UNIT – I

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF
ENVIRONMENT

1.1 INTRODUCTION
When our fore fathers heard the word environment, it meant beautiful forests, clear flowing
waters and fresh breeze. Nowadays environment refers to global warming, deforestation and
ozone depletion. The earth maintains its environment in equilibrium and no other species than
humans has altered the equilibrium as much as to lead to an irreversible change. The only
reason has been development at the cost of environment due to ignorance. Today, we stand at
the threshold of climate change and still no drastic steps are being taken to save environment
from the repercussions of human luxuries. The reason is again only ‘ignorance’. We can save
the environment only if we are genuinely concerned about leaving a better planet to our
coming generations.

Environmental studies are the systematic study of our environment and our place in it. It
gives the students an opportunity to experience the interdisciplinary nature of the subject. The
environmental studies educate students in the fundamentals of environmental and social
sciences along with the major environmental issues. As this programme provides a holistic
view of the environment and human environmental relationships, students undergoing
environmental studies will acquire the knowledge and technical skills for active participation
in environmental careers. Environmental science implies that we have a responsibility to be
involved in and try to do something about the problems we ourselves have created. Nearly
every measure we use to assess the health of ecosystems tells us that we are drawing from
them more than ever and degrading them at an accelerating pace. One of the most disturbing
findings is that human activities are now beginning to significantly affect the natural
chemical cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus on which all ecosystems depend.

1.2 DEFINITION
Environment (derived from the French word environner, meaning to encircle or surround)
can be defined as the circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or group of
organisms or the social and cultural conditions that affect an individual or community.
Humans inhabit the natural world as well as the built or technological, social and cultural
world.

1.3 NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS

The enhanced pace of development activities and rapid urbanization have resulted in stress on
natural resources and quality of life. The trend of increasing pollution in various

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environmental media is evident from the deteriorating air and water quality, higher noise
levels, increasing vehicular emission etc. Realizing the urgent need for arresting the trend,
Ministry adopted Policy for Abatement of Environmental Degradation. But this is only an
approach and not a movement. Till movement is not effected, approach shall stand null and
void. To make movement effective public support is very necessary. There is an urgent need
for public awareness about cleaner environment.

The present generation is the only hope for sustaining and preventing further damage to the
environment. If everyone is sensitized and aware of their responsibility to protect the
environment then only can this problem be solved.

1.4 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENT

Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It encompasses a large number of areas
and aspects, which may be summarized as follows:

 Natural Resources – their conservation and management

 Ecology and biodiversity

 Environmental pollution and control

 Social issues in relation to development and environment

 Human population and environment

These are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct relevance to every
section of the society. Environmental studies can also be highly specialized concentrating on
more technical aspects like environmental science, environmental engineering or
environmental management. In the recent years, the scope of environmental studies has
expanded dramatically the world over. Several career options have emerged in this field that
are broadly categorized as:

1.4.1 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R&D) IN ENVIRONMENT:

Skilled environmental scientists have an important role to play in examining various

environmental problems in a scientific manner and carry out R & D activities for developing
cleaner technologies and promoting sustainable development.

There is the need for trained manpower at every level to deal with environmental issues.
Environmental management and environmental engineering are emerging as new career
opportunities for environmental protection and management. Some of the major areas of R &
D in environmental studies are as follows:

1.4.1.1 Environmental Analysis - This is concerned with the analysis of the

environment into its basic four components viz. Atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere and biosphere. Each component is dynamic and changes with time

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 and space. While affecting life (biosphere) this is the integrated whole of three
systems that operate upon an organism.

1.4.1.2 Ecosystem Analysis – This deals with the structure and function of
ecosystems making the biosphere. It is mainly concerned with the productivity
and energy relations at various trophic levels in a food chain and also with the
circulation of organic matter and mineral elements between non-living and
living components.

1.4.1.3 Community Studies – These are concerned with the composition, structure,
distribution and dynamics of communities of ecosystems. The factors
responsible for stabilization of communities are also studied.

1.4.1.4 Environmental Degradation – This is the study of various factors

responsible for environmental degradation. Studies include pollution, toxic
agents, desertification, deforestation etc.

1.4.1.5 Environmental Monitoring, Impact Assessment and Development –

Studies are designed for repeated and regular observations on status of
chemical, physical and biological factors of the environment. This is followed
by chemical monitoring for various chemicals in the environment as well as
bio-monitoring for changes in the life forms in different ecosystems with a
view to assess risk due to pollution. There are also undertaken studies on risk
assessment, safety evaluation and sustainable development. Now a days some
recent technologies like Remote Sensing and GIS (Geographic Information
System) are been used for environmental monitoring using satellite images.

