Musical fundamental frequency tracking using a pattern

recognition method")
Judith C. Brown
PhysicsDepartment,14reliesIcy
College,Wellesley,
MassachusettsO1281
andMediaLab,Massachusetts
Instituteof Technology,
Cambridge,Massachusetts02139

(Received12March 1991;accepted
for publication15May 1992)
In a recentarticle [J. C. Brown,"Calculationof a ConstantQ SpectralTransform,"J. Acoust.
Soc.Am. 89, 425-434 ( 1991) ], the calculationof a constantQ spectraltransformthat givesa
constantpatternin thelogfrequencydomainfor soundswith harmonicfrequencycomponents
hasbeendescribed. This propertyhasbeenutilizedin calculatingthecross-correlationfunction
of spectraof soundsproducedby musicalinstruments with the idealpattern,whichconsistsof
one'sat thepositions of harmonicfrequencycomponents. Therefore,thepositionof thebest
approximationto the "ideal" patternfor the spectraproducedby theseinstrumentshasbeen
determined,and in sodoingthe fundamentalfrequencyfor that soundhasbeenobtained.
Resultsarepresented for scalesproduced
by thepiano,flute,andviolinaswellasfor arpeggios
playedby a widevarietyof instruments.
PACS numbers:43.60.Gk, 43.75.Yy

INTRODUCTION I. BACKGROUND

Previous work in the field of musical fundamental
quencytrackingwasreviewedrecentlyin an articledescrib-
ing a frequencytracker operating in the time domain
(Brown, 1991). Sincethis work is basedon a calculation in
the frequencydomain,we will limit our backgrounddiscus-
sionto studiesthat havebeendoneon musicalsystems in the
frequencydomainexceptwhere directly relevantto this
work.
Most of the effortsat musicalfrequencytrackinghave
takenplacein the frequencydomain(Terhardt, 1979;Ter-
hardtetaL, 1982;Amuedo,1985;ChafeandJaffe,1986) and
have used a method of attack similar to that of the Schroeder
(1968) histogrammethod.After the calculationof a fast
Fourier transform,a hypothesisis assertedfor eachfrequen-
cy componentof all possiblefundamentalfrequencies for
which it couldbe a harmonic;i.e., eachfrequencycompo-
nent is dividedby integersand the resultsare enteredin a
table.The entriesareweighted,anda decisionismadebased
on criteria involvingthe numberof components and their
weights.The frequencyis chosenwhichmostcloselymeets
previouslydeterminedcriteria.
A similar frequencytracker (Piszczalskiand Galler,
1979) took ratiosof pairsof components to form their hy-
potheses for the fundamentaland thenproceededas above.
Duifhuis et al. (1982) studied speechsegmentsusing a
methodwhich mostcloselyapproaches
that of this article.
Followingan FFT, theykepta maximumof sixpeaksand
then used a "harmonic sieve" to determine which of these
peaksbestfit thelogarithmicspacingobtainedwith harmon-
ic frequencycomponents. This methodwaslater refinedby
Scheffcrs (1983).
'•Thc nomenclature
"fundamentalfrequencytracker" or "frequency
tracker" is usedrather than "pitch tracker" becausethe editor wishesto
observethe psychoacoustical distinctionbetweenpitch as a perceived
quantityand frequencyasa physicalquantity.
fre- In a recentarticle (Brown, 1991), we describeda calcu-
lationthatserves asthebasisforthefrequency trackerwhich
will be discussed. In this calculation,a spectraltransform
equivalent to a 1/24thoctavefilterbankiscarriedoutevery
15msonthedigitizedsoundfroma musicalinstrument. The
frequencycomponents thushavelogarithmicspacing.As
described(seeFig. I in Brown, 1991), for a soundwith har-
monicfrequencycomponents, theseFouriercomponents
havea spacing in thelogfrequency domainwhichisindepen-
dentofthefundamental frequency.Forexample, thespacing
between the fundamental and the second harmonic is
log(2), that betweenthe secondand third components
is
1og(3/2), and soon.
Sincethis patternis constantfor harmonicfrequency
components,the"pattern"with l's at theappropriatespac-
ingscanbeconvolved(or crosscorrelated ) withthespectral
transform,anda maximumshouldoccurat thepositionof
the fundamental.
Note that this methodaccomplishes the
samepurposeas the histogrammethod;the valuesof the
cross-correlation
functionbeingsimilarto the the sumsof
tableentries.Here, however,the valuescorrespond to all
possibleharmoniccomponents.
For exampleastheconvolution iscomputed, eachcom-
ponentof theharmonicpatternwill fall oneachcomponent
of the analyzedsound.This "asserts"the appropriatefunda-
mentalasa hypothesis (weightedwith thevalueof thecross-
correlationfunctionat that point) but it is simultaneously
asserting thatsamefundamental foreachof thecomponents
of thesoundwhicharein theappropriate position.Sorather
thandividing,choosing a weightingsystem,andkeepingen-
tries in a table, we obtainone numberfor eachfrequency
corresponding to thesumof all thefrequency components of
the soundthat are in the correctpositionto be multiplesof
that frequency(harmonicsof that fundamental).Thus in a
very elegantand completeway we are obtainingthe results

