to gravity; and
(P1 – P2) = P = differential pressure
Manometer Method
(a) Both sides of the tube are open to the atmosphere, so gauge pressure is
equal to atmospheric pressure.
(b) Pabs is greater than atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is given by
Pgauge = hρg, so PAbs = Patmosphere + Pgauge
(c) Pabs is less than atmospheric pressure,

where ρ = the density of the
therefore, Pgauge = - hρg (since vacuum) fluid in the manometer and g =
acceleration due to gravity
PAbs = Patmosphere – Pgauge
Example: Manometer
Question:
What will be the (a) the gauge pressure and (b) the absolute pressure
of water at depth 12 m below the surface?
Rwater = 1000 kg/m3 and
patmosphere= 101 kN/m2[117.72 kN/m2, 218.72 kN/m2]
Example: Manometer
Solution:
a) Pgauge = ⍴gh
= 1000 x 9.81 x 12 N/m2, (Pa)
= 117720 N/m2, (Pa)
= 117.7 kN/m2, (kPa)
b) Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmosphere

= 117720 + 101 N,m2
= 218.7 kN/m2
Manometer Method
Well – type manometer
Inclined manometer Micro manometer
Force Balance Method
Summarising…
Dead weight piston gauge:
• Used for high steady pressure measurement and for calibration of elastic
diaphragm and Bourdon type gauge.
• Error is less than 0.1%
Ring balance gauge:

• Frequently used for the measurement
of low differential pressures of the
order of a few inches of water gauge.
Example: Force Balance Method
• Here, we see a diagram of a force-balance pneumatic
pressure transmitter, balancing a sensed differential
pressure with an adjustable air pressure which becomes a
pneumatic output signal.
• Differential pressure is sensed by a liquid-filled diaphragm
“capsule,” which transmits force to a “force bar”.
• If the force bar moves out of position due to this applied
force, a highly sensitive “baffle” and “nozzle” mechanism
senses it and causes a pneumatic amplifier (called a
“relay”) to send a different amount of air pressure to a
bellows unit.
• The bellows presses against the “range bar” which pivots
to counter-act the initial motion of the force bar. When
the system returns to equilibrium, the air pressure inside
the bellows will be a direct, linear representation of the
process fluid pressure applied to the diaphragm capsule.
Elastic Pressure Transducer
Summarising…
C-type Bourdon pressure gauge:
• It covers the ranges from 0-15 psig to 0-100 000 psig
• Types of adjustments to be made here are:
1. Multiplication adjustment
2. Angularity
Diaphragm pressure transducer:
Metallic diaphragm gauge Slack diaphragm gauge

Case Study: Elastic Pressure Transducer
The customer is a large engineering company which provides a wide variety
of solutions to the construction industry.
Problem definition:
• Specific requirements are necessary to install
the correct pressure and temperature
indicators in a manufacturing plant.
• The customer sought advice from Rototherm
in choosing and sourcing the most appropriate
gauges to meet their needs.
Effect of problem:
The incorrect supply of temperature and pressure indicators may result in
the following:
• Risk to product safety and quality
• Risk of non-compliance with regulatory and client requirements risk of
increased energy costs due to incorrect use of equipment
• Risk to employees if HVAC is not installed and maintained correctly
Questions:
Which type of pressure measuring instrument is suitable for the following
process which has:
• High temperature range?
• Sturdy enclosure?
• Easy to display reading?
Solution:
Considering the type of the application and
process parameters a stainless steel bourdon
pressure gauges filled with silicone are suitable
for the following application, because:
• Works effectively at higher temperature
• Stainless steel will make the enclosure sturdier
• Ease to use and display
Measurement of Vacuum
Summarising:
Capsule gauges:
• They are used for low pressure measurements
and also where highest accuracy is required
• The pressure range of the capsule gauge is from I
atmosphere (1000 m bar) to 0.5 m bar
McLeod gauge:
The pressure can be calculated by using the
following equation:
Measurement of Vacuum
Summarising thermal conductivity gauge:
There are two types of thermal conductivity gauges.
Pirani gauge: Thermocouple gauge:
When the resistance of one Pirani element It works on the same basic principle as
changes current will flow through the the Pirani gauge. The only difference is
ammeter. This current flow indicates a change that the filament temperature is
in pressure of the gas being measured measured by a thermocouple.
Electrical Pressure Transducer
Recalling and summarising:
Capacitive pressure transducer:
• The principle of operation of capacitive pressure
transducers is based on equation:
Reluctance pressure transducer:
Linear variable differential transformer Piezoelectric pressure transducer

Case Study 1: Electrical Pressure Transducer
The customer is a leading refinery in Southeast Asia…
Background:
• This refinery was having problems controlling the
fired heater draft pressure in a tight set-point
range
• This was causing excessive process variability and
upsets in the heater operation
• The customer wanted to correct these problems
in the new grassroots refinery being built
• The unreliable and unstable draft pressure control resulted in several