1.4.2 GREEN ADVOCACY:

Environmental laws and legislation is concerned with creating awareness in general public
for environmental problems around them through formal and informal education. With
increasing emphasis on implementing various acts and laws related to environment, need for
environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be able to pled the cases related to water
and air pollution, forest, wildlife etc.

1.4.3 GREEN MARKETING:

While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing emphasis
on marketing goods that are environmental friendly. Such products have ecomark or ISO
14000 certification. Environmental auditors and environmental managers would be in great
demand in the coming years.

Ecomark: India launched ‘Ecomark’ as a voluntary eco-labelling scheme, to encourage

industry to adopt eco-friendly production methods and consumers to pursue sustainable
consumption patterns. Between 1992 and 1996 the Central Pollution Control Board defined
eco-labelling criteria for 14 products like soaps and detergents, cosmetics and aerosol
propellants, food items and additives, paper, architectural paints and powder coatings,

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lubricating oils, packaging, wood substitutes, plastics, textiles, batteries,
electrical/ electronic goods and, most recently, for leather and fire
extinguishers. Eco-mark Certification is done by the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS), which has for decades administered the ISI [Indian
Standards Institute] mark of quality. Although many consumer products
today meet or even exceed both ISI and Ecomark standards, their
manufacturers do not apply for or use these marks because of the ongoing fees charged by
BIS, which are perceived to be steep and to bring no value for money. Brand leaders in their
respective fields prefer to develop customer confidence and loyalty through quality and
service, without applying for the marks. The ISI mark, whose monitoring and inspection is
perceived as onerous red tape, is frequently applied for and used, either by smaller firms to
project an image of quality or because it is a statutory requirement for sales through tenders
for certain purchases by the Government. There is no such requirement for the Eco-mark, so
till date, except for two paper mills, no-one has “volunteered” to sign up.

The Ecomark criteria for automotive lead-acid batteries (1995) specified the weight of lead in
different battery types, a recycled lead content upto 50% within 3 years, non-polluting
methods of lead production or recycling, and a stipulation that “the manufacturer shall
organize the collection payback system for the used batteries”. The total lack of voluntary
compliance by industry and the dangerously polluting methods used by informal recyclers,
led to notification of the Battery (Management & Handling) Rules 2001, which requires an
equal number of batteries to be collected back against new batteries sold, to ensure that these
are sent only to authorized recyclers or an in-house recycling facility. Unfortunately, these
Rules are silent on the massive import of used car batteries from developed countries which,
despite the Basel Convention, continue to be clandestinely imported and recycled in highly-
polluting fly-by-night facilities.

The Global Eco-labelling Network (GEF) is working successfully with the UNEP, ISO and
WTO to promote eco-labelling in many countries. The recent request of India’s coir industry
to have Ecomark criteria spelled out for their eco-friendly natural products indicates that the
environmental awareness of consumers in global markets, if not yet enough of those in India,
will provide the driving force for eco-labellling here too.

1.4.4 GREEN MEDIA

Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like television,
radio, newspaper, magazines; advertisements etc. and also through social sites like facebook,
twitter etc. for which environmentally educated persons are required.

1.5 INSTITUTIONS IN ENVIRONMENT

Managing natural resources require efficient institutions at all levels i.e. local, national,
regional and global. Institutions, as defined by Young (1999), are systems of rules, decision-
making procedures, and programs that give rise to social practices, assign roles to participants
in these practices, and guide interactions among the occupants of the relevant roles.
Institutions often figure prominently in efforts to solve or manage environmental problems.

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Several Government and Non- Government Organizations (NGO’S) are working towards
environmental protection in our country. They play a role both in causing and in addressing
problems arising from human-environment interactions. They have led to a growing interest
in environmental protection and conservation of nature and natural resources. Among the
large number of institutions that deal with environmental protection and conservation, a few
well-known organization include government organizations like the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs
like the BNHS, WWF-1, etc.

The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai: It was founded on 15 September
1883, is one of the largest non-governmental organizations in India engaged in conservation
and biodiversity research. It supports many research efforts through grants, and publishes a
popular magazine called the Hornbill and also an internationally well-known the Journal of
the Bombay Natural History Society. Its other publications include salim Ali’s Handbook on
Birds, JC Daniel Book of Indian reptiles. SH Prater’s book of Indian mammals and PV
Bole’s book of Indian trees. Many prominent naturalists, including the ornithologists Sálim
Ali and S. Dillon Ripley have been associated with it. The BNHS has over the years helped
the government to frame wildlife-related laws and has taken up battles such as the ‘save the
silent valley’s campaign.

