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On the Instrument to Evaluate Damage in Steel Belted Radial Truck Tires

Article  in  Kautschuk und Gummi Kunststoffe · December 2000

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Acousto-Ultrasonics
Stress-Wave-
Factors
Radial Tires
Delamination

Retreads
Damage
Tire Casings
Air-
Coupled Transducers
Towards improving a scanning instru-
ment capable of detecting/evaluating ply
cord fatigue damage, which is a likely
cause of the zipper mode of failure in
steel-reinforced radial truck tires, an air-
coupled transducer was used to replace
a contact ultrasonic rolling transducer
without reducing the probability of de-
fect detection. By reducing the number
of moving parts in the sensing unit, the
instrument increased its robustness to
better endure the environment of a new
tire or retreading facility for on-line in-
spection of new or used tires. The in-
strument continues to be production
oriented and capable of producing color-
coded scans, thereby reducing the pos-
sibility of damaged tires causing prop-
erty damage or personnel injury when
being serviced. The results of two tires,
one with seeded defects and other with
field fatigue damage are presented and
discussed.
PruÈfstand zur Bewertung der
SchaÈdigung von Stahlcord-
Radial-LKW-Reifen
Akustik-Ultraschall
Spannungs-
Wellen-Faktoren
Radial-Reifen
Ab-
streuungen
Runderneuerung
SchaÈdi-
gung
Reifen
beruÈhrungsfreier Sensor
Um den PruÈfstand zur Detektion und
Bewertung der ErmuÈdungsschaÈdigung
von Stahlcordreifen, die wahrscheinlich
auf einem Reiûverschlussmechanismus
basiert, zu verbessern, wurde ein be-
ruÈhrungsfreier Sensor eingesetzt, der
den beruÈhrenden Kontakt-Ultraschall-
sensor ersetzt, ohne jedoch die Defekt-
erkennung zu mindern. Durch eine
Reduzierung der beweglichen Bauteile in
der Meûwerterfassungseinheit konnte
die fuÈr die On-line Begutachtung von
neuen und runderneuerten Reifen erfor-
derliche Robustheit erhoÈht werden. Das
Instrument ist produktionsorientiert und
mindert uÈber Falschfarbenaufnahmen
die MoÈglichkeit, dass waÈhrend der
PruÈfung Sach- oder PersonenschaÈden
verursacht werden. Die PruÈfergebnisse
von zwei Reifen, einer mit gezielt ange-
brachter SchaÈdigung und einer aus
Feldversuchen geschaÈdigter Reifen,
werden vorgestellt und diskutiert.
694
È FEN UND MESSEN
PRU
TESTING AND MEASURING
On the Instrument to Evaluate
Damage in Steel Belted Radial
Truck Tires
H. L. M. dos Reis and P. J. Golko, Urbana, Illinois (USA)
Steel reinforced radial truck tires may be
considered as very complex pressure
vessels made of advanced reinforced
composites that operate under severe
conditions. From the many possible
causes that may contribute to tire dam-
age including material non-uniformities
and manufacturing defects, operating
conditions and improper maintenance
have the greatest influence [1]. For exam-
ple, if a medium or light duty steel-rein-
forced radial truck tire operates with
80 % or less of the recommended cold in-
flation pressure, the tire upper sidewalls
are forced to overflex causing damage
accumulation in the steel reinforced
cords. Because of these weakened
cords, i. e., with reduced strength, the
tire upper sidewall may rupture during In-
flation steps releasing an air pressure
wave that can cause serious personal in-
jury [2 ± 3]. The rupture, known in the re-
treading industry as the ªzipper failure
modeº or just ªzipperº normally ranges
from 305 mm to 914 mm around the ra-
dius of the tire in the sidewall flex area.
In addition to safety concerns, there is
also an economic concern because the
fleet operator may not be able to recover
the cost of the retread in cases of unex-
pected premature tire failures. A survey
taken in 1975 found that over 60 % of
retread failures resulted from failure of
the tire casing [1]. Because the operation
conditions of tires vary widely, each tire
casing to be retreaded must be inspected
in order to reduce the number of prema-
ture failures, some with potential cata-
strophic consequences. The use of re-
treaded tires has also a strong environ-
mental impact by significantly reducing
one of the most visible sources of pollu-
tion, i. e., discarded tire casings with little
or no useful value.
KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 53. Jahrgang, Nr. 12/2000
Nondestructive testing and evaluation
(NDT&E) methods allow the inspection
of each tire regarding its structural integ-
rity, and depending upon its fitness for
service, each tire casing can either be ac-
cepted as is, accepted conditionally upon
repair and further testing, or rejected out-
right. Most of the research and develop-
ment of nondestructive testing methods
for the evaluation of pneumatic tires
has been conducted during the last half
of this century. Almost all of the devel-
oped techniques have been in the follow-
ing main areas: x-ray, holographie and
shearography, infrared, and ultrasonic
testing. All of these techniques have
drawbacks, which range from high cost
such as x-ray [4 ± 6] and holography
and shearography [7 ± 10], to results
that arc difficult to interpret such as shear-
ography and thermography [11 ± 14], to
poor flaw detection reliability such as
the air-coupled through transmission
and pulse-echo ultrasonic systems to de-
tect delaminations in the belt area. Some
nondestructive testing devices, such as
the ones based upon radioscopy and
shearography, may show, but not always,
damaged areas in the tire side walls, i. e.,
the zipper mode of failure, if the cords are
already broken. However, if the cords are
not yet broken, these usually expensive
devices may not detect the ªZipperº con-
dition because they arc not capable of
evaluating the residual strength of the
tire sidewalls. Considering the safety
and economic implications of the ªzipperº
mode of failure, there is a clear need to
develop a nondestructive testing tech-
nique that is capable to evaluate the
fitness for service of the sidewalls of tire
casings [15].
Acousto-ultrasonics is an analytical
ultrasonic nondestructive testing and
 On the Instrument to Evaluate . . .