1394 J. Acoust.
Soc.Am.92 (3),September
1992 0001-4966/92/091394-09500.80 ¸ 1992Acoustical
SocietyofAmerica 1394
thattheprevious researchersapproachedwiththehistogram spectrumincludesa strongfundamental, andthecrosscor-
method.There is a computationaladvantageaswell in that relationexhibitsan evenstrongerand more unambiguous
wesimplyaddthecomponents withtheappropriate
spacing. peakthanforthesynthesized datawhichwererepresented in
Finallythisfrequency trackersolvestheproblemof the Fig. 1. We will representsomeof the calculations for the
"missingfundamental"in muchthe samemanneras that violinthat arethe mostdifficultto interpretafterthe general
hypothesized for humans.It is essentiallycomparingthe presentation of our resultsandthe discussion of adjustable
harmonics presentto a templateandfindingthebestmatch. parameters fi3rthisfrequencytracker.
Thisisconsistent with thepatternmatchingtheory(Gerson With any patternmatchingmethod,the crosscorrela-
andGoldstein,1978) of humanpitchperception. tionestablishes mostunambiguously thepositionof thepat-
tern that is soughtthe closerin shapeit is to the known
II. RESULTS
"ideal"pattern.(DudaandHart, 1973) Thusthenumberof
Beforepresenting the resultson musicalinstruments, it components in the ideal patternshouldmatchthe average
is instructiveto considerthismethodwith singleframes.In number of non zero Fourier componentsfor a particular
general,thecalculation wascarriedouton 15msof analyzed instrument.The effectof varying thesecomponentsin the
sound.In Fig. 1, the signalanalyzedconsisted of a sound patternis thusan adjustable parameterto be optimizedfor
generated in software with20harmonics ofequalamplitude. each instrument.
The lowergraphof Fig. 1 is the spectraltransformof this The graphsof Figs. 3-5 demonstratethe frequency
signalin thelogfrequencydomain.The patternthat is con- trackingresnltson soundsproducedby a flute,piano,and
volvedwith this transformconsistof l's with the samespac- violin as examplesof wind, keyboard,and string instru-
ingasthatof thesepeakssincethissignalwassynthesized to ments,respectively. We haveplottedmidinoteversustime
havetheidealshape.The cross-correlation functionisgiven where middle C (C4) is representedby midinote60, and
in the top of Fig. 1. Clearlythe largestpeakof the cross each semitone corresponds to a valueof onemidinotehigher
correlationisat thepositionof thefundamental for thiside- (or lower). Graphs of the spectrathat were usedfor these
alizedspectrum, andit canbechosen easilybya peakpicker. calculations are found in Brown ( 1991). Eachpoint in these
It shouldalsobe noted,however,that the cross-correla- graphsrepresents thepeakof a cross-correlation calculation
tionfunctionhaspeaksat thepositionof one-halfof andtwo on an analysis frame similar to that of Fig. 2 corresponding
timesthefundamental.Thesepeaksgiveriseto octaveerrors toapproximately 15msofsound.Eachinstrument isplaying
(a problemfor all frequencytrackers).With our method, a scalesothatperfectresultswouldconsist of a sequentialset
thesourceof theproblemisthattheevenpeaksof thepattern of horizontal lines rising by one or two midinotescorre-
lineup with thespectrumfor thefrequencyanoctavebelow sponding to a half or a wholestepin thescale.Thuserrors
that of the fundamentalso,if enoughpeaksare includedin madeby the frequencytrackerare easilydistinguished as
thepattern,thecross-correlation functionwill havethesame pointsoff theappropriatehorizontalline.
valueat thispositionasat thatof thetruefundamental. For The spectrumof the soundproducedby the flute con-
the frequency an octaveoverthat of the fundamental(the sistsof a fundamentaland a few upperharmonicsthat di-
second harmonic),thepeaksof thepatternarealignedwith minishin amplitudein a regularfashion.In Fig. 3, weshow
the evenpeaksof the spectrumagaingivingriseto a large theeffectof varyingthe numberof components in the har-
value of the cross-correlation function. The octave errors monicpatternfromthreecomponents to fivewheretheopti-
thusproduced arethechiefsource oferrorforourfrequency mumpatternconsists of fourharmonics. The fluteisplaying
tracker. In a later section,we will describea meansof elimi- a C majorscalefromC4 to E6. Errorsoccuronnotechanges
natingtheerroroccurring on thesecond harmonic. whenthereismorethanonenotepresent.Most of theerrors
An exampleof thecross-correlation functionfor a digi• for the flute occur on the lowest notes when there are too few
tizedmusicalsoundisgivenin Fig.2 forthesoundproduced components in the pattern (lowestcurve). This is due to
by a violin.Thisis a particularlyfavorable exampleasthe little energyin the lowerharmonicsfor thesenotes.

