Journal of Sports Sciences

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Neuromuscular adaptations to sixteen weeks

of whole-body high-intensity interval training
compared to ergometer-based interval and
continuous training

Gustavo Zaccaria Schaun, Stephanie Santana Pinto, Bruno Brasil, Gabriela

Neves Nunes & Cristine Lima Alberton

To cite this article: Gustavo Zaccaria Schaun, Stephanie Santana Pinto, Bruno Brasil, Gabriela
Neves Nunes & Cristine Lima Alberton (2019): Neuromuscular adaptations to sixteen weeks of
whole-body high-intensity interval training compared to ergometer-based interval and continuous
training, Journal of Sports Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2019.1576255

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2019.1576255

Published online: 06 Feb 2019.

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JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES
https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2019.1576255

Neuromuscular adaptations to sixteen weeks of whole-body high-intensity interval

training compared to ergometer-based interval and continuous training
Gustavo Zaccaria Schaun , Stephanie Santana Pinto, Bruno Brasil, Gabriela Neves Nunes
and Cristine Lima Alberton
Neuromuscular Assessment Laboratory, Physical Education School, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The neuromuscular adaptations between ergometer-based high-intensity interval training (HIIT-T; Accepted 18 December 2018
n = 15), whole-body high-intensity interval training (HIIT-WB; n = 12) and moderate-intensity contin-
KEYWORDS
uous training (MICT; n = 14) were compared in forty-one healthy men randomized to 16 weeks of Exercise; performance; body
training (3x per week). Two-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed counter- weight; running;
movement (CMJ) and squat (SJ) jump height (HIIT-T: 8.5 ± 13.3%; 3.1 ± 9.7%, HIIT-WB: 6.4 ± 9.8%, biomechanics
10.4 ± 16.1% and MICT: 2.2 ± 9.5%; 4.4 ± 12.1%, respectively), SJ peak power (HIIT-T: 1.7 ± 3.9%; HIIT-
WB : 6.4 ± 7.9%; MICT: 0.5 ± 6.5%) and CMJ rate of force development (HIIT-T: 58.1 ± 50.5%; HIIT-WB:
36.9 ± 54.2%; MICT: 38.4 ± 64.3%) improved similarly in all training groups (all p < 0.05). CMJ peak
power increased only after HIIT-T (4.3 ± 5.5%) and HIIT-WB (4.5 ± 5.2%), while no differences were
observed in both the rectus femoris and vastus lateralis maximal electromyographic amplitude. Finally,
marked improvements were also observed in the number of repetitions in the HIIT-WB protocol at the
eighth week, with no further improvement at the sixteenth week. These data suggest that 16 weeks of
HIIT-WB is capable to improve neuromuscular function to a similar extent as HIIT-T and MICT.

Introduction amplitude of the knee extensor muscles measured isometri-

cally after two weeks of HIIT-T but not MICT in healthy men.
The fact that high-intensity interval training (HIIT) improves
The results from this study suggest that these ergometer-
cardiorespiratory fitness is well established in the literature
based training regimens induce specific neuromuscular adap-
(Batacan, Duncan, Dalbo, Tucker, & Fenning, 2017). In recent
tations, possibly related to differences in exercise intensity and
years, a growing attention has been directed to extremely
volume (Martinez-Valdes et al., 2017).
low-volume HIIT protocols due to positive results and shorter
A recent body of evidence also suggests that HIIT is a viable
time required to exercise (Gibala, Gillen, & Percival, 2014). Our
method to improve or maintain muscle power in older adults
laboratory has previously demonstrated that 16 weeks of tra-
(Hurst, Weston, & Weston, 2018; Sculthorpe, Herbert, & Grace,
ditional ergometer-based (HIIT-T) or whole-body HIIT (HIIT-WB)
2017) and triathletes (Garciá-Pinillos, Cámara-Pérez, Soto-
with sessions shorter than 10 min increased maximal oxygen
Hermoso, & Latorre-Román, 2017). Thus, it is possible that
uptake (V̇ O2max) to a similar extent as moderate-intensity
recreationally active individuals may benefit from it as well.
continuous training (MICT; Schaun, Pinto, Silva, Dolinski, &
Moreover, the ability to develop force rapidly during dynamic
Alberton, 2018).
movements rather than under isometric conditions is impor-
Due to the high intensity employed, the neuromuscular
tant (McLellan, Lovell, & Gass, 2011) and, therefore, the analy-
system may also be heavily overloaded during these HIIT
sis of vertical jump parameters may provide further insight
protocols (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013) and, therefore, HIIT may
into the neuromuscular function responses to HIIT training.
have a positive impact on neuromuscular function outcomes.
Under these circumstances, no investigation specifically
However, unlike acute responses such as neuromuscular fati-
assessed the neuromuscular adaptations induced by HIIT-WB.
gue (Mendez-Villanueva, Hamer, & Bishop, 2007, 2008; Racinais
The identification of a training protocol offering the potential
et al., 2007; Smith et al., 2009), HIIT chronic effects on the
to improve both cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular func-
neuromuscular function are not clearly defined even when
tion simultaneously and also not requiring specific equipment,
traditional protocols such as running and cycling are per-
e.g. treadmills or cycle ergometers, is relevant. This would
formed. Previously, researchers observed a high electromyo-
provide an attractive proposition for potential exercisers and
graphic activity (EMG) of the knee extensor muscles during
an alternative to participants who do not have access to these
sprinting and an increase in this activity was demonstrated as
materials, contributing to expand HIIT’s applicability to differ-
running velocity was increased (Kyrolainen, Avela, & Komi,
ent settings. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to
2005). More recently, Martinez-Valdes, Falla, Negro, Mayer,
analyze the effects of 16 weeks of HIIT-WB on neuromuscular
and Farina (2017) have shown an increase in the EMG