World Wide fund for nature- India (WWF-1), New Delhi: The WWF-
1 was initiated in 1969 in Mumbai, after which the head quarters were
shifted to Delhi with several states, Divisional and Project offices spread
across India. In the early years it focused attention on wildlife education
and awareness. It runs several programs, including the nature clubs of
India program for school children and works as a think–tank and lobby
force for environmental and development issues.

Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi: is a public interest research and
advocacy organization based in New Delhi. CSE researches into, lobbies for and
communicates the urgency of development that is both sustainable and equitable. It has
published a major document on the State of India’s Environment, the first of its kind to be
produced as a citizen’s report on the environment. It also publishes a popular magazine;
‘Down to Earth’ which is a science and environment fortnightly. It is involved in the
publication of material in the form of books posters, video films and also conducts workshops
and seminars on biodiversity- related issues. The Centre’s efforts are built around five broad
programmes: Communication for Awareness, Research and Advocacy, Education and
Training, Knowledge Portal and Pollution Monitoring.

C.P.R Environmental Education Centre, Madras: the CPR-EEC was set up in 1988
CPREEC) is a Centre of Excellence of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF),
Government of India, established jointly by the Ministry and the C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar
Foundation. It conducts a variety of programs to increase awareness and knowledge of
public i.e., school children, local communities, woman as main key target groups about the
various aspects of environment. Its programs include components on wildlife and biodiversity
issues. CPR-EEC also publishes large number of text books for school children and video-on

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wheels for rural public. The C. P. R. Environmental Education Centre received the Indira
Gandhi Paryavaran Puraskar for the year 1996.

The Centre for Environment Education (CEE) in India was established in August 1984 as
a Centre of Excellence supported by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The
organisation works towards developing programmes and materials to increase awareness
about the environment and sustainable development. The head office is located in
Ahmedabad. The Centre has 41 offices including regional cells and several field offices,
across India. It has international offices in Australia, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. CEE's
primary objective is to improve public awareness and understanding of the environment with
a view to promoting the conservation and sustainable use of nature and natural resources,
leading to a better environment and a better quality of life. To this end, it undertakes
demonstration projects in education, communication and development that endorse attitudes,
strategies and technologies which are environmentally sustainable. CEE is committed to
ensuring that due recognition is given to the role of education in the promotion of sustainable
development.

Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Institute of Environment Education & Research, Pune

was established in 1993.This is part of the Bharati Vidyapeeth deemed University. Its major
focus is to spread the message of the need for pro-environmental action in society at large
through a dual strategy of formal and non –formal integrated activities. BVIEER is a one of a
kind institution that caters to the need of Environment Education at all levels - PhD, M.Sc
and Diploma. The distinctive characteristics of BVIEER are its wide mandate of teaching,
research and extension. It implements a large outreach program that has covered over 435
schools in which it trains teachers and conduct fortnightly environment education programs.
Biodiversity conservation is a major focus of its research initiatives. It develops low-cost
interpretation centers for natural and architectural sites that are highly locale-specific as well
as a large amount of innovative environment educational material for a variety of target
groups. It has developed a teacher’s handbook linked to school curriculum and a textbook for
UGC for thecompulsory undergraduate course on environment. Its director has developed a
CD-ROM on India’s biodiversity.

The Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON): - It is an
autonomous organization with headquarters at Coimbattore. It is a national centre for
information, education and research in ornithology and natural history in India. This
institution was Dr. Salim ali’s dream, which became a reality only after his demise and was
named in honor of Salim Ali, the leading pioneer of ornithology in India. Its mission is "To
help conserve India’s biodiversity and its sustainable use through research, education and
peoples’ participation, with birds at the centre stage".

Wild life Institute of India (WII), Dehradhun: Is an autonomous institution of MoEF,

GOI, established in 1982. It is an internationally acclaimed Institution, which offers training
program, academic courses and advisory in wildlife research and management. The Institute
is actively engaged in research across the breadth of the country on biodiversity related
issues. Its most significant publication has been ‘Planning wild life and protected area

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network for India (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988).It has environment impact assessment cell. It
trains personnel in eco-development, wildlife biology, habitat management and nature
interpretation.

Zoological Survey of India (ZSI): is a premier organisation in zoological research and

studies. The activities of the ZSI are coordinated by the Conservation and Survey Division in
the MoEF, GOI. This is the only taxonomic organization in the country involved in the study
of all kinds of animals from Protozoa to Mammalia, occurring in all possible habitats from
deepest depth of the ocean to the peaks of Himalaya, was established on 1st July, 1916 to
promote survey, exploration and research leading to the advancement in our knowledge of the
various aspects of the exceptionally rich animal life. It has over the years collected type
specimens on the basis of which our animal’s life has been studied over the years. Its origins
were collections based at the Indian museum at Calcutta, which was established in 1875. The
older collections of the Asiatic society of Bengal and of the Indian museum were also
transferred to the ZSI. Today, it has over a million specimens. This makes it one of the largest
collections in Asia. It currently operated from 16 regional centers.

The Madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT): MCBT, the first crocodile conservation
breeding in Asia, was founded in 1976 to conserve Indian crocodilians and establish program
for the conservation and propagation of other species of endangered reptiles Head quarters
are at Madras. Over years, over 1500 crocodiles and several hundred eggs have been supplied
to various state forest departments for restocking programmes in the wild, and for setting up
breeding facilities in other state in India and neighboring countries. It is the one which started
the first sea turtle surveys and conservation program in India, including a sea turtle hatchery.
It is involved in environmental education programs for the villages and schools that include
nature camps, training workshop for teachers and youth from fishing villages.

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands Environmental team (ANET) a division of the MCBT was
constituted in 1992. A base was set up by Harry Andrews in south Andaman for
herpetological and other ecological studies in these islands. The Crocodile bank is the site of
the irula Snake catchers’ cooperative society, which is an adivasi self-help project and
supplies all of India’s snake and scorpion venom needed for the production of antivenom and
for medical use. MCBT personal also initiated the Irula Tribual Women’s welfare society,
which is primarily a society for reforestation of wastelands and income generation projects
for irula women.

Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (USKN), Almora: It is a public charitable trust founded in 1967.
This organization was appointed as a nodal agency in 1987 by the Department of Education,
Ministry of Human Resources Development, Government of India to undertake locale-
specific environmental education programmes both in rural schools and villages in the hill
districts of Uttar Pradesh, now Uttaranchal. Subsequently, a research and resource centre, the
Uttarakhand Environmental Education Centre (UEEC), was set up in 1993, also with support
from the Department of Education. As activities continued to increase, a separate
organisation, the Uttarakhand Seva Nidhi Paryavaran Shiksha Sansthan (USNPSS), a
registered society, was set up in 1999 to handle all the environmental activities of the Nidhi.

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As Uttaranchal is a fragile ecological zone where human activities can cause extensive land
degradation (deforestation and soil erosion) if not carried out in an environmentally-sound
manner. The organization conducts education, training and on the spot problem solving
programmes with the aim of helping people to understand their surroundings from a broad
ecological point of view and encourage them to organise themselves to deal with
environmental problems that affect their daily lives, and to provide training in technical
know-how and practical skills. Its main target is sustainable resource use at the village level
through training school children. Its environment education program covers about 500
schools.

Kalpavriksh: This NGO, initially Delhi-based, is now working from pune and is active in
several other parts of India. Kalpavriksh worked on a variety of fronts: education and
awareness; investigation and research; direct action and lobbying, and litigation with regard
to environment and development issues. Its activities include talks and audiovisuals in
schools and colleges, nature walks and outstation camp, organizing student participation in
ongoing campaigns including street demonstrations, pushing form consumer awareness
regarding organic food, press statements, handling green alerts, and meeting with city
administrators. Kalpavriksh was among those responsible for developing India’s National
Biodiversity Strategy and action plan in 2003.The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is an
institution set up by the Government of India in 1887 to survey the plant resources of the
Indian empire. The Botanical Survey was formally instituted on 13 February 1890 under the
direction of Sir George King, who had been superintendent of Royal Botanic Garden,
Calcutta since 1871. King became the first ex-officio Director of BSI. Presently, it has nine
regional centres. It carries out surveys of plant resources in different regions. It monitors
botanical resources by analyzing their occurrence, distribution, ecology, economic utility,
conservation, environment impact, etc.

1.6 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

STUDIES

Figure 1.1: Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

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Because, the environment is complex and actually made up of many different environments,
including natural, constructed and cultural environments, environmental studies is the inter
disciplinary examination of how biology, geology, social studies, law, engineering, chemistry
and economics combine to inform the consideration of humanity’s effects on the natural
world. This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental
issues and citizens and experts in many fields. By studying environmental science, students
may develop a breadth of the interdisciplinary and methodological knowledge in the
environmental fields that enables them to facilitate the definition and solution of
environmental problems.

It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach and its components include Biology, Geology,

Chemistry, Physics, Engineering, Sociology, Health Sciences, Anthropology, Economics,
Statistics and Philosophy It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach. An Understanding of
the working of the environment requires the knowledge from wide ranging fields. The table
below shows a list of topics dealt commonly in air pollution and the related traditional fields
of knowledge illustrating the interdisciplinary nature of the subject.