evaluation (NDE) technique developed at

NASA Lewis Research Center by A. Vary
[16] to evaluate/characterize distribute
damage in advanced composites; it mea-
sures the relative efficiency of energy
transmission in the specimen [16]. An
ultrasonic pulse is injected with a trans-
mitting transducer mounted on the sur-
face of the specimen as shown in
Fig. 1. Typically, a larger amount of da-
mage, i. e., flaws, changes in the micro-
structure, etc. in the specimen produces
a higher signal attenuation, resulting in
lower stress-wave-factor (SWF) readings,
where a stress-wave-factor is any wave-
form feature in any domain, such as time,
frequency, and cepstral domains. The
SWF has already been correlated with
the fatigue damage accumulation in
wire rope [17], with the adhesive bond
strength between rubber and steel [18],
Fig. 1. Schematic of the Acousto-Ultrasonics data acquisition system
and with the adhesive bond strength of
connections in wood structures [19]. A
good review of analytical ultrasonics in
materials research and testing is given
in references [20 ± 22].
References [23 ± 26] show the results
of a successful feasibility study to inves-
tigate the possible use of the acousto-ul-
trasonic approach to detect damage in
tires. This study involved a new tire with
seeded defects [23 ± 24], and a tire with
one hundred thousand miles of road
use. In addition, another blind study in-
volving seven tires of different construc-
tion was also carried-out and the results
presented in reference [26]. In this
feasibility study, the tire sidewall, i.e.,steel
cord reinforced rubber composite, was
assumed to work as an elastomechanical
filter; if the cords were severed or da-
maged, the high frequency components
of the acousto-ultrasonic waveforms
would be severely attenuated. The results
of this feasibility study clearly demon-
strated that radial ply cord damage,
which can induce the zipper mode of
failure, can be successfully detected by
the acousto-ultrasonic approach before
servicing tires in order to eliminate po-
tential hazard conditions.
Based upon the success of the feasi-
bility laboratory study, including the blind
study [23 ± 26], the need to develop a
fast, low-cost, production-oriented pro-
totype instrument capable of 100 % on- Fig. 2. Photograph
of the acousto-
line inspection of new or retreaded tires ultrasonic tire
was established. A Photograph of the de- inspection machine
veloped prototype inspection instrument [27]

