South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

South African Journal of Botany

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sajb

Aloe vera: From ancient knowledge to the patent and innovation

landscape A review
Walter Jose Martínez-Burgosa,*, Josilene Lima Serrab, Ronald M. MarsigliaFc, Pedro Montoyaa,
Zulma Sarmiento-Va
squezd, Oranys Marina, Euler Gallego-Cartagenae,
Carlos D. Paternina-Arboledaf
a
Aloe Technology S.A.S, Barranquilla, Colombia
b
Federal Institute of Maranha~o, Brazil
c
Cartagena University, Cartagena, Colombia
d
Universidad de la Sabana - Chía, Colombia
e
Universidad de la Costa, Civil and Environmental Department, Barranquilla, Colombia
f
Department of Management Information Systems, San Diego State University, California, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article History: Aloe vera is one of the oldest and most traditional medicinal plant in history, with its use dating back over a
Received 4 October 2021 thousand years. Today, its biological activity is not limited to curative purposes. The expansion in the A. vera
Revised 21 February 2022 industry became evident during the 900 s, when the development of this crop began to emerge due to a global
Accepted 21 February 2022
demand from consumers more concerned with a healthy lifestyle. Considering the agro-industrial and eco-
Available online 1 March 2022
nomic relevance that this plant has acquired, this work reviewed its chemical, biological, and nutritional
Edited by: O.A. Aremu characteristics, plant processing methods, innovations, and industrial applications. Aloe vera is a plant that
contain more than 75 bioactive compounds, among them the most relevant are polysaccharides, phenolics,
Key words:
and phytosterols. Additionally, the main processing technologies for A. vera leaves are described, including
Aloe vera
those used to obtain pressed filleted gel, whole leaf gel and manual filleted gel. This article shows its applica-
Processing
tions in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries are presented and the world landscape of the mil-
Gel
Market lion-dollar market generated around this product, which in 2018 was around $1.60 billion. The applications
Patents of A. vera in the food industry as a natural functional ingredient or as fortifier in the food products of animal
and vegetable origin has been a trend explored in the last years. Finally, through an in-depth analysis of pat-
ents and research articles, the current scenario of science and innovation developed for this industry is
described.
© 2022 SAAB. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction wound healing, anti-ulcer effects, anti-inflammatory effects, antioxi-

For thousands of years and because of the health benefits that
were empirically attributed to A. vera, many ancient cultures, such as
Egyptian, Chinese, Indian and Japanese, used this plant as an ingredi-
ent for traditional medicine. Today, this plant is an important compo-
nent in modern medicine (Ahlawat and Khatkar, 2011 Canche-
Escamilla et al., 2019;). The knowledge surrounding the biologically
active components of this plant have expanded their application in
the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries and, nowadays, the
A. vera market forecasts an annual growth rate of 7.6% from 2019 to
2025 (CBI, 2020).
The medical properties of A. vera gel and extracts have scientifi-
cally proven clinical evidence that is related in the literature to
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ing.wjmartinez@gmail.com (W.J. Martínez-Burgos).
dant activity, anticancer activity, antidiabetic effects, antihyperlipi-
demic activity, effectiveness in treating gastrointestinal disorders
(e.g., constipation, dysentery and diarrhea), lowering low density
lipoprotein (LDL), increasing High Density Lipoprotein (HDL),
decreasing blood glucose level, treating genital herpes and psoriasis
(Ahlawat and Khatkar, 2011 Mukherjee et al., 2014; Khan et al.,
2018;).
More than 75 biologically active constituents have been discov-
ered in A. vera gel, such as vitamins, minerals, monosaccharides, poly-
saccharides (glucomannan and acemannan), amino acids,
anthraquinones, saponins, phytosterols, phenolics compounds and
salicylic acids (Basannavar et al., 2014 Hussain et al., 2017;). The pres-
ervation of these characteristics and the biological activity of A. vera is
extremely important to obtain a high-quality product (Alvarado-
Morales et al., 2019 Rodríguez-Rodríguez et al., 2019;). Depending on
the final application of A. vera, its leaves could be processed by

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.02.034
0254-6299/© 2022 SAAB. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al.
mechanically filleted, whole-leaf processing, or manual filleted proc-
essing for gel obtainment.
To improve the efficiency of some stages of the processes men-
tioned above, other technologies have been tested, including the use
of enzymes, activated carbon, disinfectant solutions, thermal treat-
ments, microfiltration, UV-C irradiation, and thermosonication. Some
conservation processes have also been used, such as pasteurization,
spray drying and freeze drying, the latter being one of the most
applied for keeping the biological properties of A. vera more intact
(Alvarado-Morales et al., 2019).
The success in the use of A. vera has been so important, that
throughout the last decades there has been a significant increase in
the development of scientific research work and in the application of
patents for the protection of innovative technologies and products.
The first documents published (both articles and patents) were
mainly focused on the development of processing technologies and
characterization of the raw material (Maret, 1972; Iberica, 1981
Maughan, 1982). Then, with the consolidation of this industry, the
evaluations of products with nutraceutical properties or relevant to
the treatment of some diseases, gained strength (Ghani et al., 2019
Murugesan et al., 2020). Thus, the most recent patents protect the
development of products and diverse applications of A. vera gel
(Pyo et al., 2015; Eigeles and Culcusica, 2019; Singh and Kaur, 2018).
Although the main highlight of application in the industrial sector
of the A. vera plant is for medicinal purposes, this plant possesses
great potential for food industries, due to its nutritional composition,
bioavailability, and bioactive properties. In the last years, the use of
this plant as natural functional ingredient or in the fortification of
food products from animal and vegetal sources has been increased
and has helped improve food quality, such as, extending the shelf life
of vegetable and fruits; reducing pathogenic microorganism prolifer-
ation; preserving the antioxidant activity of the bioactive com-
pounds; improving acceptability of product; promoting the growth
of probiotics cultures, among others (Sanzana et al., 2011
Mudgil et al., 2016; Ozturk and Young, 2017; El-Sayed and El-
Sayed, 2020; Khatri et al., 2020).
In order to provide detailed information about the industry of A. vera,
this work aims to describe the chemical composition and medicinal prop-
erties of A. vera, assess the processing technologies currently imple-
mented, the industrial application of A. vera extracts in Pharmaceutical,
Cosmetic and Food industries. In addition, this article aims to update the
science and patent landscape developed around this plant.
2. Brief history of aloe vera
The medicinal use of A. vera was mentioned approximately
4000 years ago (Manvitha and Bidya, 2014). According to (Sa
nchez-
Machado et al., 2017) the first historical findings about the plant date
back to 2100 BCE. Later, approximately 650 years later (1552 BCE), it
was mentioned as a plant with laxative properties in the Egyptian
Papyrus Ebers. Initially the interest of A. vera was focused mainly on
aloin, compounds with highly laxative properties (C.-T. Huang et al.,
2019). The first to recognize the healing properties of A. vera were
the Egyptians, Roman, Greek, Arab and Indian (Gao et al., 2019). In
Greek medical books, it was established that the plant, especially the
leaves, could be used to treat wounds, skin conditions, hemorrhoids
and also to treat hair loss (Shelton, 1991). Although A. vera was ini-
tially interested in laxative compounds, the gel has also gained con-
siderable interest since the 1950s (Manvitha and Bidya, 2014). Date
that agrees with the beginning of the industrialization and commer-