negative business impacts on the operation of this fired heater
Case Study 1: Electrical Pressure Transducer
Recommend type of pressure measurement devices for Heater draft
pressure measurement to achieve:
• Tighter draft pressure control
• Higher stability
Case Study 1: Capacitive Pressure Transducer
Solution:
• The customer solved this problem in their new grassroots
refinery by installing the Rosemount 3051S (Capacitive
pressure transducer), which is well suited for heater
draft pressure measurement.
• The accuracy and stability of the Rosemount 3051S
helped this refinery to achieve tight draft pressure
control. This significantly improved flame stability,
reduced the risk of flame-out, and improved refinery
safety.
• The reduction in process variability improved uniformity of heat input,
which improved product quality, reduced the coking rate and operational
interruptions.
Pressure measurement on drying cylinders
Process description:
When pressing the paper, a solid content of 50 ... 55 %
is reached. The remaining moisture is removed by
vaporization. This is done by steam heated cylinders in
the drying section of the paper machine. The heat
transfer to the paper is made by direct contact to the
outside wall of the cylinder.
Problem:
During the drying process, as the heat is extracted from the steam, a
condensate film is caused on the inside wall of the cylinder. This condensate
impairs the efficiency of heat transfer to the paper. It is kept as thin as possible
by skimming it off continuously and by measuring the pressure difference
between the input and output.
Suggest the type of pressure measuring instrument for this application:
• Which is in contact with the cylinder
• Vibration resistant
Solution:
• By using capacitive pressure transducer (VEGABAR 52), the effectiveness
of drying cylinder is monitored, and the siphon reduces the
temperature of steam from 1600C to below 1200C for pressure
transducer
• The highly overload resistant CERTEC® measuring cell ensures the
necessary reliability even in case of pressure shocks
Example: Calibration of Pressure Instruments
Calibration of low pressure gauges
Questions:
Name the instruments used for calibrating the pressure sensors of
following pressure range:
1) 1.75 inch water gauge
2) 56 inch mercury gauge or 125 inch water gauge
3) 11 inch mercury gauge
4) For higher pressure
Solution:
The answers to the questions in previous slides are
1) micrometer or inclined water gauge
2) mercury manometer
3) water manometer
4) dead-weight piston gauge
Calibration of pressure transmitter
Question:
Identify all the steps in calibrating a pressure transmitter of pressure range
from 10 Pa to 250 Pa with output signal from 4-20 mA.
Solution:
Following steps to be followed for calibrating pressure transmitters of
pressure range from 10 to 250 Pa with output signal from 4-20 mA.
1) Turn on the transmitter
2) Use a dead weight tester to apply 10 Pa pressure to the instrument
3) Adjust the zero to set exactly 4mA output
4) Supply 250 Pa pressure to the instrument
5) Adjust the span to get reading of exactly 20 mA
6) Apply 130 Pa pressure(half scale input pressure)
7) Adjust linearity to bring output signal within the specified tolerance of
12 mA
Experimental Setup for Pressure Calibration
Recalling Orientation Table for Selecting Pressure
Detectors
Note: For the full table refer to Table 12.4 from Industrial Instrumentation and Control, 3 rd Edition, by S. K. Singh – Page 398
Example: Selection of Pressure Detectors
Question:
In a desalination plant, water is required to flow at a pressure of 200 kPa,
maximum pressure of flow should not exceed 37.95 MPa. The operators
work is to make sure the pressure falls within given limit.
Suggest appropriate measuring device for this scenario. The measuring
device should have overall accuracy within the range of ±0.5 and should be
installed inline with the flow. Reference pressure is for device is
atmospheric pressure. It should also have remote readout for plant
monitoring.
Example: Selection of Pressure Detectors
Solution:
Going through all the parameters stated in the following
application
• Type of fluid = water
• Range of accuracy = ±0.5
• Reference pressure = atmospheric pressure
Considering all the above parameters, from the table
shown in slide no.49
Spiral type Bourdon gauge is suitable for this application
Level Measurements
Methods of Level Measurements
Recalling the methods of level measurement
• Level of liquid in system will affect both pressure in a system and rate of
flow of liquid, so level measurement is important
• Level of liquid is measured by following level indicators
Sight glass
Direct method Float type
Hook type level
Indicator
Hydrostatic
Indirect method Pressure type
Electrical methods
Summarising Direct Methods
Sight glass:
It consists of graduated tube of toughened glass
which is connected to interior of tank
As the level of liquid raises or falls inside the
tank, the level of liquid inside glass also raises
and falls.
Float type:
The movement of float is transmitted to pointer
by stainless steel or phosphor-bronze flexible
cable wound around a pulley.
Liquid level from 0.5 ft (152 mm) to 60 ft (1.52
m) can be easily measured with this type of
measurement.
Example: Sight Glass
Magnetic level gauge:
• In this instrument, you can see red coloured flags
toward the bottom of the scale which have been
“flipped” by the motion of the magnetic float inside
the stainless-steel tube
• The height of the red zone i.e. how many flags have
been flipped to show their red sides indicates the
height of the liquid inside the tube
• Some magnetic level gauges even have high- and low-
level magnetic switches located at strategic points
along the tube’s height, providing discrete sensing
capability for alarms and/or shutdown controls, if the
liquid level ever goes outside of safe operating limits.
Indirect Method of Level Measurement
Recalling all indirect methods of level measurement
• Hydrostatic pressure methods
• Electrical methods
Air bellows Capacitance level indicator
Air purge system Radiation level
Liquid purge system
Pressure gauge method
Hydrostatic Pressure Type
Summarising hydrostatic pressure type level sensors:
Air bellows: Air purge system:

Used for liquid level measurement Advantage:
where an indicator cannot be • In this system, the pressure gauge can
conveniently located at the specified be placed above or below the tank level
datum line. and can be kept as far away as 500 ft
(12.7 m) from the tank with the help of
piping
Electrical Methods
Recalling:
Capacitance level detector: Radiation level detector:
Principle of operation is based on eq: • This method is used where other
electrical methods would not
survive.
• It consists of gamma rays source
holder on one side and a gamma
detector on the other side of the
tank.
Case Study: Electrical Level Detector
Process description:
• In most cases, the required degree of whiteness
for paper is reached by multistage bleaching.
Depending on the pulp density, the chemical pulp
is transported via pumps, a flow distributor, or
conveying spirals to the bleaching tower.
• The bleaching process is running continuously by
adding bleaching chemicals such as oxygen, ozone
or peroxide. The bleached pulp is discharged via
feed screws.
• Similar processes are used for lignin, bleach and
waste paper recycling.
Questions:
Suggest a level detector for the following applications:
• To avoid overfilling of the bleaching tower
• Continuous level measurement
• Unaffected by chemicals
• Suitable for pulp mixtures
• Economical
Solution:
• To avoid overfilling of the bleaching tower, the capacitive level switch
VEGACAP 62 installed.
• The level switch prevents any spillages or blockages and the continuity
of the process is ensured and works effectively with the following pulp
mixture.
• Level sensor is installed in the top of the tower and is unaffected by the
chemicals which is used in the bleaching process.
Recalling Ultrasonic Level Detector
• Ultrasonic level measuring devices can be
used for both continuous and point
measurements. The point measuring
ultrasonic detectors are used for
measurement of gas/liquid, liquid/liquid, or
gas/solid interfaces.
• The reliability of the reading is unaffected by
changes in the composition, density, moisture
content, electrical conductivity, or dielectric
constant of the process fluid.
Limitations:
• The dirt, irregular and slope surfaces affect
the accuracy of the measurement.
Case Study 1: Level Detector
Coal Mining and Handling
Process:
Many countries rely on coal, which is mined
underground or imported to fulfil their energy
demands. Whether directly as a combustible
material or further processed as crude oil this raw
product is indispensable. After excavation, coal is
transported through the mines, to heaps and
directly to rail and shipping points by conveyors.
Additionally, in many mining and mineral extraction
processes VEGA also provides level solutions for
material handling and washing.
In this industry conditions are harsh for man,
machines and equipment.
Questions:
1. Suggest an level measuring device which will indicate:
• Whether the conveyor belt is covered with coal or not
• If yes then how much it has been covered
2. The sensor should not be in contact with conveyor belt and also should
be unaffected by belt movement.
Solution:
• The ultrasonic level sensor (VEGASON63) will tell you whether a
conveyer belt is covered and if so by how much
• By being mounted above the belt, it is not in contact with the abrasive
coal, and also unaffected by belt movements
• From loading to the discharge point, the VEGASON 63 suits this
application without being affected by product qualities
Customer is an UK power station
Problem definition:
At the 4,000 MW Power Generation site - Western
Europe’s largest coal-fired power station – water is
drawn from a local borehole and subjected to a three-
stage de-ionisation process to remove dissolved
minerals. The process requires regular regeneration
using concentrated solutions of sulphuric acid and
caustic soda.
The 98% acid and 47% caustic solutions are held in five bulk storage tanks:
four hold approximately 50 t and the fifth is capable of storing 148 t of acid;
the tanks are replenished as necessary from 25 t road tankers. The level in
each tank is constantly monitored to ensure that it is never completely
drained.
Problem definition cont.:
Refurbishment of the water treatment plant provided the opportunity to
replace the existing level measurement systems. These were based on
hydrostatic pressure sensors immersed in the liquid and were causing
concern because the seals were prone to attack by the aggressive
concentrations of acid and caustic soda.
In addition, the high and low alarm level switches had become corroded
beyond use.
Questions:
• Which is the type of preferred level measuring device replacement to
the hydrostatic switches?
• Can this type of level switch be in contact with the liquid?
• The sensor must be resistant to chemical corrosion.
Solution:
• Rosemount® model 3102 ultrasonic liquid level transmitters were
selected as a replacement for continuous level measurement.
• PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride) faced sensors were selected for their
resistance to chemical corrosion.
• The sensors are mounted at the top of each tank, eliminating any direct
contact with the tank’s contents.
Recalling Radar Level Detector
Non-contacting radar type Guided wave radar type
• Measurement is based on the