696 KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 53. Jahrgang, Nr. 12/2000

 On the Instrument to Evaluate . . .

is shown in Fig. 2; the base machine, the

transducer fixture, and the data acquisi-
tion system are presented and discussed
in [27]. The prototype instrument allowed
the collection and analysis of the acous-
to-ultrasonic data with the corresponding
color-coded graphic displays, i. e., scans.
While the instrument described in [27]
can already inspect a tire and produce
a color-coded scan within one minute,
its main limitation consisted in the need
to use ultrasonic roller transducers, which
need to be in contact with the tire. Clearly,
the use of a sensing unit, which is free of
moving parts by using remote sensing
transducers, increases the robustness
of the instrument. In this paper the results
of replacing the receiving roller ultrasonic
transducer with an air-coupled trans-
ducer, i. e., remote sensor, along with
the necessary changes in the pulsing Fig. 3. Acousto-ultrasonic waveform (waveform number 1) and the corresponding frequency
and signal processing units, are pre- spectrum of an undamaged region
sented and discussed.

The tire scanning instrument

Experimental procedure
The acousto-ultrasonic data acquisition
system is described in Fig. 1. A QMI ultra-
sonic roller transducer (Model RP-100)
with a center frequency of 400 kHz was
used as the sending transducer, and a
Panametrics air-coupled transducer
with a center frequency of 100 kHz was
used as the receiving transducer. The
transmitting transducer was exited via a
tone burst generated by a function gen-
erator (Krohn-Hite Model 5920) and a
power amplifier (Krohn-Hite Model
7602M). The output of the receiving
transducer was amplified by 50 dB by a
Panametrics preamplifier and further am- Fig. 4. Acousto-ultrasonic waveform (waveform number 41) and corresponding frequency
plified by an eight-pole filter/amplifier spectrum collected at the center of defect number two
(Krohn-Hite Model 3988), which was
Set as a pass band filter between
30 kHz and 2 Mhz. The analog signal
was then digitized by the Sonix transducers, respectively. Because both as the stress-wave-factor. As it was also
STR*8100D analog-to-digital converter the receiving and the transmitting trans- discussed in [27], the use of these trans-
operating at a sampling rate of ducers do not have a flat sensitivity in ducers made it possible to automate the
1563 MHz, and a Pentium personal com- the frequency band of interest, (Figs. 3 process of scanning the tire sidewalls for
puter. and 4) the frequency of maximum ampli- steel cord damage. Measurements were
In order to automate the inspection tude did not work as well as in references recorder every 0.3 degrees of tire rotation,
process, the two acoustic emission [23 ± 26] to indicate damage in the cords for a total of 1200 samples. This angular
transducers used in the earlier work of the tire side wall; instead, the energy of sampling interval, being smaller than the
[23 ± 26] were replaced by the QMI ultra- the acousto-ultrasonic waveform, de- spacing between the radial cords, as-
sonic roller transducer (Model RP-100) fined as the square of the receiving trans- sures that every reinforcing cord is in-
and the Panametrics air-coupled trans- ducer output voltage integrated over the spected for fatigue damage during the
ducer as the sending and the receiving time window partition of interest, is used tire scanning process.

KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 53. Jahrgang, Nr. 12/2000 697