nchez-Machado et al., 2017).
cialization of the gel of A. vera leaves (Sa
3. Aloe vera: botany and cultivation
According to the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature,
the scientific name for A. vera is Aloe barbadensis Miller or A. vera (L.)
994
South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006
Burm f (Sahu et al., 2013). However, it is also known as Aloe chinensis
Bak, Aloe elongate Murray, Aloe indica Royale, Aloe officinalis Forsk,
Aloe perfoliata, Aloe rubescens DC, A. vera L. var. littoralis Konig ex Bak,
A. vera L. var. chinensis Berger, or Aloe vulgaris Lam (Ahlawat and
Khatkar, 2011). Taxonomically, A. vera belongs to the Xanthorrhoea-
ceae family. This family consists of 34 plant genera and approxi-
mately 3344 species. Of these 1236 are accepted species names
(The Plant List, 2012). Phytochemical investigations have shown that
the main components of this family are flavonoids, monoiterpenoids,
polysaccharides, iridoids, secoiridoids and phenylethanoid glycosides
(S
anchez-Machado et al., 2017;Y. L. Huang et al., 2019).
Aloe vera has been used for over 4000 years for healing purposes.
Out of 400 species of the genus Aloe (Lo
pez-Cervantes et al., 2018), it
has been scientifically proven that four species have medicinal prop-
erties: Aloe barbadensis, Aloe perryi, Aloe ferox and Aloe arborescens.
Aloe barbadensis is considered the most widely used in curative medi-
cine and alternative synthetic drugs (Da Silva Lima et al., 2012
Serafini et al., 2012;), being the most popular in the world and com-
monly called Aloe (Atherton, 1998 Vega et al., 2005).
The origin of A. vera is under discussion. Historical documents
describe their medicinal use in ancient Egypt, Greece, China and
India, although there is evidence that Africa could be the possible ori-
gins (Steenkamp and Stewart, 2008 Manvitha and Bidya, 2014). Aloe
vera plant grows wild in tropical and subtropical areas. It can be eas-
ily cultivated in sandy, dry, clay and limestone soils. It requires a min-
imum of 320 days of sunshine per year, is 98% air-fed and needs only
a small amount of fertilizer. It needs at least three to four years to
mature and be ready for harvest (Pandey and Singh, 2016). Currently,
A. vera is found as a wild plant or cultivated in North Africa, from
Morocco to Egypt, in the Middle East, in Asia (especially in India)
throughout the southern Mediterranean, in Madeira, Cape Verde, and
the Canary Islands. It is also reported in Central and South America,
especially in the Antilles, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Mexico, and in the
Andes mountains.
As a xerophytic plant, A. vera survives in areas with low water
availability and is characterized by having tissues for water storage
(Denius and Homann, 1972 Kluge et al., 1979). Aloe vera plant reaches
a height of 50 to 70 cm and is composed of root, shortened stem
(which does not exceed 40 cm in length), leaves, and yellow or red
flowers. The leaves grow around the stem at ground level in the form
of a rosette. The leaves, which are the most used part from the plants,
are succulent, rich in water, lanceolate, and serrated with spikes for
protection (Reynolds and Dweck, 1999). Their external structure is
formed by the exocarp, which is covered by a thin cuticle. Its green or
bluish-green coloring depends on environmental or nutritional fac-
tors. The exocarp represents approximately 20% to 30% of the fresh
weight of the whole plant. The parenchyma (commonly known as
pulp, crystal, or gel) is a clear, jelly-like material, located in the inner
tissue of the leaf and represents 70% to 80% of the total fresh weight
of the plant (Domíguez-Ferna
ndez et al., 2012). Industrially, the
leaves of the plant are the most important part, as they are used for
gel extraction; which is widely used in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical
and food sector (Martínez-Sa
nchez et al., 2020). Therefore, this work
focused mainly on the gel contained into the leaves of the plant. This
product is widely commercialized around the world due to its chemi-
cal composition, which confers various medicinal and healing proper-
ties.
4. Chemical composition of A. vera leaves
To understand the economical relevance of A. vera, it is fundamen-
tal to know the chemical composition of its leaves. These constituents
determine the biological activity, therapeutic applications, nutritional
and pharmaceutical properties for the subsequent manufacture of
value-added products. The A. vera leaf is composed of carbohydrates,
proteins, minerals and water (Simal et al., 1999 Domíguez-
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al.
Table 1
Chemical composition, total phenolics and total tocopherol of different parts of Aloe vera plant, fresh and lyophilized.
Constituents
Skin Fillet (Fresh)
(Simal et al., 1999) (An~ ibarro-
Ortega
et al., 2019)
Water* (%) 90 98
Acidity* (% Malic acid) 0.097
Lipids** (%) 2.71 0.017
Ash** (%) 13.46 0.150
Carbohydrates** (%) 60.34 0.630
Proteins** (%) 6.33 0.04 0.25
Calcium** (%) 1.23 3.12
Total Phenolics** (mg Gallic acid equivalent/g) 0.062
Total Tocopherols** (mg/100 g) 93
Legend:.
* % fresh matter (f.m.).
** % dry matter (d.m.).
Ferna
ndez et al., 2012). The chemical composition, total phenolics
and tocopherol composition of leaves (skin, fresh and lyophilized
filet) and gel (fresh and lyophilized) are described in Table 1. The
main constituents of the cortex or skin are the carbohydrates (60% d.
m.), especially lignin (»20% d.m.) and water (90%). The gel is consti-
tuted of carbohydrates (mainly fructose and glucose). In the fresh gel,
the ratio of these monosaccharides is 1:2 (w/w).
The presence of malic acid is characteristic of fresh samples and is
essential for the photosynthesis of the plant. In the lyophilized or
powder gel, the acidity is higher due to the addition of citric, succinic,
or lactic acid to avoid oxidation. In general, the protein content per
gram is lower in the fresh samples of fillet and gel than in lyophilized
samples. The fresh gel has a high content of total phenolics (2307 mg
gallic acid equivalent/g). Lyophilized fillet also has a high total
tocopherol content. A portion (100 g) of lyophilized fillet is sufficient
to supply 69% and 32% of the dietary recommendation in vitamin E to
children and adults, respectively (data estimated in terms of the
a-tocopherol content) (Bozzi et al., 2007 An~ ibarro-Ortega et al.,
2019).
During the last decades, the gel of A. vera has been extensively
studied and its chemical composition is known in detail (Table 2). It
is made up of a complex mixture of biological compounds and a wide
variety of chemical structures (i.e., monosaccharides, polysacchar-
ides, proteins, amino acids, sterols, anthraquinones, phenolics, hor-
mones, vitamins, and minerals) has been identified. Water and
carbohydrates are its main components with 90% f.m. and 70% d.m.,
respectively. Proteins constitute between 10% and 15% d.m. Ash content
is approximately 7% d.m., and calcium corresponds to 3% d.m. A. vera
crystals contain vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, C, E, folic acid, minerals, essential
amino acids, and polysaccharides (MINFAR, 1990 Roig, 1988).
The main phytoconstituents of A. vera gel are polysaccharides and
anthraquinones with glucomannan and acemannan being the main
polysaccharides found in A. vera gel. The glucose-6-mannose is
related to its healing properties. The anthraquinones are free or gly-
cosylated phenolic compounds found in the bitter yellow acibar of A.
vera leaf (Hamman, 2008 Domíguez-Ferna
ndez et al., 2012;
Mukherjee et al., 2014; Majumder et al., 2019).
Aloe vera acibar is involved in the process of evapotranspiration in
conditions of high insolation and prevents the loss of water. More-
over, this yellow substance is secreted by the plant as a defense to
ward off potential predators since it has an unpleasant smell and
taste. Aloin is the main constituent of A. vera acibar. This glycosidic
anthraquinone, confers laxative, abortive and other collateral effects
(i.e., allergies). Therefore, in the European legislation a maximum of
0.1% (Martínez et al., 2002) is allowed. For these reasons extra care in
the gel extraction process is important.
995
South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006
Parts of plant Aloe vera
Fillet (Lyophilized) Gel (Fresh) (Simal et al., 1999 Gel (Lyophilized)
(An~ ibarro-Ortega Scala et al., 2013; (Simal et al., 1999
et al., 2019) Dammak et al., 2018) Bozzi et al., 2007)
99
5.75 0.052 0.06 17.57 35.74
1.000 5.45 5.13
9.00 18 7.30
37.4 7.94 72.17
2.60 0.12 8.92
3.28
2307
5527
5. Chemical composition of A. vera flowers
The flowers of the plant A. vera also have properties of medicinal
interest, which originate from an inflorescence that grows vertically

pez-Cervantes et al., 2018). The inflorescence is in the form of sim-
(Lo
ple or compound clusters that contains between 100 and 200 flowers,
which are arranged helically on a branch approximately 100 cm long
(Martínez-Sa
nchez et al., 2020). According to Grace (2011) most spe-
cies of A. vera produce tubular and colored flowers (yellow-red).
Research on the flowers has shown that they are source of lectins
(Vakhania et al., 2014), biomolecules that contain significant micro-
bial properties (Fonseca et al., 2022).
According to Lo
pez-Cervantes et al. (2018), A. vera flowers also
contain significant amounts of protein, lipid, fiber, and ash. In addi-
tion, promising antioxidant properties can be seen in their use
(An~ ibarro-Ortega et al., 2019 Lo
pez-Cervantes et al., 2018). According
to Martínez-Sa
nchez et al. (2020), A. vera flowers contain bioactive
compounds such as: amino acids, phenolic compounds, and fatty
acids, such as caproic acid, octanoic acid methyl ester, caprylic acid,
capric acid, lauric acid, tetradecanoic acid methyl ester, myristic acid,
elaidic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid and a-Linolenic acid. Others
metabolites found in A. vera flowers are found in Table 3.
Finally, the roots of the plant have also been included as the object
of study for their biological properties. Mainly due to the high con-
tent of quinones, such as aloesaponarin-I and aloesaponarin-II
(Borges-arga
ez et al., 2019), these compounds have broad biological
properties (Weng and Gordon, 1992).
6. Biological properties
Over 200 chemical compounds have been identified in A. vera leaf,
however, in the gel leaf, the main compounds associated to healing
properties are polysaccharides but the synergic action among major-
ity and minority of the compounds is also considered (Choi et al.,
2001 Hamman, 2008; Pothuraju et al., 2016b; Quispe et al., 2018).
The A. vera gel is used as food with several biological properties
related in literature, such as, potential antioxidant, antiviral, antibac-
terial (Martínez et al., 2002), anti-ochratoxigenic and antifungal
properties, specifically against Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus
niger, Penicillium digitatum, Penicillium expansum and Botrytis cinerea

pez et al., 2016).
(Castillo et al., 2010 Flores-Lo
In the medical field, its pharmacological effects on the different
components of metabolic syndrome have been demonstrated, includ-
ing the effects against hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, hypertension,
obesity (Pothuraju et al., 2015, 2016a Shakib et al., 2019) anti-inflam-
matory activity, immunomodulatory activity, antidiabetic, and
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al. South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006

Table 2 Table 2 (Continued)

Chemical composition of Aloe vera gel.
Chemical compounds References
Chemical compounds References
(Reynolds, 1985, 2004
Carbohydrates Mukherjee et al., 2014;
Monosaccharides Majumder et al., 2019)
Glucose (Saeed et al., 2004) Aloetic acid (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Fructose (Saeed et al., 2004) Chrysophanic acid (Saeed et al.,2004)
Mannose (Hamman, 2008; Baruah et al., 2016) Emodin (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008;
L-rhamnose (Hamman, 2008) Baruah et al., 2016)
Aldopentose (Hamman, 2008) Ethereal oil (Saeed et al.,2004)
Polysaccharides Ester of cinnemonic acid (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Pure mannan (Hamman, 2008) Isobarbaloin (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Acetylated mannan (Hamman, 2008) Anthranol (Hamman, 2008)
Acetylated glucomannan (Hamman, 2008) Anthracine (Saeed et al.,2004)
Glucogalactomannan (Hamman, 2008) Resistannol (Saeed et al.,2004)
Galactan (Hamman, 2008) Anthranon (Saeed et al.,2004)
Galactogalacturan (Hamman, 2008) Barbaloin (Aloin A and Aloin B) (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008;
Arabinogalactan (Hamman, 2008) Baruah et al., 2016; Quispe et al.,
Galactoglucoarabinomannan (Hamman, 2008) 2018)
Pectic substance (Hamman, 2008) Aloe emodin-9-anthrone (Baruah et al., 2016)
Xylan (Hamman, 2008) Aloeresin E (Baruah et al., 2016)
Cellulose (Hamman, 2008) Isoaloeresin D (Baruah et al., 2016 Quispe et al.,
Acemannan (Saeed et al., 2004; Hamman, 2008; 2018)
Baruah et al., 2016) Aloeresin D (Baruah et al., 2016)
Proteins Chrysophanol (Baruah et al., 2016)
Lectins (Hamman, 2008) Physcion (Baruah et al., 2016)
Lectin-like substance (Hamman, 2008) Aloe emodin (Baruah et al., 2016)
Aminoacids essentialsand non- 4,5-Dimethyl ether of Aloe emodin (Quispe et al., 2018)
essentials Naringenin-40 ‑methoxy-7-O- (Quispe et al., 2018)
Alanine (Hamman, 2008) glucuronide
Arginine (Hamman, 2008) 7-Methylether of 20 - feruloylaloesin (Quispe et al., 2018)
Aspartic acid (Hamman, 2008) 5,30 -Dihydroxy-6,7,40 - Trimethoxyfla- (Quispe et al., 2018)
Glutamic acid (Hamman, 2008) vone (eupatorin)
Glycine (Hamman, 2008) Trihydroxy octadecenoic acid (Quispe et al., 2018)
Histidine (Hamman, 2008) Phenolic compounds
Hydroxyproline (Hamman, 2008) Gallic acid (Dammak et al., 2018)
Isoleucine (Hamman, 2008) Catechin (Dammak et al., 2018)
Leucine (Hamman, 2008) Chlorogenic acid (Dammak et al., 2018)
Lysine (Hamman, 2008) Caffeic acid (Dammak et al., 2018)
Methionine (Hamman, 2008) Trans-3-Hydroxycinnamic acid (Dammak et al., 2018)
Phenylalanine (Hamman, 2008) Luteolin 7-O-glucoside (Dammak et al., 2018)
Proline (Hamman, 2008) Isorhamnetin 3-O- rutinoside (Dammak et al., 2018)
Threonine (Hamman, 2008) Quercetin (Dammak et al., 2018)
Tyrosine (Hamman, 2008) Hormones
Valine (Hamman, 2008) Auxins (Saeed et al.,2004)
Sterols Gibberellins (Saeed et al.,2004; Baruah et al.,
Lupeol (Saeed et al., 2004) 2016)
Beta Sitosterol (Saeed et al., 2004) Vitamins
Cholesterol (Saeed et al., 2004) Vitamin A (Saeed et al.,2004)
Campesterol (Saeed et al., 2004) Vitamin C (Saeed et al.,2004)
(Saeed et al., 2004) Vitamin B (Thiamine, Niacin, Riboflavin, (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Anthraquinones B12)
Deoxyerythrolaccin (Reynolds, 1985, 2004; Vitamin E (a-tocopherol) (Saeed et al.,2004;Hamman, 2008)
Mukherjee et al., 2014; Choline (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Majumder et al., 2019) Folic acid (Saeed et al., 2004;Hamman, 2008)
Lacacic acid D methyl ester (Reynolds, 1985, 2004; Minerals
Mukherjee et al., 2014; Calcium (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Majumder et al., 2019) Chromium (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Aloesaponarin I (Reynolds, 1985, 2004; Copper (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Mukherjee et al., 2014; Iron (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Majumder et al., 2019) Magnesium (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Aloesaponarin-II (Reynolds, 1985, 2004; Manganese (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Mukherjee et al., 2014; Potassium (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Majumder et al., 2019) Sodium (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Aloe-emodin (Reynolds, 1985, 2004; Zinc (Saeed et al.,2004; Hamman, 2008)
Mukherjee et al., 2014; Chlorine (Hamman, 2008)
Baruah et al., 2016; Phosphorous (Hamman, 2008)
Majumder et al., 2019)
Chrysophanol (Reynolds, 1985, 2004;
Mukherjee et al., 2014;
Baruah et al., 2016;
Majumder et al., 2019) anticancer agents (neoplastic disease) (Cavasana et al., 2020
Aloenin (Reynolds, 1985, 2004; Majumder et al., 2019;).
Mukherjee et al., 2014; In addition, it has been studied for hepato-protective, antiulcer,
Quispe et al., 2018; antiarthritic, and antirheumatic activities (Hamman, 2008
Majumder et al., 2019)
IARC, 2016; Majumder et al., 2019; Mukherjee et al., 2014; Radha and
Helminthosporin
Laxmipriya, 2015;). Furthermore, it helps in intestinal disorders (e.g.
(continued) constipation) by attributing anti-dysenteric, anti-hemorrhoid,
996
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al. South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006