Table 1.1: Interdisciplinary Nature of Environmental Science Ex: Air Pollution

1.7 INDIAN ENVIRONMENTALIST

Salim Ali was an Indian ornithologist and naturalist; known as the "birdman of India", Salim
Ali was among the first Indians to conduct systematic bird surveys across India. He was
instrumental in creating the Bharatpur bird sanctuary (Keoladeo National Park) and
prevents the destruction of what is now the Silent Valley National Park. He was awarded

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India's second highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan in 1976. His autobiography, fall
of a sparrow, should be read by every nature enthusiast. He was our country’s leading
conservation scientist and influenced environmental policies in our country for over 50 years.

Smt. Indira Gandhi as PM played a very significant role in the preservation of India’s
wildlife. It was during her period as PM, that the network of protected areas (PAs) grew from
65 to 298 and the wildlife protection act was formulated. The Indian Board of wildlife was
extremely active as she personally chaired all its meetings.

S P Godrej was one of Inida’s greatest supports of wildlife conservation and nature
awareness programs. Between 1975 and 1999 SP Godrej received 10 awards for his
conservation led to his playing a major advocacy role for wildlife in India.

M. S. Swaminathan has founded the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation in Chennai,

which does work on the conservation of biological diversity. Madhav Gadgil is a well-
known ecologist in India. His interests range from board ecological issues such as developing
community Biodiversity Registers and conserving sacred groves to studies on the behavior of
mammals, birds and insects. His research interests include population biology, conservation
biology, human ecology and ecological history and he has published over 215 research papers
and 6 books and and the editor for the series lifescapes of peninsular India’.

India has many pioneers working for various environment causes. One of the premiers of the
movement has been Shri. Sunderlal Bahuguna who spearheaded the Chipko Andolan.
Chipko Andolan is a movement that practised the Gandhian methods of satyagraha and non-
violent resistance, through the act of hugging trees to protect them from being felled. The
modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in
the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand. Anil Agarwal, a journalist who wrote the first report
on the state of India’s Environment in 1982. He was the founder of CES, an active NGO that
supports various environmental issues.

Shri M.C. Mehta is known as the green advocate as he introduced a PIL (Public Interest
Litigation) in 1988 to introduce environmental studies course in all undergraduate
programmes. Likewise, Justice Kuldeep Singh is known as the Green Judge who passed the
judgement that the course be implemented. Narmada Bachao Andolan leader Medha Patkar,
one of India's foremost rights activists, animal rights campaigner Maneka Gandhi, globally
renowned sustainable development expert Vandana Shiva and the head of the New Delhi-
based Centre for Science and Environment Sunita Narain are among the other
environmentalist of India.

Rajendra Singh is the "waterman of India", he won the Ramon Magsaysay Award for
community leadership in 2001 for his pioneering work in community-based efforts in water
harvesting and water management.

1.8 ENVIRONMENTAL CALENDAR

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It is important to sensitise the public towards environmental concerns and dedicating a few
days for certain environmental causes serves the purpose immensely. The various days
observed are:

1. February 2 (World Wetland Day) - On this day, in 1971, the Ramsar Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance was signed. Wetlands are a very important part
of our biodiversity and it is essential to see that they are well protected.

2. February 28 (National Science Day) - It is necessary to highlight the role of science

in the protection of the environment. This day should be taken as a platform to put
forward the message.

3. March 21 (World Forestry Day) - Activities such as the planting of trees and
highlighting the urgency to increase the green cover.

4. March 22 (World Water Day) - The decision to celebrate this day has been taken
recently as drinking water sources are fast depleting. The world must wake up to the
problem and begin conserving it.

5. March 23 (World Meteorological Day) – Everyone has to be reminded that weather

is an integral part of the environment.

6. April 7 (World Health Day) – The World Health Organisation (WHO) was
constituted on this day in 1948. In the changing environment around us health is
becoming an important issue.

7. April 18 (World Heritage Day) - Environment includes not just the natural
surroundings but also the manmade ones.

8. April 22 (Earth Day) - In 1970 a group of people in the United States of America got
together to draw the attention of the world to the problems being caused to the earth
due to modernisation. Since then this day has been celebrated all over the world as
Earth Day.

9. May 31 (Anti Tobacco Day) - The world is now aware of the problems faced by not
only the smokers but also the people who inhale the smoke. You can take up an anti
smoking campaign in your family or the neighbourhood.

10. June 5 (World Environment Day) - On this day, in 1972, the Stockholm Conference
on Human Environment was held in Sweden. There was a large gathering from all
over the world and people expressed their concerns for the increasing environmental
problems.