CONTACT Gustavo Zaccaria Schaun gustavoschaun@hotmail.com Neuromuscular Assessment Laboratory, Physical Education School, Federal University of
Pelotas, Rua Luís de Camões, 625; Três Vendas, Pelotas, Brazil
© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 G. Z. SCHAUN ET AL.

function adaptations and compare it to ergometer-based HIIT-

T and MICT. Our hypothesis was that both HIIT groups would
induce greater neuromuscular function improvements than
MICT.

Methods
Participants
Forty-one recreationally active adult men were recruited volun-
tarily through notes published in newspapers and visual media
shared on social network (age: 23.73 ± 0.65 years, height:
1.79 ± 0.01 m, body mass: 78.51 ± 1.73 kg; V̇ O2max:
46.66 ± 7.27 ml.kg−1.min−1). Individuals presenting cardiometa-
bolic diseases, neuromuscular or skeletal conditions or those
currently taking medications known to influence the outcomes
of interest were not included. As observed in Figure 1, partici-
pants were first familiarized with the study procedures and then
performed pre-intervention tests, which consisted of maximal
voluntary isometric contraction and vertical jump tests, 48 h
apart from each other (see Measurements section for details).
They were then randomly assigned following simple randomi-
zation procedures (computerized random numbers) to one of
the three training groups (HIIT-T = 15; HIIT-WB = 12; MICT = 14)
and underwent 16-weeks of training, three times per week, with
at least 24 h between consecutive sessions. All training sessions
were conducted individually and both pre-intervention tests
Figure 2. Countermovement (a) and squat (b) jump height responses (mean ± s)
to 16 weeks of training according to protocol performed. CMJ: countermovement
jump; SJ: squat jump; HIIT-T: traditional high-intensity interval training session
(n = 15); HIIT-WB: whole-body high-intensity interval training (n = 12); MICT:
moderate-intensity continuous training session (n = 14). * = significant difference
from Pre (p < 0.05).

were repeated post-intervention by the same researchers, at

the same time of the day (± 2 hours) and using identical
procedures while blinded to the participants’ group.
Before any procedure, all participants signed an informed
consent form to participate in the study, which was approved
by the institution’s research ethics committee in accordance
with the Helsinki Declaration.

Exercise intensity prescription

Figure 1. Experimental design. MVIC: maximal voluntary isometric contraction
test; VJ vertical jump tests; HIIT-T: traditional high-intensity interval training;
HIIT-WB: whole-body high-intensity interval training; MICT: moderate-intensity
interval training. Note: R symbol denotes the randomization process.
Training intensities for the ergometer-based protocols were
determined on a maximal incremental test performed 48 h
prior to the maximal voluntary isometric contraction test.
Participants warmed-up at 6 km.h−1 (0% incline) on
a motorized treadmill (KIKOS® KX 9000, Sao Paulo, Brazil)
for 5 min and velocity was then increased by 1 km.h−1
per minute until volitional failure. Tests were considered
valid when previously proposed criteria were met (Howley,
Bassett, & Welch, 1995). Respiratory outcomes were mea-
sured by continuous open-circuit spirometry (VO2000,
MedGraphics®, Ann Arbor, USA) and HR was measured tele-
metrically (Polar® RS800CX, Kempele, Finland). The second
ventilatory threshold (VT2) was independently determined
by two experienced physiologists as proposed by
Wasserman, Whipp, Koyl, and Beaver (1973) and previously