CROSS CORRELATION FUNCTION

FIG. 1. Spectrumversuslog frequeucy

fora soundconsistingof 20 harmonics of
equalamplitude(below) and thecross-
correlation function of this spectrum
with a functionconsistingof l's with the
SPECTRUM

RE ( )

1395 J. Acoust.Soc. Am., Vol. 92, No. 3, September 1992 JudithC. Brown:Musicalfundamentalfrequencytracking 1395
 SS
CORRELATI
FUNCTIO FIG. 2. Spectrumversuslogfrequencyfor the
noteC4 produced bya violin(below)andcross-
correlationfunction(above) of this spectrum
with the samefunctionasthat describedfor Fig.
SPECTRUM
1.

I I .I I

FREQUENCY(HZ} •

For the highernotesthe errorson notechangesare al-
mostall low by an octave.Theseerrorsoccurbecause, when
the patternhasits lowestcomponentat the positionof an
octavebelowthefundamental of thesound,theevencompo-
nentsof thepatternpickup all theharmonics of the sound.
The oddcomponents of thepatternarein a positionto pick
up any soundfrom the previousnote'sdecay,givingan ad-
vantageoverthepatternat thepositionof thefundamental.
Only by limitingthenumberof components in thepatternto
match thoseof the particularinstrumentstudiedcan this
errorbeeliminated.In practicethisisnota seriousproblem,
as none of theseerrors occurredfor more than one frame;
theycouldbeeasilyeliminated by havingtwoframesagree.
The resultsfor a pianosoundarefoundin Fig. 4 where
thequalitativebehaviorissimilarto thatof theflute,andthe
optimum number of componentsin the cross-correlation
patternisthesame.The totalnumberof errorsfor thepiano,
with the optimumnumberof components, is three as op-
posedto six for the flute.
Preliminaryfundamentalfrequencytrackingresultson
the violin were reportedat the Syracusemeeting(Brown,
1989)of theAcousticalSocietyof America.The spectrumof

• o

TIME

FIG. 3. Fundamental
frequency
trackingresultsfora flutescalefromC,4toE6 usingcrosscorrelation
witha patternconsisting
of threecomponents
(below),
four components(center), and fivecomponents(above).