Table 3 are also gaining popularity, especially in Asia and Europe, because
Bioactive compounds found in Aloe vera flowers. diets rich in antioxidants reduce cardiovascular risks and chronic dis-
Compound Values (mg/g d.w)

pez-Cervantes et al., 2018).
eases, as well as cancer (Lo
Finally, the anthraquinones and derivates of A. vera root have anti-
Glutamine 0.613- 0.748
viral action reported against influenza AH1N1 virus (Borges-
Aspartate 0.193- 0.252
Alanine 0.169- 0.206

ez et al., 2019 Dammak et al., 2018;). (Etusim et al., 2013) found
arga
Phenylalanine 0.111 0.263 that A. vera root extracts also have antibacterial biological activities,
Threonine 0.091 0.119 mainly against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi and Proteus
Tyrosine 0.138 0.185
mirabilis Danish et al. (2020). found that A. vera root extracts also
Valine 0.074 0.096
Isoleucine 0.047 0.064
have antifungal activity against Userium oxysporum, Candida albicans,
Fructose 8.14 28.57 Aspergillus fumigatus, and Aspergillus niger.
Glucose 7.57 42.78
Sucrose 3.12 11.07
Trehalose 0.10 0.34 7. Processing methods of A. vera and product development
Citric Acid 1.552 4.315
Malic acid 2.084 2.404 The development of functional and nutraceutical products (bio-
Acetic acid 0.023 0.044
logical and phytochemicals) stimulated a major interest of the indus-
Formic acid 0.009 0.015
Fumaric acid 0.012 0.014 trial sector (manufacturing industry) to A. vera. Currently, this plant
Choline 0.426 0.492 has become appealing in its raw state to consumers mainly for the
Trigonelline 0.180 0.519 medicinal, pharmaceutical and functional properties that have been
Ethanol 0.013 0.025 discovered (Eshun and He, 2004 Serrano et al., 2006;). Thus, the
*(d.w: dry weight) industry includes A. vera in the development of functional foods
Adapted:(Martínez-S

anchez et al., 2020). (Rodríguez et al., 2010 Scala et al., 2013;) and functional cosmetics,
(Eshun and He, 2004 Serrano et al., 2006;) as well as different types
of medications (Maan et al., 2018).
healing, and laxative properties (Majumder et al., 2019
As described by Burger et al. (1994), three types of commercial prod-
Cavasana et al., 2020;).
ucts could be obtained from the leaves of the A. vera plant (Table 4). Fur-
Also, phytosterols of Aloe gel are able to reduce visceral fat due
thermore, from A. vera leaf, it is possible to extract acibar, a yellow liquid,
the interaction with cholesterol, and also influence in the glucose
with a strong and bitter smell (Vega-G
alvez et al., 2011). Acibar is found
metabolism, reducing blood glucose in model experimental in mice.
specifically in the filaments located between the pulp (gel) and the bark
In fact, A. vera has been suggested as functional foods in the activa-
of the leaf and contains approximately 20% of aloin (Fig. 1)
tion of lipolysis and the prevention of obesity-related metabolic alter-
(Rodriguez et al., 2006) which has a powerful laxative effect
ations (Martínez et al., 1996 Rodríguez-Leyes et al., 2000; Radha and
(Sharma et al., 2014). In addition, it is a source of amino acids, such as,
Laxmipriya, 2015; Pothuraju et al., 2016b; S
anchez-Machado et al.,
valine, methionine, phenylalanine, lysine, and leucine (Rodriguez et al.,
2017; Rahoui et al., 2018;).
2006). Acibar also has important applications mainly in the pharmaceuti-
A. vera is commonly applied for skin illnesses (e.g. sunburns, der-
cal sector (Ramachandra and Srinivasa, 2008).
matitis, psoriasis), to protect against radiation damage. This effect
In general, three types of gels are obtained from this plant:
may be associated with polysaccharides as manose-6-phosphate or
pressed filleted gel, manual filleted gel, and entire leaf gel, which
acemannan which induce the increase of collagen and proteoglycan
have diverse properties and a wide variety of applications in different
production, such as hydration, and the insulating properties of the
industries (Fig. 2).
gel (Mukherjee et al., 2014).
The gels are used as raw materials for the manufacture of several
Moreover, it is important to highlight the association of A. vera gel
value-added products. Many industries have developed different
or whole leaf extract to C and E vitamins improving the oral bioavail-
technologies and methodologies to process and preserve A. vera gel,
ability of vitamins. This is probably due to a protective effect against
and to avoid altering its physical-chemical characteristics. A. vera gel
intestinal tract degradation, although it slows the absorption rate of
possesses a high commercial value and has a yield of 70% (g gel/100 g
these vitamins. A. vera can be a supplement or complement in phar-
filet). In the following sections, the processing methods for A. vera gel
maceutical formulations to increase the bioavailability of vitamins
are explained in detail.
(Vinson et al., 2005 Hamman and Viljoen, 2009;).
On the other hand, the flowers of A. vera, showing high concentra- 7.1. Pressed filleted gel
tions of antioxidants, fatty acids and other bioactive substances, could
have promising applications in the cosmetic industry, mainly for the The process start with cleaning and disinfection steps (Fig. 3).
treatment of skin. Furthermore, in the food industry A. vera flowers Washing and disinfection of the leaves are the first stages of this

Table 4
Commercial products obtained from of Aloe vera leaves.

Product Description Biological activities Industrial applications

A dry exudate Excreted from the aloin cells present in the vas-
cular zone, commonly called Aloe.
Aloe gel A concentrated liquid of mucilage present in the
center of the leaves
Oil Extracted through organic solvents; it is the lipid
fraction of the leaves
~ ibarro-Ortega et al., 2019;).
Sources: (Ramachandra and Srinivasa, 2008 Sahu et al., 2013; An
It is a natural drug well known for its cathartic
effect
It is used as a dermatological product and as a
beneficial agent for the skin, providing softness
and smoothness. Others biological activities:
anti-diabetic effects, immunostimulant and
anti-inflammatory, treatment constipation,
coughs, ulcers, arthritis.
It is used as a bitter agent in alcoholic beverages.
The gel possesses properties that are used in the
cosmetology and pharmaceutical industry. In
addition, this gel is used in several drinks as a
dietary supplement.
It is used only in the cosmetic industry, as a pig-
ment transporter and sedative agent.

997
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al. South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006

Fig. 1. Aloe vera plant and cross section of Aloe vera leaf.

Fig. 2. Gels obtained from the Aloe vera leaf and its applications.

Fig. 3. Mechanical fillet gel production from Aloe vera leaf.