Figure 3. Countermovement and squat jump peak power (a-b) responses (mean ± s) to 16 weeks of training according to protocol performed. CMJ: counter-
movement jump; SJ: squat jump; HIIT-T: traditional high-intensity interval training session (n = 15); HIIT-WB: whole-body high-intensity interval training (n = 12);
MICT: moderate-intensity continuous training session (n = 14). * = significant difference from Pre in all three groups (p < 0.05); ** = significantly different from Pre
in the HIIT-T and HIIT-WB groups only (p < 0.05).
described (Schaun, Alberton, Ribeiro, & Pinto, 2017). The test
was repeated at the eighth week to adjust HIIT-T and MICT
training workload.
Exercise training
Traditional high-intensity interval training
HIIT-T was performed on a motorized treadmill. Subjects
warmed-up for 4-min at 90–95% of the velocity associated
to second ventilatory threshold (VT2). Subsequently, eight
20 s bouts at 130% of the velocity associated to V̇ O2max
interspersed by 10 s of passive recovery were performed.
Whole-body high-intensity interval training
HIIT-WB was already described in detail elsewhere (Schaun
et al., 2018). Analogous to HIIT-T, eight 20 s sets were per-
formed with 10 s of passive recovery between them. All sets,
however, were performed at an all-out intensity using four
calisthenics exercises (burpees, mountain climbers, squat &
thrusts with 3 kg dumbbells and jumping jacks). This exact
sequence was followed, one exercise per set, and performed
twice, totalling eight sets. Training was preceded by a 4-min
warm-up similar to the training itself but at a low intensity (i.e.,
self-selected). Strong verbal encouragement was provided to
ensure a maximal effort during all sets.
Moderate-intensity continuous training
Participants assigned to the MICT group ran 30 min on
a motorized treadmill at an intensity corresponding to
90–95% of the heart rate (HR) associated to their VT2.
Measurements
EMG signals
Surface electromyography technique was used to assess the
maximal electromyographic (EMG) amplitude during
a maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) test. For
the electrodes to be positioned, participant’s skin was shaved
and cleaned with alcohol to reduce impedance (<3 kΩ) and
surface electrodes (Solidor®, Sao Paulo, Brazil) were placed
longitudinally on the rectus femoris (RF) and vastus lateralis
JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 3
(VL) muscles of the right thigh in a bipolar configuration
(30 mm interelectrode distance) according to previous recom-
mendations (Hermens, Freriks, Disselhorst-Klug, & Rau, 2000).
After electrodes were positioned, participants then warmed-
up on a cycle ergometer for 5 min at a light intensity and were
positioned on a knee extensor machine (NEWFIT®, Cascavel,
Brazil) at 90º hip and knee flexion. Three maximal unilateral
knee extension isometric contractions were performed for ~5 s
with 3 min between each attempt. Participants were
instructed to exert maximal force as fast as possible while
receiving strong verbal encouragement. Additionally, immedi-
ately following MVIC, participants had three attempts to apply
50% of the measured force during the MVIC (EMG50) for 10 s
while receiving visual feedback (Vila-Chã, Falla, & Farina, 2010).
Raw EMG signals were acquired at 2000 Hz per channel.
Signals were then band-pass filtered by a fifth order
Butterworth at a cutoff frequency of 20–500 Hz and the root
mean square (RMS) values were determined during the great-
est 1-s epoch at the force-time signal. As for the repetitions
performed at 50% MVIC (i.e. EMG50), RMS values were deter-
mined during a 2-s stable epoch and subsequently normalized
based on the RMS values obtained during the MVIC. Force was
measured using a load cell (Miotec®, Porto Alegre, Brazil) with
200 kgf capacity and 2000 Hz sampling rate (force data not
shown). Electrode positions were carefully mapped to ensure
an identical positioning between pre- and post-testing (Narici,
Roi, Landoni, Minetti, & Cerretelli, 1989).
Vertical jump tests
Counter-movement jump (CMJ) and the squat jump (SJ) tests
were performed on a force platform (EMG630C, EMGSystem®,
São José dos Campos, Brazil) at 1000Hz sample frequency
(Sheppard & Doyle, 2008) to determine jump height, peak
power (PP), rating of force development (RFD) and the
eccentric utilization ratio (EUR). After a specific warm-up, up
to three valid CMJ and SJ attempts were collected with 3 min
recovery between consecutive jumps. During CMJ, each parti-
cipant performed a fast-downward movement until their
thighs were approximately parallel to the ground immediately
followed by an explosive upward vertical jump, whereas dur-
ing SJ, the participant started from the bottom position and
4 G. Z. SCHAUN ET AL.