11. (July 11 World Population Day) - Population has to be given special attention, as it
is an ever-increasing problem especially in India.

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12. September 16 (World Ozone Day) -The United Nations declared this day as the
International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer. It is the day the Montreal
Protocol was signed.

13. September 28 (Green Consumer Day) -The problems of consumerism and its
impact on the environment is an area of major concern in today’s world. Awareness
building on the importance of recycling-reusing-reducing should be taken up
seriously.

14. October 3 (World Habitat Day)-The earth is the habitat of not only human beings
but also all living creatures. Increasing human activities is threatening the habitat of
other living things.

15. October 1-7 (World Wildlife Week) -Celebrate this week by building awareness on
the importance of preservation of our wildlife.

16. October 4 (World Animal Welfare Day)-The welfare of animals has to be looked
into and given due importance.

17. October 13 (International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction)-Due to a change

in the environment there has been an increase in the number of natural disasters.
Efforts have to be taken to reduce these disasters.

18. November 14 (Children’s Day in India) - Children can work together for a better
tomorrow by improving the environment around them.

19. December 2 (Bhopal Tragedy Day) - Mark this occasion by taking a pledge to put in
your best efforts to prevent such a tragedy from occurring again.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain the need for public awareness about environment.

2. What are the causes of environmental protection ignorance?

3. Explain methods to disseminate environmental information among people.

4. What is the scope of environmental education?

5. What is meant by ‘Ecomark’?

6. How do we apply Mathematical and Engineering aspects to environmental studies?

7. What is green marketing?

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 UNIT – II
NATURAL RESOURCES
The main problem associated with natural resources is unequal consumption. A real some
piece of natural resources are devoured in the ‘developed’ world. The 'developing countries'
likewise over utilize numerous resources due to their more terrific human populace.
However, the consumption of resources per capita of the developed countries is upto 50 times
greater than in most developing countries. Advanced countries produce over 75% of global
industrial waste and greenhouse gases. Energy from fossil fuels consumed in relatively much
greater quantities in developed countries. Their per capita consumption of food too is much
greater as well as their waste. The USA for example with just 4% of the world’s population
consumes about 25% of the world’s resources. Producing animal food for human
consumption obliges more land than developing crop yields. Thus countries that are highly
dependent on non-vegetarian diets need much larger areas for pastureland than those where
the people are mainly vegetarian.

Our natural resources can be compared with money in bank. If we use it rapidly the capital
will be reduced to zero. On the other hand if we use only the interest, it can sustain us over
the longer term. This is called sustainable utilization or sustainable development. The
quality of human life and the quality of ecosystems on earth are indicators of the sustainable
use of resources. There are clear indicators of sustainable lifestyles in human life, these are:
increased longevity, an increase in knowledge and an enhancement of income. These three
together are known as the ‘human development index’. It means a source of supply i.e,
generally held in reserve natural means, an ecosystem not influenced by man. It means that
reserve stock of supply which living things can take from nature for sustenance and welfare
of their life.

The term “natural resources” was first coined and popularized by E.F. Schumacher in the
1970s by his famous book ‘Small is Beautiful’. Natural resource can be defined as ‘any
substance that is present in nature independently of human industry and that is exploited in
some or another way by humans’. Eg: Plants, animals and microbes (living or biotic part),
Air, water, soil, minerals, climate and solar energy (non-living or abiotic part). They are
essential for the fulfilment of physiological, social, economical and cultural needs at the
individual and community levels.

CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Classification of natural resources based on exhaustibility is as follows:

(a) Perpetual resources: These are resources which exist irrespective of the amount of
their usage. With sufficient technology, they provide a huge prospective for use, eg.
Sun, wind and water.

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 (b) Renewable resources: Natural resources which can be used but can be regenerated
by natural processes provided if there is no intervention in natural regeneration cycle.
Ex: water, wood, wildlife etc. Renewable resources can be further classified as living
renewable resources and non-living renewable resources.

 Living renewable resources are those renewable resources which come from
living (biotic) sources like forest, plants.

 Non – living renewable resources are those that renewable resources which
come from non-living (abiotic) sources like land, water, air, minerals etc.

(c) Continuous/flow renewable resources: continuous / flow renewable resources are

resources which do not need regeneration. Similar to that of perpetual resources, eg
wind, tides etc.

(d) Non Renewable Resources: Any naturally occurring, finite resources that diminish
with use, such as oil and coal. In terms of the human timescale, a non-renewable
resource cannot be renewed once it has been consumed. Most non-renewable
resources can only be renewed over geologic time, if at all. All the fossil fuels and
mineral resources fall into this category. Non renewable resources can be further
classified as recyclable and non-recyclable resources.