998
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al.
process. Usually, in the disinfection stage, fourth and fifth-generation
ammonium disinfectant solutions are used in concentrations ranging
from 50 to 200 ppm. Some studies have reported disinfection pro-
cesses using sodium hypochlorite at 200 ppm (Chandegara and Var-
shney, 2013). Later, the edges of the leaves are cut to remove the
thorns and the acibar. The latter is obtained by placing the leaf
upright and letting it flow freely through the ducts of the plant
(Domíguez-Fern
andez et al., 2012).
The estimated time to obtain at least 80% of the acibar is
45 60 min (Vega-Ga
lvez et al., 2011). The extraction of the acibar
before leaf processing reduces the amount of activated carbon neces-
sary in the later stages. Some industries do not take advantage of the
acibar so they go directly from the washing stage to the filleting pro-
cess. In this stage, the crystal is separated mechanically or manually
from the bark (Ramachandra and Srinivasa Rao, 2008). Subsequently,
the gel is treated enzymatically to facilitate the process of filtration
and concentration of the gel, if necessary.
For enzymatic treatment, pectinases (Martínez et al., 2017) or cel-
lulases (Coats, 1994) are generally used. This treatment is carried out
at temperatures between 37 and 40 °C for 1 min. However, other
authors use 50 °C and a maximum time of 20 min (Javed and Atta-
Ur, 2014). To inactivate the enzymes, the gel temperature is increased
to 60 °C. Then, the gel is treated with activated carbon to eliminate
traces of aloin and anthraquinones (Maret, 1972). Activated carbon is
generally used in a proportion of 2.5%. However, according to
Martínez et al. (2017) concentrations of 1.5% of activated carbon and
a stirring time of 45 min, can eliminate aloins and anthraquinones to
almost undetectable levels. Subsequently, using cellulose filters 3 e
0.3 mm the gel is filtered to remove the activated carbon together
with aloin (Martínez et al., 2017). Then, the pH of the gel is stabilized
using citric acid or ascorbic acid, until levels between 3.0 3.5 are
reached (Ramachandra and Srinivasa-Rao, 2008).
A pasteurization step is developed using the high temperature
short time technique (HTST) Flores-Lo
pez et al. (2016). reported that
the gel can be pasteurized at 65 °C / 30 min. The gel can also be steril-
ized using UV and microfiltration (Maret, 1972). After filtering, the
gel is concentrated (by spray drying or lyophilization) and finally
packed. According to Vega et al. (2005) this type of gel contains
between 98 and 99% of water.
Through this processing technique, the aloin is withdrawn almost
in its entirety or up to undetectable levels. Thus, the produced gel is
widely used in food products (Martínez et al., 2017). The maximum
aloin concentration in food products is 0.1 ppm (MSANVS, 2007
Javed and Atta-Ur, 2014;).
7.2. Whole-leaf processing
Thorough cleaning and disinfecting procedures are the initial
stages in whole-leaf processing (Fig. 4). Subsequently, the acibar is
Fig. 4. Whole leaf processing of Aloe vera.
999
South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006
removed in the same way as in the mechanical filleted gel. After that,
the A. vera leaf is crushed to obtain particles smaller than 2 mm.
Then, the gel is stabilized with ascorbic acid and citric acid; finally, it
is pasteurized and packed. An alternative to thermal treatment could
be UV sterilization. However, this is not effective due to the presence
of leaf skin particles which hinder the passage of light. According to
(Guerrero-Beltra
n and Barbosa-Ca
novas, 2004), UV is only effective
on surfaces and clear liquids. Similarly, microfiltration is not effective
as a sterilization method, given the high amounts of suspended par-
ticles (Javed and Atta-Ur, 2014) and high viscosity of the gel.
The gel recovered by this technique is widely used as a raw mate-
rial in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic sectors. The main products
made with this gel are soaps, different types of creams (anti wrinkles
creams, moisturizers), lotions for the skin, shampoos and others
(Pandey and Singh, 2016). The maximum concentration allowed of
aloins and anthraquinones in this gel is around 50 ppm (Javed and
Atta-Ur, 2014).
7.3. Manual filleted processing
After washing and disinfecting A. vera leaves, the acibar is
extracted (Fig. 5). In this gel, the extraction of the acibar is indispens-
able since its main application is in the Food industry and for fresh
consumption. In concentrations higher than 0.1 ppm the risk of
intoxication by consumption of acibar is increased (Javed and Atta-
Ur, 2014 MSANVS, 2007;). Subsequently, the skin of the pulp is man-
ually removed, and the pulp cut into small cubes with a volume not
greater than 0.125 cm3 and then, the elimination of the aloin is car-
ried out, through successive washes (usually 2 to 3) in which, for
each kilogram of A. vera pulp, 3 L of water are used (1:3). This step is
the main drawback of the process because it is done using large
amounts of water and heat treatment. The use of extreme tempera-
tures and pressures can affect thermo-sensitive vitamins, such as, A,
B1, B2, B6, B12 and C vitamin (Rodriguez et al., 2006) and some poly-
saccharides, such as, glucomannans and acemanans that become
unstable at high temperatures (Sharma et al., 2014). At the end of the
process, the pulp is sterilized and finally packed. When the gel is
intended for fresh consumption, after filleting, it is subjected to a
washing process, packaged and finally stored on cold temperature (2
to 8 °C).
Industrially, some qualitative and quantitative parameters are
used to guarantee the quality of the gels (Table 5). In the raw mate-
rial, quality controls are carried out before harvest, and they are
mainly focused on ensuring that leaves are free from any type of pest.
Additionally, another important parameter is the age of the crops,
since A. vera properties are mostly present in mature plants (at least
3 years) (Martínez et al., 2017). Other quality parameters evaluated
are brix, pH, and acidity among others (Zapata et al., 2013).
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al.
Fig. 5. Process of manual filleted gel from Aloe vera leaf.
Table 5
Characteristics and quality parameters of Aloe vera gel.
Types of gels Age of plants Washing and
disinfection
Pressed filleted gel Minimum 3-year-old + Generally mechanical
plantations should be
employed
Gel of entire leaf These processes are
stronger because part
of the leaf is in the gel
Manual filleted gel + Manual, which increases No stabilizers are used
Recently, other techniques for gel stabilization have been tested.
For example, nano-encapsulation techniques have been developed
for A. vera gels using polyvinylpyrrolidone and poly (vinyl alcohol)
and whey protein concentrate, which according to Torres-
Giner et al. (2017) provide stability to the gel compounds of up to
95%. When the application of A. vera gel is not in the food and cos-
metic sectors, neither sophisticated processes are required for its
extraction nor is it necessary to control aloin concentrations
(Gupta et al., 2020).
8. Market of A. vera products
A. vera products are currently produced and commercialized
around the world. The most important producers of A. vera in Asia
are China and Thailand. South Africa (Steenkamp, 2015) and Colom-
bia (Florez, 2014) are examples of countries that are emerging in the
development of this crop. Some of the most important companies
with the focus on A. vera production and transformation are AMB
Wellness (located in Mexico); Aloe Farms and Forever Living Products
(based in USA); and OKF Corp and Tulip International Inc. (based in
South Korea).
The boom in the Aloe industry has been evident in recent years
and it was during the 900 s when this crop started its development
due to the global demand of consumers, who knew about the benefi-
cial properties of Aloe in their diets and for personal care. The Aloe
industry, as a sustainable sector, governs its expansion by establish-
ing and enforcing high standards throughout the production chain,
which guarantee the credibility and confidence of stakeholders and
consumers. During the growing, harvesting and processing
South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006
Extraction Gel stabilization Features of the gel Heat treatment
Ascorbic acid / citric acid Transparent Pasteurization
Brix = 0.5 1.0 It is possible to use UV
Aloin  0.1 ppm
pH: 3 3.5
Acidity: 0.25 0.35
Ascorbic acid / citric acid Cloudy Pasteurization
Brix = 0.5 1.0
Aloin  0.1 ppm
pH: 3 3.5
Acidity: 0.25 0.35
Light Cubes Sterilization
the risk of pH: 4.5 5.5
contamination Acidity: 0.05
Aloin  0.1
procedures there are different critical points where the Aloe bio-
properties can be modified. For that reason, and to maintain the suc-
cess of this modern industry, as well as the excellence of the prod-
ucts, capital-intensive investments are necessary (Steenkamp, 2015),
as well as the implementation of quality programs and international
certifications.
A. vera is commercialized as a raw material (i e. Aloe sap, gel or
powder) or as a modified product. However, Aloe does not have an
identification code for the Harmonized System of tariff nomenclature.
That fact hampers the access to figures related to imports and exports
corresponding to this raw material. Nonetheless, some indirect esti-
mates could be obtained through the use of general codes; for exam-
ple, beverages whose composition includes A. vera, could be
categorized with code 220,290; A. vera potted plants are traded under
code 06,029,008; A. vera extracts are included under code 130,219;
under this last code, 130,219, entitled "Vegetable saps and extracts
(excluding liquorice, hops, and opium)", US$ 2,3 billion were
exported in 2017. However, it is not possible to know accurately the
specific amounts traded for Aloe extracts. According to the Interna-
tional Aloe Science Council (IASC), A. vera product trade in 2012
reached a multi-billion-dollar industry and employed thousands of
people worldwide.
As a processed material, A. vera gel is used as an active ingredient
in different categories of products. Among these are cosmetics (e.g.
soaps, shampoos, conditioners rinses, skin lotions, masks, toning
creams, hand sanitizer, sunscreens, makeup removers, skin nourish-
ing gels, exfoliators, moisturizing creams, shave gels, tooth gels, lip
balms, deodorants), functional ingredients in foods (e.g. immune-
modulating products, sport nutritional complements, sport drinks
1000
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al.
Fig. 6. Global market distribution for Aloe vera beverages in 2015.
with electrolytes, and curds), beverages (e.g. juices, teas, yogurts,
infusions, laxative drinks, A. vera fruit smoothies, and energy drinks),
health products (candy type aloe vitamins, veterinary medicines, and
medicinal products) and others (floor cleaners, dish/utensil cleaners,
pesticides, etc.) (Eshun and He, 2004 Antignac et al., 2011; Javed and
Atta-Ur, 2014; Baruah et al., 2016;).
The market of A. vera extracts is very promising and an expansion
of these products in the global market has been reported. In 2018,
the amounts of global A. vera extract market was at USD$ 1.60 billion
with a forecast for an increase in its annual growth rate of 7.6% from
2019 to 2025 (CBI, 2020). The report of the A. vera profile in South
Africa (Steenkamp, 2015) shows that the price indicators in 2015 of
Aloe intermediate products in the world markets was determined by
its presentation and concentration. For example, concentrated juice
(1:10) fetched a price of about US$ 12 to 13/kg, or US$ 12,000 to
13,000/ton. Powders (1:100) fetched about US$ 130 to 180/kg or US$
130,000 to 180,000/ton, and raw Aloe fillet cubes were sold for US$
630 to US$ 1000/ton overseas. As an example of one of the industries
applying A. vera compounds, the global A. vera beverage market esti-
mates are described below.
The A. vera beverage sector in the world grows at a compound
average rate of 10% against 7.6% of the world market growth of
extracts (Technavio, 2015). The worldwide distribution of the bever-
age market with A. vera content is shown in Fig. 6. The Asia-Pacific
area (APAC) leads by far with 45% of the global market. Europe repre-
sents 33% of the global market with a stable market growth rate in
levels around 10%. It is expected that the American market will grow
at an average rate of 11.24%. Finally, the Middle East and Africa
(MEA) represent 7% of the global A. vera beverage market.
9. Innovations and applications of aloe vera
To assess progress in the fields of science, technology and innova-
tion for A. vera-based products, an extensive review of research
articles and published patents was conducted. Research papers were
obtained through the Science Direct database, using the words “Aloe”
“vera” in the title, abstract, or as keywords. A patent documents
search was carried out in the Derwent Innovations database, using
the same keywords in the title and topic fields [(TI = Aloe AND vera)
and (TS = Aloe AND vera)]. Both searches were carried out for the
1001
South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006
period between 1978 and 2020. Manual filtering of the information
was carried out, analyzing the summary of each work, and excluding
the documents outside of the aims of this study. As a result, 1545
published articles and 3283 filed patents were found. Until 2011, the
number of articles published was equivalent to the number of patents
(Fig. 7). The apparent decrease during the last two years of the analy-
sis is attributed to the 18-month confidentiality period, so registra-
tion requests during this period will be observed in the future
(Vandenberghe et al., 2020).
Institutes, industries, and researchers prefer to patent their ideas
because this has some advantages when compared to publishing
articles. Besides being an indicator of technological development, it
also grants exclusive rights over the technologies or processes devel-
oped, which can be sold or rented (WIPO, 2020a). This could be an
incentive for companies to patent their technological developments.
Thus, we found that some companies filed more than one patent per
year. For example, in 2012 the company Dalian Chuangda Technology
Trade Market filed six patents, Bengbu Nanhui Sichuan Flavor
Food Factory filed eleven patents in 2015, and Changsha Xiehaoji Bio-
logical Eng Co Ltd filed thirty-seven patent documents in 2017. Other
companies which appeared in the search were: Unilever; Dutra
Cabral Velho C; Guangxi University for Nationalities; Chengdu Pen-
gxiang Biotechnology Co. Ltd; Yunnan Evergreen Biology Co. Ltd,
India; defence Research and Development organisation, India; Res
Dev Org; Taishan Meihuanjian Aloe Prod Co. Ltd, and Guangzhou SAL-
IAI Stemcell Science & Technology Co. Ltd., among others.
The first published patents on A. vera were important, because
they presented information about plant processing for gel extraction
and were totally focused on processing technologies. As an example,
some patents filed in 1988 aimed to obtain an extract of A. vera free
of aloin, which has cytotoxic effects and a bitter taste, an undesirable
characteristic for use in food. Those patents proposed methods that
reduced up to 0.001% by weight of anthraquinone, which was a mile-
stone for A. vera gel processing (McAnalley and Prairie, 1988).
Between 1972 1990 some patents (3,878,197-A, JPS54119018A,
ES8305214A3, US4446131A, US4591387A), described different types
of extraction and gel stabilization processes (Maret, 1972;Iber-
ica, 1981 Maughan, 1982;). Recent patented processes and technolo-
gies were focused on changing the physical state of A. vera gel
(approximately 95% of the gel is water) to facilitate the
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al. South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006