only performed the upward vertical jump (Petronijevic et al.,
2017). Both hands were placed on the hips and no upper limb
movement was allowed. The average of the three attempts
was used for analyses (Claudino et al., 2017).
The vertical force-time data were filtered using a third-
order Butterworth low-pass filter with a 50 Hz cutoff frequency.
Jump height was determined following previous recommen-
dations (Asmussen & Bonde-Petersen, 1974; Linthorne, 2001).
Specifically, jump height was calculated as d = (flight time)2
x 1.226, while the EUR was considered as the ratio between
CMJ and SJ heights (McGuigan et al., 2006). To determine peak
power, the force-time curve was integrated to determine the
vertical velocity, which was multiplied by the vertical force
throughout the concentric phase of the jump (McLellan
et al., 2011). Finally, RFD was derived as the peak slope of
the force-time curve at 0–100 ms relative to the onset of the
jump, which was considered as the moment when the vertical
force exceeded two standard deviations greater than the par-
ticipants’ body weight signal at rest.
Number of repetitions during HIIT-WB
To compare the number of repetitions performed during HIIT-
WB throughout the intervention, one training session during
the first, ninth and sixteenth week was recorded. The number
of repetitions during each of the eight bouts in the HIIT-WB
protocol were registered and the total number of repetitions
per session was determined. Since the effort bouts followed
the sequence burpees, mountain climbers, squat & thrusts and
jumping jacks, one exercise per bout, and was repeated twice
to account for the eight sets in the protocol, the number of
repetitions during the first (S1) and last (S2) four effort bouts
were also determined for each session. Finally, the number of
repetitions per effort bout was determined for each of the
training sessions, which allowed us to determine the number
of repetitions per exercise.
Statistical analyses
Dependent variables were tested for normality and homoge-
neity of variances with the Shapiro-Wilk and Levene tests,
respectively, and are presented as mean ± SD. For the com-
parisons between pre and post-intervention EMG amplitudes,
as well as CMJ and SJ heights, EUR, PP and RFD results, two-
way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) (3
groups x 2 time points) were applied. When significant
F-values were identified, Bonferroni’s post-hoc tests were per-
formed to identify pairwise differences. The number of repeti-
tions per session and per exercise during HIIT-WB and the
training frequency between exercise groups were tested
using repeated measures ANOVA. Finally, an α = 5% was
adopted for all analyses and the tests were performed in the
SPSS software v. 20.0.
Results
EMG signals
No differences were observed in the maximal EMG amplitude
after the intervention nor differences between groups for both
muscles (all p > 0.05; Table 1). EMG amplitude at 50% of the
MIVC increased in the RF (p = 0.003) and VL (p < 0.001), with no
difference between groups (all p > 0.05). These increases corre-
sponded to 27.8 ± 44.3%, 26.4 ± 62.9%, and 47.4 ± 34.2% for the
HIIT-T, HIIT-WB and MICT groups in the RF and 27.5 ± 44.3%,
25.6 ± 38.3%, and 50.1 ± 38.3% for the same groups in the VL
muscle, respectively. When the EMG50 values were normalized
based on the baseline maximal EMG amplitude, overall mean
values corresponded to 53% and 54% for the RF and VL muscles
at baseline and 69% and 70% for the same muscles at post-
intervention.
Vertical jump tests
CMJ and SJ heights increased (p = 0.002 and p = 0.005) simi-
larly between groups (all p > 0.05; Figure 2). These results
corresponded to 8.5 ± 13.3%, 6.4 ± 9.8% and 2.2 ± 9.5% in
CMJ and 3.1 ± 9.7%, 10.4 ± 16.1% and 4.4 ± 12.1% in SJ for the
HIIT-T, HIIT-WB and MICT groups, respectively. No significant
changes were observed in the EUR (all p > 05).
A significant group x moment interaction was observed for
PP in the CMJ (p = 0.04; Figure 3). Factor analysis indicated
that PP increased only in the HIIT-T (4.3 ± 5.5%, p = 0.007) and
HIIT-WB (4.5 ± 5.2%, p = 0.013) groups, with no significant
changes in MICT (−0.8 ± 5.9%, p > 0.05). As for the SJ, PP
increased similarly after the intervention between the three
training regimes: HIIT-T: 1.7 ± 3.9%, HIIT-WB: 6.4 ± 7.9%, MICT:
0.5 ± 6.5% (p = 0.008; Figure 3).
Rate of force development results for the CMJ can be
observed in Figure 4. Significant improvements were observed
in the RFD (all p < 0.001) and no differences were identified