 Recyclable resources are those which can be processed to be used again and
again. These are non-renewable resources, which can be collected after they
are used and can be recycled. These are mainly the non-energy mineral
resources, which occur in the earth’s crust (eg., ores of aluminium, copper,
mercury etc.) and deposits of fertilizer nutrients (eg., phosphate rock and
potassium and minerals used in their natural state like asbestos, clay, mica
etc).

 Non-recyclable resources are those which once used perish. These are non-
renewable resources, which cannot be recycled in any way. Example of these
are fossil fuels and uranium, which provide 90% of our energy requirements.

2.1 FOREST RESOURCES

A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominant of trees, shrubs or any other
woody vegetation usually in a closed canopy. It is derived from latin word ‘foris’ means
‘outside’.

Forest resources in India relate to the distinctive topography, terrain, wildlife, climate and
vegetation of the country. Forest resources in India have always been one of the richest
resources. India’s Forest Cover is 6,76,000 sq.km (20.55% of geographic area). Scientists
estimate that India should ideally have 33% of its land under forests. Today we only have
about 12% thus we need not only to protect our existing forests but also to increase our forest
cover.

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 2.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS

Forests have always had great importance to people. Prehistoric people got their food mainly
by hunting and by gathering wild plants. Many of these people lived in the forest and were a
natural part of it. With the development of civilization, people settled in cities. But they still
went to the forest to get timber and to hunt.

Today, people depend on forests more than ever, especially for their (1) economic value, (2)
environmental value, and (3) recreational value. The science of forestry is concerned with
increasing and preserving these values by careful management of forestland.

1) Economic value

 Forests supply many products. Wood from forest trees provides lumber, plywood,
railroad ties, and shingles. It is also used in making furniture, tool handles, and
thousands of other products. In many parts of the world, wood serves as the chief fuel
for cooking and heating.

 Various manufacturing processes change wood into a great number of different

products. Paper is one of the most valuable products made from wood. Other
processed wood products include cellophane, plastics, and such fibres as rayon and
acetate.

 Forests provide many important products besides wood. Latex, which is used in
making rubber, and turpentine come from forest trees. Various fats, gums, oils, and
waxes used in manufacturing also come from trees. In some primitive societies, forest
plants and animals make up a large part of the people's diet.

 Unlike most other natural resources, such as coal, oil, and mineral deposits, forest
resources are renewable. As long as there are forests, people can count on a steady
supply of forest products.

 For the majority of rural people, forest food adds variety to diets, improves
palatability and provides essential vitamins, minerals, protein and calories. Forest and
farm tree resources serve to complement existing food resources and income. Forest
fruits and nuts are the regular snack food, particularly for children.

2) Environmental value

 Protection from intense radiation: Forest provides space, shade and shelter to
animals and lower plants from the intense sun radiation. Trees are an essential part of
many traditional agro-forestry systems. They offer shade for crops, animals and
humans, make a favourable microclimate and supply feed for livestock.

 Protection of soil from wind and water erosion: The foliage and strong root system
of trees of forests protect the soil from the corroding effects of wind and water.
Surface erosion includes sheet, rill and small gully erosion and is minimum in

15
 forests. Forests with under storey trees, shrubs and ground over and forest floor debris
protect soil from the impact of falling raindrops (soil dislodgement and splash
erosion), overland flow of rainwater as a sheet, or channelling into rills and gullies.
Mass wasting consists of landslips, slumps and debris flows (landslides) and, again,
forests are the most effective vegetative cover for minimizing these soil movements,
particularly shallow landslips and slump. Wind – row and shelterbelts reduce the
loss of nutrient rich topsoil and protect young plants from wind within their zone of
influence.

 Protection of water resources from soil sedimentation: The product of erosion is

sediment which deposits in stream channels or standing water bodies (such as ponds,
lakes and reservoirs). Sediment can damage or kill precious aquatic life; harm water
quality for drinking, domestic use or industry; reduce reservoir capacity for flood
control, hydropower, irrigation or low flow augmentation; interfere with navigation;
shorten the useful life of hydro-turbines or pumps; and build up river channel beds,
aggravating flooding.

 Protection from natural disasters: Forest ecosystems offer defence from extreme
events such as hurricanes, tsunamis, high tides, floods, droughts, etc. Fore example,
mangroves and coral reefs shield coastal areas from storm surge; vegetation cover on
slope can help prevent erosion and mudslides.