Fig. 7. The number of patents filed, and articles published per year.

commercialization process or its use, whether in food or pharmaceu-
tical products. For example, the patents CN1672570A and
CN1672569A showed processes for concentrating A. vera gel to 200x,
by spray drying and lyophilization, respectively (Mingwei, 2005a,
2005b).
On the other hand, between 1990 and 2020, a greater focus on
patenting products containing A. vera extracts was observed. For
example, Singh and Kaur (2018) in patent IN201721000471-A,
showed a nutraceutical drink based on A. vera and guava juice.
According to the inventors, the mixture of guava fruit pulp and A.
vera juice provides good health and good taste. A. vera has high
capacity to absorb free radicals and nullify the side effects of guava.
Guava provides super-concentrated antioxidant protection from
whole fruit juices and features a full array of phytonutrients, includ-
ing the important polyphenolics and flavonoids Pyo et al. (2015). in
patent KR 2,014,147,949-A showed a extract of A. vera aged between
4 and 6 months, which can improve liver diseases, including hepatitis
and liver cirrhosis. (Eigeles and Culcusica, 2019) showed a process of
synergistic production of A. vera products with probiotics. The pro-
cess contains a subsystem for extracting the gel from A. vera leaves
and a set of thermally controlled biochambers where the probiotics
are cultivated in the A. vera extract. In addition, the system contains
centrifuges where probiotics can be separated.
Taking into account the International Patent Classification (IPC)
(WIPO, 2020b), it was observed that 82% of the deposits belong to six
groups (Fig. 8A). However, most patents are concentrated in three
groups: Medical preparations (A61K), Cosmetics (A61Q) and Food
(A23L) with 46%, 13% and 11%, respectively. The main countries filing
patents in this field are China, the United States, South Korea, India,
Germany, and Spain (Fig. 8B).
Regarding pharmaceutical products, we can mention a few exam-
ples: lotions to heal external injuries, treatments for diabetes, and
ophthalmic solutions, among others (Brown D., 2006 Jingcai and
Jinzhi, 2003; Jot et al., 2009; Pasco et al., 2001;). Currently, A. vera and
zinc are used for manufacture of green nanoparticles which could
potentially be applied to combat different types of diseases
(Nagaraj et al., 2020).
The use of A. vera in the cosmetic industry is due its emollient and
humectant properties (Costello, 1997 Hiyanes, 1997; Mina-
mide, 1999; Ortiz and Fernandez, 2000;). Recently,
Berardi et al. (2020) suggested the use of A. vera gel in alcohol gel for-
mulations as a moisturizer. In fact Mpiana et al. (2020) showed that
three bioactive compounds from A. vera (Feralolide, Dihydroxyl-2-O-
(z) -cinnamoyl-7‑methoxy-Aloesi, and Aloeresin) could potentially
inhibit the SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro protein, which is responsible for virus
replication.

Fig. 8. A) Classification of patents according to the IPC code; B) Main countries depositing patents with Aloe vera.
A61K: Preparations for medical, dental, or toilet purposes; A61Q: specific use of cosmetics or similar toilette preparations; A23L: foods, foodstuffs, or non-alcoholic beverages,
not covered by subclasses; A61P: specific therapeutic activity of chemical compounds or medicinal preparations; C11D: Detergent compositions; use of single substances as deter-
gents; soap or soap-making; resin soaps; recovery of glycerol; A61L: Methods or apparatus for sterilizing materials or objects in general; disinfection, sterilization, or deodorization
of air.

1002
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al. South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006

Table 6
Main applications of Aloe vera in food products.

Food Product Part plant A. vera Results Application Reference

Cultured buttermilk fortified Juice Fortification of cultured butter milk with Functional food ingredient (Mudgil et al., 2016)
with Aloe vera juice 10% A. vera juice improved nutritional
and desirable sensory characteristics
Chicken nugget Gel powder Adding 3,5% of A. vera gel reduced Natural and functional (Shahrezaee et al., 2018)
microbial count preservative
UF-soft cheese Pulp The presence of water-soluble vitamins Functional food ingredient (El-Sayed and El-
and carboydrates increased growth of Sayed, 2020)
probiotic bacteria in 1 log cycle.
The fortification with 15% A. vera pulp
increased count in probiotics cultures.
The soft cheese has the best sensory
properties and good acceptance.
Broccoli, cauliflower A. vera powder - The use of a solution with 30 g/L A. vera Functional food ingredient (Sanzana et al., 2011)
endive, and carrot powder associated to vacuum impreg-
nation reduced the respiration rates
for all vegetables at 5 °C.
Reduction in metabolic stress due to
application vacuum.
Cherry Tomato Gel Control Fusarium oxysporum decay and Edible coatings (Ortega-Toro; et al., 2017)
weight loss of fruit.
Cherry laurel Fruit Solution 33% commercial A. vera Delayed fruit weight and firmness losses Edible coatings (Ozturk et al., 2019)
during cold storage (0 °C).
Lower ethylene production.
Preservation of bioactive compounds
(Vitamin C, total flavonoids)
Papaya Fruit A. vera stem extract and com- Inhibition of pathogenic filamentous Edible coatings (Mendy et al., 2019)
mercial product A. vera grade fungi isolated from papaya fruits
food
Gallic acid Mucilage The gallic acid retained antioxidant Microencapsulation of bioactive (Medina-Torres et al., 2019)
activity and stability molecule compounds
Tomato fruits Combination of A.vera gel and Extension of the fruit shelf-life up to 42 Edible coatings (Khatri et al., 2020)
chitosan days
Apple fruits Gel Superficial Aggravation scald incidence Edible coatings (Liu et al., 2021)
in cold temperature (5 °C)
Fresh-cut apples Combination of A. vera gel and Delayed browning reaction. Edible coatings ~ a et al., 2021)
(Nicolau-Lapen
ferulic acid Reduction of Listeria monocytogenes
population.

10. Applications in food industry
In the last years, A. vera has been increasingly used in the food
processing of animal and vegetable origin, as well as its consumption
in natura. Gel, powder, extracts, juice, pulp, mucilage and combined
with bioactive compounds are the main forms of application of A.vera
in food formulations (Table 6).
Over the years, the demand for healthy food has increased, espe-
cially, food rich in vitamins and antioxidant compounds. Therefore,
the application of A. vera as a preservative and functional food ingre-
dient has resulted in development of value-added products due to its
good source of water-soluble vitamins and antioxidant compounds
(El-Sayed and El-Sayed, 2020). Many food products were enriched
with A. vera, such as, soft drinks, carbonated drinks, energy drinks,
ice cream, yogurt, confectionery products, fermented foods, func-
tional drinks, cancer prevention tea, food supplements for animals,
and drinks for stress (Funemi and Uchida, 2003 Yonghua, 2012; Yua-
nying, 2012; Huangyi, 2013; Jianping et al., 2014; Meijuan, 2014;
Yan, 2014;).
In the fermented food production, it is used for the production of
nutraceutical cheeses (El-Sayed and El-Sayed, 2020), yogurt, vinegar,
(Ahlawat and Khatkar, 2011) and alcoholic beverages (Hamman and
Viljoen, 2009 Ahlawat and Khatkar, 2011;). Besides that, it can also
be used in different types of food supplements with probiotics. A
study demonstrated that the addition of 10% to 15% A. vera pulp in
MRS (Man, Rogosa and Sharpe) culture medium or UF-soft cheese
contributed to an increase of 1 to 1.5 log cycle of probiotics culture
due to the water-soluble vitamins and carbohydrates content pres-
ence in the pulp. Moreover, it improved the sensorial properties and
acceptability of these product (El-Sayed and El-Sayed, 2020). An in
vivo study showed immune-protection effects against Shigella
induced infection in mice during to administration oral of the A. vera
supplemented probiotic lassi (APL) (Hussain et al., 2017). Another
product that had its nutritional and sensorial properties improved
was cultured buttermilk fortified with A. vera juice (Mudgil et al.,
2016).
The A. vera gel powder also has been used in meat products as a
natural preservative, for example, the application of 3.5% of gel pow-
der in chicken nuggets contributes to microbial control
(Shahrezaee et al., 2018). However, the most promising use of A. vera
plants in the food industry has been in the edible coating production
for fruits and vegetables, such as tomatoes, apples, papayas, cherries,
broccoli, cauliflower and carrots.
Their use in gel, solution (approximately 30%) or stem extract
form improved the shelf-life of vegetables products due to the reduc-
tion in the fruit weight and firmness losses; reduction of the meta-
bolic stress during vacuum application; reduction of the respiration
rate in cold storage (0 °C); preservation of the bioactive compounds
(vitamin C and flavonoids); lower ethylene production, and inhibition
of pathogenic filamentous fungi (Sanzana et al., 2011 Ortega-Toro;
et al., 2017; Mendy et al., 2019; Ozturk et al., 2019; Salama and Abdel
Aziz, 2020; Liu et al., 2021;).
The combination of A. vera gel and other compounds has been
demonstrated in some studies as a promising potential for the food
industry. For example, the combination of A.vera gel and chitosan
promoted the extension of tomato shelf-life up to 42 days. Another
study demonstrated that the combination of A. vera gel and ferulic
acid delayed browning reaction in fresh-cut apples and reduced the
Listeria monocytogenes population (Khatri et al., 2020 Nicolau-
Lapen ~ a et al., 2021;). Additionally, the A. vera mucilage has been used