1396 J. Acoust.Soc. Am.,Vol.92, No. 3, September1992 JudithC. Brown:Musicalfundamentalfrequencytracking 1396

 ...............
pq
TIME
FIG. 4. Fundamental
frequencytrackingresultsfor a pianoscalefrom G3 to G5 usingcrosscorrelationwith a patternconsisting
(below),fourcomponents(center),andfivecomponents (above}.
of the violin is quitedifferentfrom thoseof the flute and
piano.There is a strongformantin the regionof 3000 Hz,
whichgivesrise to extremelystrongupperharmonics.In
Fig. 5, thefrequencytrackingresultsarefoundfor thisviolin
with 6 to 20 components in the cross-correlationpattern.
The optimumnumberof components is 11, but the results
are not terribly sensitiveto this parameteras long as it is
reasonably closeto theoptimum.
To clarifythesourceof errorswiththismethod,wehave
chosenfourframesfor theviolinfromtheregionof thenote
transitionfrom E5 to F$5 (Fig. 6). All notetransitionsare
difficultfor a frequencytracker sincethere are two notes
present.For eachof theseframeswehavegraphedthespec-
trum,thecross-correlation function,andthepeakchosento
representthe fundamentalfrequency.Time increasesfrom
the bottom three graphsto the top three. The first two
frames(lowestsixgraphs)are in error by an octavebelow
the correct fundamental.
We have indicated the harmonicsfor F#5 with small
arrows. Harmonics three, four, and five fall into the formant
regionandarethusstronglyamplified.Sincepositions onthe
pattern are closelyspacedfor the higher harmonics,when
1397 J. Acoust.
Sec.Am.,Vol.92, No.3, September
1992
of threecomponents
the patternlinesup on the (winning) frequencyan octave
belowthefrequencyof E5, contributions from thesehigher
harmonicsfrom F$5 are sufficientto makethisthe winning
note.This happensagainfor the nextframe.In thethird and
fourthframes(top sixgraphs)the higherharmonicsof E5
haveessentiallydied out, and F•5 wins as it should.
Asidefromthenumberof components in thecross-cor-
relationpattern,theotheradjustable parameteristhetuning
of the centerfrequenciesfor the binsfor the calculationof
the spectrum.In Fig. 7, we have variedthe tuningover a
semitonein stepsof 1% of thecenterfrequencyfor theviolin.
For example,the curvemarked0.97 hascenterfrequencies
3% lower than those in the curve marked 1.00. Note that the
frequencytrackeris verysensitiveto thisparameterwith an
obviousdeterioriationin performancewith eventhe small
changeto 0.99 from the optimum 1.00.It is suggestedthat
thistuninganalysisbecarriedout for eachA to D converter
used,sincefrequencyshiftscanoccurduringthe process of
sampling.
As a finaltestfor thisfrequency
trackerwehaveapplied
it to a "musicalobstaclecourse"consistingof fourascending
notesplayedvery slowly (about I s per note) by eachof a
JudithC. Brown:
Musical
fundamental
frequency
tracking 1397
 = 2o

= 15

58.

-- 14
63,

-- 12

(•
z
$8.
= 11

83.

o • ....... n--6
o •omm •; ......... ";

OGO b',,J.........

TIME

FIG. 5. Fundamental
frequency
trackingresultsfor a violinscalefrom03 to G5 usingcrosscorrelation
withpatternsconsisting
of components
with the
numbervaryingfrom 6 to 20. The numberof components
is indicatedon the curve.

of eightharmonicsin thepatternwaschosen,anda graphof

violin, viola, cello, clarinet, alto sax, tenor sax, trumpet,
trombone,and French horn. The cross-correlation thefrequencytrackingresultsisfoundin Fig. 8. The notesin
pattern
cannotbe optimizedfor eachinstrumentaswasdonepre- the soundfilewere splicedtogetherso thereis silencefor a
viouslysopoorerresultsmightbeexpected.A compromise few framesbetweennotes;thusthesepointsoff the horizon-

1398 J. Acoust.Soc.Am.,Vol.92, No.3, September1992 JudithC. Brown:Musicalfundamental

frequency
tracking 1398
SPECTRUM
t t t t t

WINNING
PEAK
CROSS CORRELATION

SPECTRUM • _ _
WINNING PEAK '

CROSS
CORRELATION" - - .-% I [ •

SPECTRUM
__ ,• I
2• •
I I•
10•0
.I
2:•00
,• I
40•] •
FREQUENCY(HZ}•
FIG.6.Fourframes
fortheviolintransition
fromE5toF•5.Foreach
isgraphed
thespectrum
versus
logfrequency,
thecross-correlation
function,
andthe
peakchosenasthefundamental
frequency.

