K.S.

RANGASAMY COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, TIRUCHENGODE -

637 215 IT
(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

Test II
Programme & B.TECH. - INFORMATION
Year/Sem IV / VII A& B
Branch TECHNOLOGY
Course Code &
50 IT 701 – Mobile Communication
Name

1. MAC layer covers three functional areas: 10

▪ Reliable data delivery
a) ▪ Access control ▪ Security
▪ Reliable Data Delivery
▪ More efficient to deal with errors at the MAC level than higher layer (such as TCP)
Frame exchange protocol
▪ Source station transmits data
▪ Destination responds with acknowledgment (ACK)
▪ If source doesn‘t receive ACK, it retransmits frame
Four frame exchange
▪ Source issues request to send (RTS)
▪ Destination responds with clear to send (CTS)
▪ Source transmits data ▪ Destination responds with A

b) Elucidate the architecture and the operation modes of LTE advanced networks 10
The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main
components: The User Equipment (UE). The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access
Network (E-UTRAN). The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).
2.a) Synchronization in IEEE 802.11

b) Least Interference Routing

3.a) IP Packet Delivery

The mobile i.e movement of MN from one location to another has to be hidden as per the
requirement of mobile IP. CN may not know the exact location of MN

STEP 1: CN sends the packet as usual to the IP address of MN. With Source address as
CN and Destination address as MN .The internet, which does not have any information of
the current location of MN, routes the packet to the router responsible for the home
network of MN. This is done using the standard routing mechanisms of the internet.

STEP 2: The HA now diverts the packet, knowing that MN is currently not in its home
network. The packet is not forwarded into the subnet as usual, but encapsulated and
tunnelled to the COA. A new header is put in front of the old IP header showing the COA
as new destination and HA as source of the encapsulated packet.