1003
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al.
with success in microencapsulation of bioactive compounds, such as
gallic acid, contributing to retaining the antioxidant activity and sta-
bility molecule.
11. Conclusion
Aloe vera plant has been recognized since ancient times as a spe-
cies with varied applications in medicinal fields and, with advances
in scientific research, the potentialities of applications of this plant as
an active ingredient in functional food, edible coatings, cosmetics,
and pharmaceutical products have been demonstrated. This plant is
widespread throughout the world, requires basic agronomic manage-
ment and can be transformed through agro-industrial processes to
confer a great added value to the final product. Depending on the
final application of A. vera, its leaves could be processed by mechani-
cal filleting, whole-leaf processing, or manual filleted processing to
produce gel. The growing interest in this plant is reflected in the
increase of patents that have been filed to support technological
development in these areas and to comply with consumer demand
for a healthier lifestyle. Furthermore, food enriched with A. vera may
be beneficial for the food industry because it improves the nutritional
and sensorial quality of the food product, as well as the bioavailability
of bioactive compounds.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by Aloe Technology S.A.S. (Barranquilla-

gico,
Colombia), as part of the Project: “Desarrollo científico y tecnolo
agroindustrial y bioenerge
tico en el Departamento del Atl
antico,”
with BPIN 2013000100049 from the Colombian General Royalties
System.
References
Ahlawat, K.S., Khatkar, B.S., 2011. Processing, food applications and safety of Aloe vera
products: a review. Chem. Sci. Rev. Lett. 48, 525–533. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s13197-011-0229-z.
Alvarado-Morales, G., Minjares-Fuentes, R., Contreras-Esquivel, J.C., Montan ~ ez, J.,
Meza-Vel
azquez, J.A., Femenia, A., 2019. Application of thermosonication for Aloe
vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller) juice processing: impact on the functional properties
and the main bioactive polysaccharides. Ultrason. Sonochem. 56, 125–133. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2019.03.030.
~ ibarro-Ortega, M., Pinela, J., Barros, L., Ciric, A., Silva, S.P., Coelho, E., Mocan, A.,
An
Calhelha, R.C., Sokovic, M., Coimbra, M.A., Ferreira, I., 2019. Compositional features
and bioactive properties of Aloe vera Leaf (Fillet, Mucilage, and Rind) and Flower.
Antioxidants 8, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8100444.
Antignac, E., Nohynek, G.J., Re, T., Clouzeau, J., Toutain, H., 2011. Safety of botanical
ingredients in personal care products/cosmetics. Food Chem. Toxicol. 49, 324–341.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2010.11.022.
Atherton, P., 1998. First Aid Plant. Chemistry in Britain, pp. 33–36.
Baruah, A., Bordoloi, M., Deka Baruah, H.P., 2016. Aloe vera: a multipurpose industrial
crop. Ind. Crops Prod. 94, 951–963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.08.034.
Basannavar, S., Pothuraju, R., Sharma, R.K., 2014. Effect of Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis
Miller) on survivability, extent of proteolysis and ACE inhibition of potential probi-
otic cultures in fermented milk. J. Sci. Food Agric. 94, 2712–2717. https://doi.org/
10.1002/jsfa.6615.
Berardi, A., Perinelli, D.R., Merchant, H.A., Bisharat, L., Basheti, I.A., Bonacucina, G.,
Cespi, M., Palmieri, G.F., 2020. Hand sanitisers amid CoViD-19: a critical review of
alcohol-based products on the market and formulation approaches to respond to
increasing demand. Int. J. Pharm. 119431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijpharm.2020.119431.
Borges-arg
aez, R., Chan-balan, R., Cetina-montejo, L., 2019. In vitro evaluation of
anthraquinones from Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller) roots and several deriva-
tives against strains of in fl uenza virus. Ind. Crops Prod. 132, 468–475. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.02.056.
Bozzi, A., Perrin, C., Austin, S., Arce Vera, F., 2007. Quality and authenticity of commer-
cial Aloe vera gel powders. Food Chem. 103, 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food-
chem.2006.05.061.
Brown D., 2006. Antioxidant compositions for the eye. US patent 20070207116A1.
1004
South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006
Burger, A., Grubert, M., Schuster, O., 1994. Aloe vera- The renascence of a tradicional
natural drug as a dermopharmaceutical. SOFW J 120, 527–529.
Canche-Escamilla, G., Colli-Acevedo, P., Borges-Argaez, R., Quintana-Owen, P.,
May-Crespo, J.F., C
aceres-Farfan, M., Yam Puc, J.A., Sansores-Peraza, P.,
Vera-Ku, B.M., 2019. Extraction of phenolic components from an Aloe vera (Aloe
barbadensis Miller) crop and their potential as antimicrobials and textile dyes. Sus-
tain. Chem. Pharmacy 14, 100168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scp.2019.100168.
Castillo, S., Navarro, D., Zapata, P.J., Guille
n, F., Valero, D., Serrano, M.,
Martínez-Romero, D., 2010. Antifungal efficacy of Aloe vera in vitro and its use as a
preharvest treatment to maintain postharvest table grape quality. Postharvest
Biol. Technol. 57, 183–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2010.04.006.
Cavasana, A.L., Santos, C.H.M.dos, Dourado, D.M., Guimara ~es, F.dos S., Barros, F.H.R.,
de Campos, G.C.O., Leme, G.A.L., Silva, L.D.M.da, Wahl, L.M., Gutterres, N.B.de A.,
Matias, R., C^amara, S.J.F., Santos, S.E.de O., 2020. Effectiveness of the Aloe vera
extract in the treatment of fistula-in-ano. J. Coloproctol. 40, 67–72. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jcol.2019.09.003.
CBI, 2020. The European market potential for Aloe vera. https://www.cbi.eu/market-
information/natural-ingredients-health-products/aloe-vera/market-potential.
Accessed 09 September 2020.
Chandegara, V.K., Varshney, A.K., 2013. Aloe vera L. processing and products : a review.
Int. J. Med. Aromatic Plants 3, 492–506.
Choi, S.W., Son, B.W., Son, Y.S., Park, Y.I., Lee, S.K., Chung, M.H., 2001. The wound-heal-
ing effect of a glycoprotein fraction isolated from aloe vera. J. Dermatol. 145, 535–
545. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2133.2001.04410.x.
Coats, B., 1994. Method of processing stabilized aloe vera gel obtained from the whole
aloe vera leaf. US patent 5356811 1 5.
Costello, J., 1997. Cream formulation for topical application. US patent 5874094A
5874094.
Da Silva Lima, S.C., Oliveira De Arruda, G., Dias Renovato, R., Martins Alvarenga, M.R.,
2012. Representations and uses of medicinal plants in elderly men. Rev. Lat. Am.
Enfermagem 20, 778–786.
Dammak, I., Lasram, S., Hamdi, Z., Ben, O., Mkadmini, K., Trigui, I., Houissa, H., Mliki, A.,
Hassouna, M., 2018. In vitro antifungal and anti-ochratoxigenic activities of Aloe
vera gel against Aspergillus carbonarius isolated from grapes. Ind. Crops Prod. 123,
416–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.07.023.
Danish, P., Ali, Q., Hafeez, M., Malik, A., 2020. Antifungal and antibacterial activity of
Aloe vera plant extract. Biol. Clin. Sci. Res. J. 4, 1–8.
Denius, H.R., Homann, P.H., 1972. The relation between photosynthesis, respiration,
and crassulacean acid metabolism in leaf slices of aloe arborescens mill. Plant Phys-
iol. 49, 873–880. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.49.6.873.
Domíguez-Ferna
ndez, R., Arzate-V
azquez, I., Chanona-Pe
rez, J., Welti-Chanes, J.,
Alvarado-Gonz
alez, J., Garibay-Febles, V., Gutie
rrez-Lo

pez, G., 2012. El gel de Aloe
vera: estructura, composicio
n quimica,procesameinto,actividad biolo
gica e impor-
tancia en la industria farmace
utica y alimentaria. Revista Mexicana de Ingeniería
Química 11, 23–43.
Eigeles, D., Culcusica, M. 2019. Method and apparatus for producing tailored composi-
tions of A. vera with probiotics and minerals products. Us patent 20200260769A1.
El-Sayed, S.M., El-Sayed, H.S., 2020. Production of UF-soft cheese using probiotic bacte-
ria and Aloe vera pulp as a good source of nutrients. Annals of Agricultural Sciences
65, 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2020.05.002.
Eshun, K., He, Q., 2004. Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical
and cosmetic industries - a review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 44, 91–96. https://doi.
org/10.1080/10408690490424694.
Etusim, P.E., Okafor, E.E., Nwachukwu, N., Melariri, P., Ogbonnaya, C.I., 2013. A Study on
Antibacterial activities of Aloe vera Leaves, Stems and Roots on some selected
organisms. Indian Journals 6, 570–572.
Flores-Lo
pez, M.L., Romaní, A., Cerqueira, M.A., Rodríguez-García, R.,
Jasso de Rodríguez, D., Vicente, A.A., 2016. Compositional features and bioactive
properties of whole fraction from Aloe vera processing. Ind. Crops Prod. 91, 179–
185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.07.011.
Florez, D.H., 2014. Estudio de inteligencia competitiva para la cadena productiva de la