Table 1. Electromyographic responses to 16 weeks of training according to protocol performed in healthy young adults (n = 41).
HIIT-T (n = 15) HIIT-WB (n = 12) MICT (n = 14)
Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD
EMG
RMS RF (μV) 415.12 97.68 459.82 163.97 454.82 160.83 437.98 131.58 488.52 200.67 424.28 167.88
RMS VL (μV) 392.78 119.36 395.08 102.46 440.10 167.73 446.00 148.70 439.79 140.61 392.80 69.46
EMG50
RMS RF (%MVIC) 53.41 12.32 64.87* 14.77 63.21 21.51 70.52* 21.05 44.78 18.92 72.58* 18.00
RMS VL (%MVIC) 57.37 13.61 69.43* 17.69 60.77 18.11 70.66* 23.22 45.09 15.62 70.29* 11.02
HIIT-T traditional high-intensity interval training; HIIT-WB whole-body high-intensity interval training; MICT moderate-intensity interval training; EMG maximal
electromyographic amplitude; EMG50 electromyographic amplitude measured at 50% of the maximal voluntary isometric contraction; %MVIC percentage of the
maximal voluntary isometric contraction; RMS root mean square; RF rectus femoris muscle; VL vastus lateralis muscle; * = significantly different from pre
(p < 0.001).

Figure 4. Countermovement jump rate of force development (RFD) responses
to 16 weeks of training according to protocol performed. CMJ: countermove-
ment jump; RFD: rate of force development; HIIT-T: traditional high-intensity
interval training session (n = 15); HIIT-WB: whole-body high-intensity interval
training (n = 12); MICT: moderate-intensity continuous training session (n = 14).
* = significant difference from Pre in all three groups (p < 0.05).
between training groups (all p > 05). These increases corre-
sponded to 58.1 ± 50.5%, 36.9 ± 54.2% and 38.4 ± 64.3% after
HIIT-T, HIIT-WB and MICT, respectively.
Number of repetitions during HIIT-WB
There was a 32.4% increase in the total number of repetitions
from the first session (139.7 ± 4.5 reps) to the eighth week
(184.1 ± 6.5 reps; p < 0.001) and 35.3% from the first to the
sixteenth week (p < 0.001), but no difference between the
eighth and the sixteenth weeks (p = 0.853; Figure 5).
Moreover, it was observed that the number of repetitions of
the first four sets at week 1 (S1W1) was higher than the last
four sets at week 1 (S2W1; p = 0.007) and lower than the others
(S1W8: p < 0.001, S2W8: p = 0.042, S1W16: p < 0.001, S2W16:
p = 0.002). In addition to being lower than S1W1, S2W1 was also
lower than all other moments (p < 0.001). S1W8 was similar to
S1W16 (p = 0.99) and greater than all other moments (S2W16:
p = 0.220, others p < 0.001), while S2W8 was similar to S2W16
(p = 0.99), lower than S1W8 (p < 0.001) and S1W16 (p = 0.003)
and greater than S1W1 (p = 0.42) and S2W1 (p < 0.001). For
brevity, per exercise results are only presented in Figure 6.
Finally, as previously described (Schaun et al., 2018), train-
ing frequency corresponded to approximately 90% in all the
three groups (p > 0.05; Figure 7).
Discussion
Contrary to our initial hypothesis that both HIIT groups would
induce greater neuromuscular function improvements when
compared to MICT, no differences were observed in RF and VL
maximal EMG amplitude. In addition, EMG50, CMJ and SJ jump
height, PP and RFD improved similarly between the groups
after the 16 weeks of training. Previous studies were also
unable to observe an increase in RF and VL EMG amplitude
after two, six and twelve weeks of MICT in healthy young men
(Martinez-Valdes et al., 2017; Vila-Chã et al., 2010). However, it
was expected that the high-intensity employed in the other
two groups could result in greater stress of the high-threshold
motor units, a factor that seems important to generate posi-
tive neuromuscular adaptations (Behm & Sale, 1993). To the
JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 5
Figure 5. Total number of repetitions (a) and number of repetitions in the first
four and last four sets of the corresponding session (b) in the HIIT-WB group
throughout the 16 weeks of training (n = 12). HIIT-WB: whole-body high-
intensity interval training; S1w1: first four sets of the first session in week 1;
S2w1: last four sets of the first session in week 1; S1w8: first four sets of the first
session in week 8; S2w8: last four sets of the first session in week 8; S1w16: first
four sets of the first session in week 16; S2w16: last four sets of the first session
in week 16. * = significantly different from Week 1, † = significantly different
from all other moments (p < 0.05); # = significantly different from all moments
except S1w16 (p < 0.05), § = significantly different from all moments except
S2w16 (p < 0.05). Note: The HIIT-WB session was composed by 20 s effort bouts
of the following exercises: burpee, mountain climber, squat & thrusts and
jumping jacks. This sequence was repeated twice for a total of eight sets and,
therefore, the first sequence represents S1 and the second S2.
best of the authors’ knowledge, only one study to date has
compared these adaptations between HIIT-T and MICT proto-
cols and found an ~17% increase in the VL maximal EMG
amplitude after two weeks of training (Martinez-Valdes et al.,
2017). Even though our HIIT protocols were more intense
(100% V̇ O2peak vs. 130% vV̇ O2max & all-out), total training
volume may play a key role in neuromuscular adaptations to
low-volume HIIT programs. Specifically, our HIIT regimes had
a total training volume of approximately 4 min per session
compared to 8–12 min in the aforementioned study (Martinez-
Valdes et al., 2017).
In addition, recovery interval duration (10 s) during both
HIIT-T and HIIT-WB was extremely short and thus may not
have allowed the maintenance of strength and power produc-
tion during subsequent sets (Ratamess et al., 2009), since
6 G. Z. SCHAUN ET AL.