Results and discussion
To demonstrate the usefulness of the pro-
totype inspection instrument using con-
tact ultrasonic roller transducers for
both the sending and receiving transdu-
cers, the results of two tires, one with
seeded defects and other with field fa-
tigue damage, were presented and dis-
cussed in [27]; these results will serve
as the benchmark results against which
the results presented in this paper are
compared. By replacing the receiving roll-
er ultrasonic transducer with an air-
coupled transducer, with the required
new pulsing and signal conditioning/pro-
cessing equipment and software, the
probability of defect detection of the in-
strument was not reduced. The results
presented below clearly indicate that
the current instrument can detect fatigue
cord damage in new or used tires and
provide color-coded scans that are easily
interpreted.
Tire with seeded defects
As described in [27], a new radial truck
tire (Bridgestone 11R24.5) was implanted
with various defects in the tire sidewall
area. The seeded defects are described
in Table 1. In addition, a control region,
i. e., defect one, was established, which
contains no cord damage. The defects
were made by first removing the original
rubber from the inside of the tire until
the cords were exposed, damaging the
cords as specified in Table 1, and curing
new rubber over the damaged area.
For the tire with seeded defects, the ex-
citation pulse for the transmitting transdu-
cer was a twenty burst, 100 kHz square
wave between ÿ180 volts and 180 volts.
After being preamplified 50 dB by the
Panametrics ultrasonic preamplifier, he
signal was further amplified by a eight-
pole filter/amplifier (Krohn-Hite Model
3988) which was set as a passband filter
between 30 kHz and 300 kHz with an
additional amplification of 35 dB before
being digitized and processed. The roller
transducer was located approximately
7 mm outside of the scuff rib inner
edge and the aircoupled transducer
was 51 mm away towards the center of
the tire approximately 8 mm away from
the tire surface. The defects in the tire
were located between the two transdu-
cers. Assuming the wave speed in rubber
698
On the Instrument to Evaluate . . .
Table 1. List of seeded defects [27].
Defect Defect Description
Number
1 Rubber removed, new rubber vulcanized in place (no cord damage)
2 Rubber removed, 1 cord severed, new rubber vulcanized in place
3 Rubber removed, 2 cords severed, new rubber vulcanized in place
4 Rubber removed, 3 cords severed, new rubber vulcanized in place
5 Rubber removed, 4 cords severed, new rubber vulcanized in place
6 Rubber removed, 8 cords severed, new rubber vulcanized in place
7 Rubber removed, 1 cord damaged, new rubber vulcanized in place
8 Rubber removed, 2 cords damaged, new rubber vulcanized in place
9 Rubber removed, 3 cords damaged, new rubber vulcanized in place
10 Rubber removed, 4 cords damaged, new rubber vulcanized in place
11 Rubber removed, 8 cords damaged, new rubber vulcanized in place
12 Rubber removed, one inch of 1 cord removed, new rubber vulcanized in place
13 Rubber removed, one inch of 2 cords removed, new rubber vulcanized in place
14 Rubber removed, one inch of 3 cords removed, new rubber vulcanized in place
15 Rubber removed, one inch of 4 cords removed, new rubber vulcanized in place
16 Rubber removed, one inch of 8 cords removed, new rubber vulcanized in place
and in steel to be 1550 m/s and 5200 m/ to-ultrasonic scan) and the correspond-
s, respectively, along with the wave ing frequency spectrum from the center
speed in air of 343 m/s, a ray propagation of defect number 2, see Table 1, are
path analysis allows the estimation of the shown in Fig. 4. Figs. 3 and 4 show that
time of flight of the acousto-ultrasonic the effect of one severed cord is signifi-
wave [23 ± 26]. Because the wave speed cant and that it can be quantitatively eval-
in steel is over three times as large as the uated in both the time and frequency do-
wave speed in rubber and over fifteen mains; the significant drop in voltage sug-
times as large as the wave speed in air, gests poor energy transmission charac-
the early arriving acousto-ultrasonic teristics in a defective area. Fig. 5 shows
waves must travel through the ply cords; the plot of the energy for a 70 ± 110 ls
these waves are followed by waves that time window partition of the waveforms
travel primarily in the rubber. The waves versus position on the tire with seeded
arriving at very later times travel only defects. In Fig. 5, energy is defined as
through the air, i. e., after 170 microse- the square of the receiving transducer
conds, the waveform is dominated by output voltage integrated over the time
aircoupled signals (cross-talk) between window partition. Fig. 5 shows that all
the two transducers. Therefore, this ana- the defective areas were identified using
lysis indicates that the early arriving the acousto-ultrasonic approach. Com-
waves carry the most useful information paring the results shown in Fig. 5 with
about the ply cords; later arriving waves the published results [27] indicates that
contain information regarding damage the use of the air-coupled transducer
in the rubber and in the cord rubber as the receiving transducer did not re-
interface. The waves arriving at the very duce the probability of defect detection
late times do not contain any information of the instrument. For further discussion
regarding the tire condition. Therefore, to of the results of the tire with seeded de-
detect damage in the ply cords, stress- fects, the reader is referred to [27]. The
wave-factors were calculated based on information shown in Fig. 5 can be dis-
a partition of the waveforms in the time played as a gray-scale or color-coded
domain beginning at 70 ls and ending scan.
at 110 ls. Clearly, for tires of different
construction, a different time window
Tire with field damage
partition would be needed.
The acousto-ultrasonic waveform The other tire (Yokohama 11R22.5) used
(waveform #l of the acousto-ultrasonic also in [27], containing a number of re-
scan) and the corresponding frequency gions with broken or damaged radial
spectrum of a typical undamaged region cords as a result of field damage, was
in the new tire with seeded defects are used for purpose of comparing the re-
shown in Fig. 3. The acousto-ultrasonic sults presented in this paper with the re-
waveform (waveform # 41 of the acous- sults presented in [27]. The locations and
KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 53. Jahrgang, Nr. 12/2000