b Medium Access in HIPERLAN – EYNMPA

HIPERLAN 1 ETSI (1998b) describes HIPERLAN 1 as a wireless LAN supporting
priorities and packet life time for data transfer at 23.5 Mbit/s, including forwarding
mechanisms, topology discovery, user data encryption, network identification and power
conservation mechanisms. HIPERLAN 1 should operate at 5.1–5.3 GHz with a range of 50
m in buildings at 1 W transmit power. The service offered by a HIPERLAN 1 is
compatible with the standard MAC services known from IEEE 802.x LANs. Addressing is
based on standard 48 bit MAC addresses. A special HIPERLAN 1 identification scheme
allows the concurrent operation of two or more physically overlapping HIPERLANs
without mingling their communication. Confidentiality is ensured by an
encryption/decryption algorithm that requires the identical keys and initialization vectors
for successful decryption of a data stream encrypted by a sender. An innovative feature of
HIPERLAN 1, which many other wireless networks do not offer, is its ability to forward
data packets using several relays. Relays can extend the communication on the MAC layer
beyond the radio range. For power conservation, a node may set up a specific wake-up
pattern. This pattern determines at what time the node is ready to receive, so that at other
times, the node can turn off its receiver and save energy. These nodes are called p-savers
and need so-called p-supporters that contain information about the wake-up patterns of all
the p-savers they are responsible for. A p-supporter only forwards data to a p-saver at the
moment the p-saver is awake. This action also requires buffering mechanisms for packets
on p-supporting forwarders. The following describes only the medium access scheme of
HIPERLAN 1, a scheme that provides QoS and a powerful prioritization scheme.
However, it turned out that priorities and QoS in general are not that important for
standard LAN applications today. IEEE 802.11 in its standard versions does not offer
priorities, the optional PCF is typically not implemented in products – yet 802.11 is very
popular. Elimination-yield non-preemptive priority multiple access (EY-NPMA) is not
only a complex acronym, but also the heart of the channel access providing priorities and
different access schemes. EY-NPMA divides the medium access of different competing
nodes into three phases:
● Prioritization: Determine the highest priority of a data packet ready to be sent by
competing nodes.
● Contention: Eliminate all but one of the contenders, if more than one sender has the
highest current priority.
● Transmission: Finally, transmit the packet of the remaining node. In a case where
several nodes compete for the medium, all three phases are necessary (called ‘channel
access in synchronized channel condition’). If the channel is free for at least 2,000 so-
called high rate bit-periods plus a dynamic extension, only the third phase, i.e.
transmission, is needed (called ‘channelaccess in channel-free condition’). The dynamic
extension is randomly chosen between 0 and 3 times 200 high rate bit-periods with equal
likelihood. This extension further minimizes the probability of collisions accessing a free
channel if stations are synchronized on higher layers and try to access the free channel at
the same time. HIPERLAN 1 also supports ‘channel access in the hidden elimination
condition’ to handle the problem of hidden terminals as described in ETSI (1998b). The
contention phase is further subdivided into an elimination phase and a yield phase. The
purpose of the elimination phase is to eliminate as many contending nodes as possible (but
surely not all). The result of the elimination phase is a more or less constant number of
remaining nodes, almost independent of the initial number of competing nodes. Finally,
the yield phase completes the work of the elimination phase with the goal of only one
remaining node. Figure 7.27 gives an overview of the three main phases and some more
details which will be explained in the following sections. For every node ready to send
data, the access cycle starts with synchronization to the current sender. The first phase,
prioritization, follows. After that, the elimination and yield part of the contention phase
follow. Finally, the remaining node can transmit its data. Every phase has a certain
duration which is measured in numbers of slots and is determined by the variables IPS,
IPA, IES, IESV, and IYS.
4.a Encapsulation mechanism in forwarding packets between home agent and COA. 10
1 IP-in-IP encapsulation There are different ways of performing the encapsulation needed
for the tunnel between HA and COA. Mandatory for mobile IP is IP-in-IP encapsulation as
specified in RFC 2003 (Perkins, 1996b). Figure 8.8 shows a packet inside the tunnel. The
fields follow the standard specification of the IP protocol as defined in RFC 791 (Postel,
1981) and the new interpretation of the former TOS, now DS field in the context of
differentiated services (RFC 2474, Nichols, 1998). The fields of the outer header are set as
follows. The version field ver is 4 for IP version 4, the internet header length (IHL)
denotes the length of the outer header in 32 bit words. DS(TOS) is just copied from the
inner header, the length field covers the complete encapsulated packet. The fields up to
TTL have no special meaning for mobile IP and are set according to RFC 791. TTL must
be high enough so the packet can reach the tunnel endpoint. The next field, here denoted
with IP-in-IP, is the type of the protocol used in the IP payload. This field is set to 4, the
protocol type for IPv4 because again an IPv4 packet follows after this outer header. IP
checksum is calculated as usual. The next fields are the tunnel entry as source address (the
IP address of the HA) and the tunnel exit point as destination address (the COA). If no
options follow the outer header, the inner header starts with the same fields as just
explained. This header remains almost unchanged during encapsulation, thus showing the
original sender CN and the receiver MN of the packet. The only change is TTL which is
decremented by 1. This means that the whole tunnel is considered a single hop from the
original packet’s point of view. This is a very important feature of tunneling as it allows
the MN to behave as if it were attached to the home network. No matter how many real
hops the packet has to take in the tunnel, it is just one (logical) hop away for the MN.
Finally, the payload follows the two headers.
Minimal encapsulation As seen with IP-in-IP encapsulation, several fields are
redundant. For example, TOS is just copied, fragmentation is often not needed etc.
Therefore, minimal encapsulation (RFC 2004) as shown in Figure 8.9 is an optional
encapsulation method for mobile IP (Perkins, 1996c). The tunnel entry point and endpoint
are specified. In this case, the field for the type of the following header contains the value
55 for the minimal encapsulation protocol. The inner header is different for minimal
encapsulation. The type of the following protocol and the address of the MN are needed. If
the S bit is set, the original sender address of the CN is included as omitting the source is
quite often not an option. No field for fragmentation offset is left in the inner header and
minimal encapsulation does not work with already fragmented packets
Generic routing encapsulation While IP-in-IP encapsulation and minimal
encapsulation work only for IP, the following encapsulation scheme also supports other
network layer protocols in addition to IP. Generic routing encapsulation (GRE) allows the
encapsulation of packets of one protocol suite into the payload portion of a packet of
another protocol suite (Hanks, 1994). Figure 8.10 shows this procedure. The packet of one
protocol suite with the original packet header and data is taken and a new GRE header is
prepended. Together this forms the new data part of the new packet. Finally, the header of
the second protocol suite is put in front. the fields of a packet inside the tunnel between
home agent and COA using GRE as an encapsulation scheme according to RFC 1701.
b. Use the DSR routing algorithm to find the path between the nodes A to E. 10
B C

A E

D
A forwards broadcast message to B and D
A(a,id=42,Target=E)
B(A,B id =42,Target =E)
B forwards the message to C and D
D (A,D,id=42,target =E)
D forwards the message to B ,C E .Since B already a sender it discards the message.
Now E receives a message from C .It now identifies the route from A through D is shortest
and forwards the message reply message to A through D.