Figure 6. Number of repetitions per exercise in the HIIT-WB group throughout the 16 weeks of training (n = 12). HIIT-WB: whole-body high-intensity interval training;
S1w1: first four sets of the first session in week 1; S2w1: last four sets of the first session in week 1; S1w8: first four sets of the first session in week 8; S2w8: last four
sets of the first session in week 8; S1w16: first four sets of the first session in week 16; S2w16: last four sets of the first session in week 16. Burpee: * = significantly
different from S1w1 (p < 0.05); ** significantly different from all other moments (p < 0.05); *** = significantly different from S1w8 (p < 0.05); **** significantly
different from S2w8 and S2w16 (p < 0.05). Mountain Climber: † = significantly different from all other moments (p < 0.05); †† = significantly different from S2w8 and
S2w16 (p < 0.05). Squat & Thrust: # = significantly different from S1w1 (p < 0.05); ## = significantly different from all other moments (p < 0.05); ### = significantly
different from S2w8 (p < 0.05). Jumping Jack: § = significantly different from S1w1 (p < 0.05); §§ = significantly different from all moments expect S1w1 (p < 0.05);
§§§ = significantly different from S2w8 (p < 0.05). Note: The HIIT-WB session was composed by 20 s effort bouts of the following exercises: burpees, mountain
climbers, squat & thrusts and jumping jacks. This sequence represented the first four 20 s effort bouts, one exercise per bout, and was repeated twice totaling eight
sets. The first sequence represents S1 and the second S2 and, consequently, there was one set of each exercise in S1 and one in S2.