Fig. 5. Plot of the energy for a 70 ± 110 microsecond partition of waveforms versus position
for the tire with seeded defects
Fig. 6. Plot of energy versus position for the tire with field damage for a 60.2 ± 121.0 micro-
second partition of waveforms with curve indicating ply cord damage observed by x-ray ex-
amination (1 = no damaged cords, ±1 = damaged cords), and defects detected by the instru-
ment numbered from one to ten
nature of the damage was established
using radiography.
For the tire with field damage, the
transmitting roller transducer was located
approximately 7 mm outside the scuff rib
inner edge, and the air-coupled receiving
transducer was located 76 mm away to-
wards the center of the tire. The air-
coupled transducer was placed at an
8 mm distance from the tire surface.
The excitation pulse for the transmitting
transducer was a twenty burst,
100 kHz square wave between ÿ180
volts and 180 volts. After being pre-
amplified 50 dB by the Panametrics ultra-
sonic preamplifier, the signal was further
KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 53. Jahrgang, Nr. 12/2000
On the Instrument to Evaluate . . .
amplified by an eight-pole filter/amplifier
(Krohn-Hite Model 3988), which was
set as a passband filter between
30 kHz and 300 kHz with an additional
ampliflication of 45 dB before being digi-
tized and processed.
Using the ray propagation path analy-
sis [23 ± 25], a time window partition was
selected to detect damage in the cords.
Accordingly, and the stress-wave-factors
were calculated on the time domain par-
tition beginning at 60.2 ls and ending at
121.0 ls. Using the same ray propaga-
tion path analysis, the partition beginning
at 121.0 ls and ending at 250 ls was de-
termined to contain information regarding
the rubber condition. After at 250 ls, the
waveform energy is mainly the result from
direct air coupling, i. e., cross talk, be-
tween the two transducers.
Fig. 6 shows the plot of the energy for a
60.2 ± 121.0 ls time window partition of
the waveforms versus position on the
tire where ten suspected regions with
cord damage are identified. A superim-
posed curve designating the regions
where defects were found using radio-
graphy is shown; negative values on
this curve indicate areas where damaged
cords were found, and positive values
indicate areas where no damage was
observed. Regions one, three, four, six,
seven, eight, and ten, over twenty cords
are damaged, several of which appear
to be completely severed while the rest
appear to be partially damaged. Damage
in region five corresponds to two areas
where two cords in each area are slightly
frayed. The nature of the damage in re-
gion two and nine is not dear because
radiography results indicate no apparent
cord damage in these areas. However, it
can be speculated that these and other
regions of low energy value contain dela-
minations between the rubber and the
steel cords or other anomalies, which
cause large signal attenuation. Clearly,
Fig. 6 indicates that all regions with
severed cords were identified and that
the results of this prototype instrument
using the air-coupled transducer corre-
late well with the radiography results.
As discussed previously [27], the variation
in the signal energy, observed in the
areas of the tire sidewall without severed
cords, is caused by several mechanisms
including delaminations between the ra-
dial ply cords and the surrounding rubber
[23 ± 26] and fatigue damage accumula-
tion in the radial steel ply cords them-
selves [17]. As with the new tire, the infor-
mation shown in Fig. 6 can be displayed
as a gray-scale or color-coded scan.
Conclusions and recommenda-
tions for further work
The roller ultrasonic receiving transducer,
used on a working prototype instrument
that detects and evaluates cord fatigue
damage in steel belted radial truck tires,
has been successfully replaced by an air-
coupled ultrasonic transducer without re-
ducing the probability of defect detection.
However, a roller contact ultrasonic trans-
699