• Two examples of radar gauges are
time difference between
the 5.8 GHz and 24 GHz systems.
sending and receiving a
• The higher transmission frequency microwave pulse that was sent
can be used to detect dry, non- down a probe and reflected
conductive materials with very low back at the product surface.
bulk density.
Case Study: Level Sensors
Cargo Tank Level Measurement
Problem definition:
• In the marine industry, a continuous level control
system must be in place on cargo tanks to adhere
to strict safety and environmental requirements.
• Overfilling or chemical/fuel discharge onto the
ship deck or into the sea could have devastating
consequences for human, sea life and the
environment, so the charge and discharge
procedures have to be carefully supervised and
kept under control by using reliable level control
instruments.
Questions:
Suggest a level sensor for proposed problem which should be:
• unaffected by temperature
• The measurement is insensitive to density fluctuations of the different
products in the cargo
• The level sensor should be non contact.
Solution:
• VEGAPLUS63 radar level sensors are used for these type of applications.
These sensors are unaffected by temperature, pressure or gas
stratification and, on top of that, deliver accurate measurement data
right from the start.
• The measurement is insensitive to density fluctuations of the different
products in the cargo, because as this radar level sensor is non-contact,
it always measures the distance to the product surface.
• The PTFE coated antenna ensures high chemical resistance, even for
marine applications with cargoes holding aggressive products.
Summary: Calibration of Level Instruments
Calibration of differential pressure level transmitter
• Calibrating a d/p transmitter is similar to calibrating a pressure
transmitter.
Calibration of capacitance level instruments
• To perform a periodic calibration check of the capacitance level, it is best
to establish an independent means of determining the level.
Summary: Calibration of Level Instruments
Calibration of ultrasonic level instruments
1. Determine the distance h from the face of the ultrasonic transducer to
the 100% level
2. Determine the test point distances which are in spans(0%,25%,etc) of
height h
3. Remove the instrument from the top of the tank use a tape measure to
mark the distances from test surface at each desired test point
4. Place the instrument on top of tank, move to the next test points and
record the level reading. Repeat until all "as-found" readings have been
obtained
Summarising Maintenance and Repair of Level
Instruments
Servicing of sight glass
Site glass is serviced by cleaning the glass tube which indicates the
measurement by carefully removing the parts attached to it and again
reconfiguring after cleaning.
Servicing of float-operated instruments
The moving parts will be filled with oil to lubricate and protect the internal
parts from corrosion which will causes the minimum maintenance of parts.
Servicing of hydrostatic pressure instruments
The output of the transmitter to be checked while servicing, transmitter
output should be a correct pressure signal corresponding to the level of
liquid in the tank. If the signal is correct, the system is free from leaks and
the transmitter is calibrated correctly.
Recalling Orientation Table for Selection of Level
Sensors
1 – Good
2 – Fair
3 – Poor
C – Continuous
P – Point
Selection of Level Sensors
Suggest the following:
1) Can a thermal level sensor can be used for continuous measurement of
slurries?
2) Suggest level sensors which are effective, i.e. give good response for
continuous measurement of powder solids:
3) Response of float type level sensor in point level measurement of foam
is:
(a) Good (b) fair (c) Poor – not applicable
4) Ultrasonic level sensor will give good response in point level
measurement of suspended solids:
(a) True (b) False
Selection of Level Sensors
Solution:
From the orientation table for selection of level sensors:
1) Can thermal level sensor be used for continuous measurement of
slurries? Answer: Thermal level sensor cannot be used for continuous
measurement of slurries
2) Suggest level sensors which is effective, i.e. gives good response for
continuous measurement of powder solids. Answer: Radiation type,
weight/cable type electromechanical level sensor
3) Response of float type level sensor in point level measurement of foam
is - Poor
4) Ultrasonic level sensor will give good response in point level
measurement of suspended solids. Answer: True
Case Study: Selection of Level Detectors
Problem:
• On the 28th of March, 1979, thousands of people fled from Three Mile
Island (near Harrisburg, PA) when the cooling system of a nuclear
reactor failed.
• This dangerous situation developed because the level controls turned
off the coolant flow to the reactor when they detected the presence of
cooling water near the top of the tank.
• Unfortunately, the water reached the top of the reactor vessel not
because there was too much water in the tank, but because there was
so little that it boiled and swelled to the top.
• From this example, we can see that level measurement is more complex
than simply the determination of the presence or absence of a fluid at a
particular elevation.
Problem cont.
Questions:
When determining what type of level sensor should be used for a given
application, there are a series of questions that must be answered:
• Can the level sensor be inserted into the tank or should it be completely
external?
• Should the sensor detect the level continuously or will a point sensor be
adequate?
• Can the sensor come in contact with the process fluid or must it be located in
the vapour space?
• Is direct measurement of the level needed or is indirect detection of hydrostatic
head (which responds to changes in both level and density) acceptable?
• Is tank depressurization or process shut-down acceptable when sensor removal
or maintenance is required?
• Suggest the suitable level sensor for the following application (in 2 slides).
Solution:
• By evaluating the above choices, one will substantially shorten the list of
sensors to consider.
• The selection is further narrowed by considering only those designs that
can be provided in the required materials of construction and can
function at the required accuracy, operating temperature, etc. (from
table from slide 60).
• If the tank is agitated, there is often no space in which to insert probe-
type sensors.
• Plus, because the liquid surface is not flat, sonic, ultrasonic, or radar
devices typically cannot be used either.
Solution cont.
• Even with displacer or d/p sensors, agitation can cause the level signal to
cycle.
• These pulses can be filtered out by first determining the maximum rate
at which the level can change (due to filling or discharging) and
disregarding any change that occurs faster than that.
Solution cont.
• If the level in a tank is to be inferred using
hydrostatic pressure measurement, it is
necessary to use multi-transmitter systems
when it is desirable to:
– Detect the true level, while either the process
temperature or density varies
– Measure both level and density; and
– Measure the volume and the mass (weight) in
the tank
• By measuring one temperature and three pressures, the system shown in

the figure is capable of simultaneously measuring volume (level), mass
(weight), and density, all with an accuracy of 0.3% of full span.
Temperature Scales, Fixed Points
Temperature Scales
Recalling the fixed points used in temperature measurement:
i. The lower fixed point, or ice-point
ii. The upper fixed point, or steam-point
• The temperature interval between ice-point and steam-point is known
as fundamental interval
Different types of temperature scale used are:
Fahrenheit and Centigrade (Celsius) temperature scales:
• Since both scales are linear, temperatures can be easily converted from
one to other, using following equation:
Temperature Scales
Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales:
• The centigrade (oC) can be converted into Kelvin (oK) by using equation:
K   C  273.15
• Fahrenheit (oF) to Rankine (oR)  R   F  459.69

The Reaumur scale:
• The Reaumur scale is abbreviated as ͦR’
• Assigns 0 ͦ R’ to the ice-point and 80 ͦ R’ to the steam point.
• This scale is often used in alcohol industries
International practical temperature scale:
• This scale is based on number of basic and secondary fixed points that
can be used for calibrating temperature measuring instruments.
Example 1 : Temperature Conversion
Problem:
If someone says that the temperature will be 303 K today, how can you
express that temperature in °C and °F?
Example 1 : Temperature Conversion
Solution:
To convert from Kelvin to Celsius:
0C = K - 273
TC = 303 - 273 0C = 30°C
To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit:
0F = (0C * 180 / 100) +32