largely rely on the maintenance of high motor unit activity

Figure 7. Training frequency for each of the three training groups. HIIT-T:
traditional high-intensity interval training (n = 15); HIIT-WB: whole-body high-
intensity interval training (n = 12); MICT: moderate-intensity continuous train-
ing. Note: Intervention was composed of 16 weeks of training, three sessions
per week, for a total of 48 sessions.
substantial fatigue has the potential to affect the motor
recruitment pattern (Hautier et al., 2000; Mendez-Villanueva
et al., 2007, 2008; Racinais et al., 2007). In fact, the perfor-
mance of all-out efforts with very short recovery intervals
(Brocherie, Millet, & Girard, 2015). Some cross-sectional studies
have observed a reduction in the VL and RF maximal EMG
amplitude and voluntary activation (Brocherie et al., 2015;
Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2008; Racinais et al., 2007) during
and after running and repeated sprints protocols, but not all
(Bishop, 2012). Taken together, these results might suggest
that a progressive inhibition of motor units or decrease in
motor unit firing rate or neural drive to the muscle due to
eventual fatigue could result in an ineffective stimulus to
improve the maximal EMG amplitude in the present training
regimes (Bishop, 2012). Nevertheless, caution is needed when
inferring motor control strategies from EMG signals (Farina,
Merletti, & Enoka, 2004, 2014).
Interestingly, EMG50 amplitude increased in all groups,
suggesting improvements in the magnitude of the EMG ampli-
tude at lower intensities. In line with our findings, improve-
ments between 50–100% were previously observed after 3–6
weeks of MICT in the VL and vastus medialis at 10% and 30%
of the MVIC (Vila-Chã et al., 2010). Although the authors
suggest that this seems to indicate that a greater number of
motor units are active (Vila-Chã et al., 2010), our methodology
does not allow us to determine the number of active motor
units (Vigotsky, Ogborn, & Phillips, 2016). More recently, sig-
nificant increases in the EMG50 amplitude were observed after
2 weeks of HIIT but not MICT for the VL and vastus medialis
muscles (Martinez-Valdes et al., 2017). These results were