bila, Agrosabia. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3517.6087
sa
Fonseca, V.J.A., Braga, A.L., Filho, J.R., Teixeira, C.S., Hora, G.C.A., Morais-Braga, M.F.B.,
2022. A review on the antimicrobial properties of lectins. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.
195, 163–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.11.209.
Funemi, T., Uchida, K., 2003. Stabilizer for fermented milk food, fermented milk food
and method for producing the food. JP patent 2004305071A 2003.
Gao, Y., Kuok, K.I., Jin, Y., Wang, R., 2019. Biomedical applications of Aloe vera. Crit. Rev.
Food Sci. Nutr. 59, 244–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2018.1496320.
Ghani, U., Naeem, M., Rafeeq, H., Imtiaz, U., Amjad, A., Ullah, S., Rehman, A., Qasim, F.,
2019. A novel approach towards nutraceuticals and biomedical applications. Schol.
Int. J. Biochem. 02, 245–252. https://doi.org/10.36348/sijb.2019.v02i10.001.
Grace, O.M., 2011. Current perspectives on the economic botany of the genus Aloe L .
(Xanthorrhoeaceae). S. Afr. J. Bot. 77, 980–987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
sajb.2011.07.002.
Guerrero-Beltra
n, J.A., Barbosa-C
anovas, G.V., 2004. Review: advantages and limita-
tions on processing foods by UV light. Food Sci. Technol. Int. 10, 137–147. https://
doi.org/10.1177/1082013204044359.
Gupta, K., Jaiswal, P., Gupta, H., Anurag, R.K., Nain, L., Prasanna, R., 2020. Exploring the
potential of Aloe vera as a carrier for developing a novel cyanobacterial formula-
tion. S. Afr. J. Bot. 135, 437–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2020.09.035.
Hamman, J.H., 2008. Composition and applications of Aloe vera Leaf Gel. Molecules 13,
1599–1616. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules13081599.
Hamman, J.H., Viljoen, A., 2009. Use of Aloe vera for increasing the bioavailability
of poorly absorbable drugs. World Intellect. Prop. Organ. Int. WO 2009/
103093 Al.
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al.
Hiyanes, S., 1997. Cosmetic e.g. shampoo - consists of sap of Aloe vera, moisturiser,
alcohol, surfactant, antiseptic and spice at predefined weight ratio. JP patent
11005724-A 11005724.
Huang, C.-T., Hung, C.-Y., Hseih, Y.-C., Chang, C.-S., Velu, A.B., He, Y.-C., Huang, Y.-L.,
Chen, T.-A., Chen, T.-C., Lin, C.-Y., Lin, Y.-C., Shih, S.-R., Dutta, A., 2019a. Phytomedi-
cine Effect of aloin on viral neuraminidase and hemagglutinin-specific T cell
immunity in acute influenza. Phytomedicine 64, 152904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
phymed.2019.152904.
Huang, Y.L., Oppong, M.B., Guo, Y., Wang, L.Z., Fang, S.M., Deng, Y.R., Gao, X.M., 2019b.
The Oleaceae family: a source of secoiridoids with multiple biological activities.
FitoterapiaFitoterapia 136, 104155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2019.04.010.
Huangyi, X., 2013. External medicament for treating scalds and preparation method
thereof. CN patent 103690728A 2013.
Hussain, S.A., Patil, G.R., Reddi, S., Yadav, V., Pothuraju, R., Singh, R.R.B., Kapila, S., 2017.
Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller) supplemented probiotic lassi prevents shigella
infiltration from epithelial barrier into systemic blood flow in mice model. Microb.
Pathog. 102, 143–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2016.11.023.
IARC, 2016. Some drugs and herbal products. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinog. Risks Hum.
108, 251–262.
Iberica, H., 1981. A procedure for stabilizing clear gel from Aloe vera leaves. ES patent
8305214A3 8305214.
Javed, S., Atta-Ur, R., 2014. Aloe vera gel in food, health products, and cosmetics indus-
try. Studies in Natural Products Chemistry. Elsevier B.V., pp. 261–285. https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63294-4.00009-7.
Jianping, L., Meihua, W., Jun, L., 2014. Qiqing baidu drink and preparation method
thereof. CN patent 103638268A.
Jingcai, C., Jinzhi, W., 2003. Application method of aloe vera L. extract in preventing and
curing diabetes. CN patent 1575803A 1575803.
Jot, H., Kim, J., Lee, K., Ohs, T., Park, I., 2009. Pharmaceutical composition for use as
health food for preventing or treating type II diabetes and diabetes related symp-
toms or diseases e.g. hyperglycemia, comprises processed aloe vera gel and speci-
fied amount of polysaccharide. KR patent 2009081860-A 2009.
Khan, I., Ahmad, T., Zia, R., Murid, M., Abrar, M., 2018. The therapeutic properties and
applications of Aloe vera: a review. J. Herb. Med. 12, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.hermed.2018.01.002.
Khatri, D., Panigrahi, J., Prajapati, A., Bariya, H., 2020. Attributes of Aloe vera gel and chi-
tosan treatments on the quality and biochemical traits of post-harvest tomatoes.
Sci. Hortic. 259, 108837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2019.108837.
Kluge, M., Knapp, I., Kramer, D., Schwerdtner, I., Ritter, H., 1979. Crassulacean acid
metabolism (CAM) in leaves of Aloe arborescens mill. plant. 145, 357–363. https://
doi.org/10.1007/bf00388361.
Liu, H., Liu, S., Du, B., Dong, K., Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., 2021. Aloe vera gel coating aggra-
vates superficial scald incidence in ‘Starking’ apples during low-temperature stor-
age. Food Chem. 339, 128151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128151.
Lo
pez-Cervantes, J., Sa
nchez-Machado, D.I., Cruz-Flores, P., Mariscal-Domínguez, M.F.,
Servín de la Mora-Lo
pez, G., Campas-Baypoli, O.N., 2018. Antioxidant capacity,
proximate composition, and lipid constituents of aloe vera flowers. J. Appl. Res.
Medicinal Aromatic Plants 10, 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jarmap.2018.02.004.
Maan, A.A., Nazir, A., Khan, M.K.I., Ahmad, T., Zia, R., Murid, M., Abrar, M., 2018. The
therapeutic properties and applications of aloe vera: a review. J. Herbal Medicine12
1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2018.01.002.
Majumder, R., Das, C.K., Mandal, M., 2019. Lead bioactive compounds of Aloe vera as
potential anticancer agent. Pharmacol. Res. 148, 104416.
Manvitha, K., Bidya, B., 2014. Aloe vera: a wonder plant its history, cultivation and
medicinal uses. J. Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2, 85–88.
Maret, R., 1972. Process for preparing extracts of Aloe vera. US patent 3878197-A
3878197.
Martínez-Sa
nchez, A., Lo

pez-Can ~ avate, M.E., Guirao-Martínez, J., Roca, M.J., Aguayo, E.,
2020. Aloe vera flowers, a byproduct with great potential and wide application,
depending on maturity Stage. Foods 9, 1–21.
Martínez, M.J., Betancourt Badell, J., Alonso Gonza
lez, N., 1996. Ausencia de actividad
antimicrobiana de un extracto acuoso liofilizado de Aloe vera (sabila). Revista
Cubana de Plantas Medicinales 1, 18–20.
Martínez, W.J., Paternina-Arboleda, C.D., Paroddy, A., Ve
lez Ramírez, M., Tapia, L.P.,
Espitia, R., 2017. Optimizacio
n del proceso de eliminacio
n de aloína del gel file-
teado mec
anico de Aloe vera concentrado 10X. Revista Cumbres 3, 9–16.
Maughan, R., 1982. Controlled temperature process for manufacturing of improved sta-
bilized aloe vera. US ptaent 4446131A 4446131.
McAnalley, B.H.., Prairie, G., 1988. Process for preparation of Aloe products, produced
thereby and components thereo. US Patent 4735935.
Medina-Torres, L., Nu
n~ ez-Ramírez, D.M., Calderas, F., Gonza
lez-Laredo, R.F.,
Minjares-Fuentes, R., Valadez-García, M.A., Bernad-Bernad, M.J., Manero, O., 2019.
Microencapsulation of gallic acid by spray drying with Aloe vera mucilage (Aloe
barbadensis miller) as wall material. Ind. Crops Prod. 138, 111461. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.06.024.
Meijuan, Y., 2014. Gingko tea. CN patent 103749850-A .
Mendy, T.K., Misran, A., Mahmud, T.M.M., Ismail, S.I., 2019. Antifungal properties of aloe vera
through in vitro and in vivo screening against postharvest pathogens of papaya fruit. Sci.
Hortic. 257, 108767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2019.108767.
Minamide, A., 1999. Stone named syotoku stone produced in japan-containing cos-
metic composition. JP patent 2001031557A 1999.
MINFAR, I.S. de M.M. "Dr. L.D.S., 1990. Compendio De Investigaciones Sobre El Aloe bar-
badensis Miller (sa
bila) Cultivado En Cuba. La Habana, Cuba. http://scielo.sld.cu/scie-
loOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0864-
1005
South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006
0319200600030000400006&lng=pt&pid=S0864-03192006000300004. Accessed 05
September 2021.
Mingwei, Y., 2005a. Production process of food level aloe gel 200:1 frozen dry powder.
CN patent 1672569A 1672569.
Mingwei, Y., 2005b. Production process of spray dried food level Aloe gel 200:1 spray-
ing dry powder. CN patent 1672570A 1672570.
MSANVS -Ministerio da Sau
de e Age
^ncia Nacional de Vigil^ancia Sanit
aria, 2007. Regla-
mento te
cnico sobre aditivos aromatizantes, Dia
rio Oficial da Unia ~o, de 17 de
janeiro de 2007. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Mpiana, P.T., Ngbolua, K.te N., Tshibangu, D.S.T., Kilembe, J.T., Gbolo, B.Z.,
Mwanangombo, D.T., Inkoto, C.L., Lengbiye, E.M., Mbadiko, C.M., Matondo, A.,
Bongo, G.N., Tshilanda, D.D., 2020. Identification of potential inhibitors of SARS-
CoV-2 main protease from aloe vera compounds: a molecular docking study.
Chem. Phys. Lett. 754, 137751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cplett.2020.137751.
Mudgil, D., Barak, S., Darji, P., 2016. Development and characterization of functional
cultured buttermilk utilizing aloe vera juice. Food Biosci. 15, 105–109. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.fbio.2016.06.001.
Mukherjee, P.K., Nema, N.K., Maity, N., Mukherjee, K., Harwansh, R.K., 2014. Phyto-
chemical and therapeutic profile of aloe vera. J. Natur. Remed. 14, 1–26. https://doi.
org/10.18311/jnr/2014/84.
Murugesan, M.P., Venkata Ratnam, M., Mengitsu, Y., Kandasamy, K., 2020. Evaluation of
anti-cancer activity of phytosomes formulated from Aloe vera extract. Mater.
Today: Proceedings J. 42, 631–636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.047.
Nagaraj, G., Brundha, D., Kowsalya, V., Chandraleka, C., Sangavi, S., Jayalakshmi, R.,
Arulpriya, M., Sathya, N., Prasath, M., Tamilarasu, S., 2020. Biosynthesis of zinc
doped aloe vera for green nanoparticles. Mater. Today: Proc. 43, 3354–3358.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.05.318.
Nicolau-Lapen ~ a, I., Aguilo

-Aguayo, I., Kramer, B., Abadias, M., Vin ~ as, I., Muranyi, P.,
2021. Combination of ferulic acid with aloe vera gel or alginate coatings for shelf-
life prolongation of fresh-cut apples. Food packaging and shelf life 27, 100620.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2020.100620
Ortega-Toro, R., Collazo-Bligliardi;, S., Rosello
;, J., Santamarina;, P., Amparo, C., 2017.
Antifungal starch-based edible films containing aloe vera. Food Hydrocoll. 72, 1–10
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.05.023.
Ortiz, R., Fernandez, V., 2000. Therapeutic after-shave care lotion. US patent
6352691B1 6352691.
Ozturk, B., Karakaya, O., Kenan, Y., Saracoglu, O., 2019. Effects of aloe vera gel and MAP
on bioactive compounds and quality attributes of cherry laurel fruit during cold
storage. Sci. Hortic. 249, 31–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2019.01.030.
Ozturk, G., Young, G.M., 2017. Food evolution: the impact of society and science on the
fermentation of cocoa beans. Comprehen. Rev. Food Sci. Food Safety 16, 431–455.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12264.
Pandey, A., Singh, S., 2016. Aloe vera : a systematic review of its industrial and ethno-
medicinal efficacy. Int. J. Pharmaceut. Res. Allied Sci. 5, 21–33.
Pasco, D., Pugh, N., Ross, S., Elsohly, M., 2001. High molecular weight polysaccharide
fraction from Aloe vera with immunostimulatory activity. International application
published under the patent cooperation treaty (PCT) WO2002003999A1 2001.
Pothuraju, R., Sharma, R.K., Chagalamarri, J., Kavadi, P.K., Jangra, S., 2015. Influence of
milk fermented with Lactobacillus rhamnosus NCDC 17 alone and in combination
with herbal ingredients on diet induced adiposity and related gene expression in
C57BL/6 J mice. Food Function J. 6, 3576–3584. https://doi.org/10.1039/
c5fo00781j.
Pothuraju, R., Sharma, R.K., Kavadi, P.K., Chagalamarri, J., Jangra, S., Bhakri, G., De, S.,
2016a. Anti-obesity effect of milk fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum NCDC 625
alone and in combination with herbs on high fat diet fed C57BL/6 J mice. Benef
Microbes 7, 375–385. https://doi.org/10.3920/BM2015.0083.
Pothuraju, R., Sharma, R.K., Onteru, S.K., Singh, S., Hussain, S.A., 2016b. Hypoglycemic
and hypolipidemic effects of aloe vera extract preparations: a review. Phytother.
Res. 30, 200–207. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.5532.
Pyo, J., Pjeong, J., Jin, W., Hyon, S., Khan, J. 2015. Antioxidant composition useful as
health food, for preventing and improving liver diseases including hepatitis and
liver cirrhosis, comprises Aloe vera extract extracted from 4 to 6 months old A.
vera. KR patent 2014147949-A
Quispe, C., Villalobos, M., Bo
rquez, J., Simirgiotis, M., 2018. Chemical composition and
antioxidant activity of aloe vera from the pica oasis (Tarapaca
, Chile) by UHPLC-Q/
Orbitrap/MS/MS. J. Chem. 1, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6123850.
Radha, M.H., Laxmipriya, N.P., 2015. Evaluation of biological properties and clinical
effectiveness of aloe vera : a systematic review. J. Tradit Complement Med. 5, 21–
26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2014.10.006.
Rahoui, W., Merzouk, H., El Haci, I.A., Bettioui, R., Azzi, R., Benali, M., 2018. Beneficial
effects of aloe vera gel on lipid profile, lipase activities and oxidant/antioxidant sta-
tus in obese rats. J. Funct. Foods 48, 525–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jff.2018.07.050.
Ramachandra, C.T., Srinivasa Rao, P., 2008. Processing of aloe vera leaf gel: a review.
Am. J. Agric. Biol. Sci. 3, 502–510. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajabssp.2008.502.510.
Reynolds, T., 1985. The compounds in aloe € leaf exudates: a review. Botanical J. Linnean
Soc. 90, 157–177. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.1985.tb00377.x.
Reynolds, T., 2004. Aloes: the Genus Aloe. Medicinal and aromatic plants-industrial
profiles, 1st ed.
Reynolds, T., Dweck, A.C., 1999. Aloe vera leaf gel: a review update. J. Ethnopharmacol.
68, 3–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00085-9.
Martínez, R., Rodríguez Leyes, E.A., Mene
ndez Castillo, R., Fern
andez Romero, J.A.,
Del Barrio Alonso, G., Gonz
alez Sanabia, T.M.L., 2002. Obtencio
n y caracterizacio
n
preliminar de un extracto de Aloe vera con actividad antiviral. Revista Cubana de
Plantas Medicinales 7, 32–38.
W.J. Martínez-Burgos, J.L. Serra, R.M. MarsigliaF et al.
Rodríguez-Rodríguez, M.Z., Mele
ndez-Pizarro, C.O., Espinoza-Hicks, J.C.,
Quintero-Ramos, A.,
nchez-Madrigal,
Sa M., Meza-Vel
azquez, J.A.,