0F = (30 * 180 /100) + 32
0F = 86°F
Example 2: Temperature Conversion
Problem:
Liquid oxygen boils at normal pressure at -182.96°C. What is this
temperature in Kelvin and Rankine scale?
Example 2: Temperature Conversion
Solution:
Temperature in Kelvin:
K = ºC + 273.15
K = -182.96 + 273.15 K = 90.19 K
In Rankine scale:
Convert centigrade scale to Fahrenheit using formula:
0F = (0C*180 / 100) + 32
0F = (-182.96 *180 / 100) + 32 0F = - 297.328
Convert 0F to 0R using formula:
0R = - 297.328 + 459.69
0R = 162.362
Example: Basic Fixed Points
Questions:
Indicate the following:
1) Melting point of ice
2) Boiling point of mercury
3) Triple point of pure water
Secondary fixed points:
• The temperatures of a numbers of other points is known as secondary
fixed points, are available, and used for calibrating thermometers
• Since the temperatures for a given substance change with pressure, all
the points are shown are at standard atmospheric pressure except the
boiling point of hydrogen(4.834 Psia)
Example: Basic Fixed Points
Solution:
1) Melting point of ice = 00C
2) Boiling point of mercury = 356.7 0C
3) Triple point of pure water = 0.01 0C
Temperature Methods, Characteristics,
Calibration
Methods of Temperature Measurement
The temperature measuring instruments are classified according to the
nature of the change produced in testing body by change of
temperature, recalling all types of temperature measuring instruments:
i. Expansion thermometers
ii. Filled-system thermometers
iii. Electrical temperature instruments
iv. Pyrometers
Expansion thermometers
Expansion of solids expansion of liquids expansion of gas
Bimetallic thermometers liquid-in-glass gas thermometer
liquid-in-metal
Expansion Thermometer
Summarising bimetallic thermometers
• When strip is heated, the two metals change
their length in accordance with their individual
rates of thermal expansion.
Bimetallic thermometer with spiral Bimetallic thermometer with helical

bimetallic element bimetallic element
Summarising Liquid Expansion Thermometer
Liquid-in-glass thermometer Liquid-in-metal thermometer
Gas thermometer:
• Operation of gas thermometer depends
on the ideal gas law which states:
i.e. VαT ; P is constant
PαT ; V is constant
Filled System Thermometer
Recalling different types of filled system thermometers:
i. Gas-filled thermometers
ii. Liquid-filled thermometers
iii. Mercury-filled thermometers
iv. Vapour-pressure thermometers
Vapour-pressure thermometers:
• Bulb is partially filled with liquid, while the capillary
and Bourdon tubes are filled with vapour.
Electrical Temperature Measurement
Recalling the types of electrical temperature sensors
Resistance thermometer:
• Wide temperature range from -200 to 650oC
• When this instrument is placed in a liquid or gas
medium whose temperature is to be measured,
the sheath quickly reaches the temperature of the Thermistor
medium.
Thermocouple:
• Extremely wide temperature
range from -270 to 2800oC.
Example: Resistance Thermometer
RTD installed in a thermo well on the side of a commercial freezer, using a
Rosemount model 3044C temperature transmitter to output a 4-20 mA
signal to an operator display.
Example: Thermocouple Measurement
Determining thermocouple measurement
Problem: A voltage of 6.36 mv is measured with a type J thermocouple at a
0°C reference. From the table given for the voltages of the J type
thermocouple - Find the temperature of the measurement junction.
Type J:
Iron-Constantan
Example: Thermocouple Measurement
Solution:
• The voltage of 6.36 mV at a reference of 0C from the table corresponds
to 120C so this is the temperature measurement.
Note: if the voltage measured is some intermediate value say 6.22mV, the
temperature can be calculated as:
• From the Table, we see that Vm = 6.22 mv lies between Vl = 6.08 mv and
Vh = 6.36 mv, with corresponding temperatures of Tl = 115°C and Th =
120°C, respectively. Therefore, using the equation above , we can find
the junction temperature as follows:
Case Study: Thermocouple
Multi-point thermocouple to measure tank level
Application:
A method of defining temperature gradients in a storage tank was required
as a means of detecting the level and/or mixing of the fluid in the tank.
Challenge:
Fast response, low cost, and highly localized temperature points were
needed to accurately detect temperature gradients in the fluid over a short
distance (16”) near the bottom of a storage tank. Localized points were
required to minimize the conduction effect between the points insuring an
accurate representation of the gradients.
Case Study: Thermocouple
Solution cont.
A replaceable probe with three measuring
junctions was designed that would install
easily into a standard thermo well in the
same manner as a standard RTD or
thermocouple probe. A thermocouple was
chosen as the best sensor type because of
the very localized point measurement ability
and they are small enough to fit three inside
a 1/4.” diameter probe.
Spring loading of the probe keeps it firmly bottomed out in the thermo well
to maintain a thermal conduction path. Each measuring junction was
located in the probe to give the best possible conduction path from the
probe to the thermo well insuring a localised measurement.
Pyrometers
Recalling two type of pyrometers generally used
i. Radiation pyrometers
Applications:
• They are used for moving targets
• They are used for targets not easily accessible, such as furnace interiors
ii. Optical Pyrometers

• Here comparison of intensity of visual radiation emitted
by hot body whose temperature is to be measured, with
the radiation emitted by a source of known intensity.
• Used for the temperature measurement between the
range 700 to 3000oC.
Fibre Optic Temperature Measurement System
• The figure indicates basic setup of fiber-optic temperature measurement
system for hot rolled metal sheet in a rolling mill.
Recalling main elements of fibre optic system:
i. Fiber-optic assembly
ii. Infrared detector
iii. Electronic console
Field of view:
• This is described in terms of ratio of target distance to the target size,
and it ranges from 900:1 to 3:1
• A single wavelength instrument measures the
hottest part of target within its field of view.
Example: Fibre Optic Temperature Measurement
Transformer winding hot spot temperature monitoring
• OSENSA’s fiber optic temperature sensors are completely immune to
EMI/RFI and high voltage environments making them ideal for
transformer winding hot spot temperature monitoring. OSENSA is
developing technology and partnering with leading transformer
manufacturers that require accurate, real-time, smart grid temperature
monitoring of power and distribution equipment.
• Fiber optic temperature sensors have been
installed in high-voltage oil filled transformers
for over twenty years and are now considered
the preferred method of transformer
monitoring. The benefit that fiber optic
sensors offer transmission and distribution
(T&D) companies is financially significant.
Recall: Ultrasonic Thermometer
• These are based on the effect of the temperature on the velocity of
sound waves in medium transmitting sound waves, i.e.
• These temperature sensors can measure temperature from the