ducer is still used as the sending trans-
ducer; in order to make the sensing
unit completely free of moving parts
and to avoid problems inherent with roller
contact transducers, research work is re-
commended in the area of remote sen-
sors (i. e., air-coupled transducers or la-
ser-based transducers) with a flat fre-
quency response to generate and detect
acousto-ultrasonic waveforms. Further
work should also be carried-out in the
area of defect characterization and cali-
bration of this instrument in order to eval-
uate the ªsmallest defectº that can be de-
tected with this instrument as compared
with the ªlargest defectº that is currently
acceptable by the tire industry.
Based upon the current results and the
results reported in [23 ± 26], it appears
that the acousto-ultrasonic approach
has the potential to evaluate other modes
of tire failure including delaminations in
the thread bands, defects in the bead
area, and improper cure of the rubber.
Therefore, it is also recommended that
additional research work be carried out
to address the evaluation/characteriza-
tion of these tire failure modes. Further-
more, this research work also indicates
that this methodology has potential of
being successfully developed to evalu-
ate/characterize damage in other com-
ponents made of rubber composites
such as belts, hoses, etc.
Acknowledgements
The authors are very grateful to Mr. Alan
L. Justice from the Used Tire Recovery
Program of the Illinois Department of
Commerce and Community Affairs
(DCCA) for his support throughout the
project. The authors are also very grateful
to Mr. M. Bozarth from the International
Tire and Rubber Association (ITRA),
and Mr. A. Vary, from NASA Lewis Re-
search Center for their encouragement
and support throughout this project.
The authors are also very grateful to Mr.
700
View publication stats
On the Instrument to Evaluate . . .
K.W. (Ken) Ball from Bridgestone/Fire-
stone and Mr. R. Blair from Tech Interna-
tional for providing a tire with seeded de-
fects.
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[20] ªAnalytical Ultrasonics in Materials Research
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[21] ªAcousto-Ultrasonics ± Theory and Applica-
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[22] H.E. Kautz, Acousto-Ultrasonics: Theory and
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[23] H.L.M. dos Reis and K.A. Warmann,ªNon-
destructive Evaluation of Damage in Steel Belted
Radial Truck Tires,º (Report), UILU ENG 91-
3003, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois,
(1991).
[24] L.M. dos Reis and K.A. Warmann, Journal of
Acoustic Emission, Vol. 11, No. 3, (1993), 107.
[25] H.L.M. dos Reis and K.A. Warmann, INSIGHT ±
Non-Destructive Testing and Condition Monitor-
ing,º Vol. 36 No. 12, (1994), 958.
[26] H.L.M. dos Reis and K.A. Warmann, Non-
destructive Characterization of Materials VII,
A.L. Bartos, R.E. Green, and C.O. Ruud, eds.,
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[27] H.L.M. dos Reis and P.J. Golko, Tire Science
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(1998), 36.
The authors
Professor Henrique Reis is a faculty member at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and the Di-
rector of the Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation
Research Laboratory, which supports research
work in ultrasonics.
Corresponding author
Professor Henrique Reis
Department of General Engineering
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
104 S. Mathews
Urbana, Illinois, 61801, U.S.A.