Jimenez-Castro, J.A., 2019. Effects of UV-C irradiation and traditional thermal proc-
essing on acemannan contained in Aloe vera gel blends. Carbohydr. Polym. 222,
114998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.114998.
Rodriguez, D.J.de, Angulo-Sanchez, J.L., Silva, J.A.T.da, Aguilar-Gonzalez, C.N., 2006.
Review of aloe species ’ medicinal properties and bioactive compounds. Floric.
Ornam. Plant Biotechnol IV, 460–471.
Rodríguez, E.R., Martín, J.D., Romero, C.D., 2010. Aloe vera as a Functional Ingredient in
Foods. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 50, 305–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10408390802544454.
Rodríguez Leyes, E.A., Rodríguez Chanfrau, J.E., Pardo Ruiz, Z., Pavo
n, V., 2000. Determi-
nacio
n de polisaca
ridos totales en gel liquido de Aloe vera L para su empleo como
materia prima en formulaciones de suplementos diete
ticos. Revista Tecnologia. e
Higiene de los Alimentos 313, 79–82.
Roig, J.T., 1988. Plantas medicinales, Arom
aticas o Venenosas De Cuba. Editorial Cientí-
fico, La Habana, Cuba. 1ed. 548p.
Saeed, Ahmada, I., Yaqub, U., Shazia, A., Amran, W., Saleem, M., 2004. Aloe vera: A plant
of vital significance. Science Vision 9, 1–13.
Sahu, P.K., Giri, D.D., Singh, R., Pandey, P., Gupta, S., Shrivastava, A.K., Kumar, A.,
Pandey, K.D., 2013. Therapeutic and medicinal uses of aloe vera : a review. Pharma-
col. Pharmacy 2013, 599–610 http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/pp.2013.48086.
Salama, H.E., Abdel Aziz, M.S., 2020. Optimized alginate and aloe vera gel edible coating
reinforced with nTiO2 for the shelf-life extension of tomatoes. Int. J. Biol. Macro-
mol. 165, 2693–2701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.10.108.

nchez-Machado, D.I., Lo
Sa
pez-cervantes, J., Sendo
n, R., Sanches-, A., 2017. Aloe vera:
ancient knowledge with new frontiers. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 64, 94–102.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2016.12.005.
Sanzana, S., Gras, M.L., Vidal-Broto
ns, D., 2011. Functional foods enriched in aloe vera.
effects of vacuum impregnation and temperature on the respiration rate and the
respiratory quotient of some vegetables. Procedia Food Sci. 1, 1528–1533. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.profoo.2011.09.226.
Scala, K.Di, Vega-G
alvez, A., Ah-Hen, K., Nun ~ ez-Mancilla, Y., Tabilo-Munizaga, G.,
Pe
rez-Won, M., Giovagnoli, C., 2013. Chemical and physical properties of Aloe
vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller) gel stored after high hydrostatic pressure proc-
essing. Food Sci. Technol. 33, 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-
20612013005000002.
Serafini, M., Stanzione, A., Foddai, S., Anton, R., Delmulle, L., 2012. The european role on
traditional herbal medicinal products and traditional plant food supplements. J.
Clin. Gastroenterol. 46, S93–S94. https://doi.org/10.1097/mcg.0b013e318266b08f.
Serrano, M., Valverde, J.M., Guille
n, F., Castillo, S., Martínez-Romero, D., Valero, D.,
2006. Use of aloe vera gel coating preserves the functional properties of table
grapes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 54, 3882–3886. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf060168p.
Shahrezaee, M., Soleimanian-Zad, S., Soltanizadeh, N., Akbari-Alavijeh, S., 2018. Use of
Aloe vera gel powder to enhance the shelf life of chicken nugget during refrigera-
tion storage. Lwt- Food Sci. Technol. 95, 380–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lwt.2018.04.066.
Shakib, Z., Shahraki, N., Razavi, B.M., Hosseinzadeh, H., 2019. Aloe vera as an herbal
medicine in the treatment of metabolic syndrome: a review. Phytother. Res. 33,
2649–2660. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6465.
Sharma, P., Kharkwal, A., Kharkwal, H., Abdin, M., Varma, A., 2014. A review on phar-
macological properties of Solanum tuberosum. Res. J. Pharmacy Technol. 10, 1517.
https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-360X.2017.00267.0.
Shelton, R.M., 1991. Aloe vera: its chemical and therapeutic properties. Int. J. Dermatol.
30, 679–683. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-4362.1991.tb02607.x.
1006
South African Journal of Botany 147 (2022) 993 1006
Simal, S., Rossello, C., Femenia, A., S
anchez, E., 1999. Compositional features of polysac-
charides from Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller) plant tissues. Carbohydr. Polym.
39, 109–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0144-8617(98)00163-5.
Singh, S., Kaur, M.C. 2018. Nutraceutical composition for ready-to-drink juice com-
prises guava juice and Aloe vera. IN patent 201721000471-A
Steenkamp, E.J., 2015. A profile on the Aloe industry for export a focus on South Africa.
https://www.nda.agric.za/doaDev/sideMenu/internationalTrade/docs/tradeFacili-
tation/Aloe_%2024%20April%202015_high.pdf. Accessed 01 September 2020.
Steenkamp, V., Stewart, M.J., 2008. Medicinal Applications and Toxicological Activities
of Aloe. Products. Pharmaceut. Biol. 45, 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/
13880200701215307.
Technavio, 2015. Estudio del mercado global de bebidas de Aloe vera estimado para
el periodo comprendido entre los an ~ os 2016-2020.
The Plant List. 2012. A working list of all plant species. http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/
browse/A/Xanthorrhoeaceae/. Accessed 08 February 2022.
Torres-Giner, S., Wilkanowicz, S., Melendez-Rodriguez, B., Lagaron, J.M., 2017. Nanoen-
capsulation of Aloe vera in Synthetic and Naturally Occurring Polymers by Electro-
hydrodynamic Processing of Interest in Food Technology and Bioactive Packaging.
J. Agric. Food Chem. 65, 4439–4448. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.7b01393.
Vakhania, M., Alexidze, G.I., Aleksidze, N.G., 2014. Allocation of lectins in flowerorgans
ofaloe plant (aloearistata) and their biochemical characteristics. Biochem. Biotech-
nol. 12, 22–26.
Vandenberghe, L.P.de S., Pandey, A., Carvalho, J.C.de, Letti, L.A.J., Woiciechowski, A.L.,
Karp, S.G., Thomaz-Soccol, V., Martínez-Burgos, W.J., Penha, R.de O.,
Herrmann, L.W., Rodrigues, A.O., Soccol, C.R., 2020. Solid-state fermentation tech-
nology and innovation for the production of agricultural and animal feed bioprod-
ucts. Syst. Microbiol. Biomanufact. 1, 142–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43393-
020-00015-7.
Vega-Ga
lvez, A., Uribe, E., Perez, M., Tabilo-Munizaga, G., Vergara, J., Garcia-Segovia, P.,
Lara, E., Di Scala, K., 2011. Effect of high hydrostatic pressure pretreatment on dry-
ing kinetics, antioxidant activity, firmness and microstructure of Aloe vera (Aloe
barbadensis Miller) gel. LWT- Food Science & Technology 44, 384–391. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.lwt.2010.08.004.
A.N.L. Vega, G., Ampuero, C., Díaz, N., Lemus, M., 2005. El Aloe vera (Aloe Barbadensis
Miller) Como Componente De Alimentos Funcionales. Revista chilena de nutricio
n
32. https://doi.org/10.4067/s0717-75182005000300005.
Vinson, J.A., Al Kharrat, H., Andreoli, L., 2005. Effect of Aloe vera preparations on the
human bioavailability of vitamins C and E. Phytomedicine 12, 760–765. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2003.12.013.
Weng, X.C., Gordon, M.H., 1992. Antioxidant Activity of Quinones Extracted from
Tanshen (Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge). J. Agric. Food Chem. 40, 1331–1336. https://
doi.org/10.1021/jf00020a007.
WIPO, 2020a. Reasons for patenting your inventions. World Intellect. Prop. Organ..
https://www.wipo.int/sme/en/ip_business/importance/reasons.htm. Accessed 25
May 2020.
WIPO, 2020b. The International Patent Classification. World Intellect. Prop. Organ..
https://www.wipo.int/classifications/ipc/en/. Accessed 02 May 2020.
Yan, Z., 2014. Aloe beverage. CN patent 105614600A 2014.
Yonghua, M., 2012. Xylitol-containing strawberry-aloe beverage and preparation
method thereof. CN patent 103876210A.
Yuanying, W., 2012. Aloe beverage. CN patent 103859539A 2012.
Zapata, P.J., Navarro, D., Guille
n, F., Castillo, S., Martínez-Romero, D., Valero, D.,
Serrano, M., 2013. Characterisation of gels from different Aloe spp. as antifungal
treatment: potential crops for industrial applications. Ind. Crops Prod. 42, 223–230
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.06.002.