cryogenic range to plasma levels (20,0000C).
Example: Ultrasonic thermometer
Temperature measurement of weld pool
• As shown in figure, the UV sensor
consists of a CCD camera and an image
intensifier, and UV reflection.
• mirrors (shown in figure 5) and grass
filters (U-340x2, U-350x1) have been
used in the system to detect UV
radiation (0.35 mm). A trial blackbody
furnace was used for calibration of this
system.
• The IR sensor consists of a CCD camera
and an interference filter (0.96 mm).
Calibration of Thermometers
Calibration of bimetallic thermometers:
• Calibrated by comparing their responses to that of a standard
thermometer in a constant temperature bath.
Calibration of liquid-in-glass thermometers:
• The usual method to calibrate is to determine ice points.
Calibration of thermocouples:
• Calibrated by comparing its response with standard thermometer at
same temperature.
• An optical pyrometer is used to calibrate thermocouples above 800oC.
Calibration of filled system thermometers:
• Filled system thermocouples are calibrated by comparing their responses
to that of standard thermocouple.
Calibration of Thermometers
Calibration of resistance thermometers:
• These thermometers are calibrated by comparison, by reference to fixed
points or by both methods.
Calibration of radiation pyrometer:
• Calibrated by sighting it through a hole into a large zone of uniform
temperature.
Calibration of optical pyrometers:
• Optical pyrometers are calibrated against a standard tungsten lamp
whose temperature is known in terms of lamp current.
Recall: Orientation Table for Selection of
Temperature Sensors
For complete table, refer to Industrial Instrumentation and Control, 3rd Edition by SK Singh –pages 434 & 435
Example: Selection of Temperature Sensors
Question:
Select the temperature sensors for the following parameters from the table
in the previous slide:
1) Small sensor with good stability
2) Maximum distance to readout is less than 300 m
3) For temperature range of 800 to 2200 0C
4) State the range of temperature in which thermistor can be used
Example: Selection of Temperature Sensors
Solution:
Select the temperature sensors for the following parameters from the table
in the previous slide:
1) Small sensor with good stability. Answer: Thermocouple
2) Maximum distance to readout is less than 300 m. Answer: Nickel
resistance thermometer
3) For temperature range of 800 to 2200 0C. Answer: Radiation, optical
4) State the range of temperature in which thermistor can be used.
Answer: -101 to 316 0C
Selection of Temperature Measuring
Instruments
For example:
Temperature measurement has to be performed in a process where the
temperature of the substance is above 538 0C and within 2 760 0C, the
measuring instruments should have good stability, excellent response time
and should be medium in size. The maximum distance to readout is not
more than 915 m.
Suggest appropriate thermometer type for this application from the table
provided in the previous slide.
Selection of Temperature Measuring
Instruments
Solution:
Considering the process parameters as stated in the previous slide
• Minimum process temperature = 538 0C
• Maximum process temperature = 2 760 0C
• Readout distance = <915 m
Considering all these constraints and from the table indicated in slide 107.
A thermocouple will be suitable for the following application.
Flow Measurement
Introduction to Flow Measurement
Summarising the three states of liquid flow and Reynolds number…
Reynolds number:
• A Reynolds number defines the flow conditions at a particular point. It is
a way of representing fluidity and is a useful indicator of laminar and
turbulent flow:
Example: Reynolds Number
Question:
Find the Reynolds number if a fluid of viscosity 0.4 Ns/m2 and relative
density of 900 Kg/m3 through a 20 mm pipe with a Velocity of 2.5 m/s?
Example: Reynolds Number
Solution:
Viscosity of fluid μ = 0.4 Ns/m2,
Density of fluid ρ = 900 Kg/m3
Diameter of the fluid D = 20 × 10-3
Velocity of fluid V = 2.5 m/s
The Reynolds formula is given by:

= 112.5
Here, we observe that the value of Reynolds number is less than 2000, so
the flow of liquid is laminar.
Flow Measurement: Methods
• Many accurate and reliable methods are available for measuring flow;
some of which are applicable only to liquids, some only to vapours and
gases and some others to both
• Recalling different methods of flow measurements:
‒ Inferential type flow meters
‒ Quantity flow meters
‒ Mass flow meters
Inferential Flow Methods and Characteristics
Inferential Flow Measurements (IFM)
• In the inferential type of flow measurement, the flow rate is inferred
from a characteristic effect of a related phenomenon
• Recalling the inferential type of flow measurement methods:
‒ Variable heads or differential meters
‒ Magnetic meters
‒ Target meters
‒ Turbine meters
‒ Thermal flow meter
‒ Vortex meters
‒ Ultrasonic flow meters
‒ Variable area meters
IFM: Variable Head or Differential Meters
Recalling variable head flow meter…
• It measures volume rather than mass flow rates, but
mass rates can be calculated or computed easily
knowing or sensing temperatures and pressure
• The basic equation is given as:
where: V = Velocity of flowing fluid

Q = Volume flow rate
W = Mass Flow rate
A = Cross-sectional area of pipe through which fluid is flowing
h = differential head (pressure) across the restriction element
g = Acceleration due to gravity
p = Density of the flowing liquid
where C = discharge coefficient

ᵦ
and = diameter ratio
Recalling parts of a differential flow meter…
1. Primary elements
Orifice plate Venturi tubes Flow nozzle
Dall tubes Pitot tubes Annubar tubes
2. Secondary elements
‒ Manometers
‒ Bellow meters
‒ Force balance meters
‒ Ring balance meters
Flumes
Elbow taps
Example: Level Measurement with Differential
Pressure Sensor
Level measurement:
The figure shows an application that
uses a DP transmitter: measuring the
level of a closed tank.
In the example, if the pressure in the
closed tank changes, an equal force is
applied to both sides of the DP
transmitter.
Since the DP cell responds only to Thus, the DP cell responds only to
changes in liquid level. In this
changes in differential pressure, a example, a 4-to-20 ma DC current
change in the static pressure on the signal is used to represent the level
liquid surface will not change the in the tank
output of the transmitter.
Case Study: Differential Flow Meter
Measuring the flow of heating oil
Problem definition:
• Offshore platforms are a demanding environment and oil production is a
difficult and potentially dangerous operation.
• Crude oil extracted from below the seabed has to pass through several
processes. It has to be cleaned and scrubbed removing any impurities, such as
seawater.
• This process improves efficiency by as much as 50% or more if temperature of
the extracted product is raised.
• A New Zealand company won the contract to provide oil heating equipment
for a South East Asian processing platform.
• They had developed suitable gas heating technology and had provided
equipment for other offshore facilities.
• The process involves circulating heating oil to warm the cooler product, but a
reliable instrument is needed to measure the flow of the heating oil.
Questions:
For the pipe size of 8 inch or 200 mm suggest an flow measuring device
which:
• Does not require any isolation valve, manifold and impulse lines
• The offshore environment is certainly not friendly so the device should
be capable of withstanding most hostile environments
Solution:
• The most suitable measurement technology
for this application seemed to be the orifice
plate (Rosemount 3051SFC).
• They’re simple and reliable and the associated DP transmitters can be
made intrinsically safe with barriers.
• Traditional systems need isolation valves, manifolds and impulse lines,
which all have connections that are potentially dangerous leakage points.
• The Rosemount 3051S Differential Pressure Transmitter, however,
has an all-welded, 316L SST hermetically sealed SuperModule
which houses the single board electronics, protecting them from
moisture and field contaminants. The 3051S can withstand the
most hostile environment.
Case Study: Annubar Tube
Oxygen and natural gas flow measurement in glass production furnace
Problem definition:
• The glass manufacturing process requires tight control of natural gas and
Oxygen flow to fuel the production furnaces.
• Finding a cost effective, yet accurate way to control these furnaces was
proving to be a challenge for a glass manufacturing facility.
• The plant had previously been using three separate transmitters to
measure differential pressure, static pressure and temperature.
• These values were then being sent to a single loop controller to calculate
flow and perform furnace burner control.
• While this did work to a certain degree, there were numerous issues
that left room for improvement.
Questions:
Suggest an flow measurement device which has:
• Improved accuracy and efficiency
• Housing of three separate transmitter in single unit
• Which will operate at higher temperature
• Also suggest cost effective solution
Solution:
• To help improve the measurement accuracy and
repeatability, the glass manufacturing plant chose to
use a Rosemount 3051SFA Annubar® Flowmeter.
• This combined the 3051S MultiVariable™ transmitter with the 485
Annubar® primary element, to provide all-in-one integrated assembly.
• The Rosemount 3051SMV combines three transmitters in a single
package, eliminating the need for individual differential pressure, static
pressure, and temperature transmitters.
• Ultimately, the 3051SFA Annubar Flowmeter is the most advanced DP
flowmeter available, delivering real-time mass flow measurement
through a single pipe penetration. This reduces engineering, hardware,
and installation costs while improving process reliability and quality.
Recall: Magnetic Flow Meters
• Magnetic meters are available in sizes from 2.54 to 2540 mm in
diameter, with an accuracy range ±½ to ±2%.
• They are mounted around the pipe, perpendicular to direction of flow.
• It works with fluids which are adequate electrical
conductor
• It works on faradays law of electromagnetic
induction for making flow measurement
• Here, electrically conductive flowing liquids works
as the conductor, the induced voltage is given by:
Where: E = Induced voltage in volts