tal linesbetweennotesdo not representerrors. usualfor frequencytrackers,aswe did not want to eliminate
We havealsoanalyzedthesesoundswith a frequency the basesfor comparisonsfor eachof the adjustableparam-
trackerusingthe methodof narrowedinvertedautocorrela- eters.
tion (Brown andPuckette,1987;BrownetaL, 1989;Brown,
III. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
1991) in orderto comparethesetwomethods(Fig. 8). The
autocorrelation resultsare foundin Fig. 9. Figures8 and 9 Essentiallyall errorswith the patternrecognitionmeth-
represent on theorderof 2300framesor discretefrequency od were octave errors. We are able to eliminate these errors
trackingeventsandhadto besampledto becompressed on on the high sideby a rather ingeniousmethodsuggested by
to a singlegraph.They are sampledat a rate of 4 to 1; soa StevenHaflich. A cross-correlation pattern is used with
given point representsthe resultsof the analysisof four componentspacingcorresponding to 2f 3f 4f, 6f... that is,
frames.Eachnoteisheldfor approximately 1 swith a frame twiceasmanycomponents asin theusualcasebut with alter-
sizeof 16mswhichgives64 eventspernote. natingsignsfor thesecomponents. Thus the positiveeven
The autocorrelation frequencytracker missesfewer components of thispatternwill lineup withharmonicspec-
framesin theregionsbetweennotesbecause it hasa mecha- tral components asbefore;in thispositionthe negativecom-
nismfor not reportinga noteif the valueof the the function ponentsof thepatternhavenoeffectastheywill fall between
differssufficiently from its idealvalue.The pointsoff the components of thesound.The valueof the cross-correlation
horizontallinesfor thismethodrepresent singleerrors.The functionwill be the sameat the positionof the fundamental
points on the time axis are the ones which have been as with the previouspattern.Now however,whenthe pat-
dropped.However,this frequencytracker had more diffi- tern isalignedwith its lowestcomponenton the secondhar-
culty with tuningproblems(pointsjust off the horizontal monic (positionof the octave up error) of the musical
line or a splitwithin a horizontalline into two linesa semi- sound,eachof thecomponents of thepatternmatchesa com-
toneapart). The patternrecognitionfrequencytrackerdoes ponentof the sound.Sinceeveryother componentof the
betterduringtheplayingof thenote,i.e., thehorizontallines patternhasa differentsign,thesumgivesa lowvalueof the
areunbrokenwith theexceptionof the firstnote.The points cross-correlation
functionandeliminates
thisfrequencyasa
that are off duringthe silences couldeasilybe droppedfor candidate.
both methodsby addingan amplitudedetector.This wasnot This methodof suppressing
the cross-correlation
peak
done,nor did we requiretwo or more framesto agree,as is for the secondharmonicworkedextremelywell aspredict-

1399 J. Acoust.
Sec.Am..Vol.92.No.3. September
1992 Judith
C. Brown:
Musical
fundamental
frequency
tracking 1399
 ?$. 0.97

$•.

88.

0.98

96

75 0.99

1.00

66,

LLI 1.01

89.

?5, 1.02
$3

50

1.03
?5.

50.

TIME

FIG.7.Effect
onthefrequency
tracking
results
ofvarying
thecenter
frequencies
inthecalculation
ofthespectrum
versus
logfrequency.
Tunings
range
from
97% to 103%of thestandard
tuning.

1400 J.Acoust.
Soc.Am.,Vol.92,No.3,September
1992 Judith
C.Brown:
Musical
fundamental
frequency
tracking 1400
z

83.

• • o o • o n
o
•l o

:38.

13-

TIME

FIG. 8. Fundamental
frequency
trackingresultsusingthemethodof patternmatching
for nineinstruments
playingarpeggios.

ed. We did not include these results for two reasons. First the
in the pattern. This adds to the calculationtime, and de-
"optimized"frequencytracker worked extremelywell on creases therangeof frequencies whichcanbeexamined.
thesounds studiedwithoutit; andsecond,thedisadvantage Our patternrecognition methodhasproduced excellent
of thismethodis that it doublesthe numberof components trackingresultsfor the musicalsoundsin thisstudy.While

131 (33
0

13 0

LLI
08.
0
0

m {im •im mm •!•mmmm m ,•m

m ! d m •m • mm •m
83.
m II m mm mm p •immm m•m
m m m dm
m •mmmml
mm •mmml•mm o

38-

TIME

FIG.9.Fundamental
frequency
tracking
results
using
themethod
ofnarrowed
autocorrelation
fornineinstruments
playing
arpeggios.