accompanied by an increase in high-threshold motor units
discharge rate after HIIT only, suggesting a greater neural
drive to the muscles (Martinez-Valdes et al., 2017). In this
regard, our MICT protocol employed a higher training intensity
(90–95% HR associated to the VT2 vs. 65% V̇ O2max) and likely
required the recruitment of higher-threshold motor units
(Krustrup, Soderlund, Mohr, & Bangsbo, 2004) when compared
to the aforementioned study. In practical terms, the EMG50
results are indicative of a neuromuscular adaptation at lower
intensities and possibly closer and specific to those used dur-
ing the training protocols.
Jump height increased significantly in all studied groups
and, contrary to our initial hypothesis, there were no differ-
ences between groups after the intervention period. It is well
known that CMJ performance can be enhanced through
improvements in the muscle contractile properties or in the
efficiency of the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), whereas SJ
does not present an important SSC contribution (Baker,
1996). The effects of MICT and submaximal HIIT programs
(Jakobsen et al., 2012), as well as repeated sprint training
(Lockie, Murphy, Schultz, Knight, & Janse de Jonge, 2012),
were previously investigated and no significant improvements
were observed in the CMJ height after 12 and 6 weeks,
respectively. Jakobsen and colleagues were also unable to
observe adaptations in the VL fiber cross-sectional area, VL
fiber type, RFD and power output after both MICT and sub-
maximal HIIT. The longer duration (12 vs. 16 weeks) and,
specially, the higher and individually-prescribed intensities
employed in the present investigation may be related to the
different adaptations observed.
Higher running speeds seem to potentiate SSC utilization
(Komi & Bosco, 1978) and, therefore, it is plausible that adapta-
tions in the SSC efficiency have occurred due to HIIT-T high-
intensity. Likewise, the all-out pattern employed in the HIIT-WB
protocol may also have caused an important SSC contribution
during the rapid transitions of its calisthenic exercises. As for
MICT, the authors are unaware of reasons that would predis-
pose to a significant increase in the SSC efficiency by this type
of training. Regardless, improvements in the SSC could only
explain CMJ results. SJ, on the other hand, has only a concentric
phase and, consequently, seems to be dependent on improve-
ments in the muscles contractile properties (Baker, 1996; Komi
& Bosco, 1978). Thus, two explanations seem possible: (i) both
vertical jumps improved as a result of enhancements solely in
the muscles contractile properties; or (ii) there were improve-
ments in both the SSC efficiency and contractile components.
Considering that the EUR remained unchanged post-
intervention, it is likely that these results are more related to
adaptations in the muscular contractile components
(McGuigan et al., 2006; Riggs & Sheppard, 2009). The absence
of improvements in the maximal EMG amplitude of the RF and
VL muscles may suggest a greater reliance on morphological
rather than neural adaptations (Osawa et al., 2014), but our lack
of morphological measures prevents further discussion of these
results.
Similar improvements were also observed for the RFD and
demonstrate that participants improved their capacity to gen-
erate explosive force. These responses contradict those of
Jakobsen et al. (2012), which did not identify differences in
JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 7
the CMJ peak RFD after 12 weeks of HIIT-T and MICT in non-
trained men, possibly owing to the differences in the intensi-
ties of the protocols. RFD improvements in this time frame (≤
100 ms) have been attributed to increases in the neural drive
(Van Cutsem, Duchateau, & Hainaut, 1998), a notion that is in
line with the findings of Martinez-Valdes et al. (2017) after
2 weeks of HIIT in healthy men. Nevertheless, although neural
mechanisms represent the primary mechanisms for RFD
improvements in the investigated time window, changes in
muscle fiber size and muscle architecture could also contri-
bute to it (Aagaard, 2003).
An increase in the number of repetitions was observed
until approximately the eighth week of intervention, which
was maintained from the eighth to the sixteenth week
(Figures 5 and 6). We have previously demonstrated that the
HIIT-WB protocol can enhance the cardiorespiratory fitness to
the same extent as HIIT-T and MICT (Schaun et al., 2018).
Therefore, as the participants became more fit, they were
able to perform more repetitions within the same time period,
which leads to an increase in the protocol’s intensity.
Previously, increases in the total number of repetitions in
exercises such as knee extension and bench press were
demonstrated after four weeks of HIIT-WB training (McRae
et al., 2012). However, this is the first study to report perfor-
mance improvements within the protocol itself, which has
clear implications for exercise prescription. The non-increase
in the number of repetitions between the eighth and the
sixteenth week may have limited the adaptations to this pro-
tocol, since the number of sets and bouts’ duration remained
unchanged. However, we opted to maintain the same training
volumes, as well as the same exercises, for both HIIT protocols
in the expectation that the participants themselves would
increase their performance until the end of the training period.
These results are relevant for the prescription, progression
and periodization of the training program. The assessment of
the (increase in the) number of repetitions can be applied as
a way to control and monitor the training session. Therefore,
besides the cardiorespiratory fitness assessment, the joint con-
trol of the number of repetitions performed during the exer-
cises is important, since there may be a mechanical, physical or
temporal limitation in the increment of the total number of
repetitions, as adapted or fit as the participants may become. At
this point an increase in the duration or number of sets (i.e.,
volume); or an adjustment in the performed exercises (e.g. to
optimize training overload) would be necessary. However,
further research is still warranted to identify the best strategies
for training progression. A careful observation also allows us to
perceive that some results are specific to the exercise being
performed (Figure 6). As an example, mountain climber
improvements at the eighth week were mostly driven by
more repetitions being performed in the last four sets of train-
ing (no difference was observed between S1W1 and S1W8, while
S2W1 was different from all moments). Meanwhile, jumping jack
performance improved both in S1W8 and S2W8 when compared
to S1W1 and S2W1, respectively.
Our study is not absent from limitations. The addition of
morphological measures, such as RF and VL cross-sectional
area or muscle thickness or even muscle quality, could have
provided a better insight into the possible mechanisms
8 G. Z. SCHAUN ET AL.
responsible for the observed adaptations. Moreover, we did
not identify significant improvements in the maximal EMG
amplitude after the intervention. In view of the improvements
observed in both CMJ and SJ outcomes, we cannot rule out
a possible lack of specificity of the MVIC test in detecting such
changes (Behm & Sale, 1993). It should also be noted that it is
not our intent to propose the investigated protocols as defi-
nitive methods to maximize neuromuscular function adapta-
tions (e.g. as compared to plyometrics or heavy-weight
resistance training). Rather, our aim was to demonstrate that
these protocols can result in significant improvements in the
investigated outcomes, which may be beneficial for healthy
adults. Nevertheless, although a rigorous methodological con-
trol was maintained throughout the investigation, the high
variability inherent to the investigated outcomes may require
caution in interpreting our results.
Conclusion
The present study showed for the first time that 16 weeks of
training were able to improve CMJ and SJ performance, rela-
tive PP and RFD similarly between HIIT-T, HIIT-WB and MICT,
whereas no changes were observed in the maximal EMG
amplitude. Improvements were also observed in both total
and per exercise number of repetitions after eight weeks of
HIIT-WB training. Thus, despite the very low training volume,
HIIT-T and HIIT-WB protocols performed three times a week
are able to improve neuromuscular outcomes after 16 weeks
of training and can serve as interesting and time-efficient
alternatives to MICT training in healthy men. More important,
these results reinforce the benefits of exercise regimes that
employ the body weight as a training load. These whole-body
training protocols can be performed in a variety of different
settings (e.g. one’s own backyard, public parks, beachfront,
indoors, etc.) and do not require sophisticated equipment
such as ergometers.
Acknowledgments
Authors would like to thank all participants who took part in the study for
their genuine effort.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Gustavo Zaccaria Schaun http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3339-714X
Cristine Lima Alberton http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5258-9406
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