C = dimensional units
B = magnetic field in Weber/m2
L = Length of the conductor (fluid) m
V = Velocity of the conductor (fluid) in m/s
Recall: Magnetic Flow Meters
• The equation of continuity to convert a velocity measurement to
volumetric flow rate is given as:
Where Q = volumetric flow rate; A = cross-sectional area of the
flow meter; and V = fluid velocity
• Now substituting value of V from above equation
• Since for a given size of flow meter A,C,B and L becomes constants, So Q
can be written as:
• Therefore induced voltage is directly proportional and linear with

volumetric flow rate.
Example: Magnetic Flow Meter
Measuring flow in large water and wastewater pipes:
Electromagnetic flow meters are widely used for many applications in the
water and wastewater industry. Large lines however often go un-metered
because meter installations quickly become prohibitively expensive. This
article explores the use of magnetic flow sensors as an economical and
practical alternative to measuring flow in large lines, while preserving all the
benefits of in-line electromagnetic flow meters.
Case Study: Magnetic Flow Meter
Food processor increases product consistency
Problem definition:
• A large food processer mixes various batch portions of vegetables,
meats, and liquids together in large vats during the process of making
stew. They require accurate flow measurement of the ingredients going
into the vats to maintain the quality and consistency of the end product.
• The customer was using older, mechanical instruments to measure their
flow rates in the process. Their mechanical meters required periodic
maintenance and recalibration, plus provided inaccurate measurements
resulting in inconsistencies in the end product.
Questions:
Suggest a type of flow meter for the following application which
• Accuracy should be +/- 0.2 % of flow rate
• Zero maintenance and less process downtime, along with quick and
easy start up
• performance is unaffected by the suspended solids, viscosity, and
temperature challenges typically found in food processes
Solution:
• To overcome these inaccuracy issues, the local Siemens representative
suggested that the customer install a magnetic flow meter (SITRANS FM).
• MAG1100F electromagnetic (mag) flow meter with PFA lining to measure
the flow of the ingredients into the mixing vats. With a stated accuracy of
+/- 0.2 % of flow rate, the measurement helps to provide a higher quality
and much more consistent end product.
• Also additional cost savings resulted in less
downtime, zero maintenance and easy start-up.
• The MAG1100F flow meter’s obstruction free
performance is unaffected by the suspended
solids, viscosity, and temperature challenges
typically found in food processes.
IFM: Target Flow Meters
Summarising target flow meter
• The relationship between the flow rate and force
is expressed by the equation:
Where Q = flow rate, K = a known coefficient, and F =
force
Drag body target meter:
• Here, the force exerted on target is given by the
equation:
Where, F = force
Cd = drag coefficient
A = sensor area
V2 / 2g = velocity head
Summary: Turbine Flow Meters
• Used for measurement of liquid, gas and
very low flow rates, it works on the basic
principle of turbine.
• Here, as the rotor blade passes the
magnetic-pickup coil, it generates a voltage
pulse which is measure of flow rate, and
total number of pulses gives a measure of
total flow
• The K factor i.e. the number of pulses
generated per gallon of flow is given as:
Where: K = pulses per volume unit

Tk = a time constant in min
Q = a volumetric flow rate in gpm
f = frequency in hertz
Case Study: Turbine Flow Meter
Insertion turbine meters; the best choice for chilled water applications
Problem definition:
Hospitals, universities, office buildings, data centres and pharmaceutical
manufacturing plants are all looking to measure and monitor the flow rates in
their chilled water plants in order to save energy and operate more efficiently.
However, adding flow meters to existing lines with many traditional methods
can be costly in terms of material, labour and down time.
The “Traditional” Approach:
In the past, various types of flow meters have been used including mag meters,
vortex meters, or annubars and pitot tubes with differential pressure
transmitters. Many of these devices require the installation of flanges and/or
differential pressure transmitters and “impulse” lines. Modifying these existing
lines is difficult, cost-prohibitive and time-consuming.
Questions:
Suggest a flow meter for With 8”, 12”, 14”, and 24” lines
• The meters should be installed without interrupting the process
• cost-effective solution with minimal welding and down time
• With minimum upstream and downstream lengths of straight pipe
• Accuracy of meter in the range ±1% and rangeability of 10:1 to 50:1
• cost-effective solution with minimal welding and down time
Solution:
• Insertion turbine meters manufactured by Onicon were selected. A
“weldolet” was installed in each line with an isolation valve so that the
meters could be inserted while the chilled water lines were in use
• With the “dual” turbine units, the upstream and downstream lengths of
required straight pipe length were minimized
• Other traditional flow meters would have required twice the amount of
straight pipe run in order to provide an accurate measurement
• The Onicon turbine meters have an accuracy of +/- 1% of rate with a
rangeability of 10:1, and as much as 50:1 with an accuracy of 2%
• Each meter is “wet” calibrated to NIST traceable standards
Summary: Thermal Flow Meters
Heat transfer flow meters:
• This type of flow meter measures the rise in
temperature of the fluid after a known amount
of heat is added to it.
• Temperature sensor and the heater are directly
placed in to the fluid stream, and thus they are
easily damaged by corrosion and erosion.
Hot-wire flow meters:
• This type of flow meter measures the effect of
flowing fluid on a hot body.
• It consists of a thermopile (thermocouples A, B in series), a third
thermocouple C is placed in the output side of thermopile as shown in
figure.
Summarising Types of Ultrasonic Flow Meters
Time difference type:
• It consists of two transducers A and B
inserted into a pipe line, and working both as
transmitter and receiver.
• The time TAB for ultrasonic wave to travel
from transducer A to B is
Doppler flow meters:
• The velocity of the fluid is given by equation:
Where, Δf = difference between transmitted and received frequency