1401 J. Acoust.
Soc.Am..Vol.92, No.3, September
1992 JudithC. Brown:
Musical
fundamental
frequency
tracking 1401
singleexamples of musicalinstruments canbe atypical,the Brown, I. C., and Puckette,M. S. (1987). "Musical Informationfrom a
spectraof the soundschosenvariedfrom a simplespectrum NarrowedAutocorrelation
Function"Proceedings
of the1987Interna-
tionalConference
on ComputerMusic,Urbana,Illinois,84-88.
consisting of a strongfundamentalwith a few higherhar- Brown,J. C., and Puekette,M. S. (1989). "Calculationof a NarrowedAu-
monicsto an extremelycomplexspectrumwherethe funda- tocorrelationFunction,"J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 85, 1595-1601.
mentalwasoftenweakand mostof the energywasconcen- Brown,
J.C. (1989)."Musical
PitchTracking
Based
onaPattern
Recogni-
tratedin higherharmonicsover2000Hz. The success of our tionAlgorithm,"J.Acoust.Soc.Am. Suppl.1 85,S79.
Brown,J.C. ( 1991}."Calculation
ofa Constant
Q SpectralTransform,"
J.
frequencytracker in analyzingthesesoundsindicatesthe Acoust. Sac. Am. 89, 425-434.
ability to dealwith a widevarietyof musicalsounds.Finally, Brown,1.C.,andZhang,B. (1991)."MusicalFrequency
UsingtheMeth-
weemphasize that essentiallyperfectresultscouldhavebeen odsof Conventional
and'Narrowed'Autocorrelation,"
J. Acoust.Soc.
Am. 89, 2346-2354.
obtainedforthesounds in thisstudysimplybyrequiringthat
Chafe,C.,andJaffe,
D. (1986)."Source
Separation
andNoteIdentification
resultsfrom two successive framesagree. in Polyphonic Music,"Proc.ICASSP,Tokyo.
Duda,R. O., andHart,P. E. (1973).PatternClassification
andScene
Anab
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ysis(Wiley, New York }.
this Duifhuis,H., Willeros,L. F., andSluyter,R. 3. (1982). "Measurement
I am verygratefulto StevenHaflichfor suggesting of
PitchinSpeech: An Implementation ofGoldstein'sTheoryofPitchPer-
projectaswellasfor manyhoursof extremelyhelpfulcon- ception,"J. Acoust.SOc.Am. 71, 1568-1580.
versations.
I wouldlike to thankthe Marilyn Brachman Gerson, A., andGoldstein, J.L. ( 1978}."Evidence foraGeneralTemplate
HoffmanCommitteeof WellesleyCollegefor a fellowship in CentralOptimalProcessing for Pitchof Complex Tones,"J. Acaust.
SOe.Am. 68, 498-510.
for releasedtime during which much of this work was ac-
Piszezalski,
M., andGaller,B. F. (1979). "Predicting
MusicalPitchfrom
complished.I am indebtedto IRCAM (Institut de Re- Component FrequencyRatios,"I. Acoust.Soc.Am. 66, 710-720.
chercheet Coordination Acoustique/Musique) for their Seheffers,
M. T. M. (1983)."SimulationofAuditoryAnalysis ofPiteh:An
hospitalityand the useof their facilitiesand to Wellesley Elaborationon the DWS PitchMeter," J. Acoust.So:. Am. 74, 1716-
1725.
Collegefora Sabbaticalleaveduringwhichthewritingtook Sehoeder, M. R. (1968)."PeriodHistogram
andProduct
Spectrum:
New
place.I wouldalsoliketo thankKennethMalskywhocreat- Methodsfor Fundamental-Frequency
Measurements,"
J. Aeoust.Soe.
eda soundfilefor an experimentdescribed
in thispaper. Am. 43, 829-834.
Terhardt,E. (1979}. "Calculating
VirtualPitch,"Hear.Res.1, 155-182.
Amuedo, J. (1985). "Periodicity Estimation by Hypothesis-Directed Terhardt,E., Stoll,G., andSwarm,
M. (1982)."AlgorithmsforExtraction
Search,"ICASSP-IEEEInternational ConferenceonAcoustics,
Speech, ofPitchandPitchSailartec fromComplex TonalSignals,"
J.Acoust. Soe.
and SignalProcessing,
395-398. Am. 71, 679-688.

1402 J. Acoust.Soc. Am.,Vol.92, No. 3, September1992 JudithC. Brown:Musicalfundamentalfrequencytracking 1402