Ct = Velocity of sound in transducer
f0 = frequency of transmission
θ = angle of transmitter and receiver crystal with respect to
pipe axis
K = constant
Case Study: Ultrasonic Flow Meter
Client is an irrigation is a public company formed in 1998
Problem definition:
The requirement:
With the growing importance on water conservation, the scheme
managers saw advantages in accurate monitoring of each user in the
scheme to ensure they were adhering to their allocated water usage. This
can only be achieved using flow meters with a high degree of accuracy, and
repeatability.
Questions:
The chosen meter required to be:
• easy to install without interrupting the actual process
• provide minimal pressure loss in the pipe
• not be affected by salty water, or solids in the flow stream
• be virtually maintenance free
• and be versatile enough to suit a variety of installation options
• Why the selected flow meter type is advantageous over mechanical
flow meter
Solution:
• The Ultrasonic flow meter trial offered both accuracy
and efficiency.
• Installation was simple (approx 5 minutes), and could be
done without stopping the flow.
• An accurate, repeatable, and stable flow reading over an extended time
period was observed
• A full range of outputs (4-20 mA, pulse, RS232) and additional control inputs
are available from the flow computer, as well as a local display showing flow
rate and totalized flow
• Mechanical flow meters, although the least expensive option were soon
deemed unsuitable in part due to the solids content, which tended to jam up
the mechanisms and severely affect the accuracy of the meters but
ultrasonic flow meters are unaffected by such parameters since it is not in
contact with the substance in flow.
Summarising Vortex Flow Meter
• Vortex flow meters can handle wide variety of chemicals, including
slurries, liquids with entrained particles and viscous materials.
• The different types are:
Fluidic flow meter
Swirl meters
Vortex shedding meter
Quantity Methods and Characteristics
Quantity Flow Meters (QFM)
Recalling the different types of quantity flow meters
Nutating disc type

• Positive displacement meters Oscillating piston type
Rotating vane type
Reciprocating piston type
Lobed impeller type
• Metering pumps Reciprocating piston pumps

Peristaltic pumps
Diaphragm pumps
Summarising Positive Displacement Meter
Types
Nutating disc meter:
• Nutating disc meter is used extensively for
residential water service management, and
also used in industrial applications.
• The accuracy of these instruments is ±1 to
±2%.
Oscillating piston meter:
Case Study: Positive Displacement Meter
The customer is a snack foods manufacturer
Problem definition:
The customer contacted their Niagara Meters distributor to inquire about
an inventory management solution for cooking oil supply and return tanks.
The operations team wanted the ability to identify and reconcile their oil
inventory. By knowing how much oil was being used and where, it would
allow the customer to better allocate costs.
Questions:
Suggest an flow meter for the following application
• Installed in line with the pipe
• Should have better response with respect to oil flow
• Device should provide an analog response through a 4 -20 mA signal
Solution:
SmartPD Positive Displacement Nutating Disc:
• Principle of Operation: The SmartPD provides
total volume and flow rate measurement by
way of an electronic transmitter. This 2-wire
device provides an analog response through
a 4-20 mA signal, digital feedback via HART®
communication, and a visual indication of
change on an LCD display.
• Installation Location: A total of 18 SmartPD
meters are located on various pipes
connected to the cooking oil supply and
return tanks.
Summarising Positive Displacement Meter
Types
Rotating vane meters Reciprocating piston meters
Lobed impeller meters
Recalling Positive Displacement Meter Types
Reciprocating piston pumps Diaphragm metering pumps:
• They have accuracy of ½ to 1%
• It consists of a diaphragm which is

directly flexed by a piston
• Two check valves, inlet and outlet,
are used to direct the flow
• The diaphragm transmits pulsating
force to the pumped fluid without
Peristaltic pumps allowing external leakage
Example: Diaphragm Metering Pumps
• Solenoid-driven diaphragm pump is one of the most commonly used
types for most metering pump applications
• These pumps are widely used in industrial water treatment, chemical
feed systems, and municipal and utility water treatment.
They can be either manual,

with the stroke and stroke
length controlled at the pump,
or they can be proportioning,
based on an input signal from
a controller. They have the
same mechanical constraints
as hydraulically driven
diaphragm metering pumps
Mass Flow Measurement
Mass Flow Methods
• Recalling that mass flow measurement gives a more accurate account of
fluids, and is not affected by density, pressure and temperature (unlike
volumetric measurements).
• Although most meters can infer mass flow rate from volumetric flow
measurements, there are a number of ways to measure mass flow
directly:
• The number of ways to measure mass flow directly are:
‒ The Coriolis meter
‒ Thermal mass flow meter
‒ Radiation density
Mass Flow Methods: Coriolis Meter
• The basis of the Coriolis meter is Newton's Second Law of Motion.
Recalling two types of Coriolis flow meter
Looped type
DURING FLOW
Straight through type
Case Study: Mass Flow Meter
A privately held company based in Willmar, Minnesota, USA, has been
manufacturing veterinary vaccines since 2002
Problem definition:
During the final vaccine formulation as a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion,
water phase is steadily introduced into oil via a high-shear mixer external to
the bulk product recirculation tank. The recirculation rate of the oil and any
resulting changes in density must be monitored constantly in order to
optimize the production process and ensure consistent vaccine quality.
To achieve the critical goal of scaling up production without compromising
performance, Epitopix recently made the decision to invest in flow
measurement technology.
Questions:
Suggest an flow meters for the following application which is of
• With measurement accuracy of 0.1% of flow rate
• A flow meter that would occupies less amount of space
• Flexible and easy to installation
Solution:
• Supplier determined that Coriolis technology
(SITRANS FC430) was the appropriate choice because
it is capable of high-accuracy density measurement
despite the frequent changes in fluid density that
occur during blending.
• It very high measurement accuracy of 0.1% of flow rate,
even at low flows.
• It was easily mounted to a portable cart along with the
high-shear mixer and recirculation pump.
• The modular nature of the SITRANS FC430 allowed Epitopix
to optimize the limited space available by installing the
sensor and transmitter at separate locations on the cart.
Mass Flow Methods
Summarising the types of thermal mass flow measuring devices:
1) Thermal Anemometer
2) Temperature rise flow meter
Thermal Anemometer:
• Works by measuring the heat dissipation from a probe
inserted in the line
• These devices are primarily used for gases and are dependent
on flow profile
Advantages: Fast response times, < 0.5milliseconds.
Limitations: Require 10 diameters of straight pipe upstream, and
have similar limitations to pitot tubes.
Mass Flow Methods
Summarising the types of thermal mass flow measuring devices cont.:
Temperature rise flow meter
1. Insertion type 2. External type
Bypass type thermal mass flow meter
Case Study: Temperature Rise Flow Meter
Background:
A major STW in the Midlands processes waste water
from the surrounding community. At the time of the
enquiry it was going through an upgrade of blowers,
diffusers and compressors. In order to make sure the
water was getting a sufficient balance of air the flow
meters in each lane required replacement.
Problem definition:
A contractor was approached to find a replacement flow meter for the air
flow on the aeration lanes at the STW. The original meters had been
installed for many years and had all failed. The selected unit had to have a
history of use on air flow and be built to a good standard.
Questions:
Suggest a flow meter for the above stated problem which is capable of:
• Being economic
• Meter to be installed inline with the flow
• Meter should provide 4-20mA analog output
• What is the principle of operation of the device
Solution:
Insertion thermal mass flow meter(TA10 u10A ) from
HOENTZSCH has been installed. This high quality
German built meter is a competitively priced solution
for applications requiring standard process signals. It
is installed using a compression ring fitting, with a
G1/2” male tread. The meter outputs are 4-20mA and
an open collector pulse per x.x Nm3.
Equipment description:
• The principle of air flow measurement is based on
heat transport from an electrically heated body in
ambient air dependent on the relative velocity
between both.
Mass Flow Methods
Recalling radiation type mass flow meter
• Two separate sensors will be installed in one system:

‒ One to measure the volumetric flow
‒ Other to detect the density of flowing stream
• These two senor signals are used as input into mass flow computing
module.
Example: Radiation Type Mass Flow Meter
The LB 442 bulk flow system is used for the precise determination of mass
flow in the bulk industry. The non-contacting, non-intrusive radiometric belt
weigher is characterized by an excellent accuracy and reliability. LB 442 is
very robust with no moving parts. Maintenance is not required.
The non-contacting belt scale LB 442 can be installed directly after bunkers,
chute outlets or transfer systems. LB 442 provides measuring results on the
current mass flow, the totally produced mass and is used in combination
with a moisture measurement to determine the conveyed dry mass online.
Calibration of Flow Meters
Calibration of liquid and gas flow meters
Questions:
1. List different methods in in-situ and laboratory calibration methods of
calibration of liquid flow meters.
2. Define the range of gas flow meters which can be calibrated by soap film
burette method.
3. The time of fall of cylinder is combined with knowledge of
length/volume relationship leads to determine the ____________
displaced which is compared with value measure by flow meter to be
calibrated.
Calibration of Flow Meters
Solution:
1.
a) Methods in-situ calibration
i. Insertion point velocity method
ii. Dilution Gauging/ Tracer method
b) Laboratory calibration methods
i. Master meter method
ii. Volumetric method
iii. Gravimetric method
iv. Pipe Prover (meter prover) method
2. Soap film burette method Used to calibrate measurement systems with
gas flows in the range of 10-7 to 10-3 m3/s
3. Amount of gas
Orientation Tables for Selecting Flow Measuring
Devices
Orientation table for flow measuring instruments
Fluid duty selection table
Example: Selection of Flow Meters
Questions:
Suggest the flow meter types for the below situations:
1. For a application involving gas flow and rangeability of instrument is 3:1
with minimal pressure loss.
2. Define the flow range in which ultrasonic flow meter can be used.
3. The application of thermal flow meters in viscous liquids is:
(a) good (b) fair (c) limited
4. Suggest a flow meter for an application with measurement accuracy of
1/2 to 1% of rate with a volumetric flow detector and rangeability of
10:1 also with linear output.
5. True/false? Target meter can be applied to flow range of 0.05 to 0.1g pm
Example: Selection of Flow Meters
Solution:
From the orientation table for flow measuring instruments and fluid duty
selection table:
1. Flow nozzles, venturi tubes
2. 10-2 to 104 gpm
3. Limited
4. Vortex shedding meter
5. False
Example: Selection of Flow Measuring Devices
Question:
The flow measurement is to be performed in a system in which viscous
liquid is flowing and the pressure loss through the sensor should be
average with the rangeability around 100:1.
Determine the type of flow meter suitable for this application.
Example: Selection of Flow Measuring Devices
Solution:
The process parameters as stated in the application:
Type of liquid – viscous
A sensor with average pressure loss
Rangeability 100:1
So, considering all the above parameters of the process and from the
orientation table for selection of level sensors.
Magnetic flow meter will be suitable for this application.
Conclusion
• Different units of pressure and conversions of pressures from one unit
to other units
• Construction, working, advantages and drawbacks of different pressure
measuring instruments
• Selection and working, selection and calibration of different level
measuring instruments
• Temperature conversion between different units
• Selection, working, calibration of temperature measuring instruments
• Different types of flow measuring instruments and their application in
different fields
References
• S. K. Singh, Introduction to Measurement Science, 3rd Edition. Industrial
Instrumentation and Control – Chapters 10-13
• Practical Instrumentation for Automation and Process Control IDC –
Chapter 5
• R. R. Kuphaldt, Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation – Chapter 19
• T. A. Hughes, Measurement and Control Basics – Chapter 7
• B. G. Liptak, Process Measurement and Analysis, Volume 1 – Chapter 2
• www.vega.com/en/home_uk/Applications/Paper-industry/14_Vaccum-
system
• www.rototherm.ie/engineering-hvac/case-studies/
• www2.emersonprocess.com/siteadmincenter/pm%20rosemount%20doc
uments/00830-2600-4801.pdf
References
• www.vegacontrols.co.uk/casestudies_details.asp?caseStudyID=52&fixed
RangeID=04
• www.omega.com/literature/transactions/volume4/t9904-11-level.html
• www.industry.usa.siemens.com/automation/us/en/process-
instrumentation-and-analytics/process-instrumentation/case-studies
• www.industrialcontrolsonline.com/resources/case_studies/new-
insertion-turbine-meters-best-choice-chilled-water-applications
• media.wix.com/ugd/988f51_b30937e63ce635adf1c96cb5fee5904c.pdf
• w3.siemens.com/mcms/sensor-systems/CaseStudies
• www.specialtyproducttechnologies.com/niagara-meters/application-
success-stories/inventory-management
References
• www.flowline.co.uk/case-studies/waste-water-treatment-works.html
• www.berthold.com/en/pc/bulk-flow-measurement/bulk-flow-meter-lb-
442

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Bachelor of Science

Industrial Automation Engineering

BIA108S: Process Instrumentation and Control

= 760 mm Hg x 133.32 pascal = 101 323.2 pascals

(b) To convert to millimeters of mercury, we derive a unit factor related to

Dynamic (velocity) pressure:

The gauge pressure transmitter measures the hydrostatic pressure (prel) of

Vacuum or differential pressure

Where: ⍴ = density of fluid in U-tube; ⍴1=

(c) Pabs is less than atmospheric pressure,

b) Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmosphere

Inclined manometer Micro manometer

Ring balance gauge:

Metallic diaphragm gauge Slack diaphragm gauge

Reluctance pressure transducer:

Linear variable differential transformer Piezoelectric pressure transducer

• The unreliable and unstable draft pressure control resulted in several

Air bellows: Air purge system:

• Measurement is based on the

• By measuring one temperature and three pressures, the system shown in

• Fahrenheit (oF) to Rankine (oR)  R   F  459.69

To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit:

0F = (0C * 180 / 100) +32

Bimetallic thermometer with spiral Bimetallic thermometer with helical

ii. Optical Pyrometers

• These temperature sensors can measure temperature from the

The Reynolds formula is given by:

where: V = Velocity of flowing fluid

where C = discharge coefficient

Dall tubes Pitot tubes Annubar tubes

Where: E = Induced voltage in volts

• Now substituting value of V from above equation

• Therefore induced voltage is directly proportional and linear with

Where: K = pulses per volume unit

Where, Δf = difference between transmitted and received frequency

Vortex shedding meter

Nutating disc type

• Metering pumps Reciprocating piston pumps

Lobed impeller meters

• It consists of a diaphragm which is

They can be either manual,

Straight through type

Bypass type thermal mass flow meter

• Two separate sensors will be installed in one system:

Fluid duty selection table

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