 Regulation of climate: The forests play a vital role in regional climate regulation by
their interaction with water cycles and contribute significantly to continuous water
supply in small and large scale water cycles. Planting trees in cities provides shade
and increases the evaporation of water. This cools the microclimate and can reduce
the costs of artificial air – conditioning.

 Regulation and purification of water: Forest ecosystems have strong water

retention capacities. Forests regulate water flow and quality and store nutrients in soil.
Natural wetlands can process and filter pollutants such as metals, viruses, oils, excess
nutrients, and sediment. Forests retain water and slowly filter it through the ground.

 Absorption of pollutants: Forests perform the function of lowering the pollutant

levels. In addition to that they also act as noise and dust absorbers. They also help in
reducing acid rain, carbon dioxide and in carbon sequestration. Forest plants, like all
green plants, help renew the atmosphere. As the trees and other green plants make
food, they give off oxygen. They also remove carbon dioxide from the air. People and
nearly all other living things require oxygen. If green plants did not continuously
renew the oxygen supply, almost all life would soon stop. If carbon dioxide increases
in the atmosphere, it could severely alter the earth's climate. It regulates earth
temperature and hydrological cycle. Forest litter help in maintaining soil fertility.

 Habitat for diverse wildlife: Wildlife is an integral part of any healthy forest
community. Natural forests provide habitat to wild plants and animals and thereby

16
 contribute to the (in situ) conservation of biological and genetic diversity and the
evolutionary development.

3) Recreational value

The natural beauty and peace of the forest offer a special source of enjoyment. In the United
States, Canada, and many other countries, huge forestlands have been set aside for people's
enjoyment. Many people use these forests for such activities as camping, hiking, and hunting.
Others visit them simply to enjoy the scenery and relax in the quiet beauty.

2.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FORESTS

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The type of forest depends mainly on location i.e., distance from equator and altitude and
climate.

1) Tropical Forest – These types of forests are characterised by their location near the
equator. They have year – round high temperatures and abundant rainfall which
makes them a dense and lush with vegetation. They are vital storehouse of
biodiversity on the planet.

2) Sub-tropical Forests – These are found to the south and north of the Tropical
Forests. The trees here are adapted to resist the summer drought.

3) Mediterranean Forests – These forests are found to the south of the temperate
regions around the coasts of the Mediterranean, California, Chile and Western
Australia. The growing season is short and almost all trees are evergreen, but mixed
hardwood and softwood.

4) Temperate Forests – These forests are found in eastern North America, north-eastern
Asia, and western and eastern Europe. Temperate forests are a mix of deciduous and
coniferous evergreen trees. Usually the broad – leaved hardwood trees shed leaves
annually. There are well-defined seasons with a distinct winter and sufficient rainfall.

5) Coniferous Forests – Coniferous forests are found in the cold, windy regions around
the poles. There are both hardwoods and conifers found in this region. The conifers
are evergreen and structurally adapted to withstand the long drought – like conditions
of the long winters, whereas the hardwoods are deciduous.

6) Montane Forests - These forests receive most of their precipitation from the mist or
fog that comes from the lowlands and as such are known as cloud forests. Some of
these montane woodlands and grasslands are found in high elevation tropical, sub-
tropical and temperate zones. Plants and animals in these forests are adapted to
withstand the cold, wet conditions and intense sunlight. Trees are mainly conifers.

2.1.3 OVER - EXPLOITATION OF FOREST RESOURCES

The causes of over-exploitation of forest resources as well as the threatening process to the
environment are briefly summarized below:

 Agriculture: Shifting agriculture, livestock rearing, grazing, crop-plantations.

 Extraction: Mining, fisheries, timber, harvesting, harvesting of non-woody

vegetation.

 Development: Industry, human settlement, tourism, infrastructure development

(roads, dams)

 Hunting & Collecting: Food support, cultural uses, medicinal plants.

 Trade (legal): Food commodities, traditional medicines.

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  Accidental: Trapping, hooking, netting, poisoning.

 Natural disasters: Volcanoes, drought, floods.

 Wild Fire: Intentional, unintentional and natural

 Others: Land and water pollution, global warming acid rains, ozone hole effect

2.1.4 DEFORESTATION

Deforestation is one of the major causes to the environmental degradation which is affected
by the agents like small farmers, ranches, loggers and plantation companies. There is a broad
consensus that expansion of cropped areas and pastures are a major source of deforestation.
The term 'deforestation' describes the complete long term removal of tree cover. The loss
forest cover influences the climate and contributes to a loss of biodiversity. The economic
activity is adversely affected by siltation, flooding, soil degradation and reduced timber
supplies. Thus, in turn, threatens the livelihood of people.

2.1.4.1 Causes for Deforestation:

1. Agriculture: With growing population we need to feed more mouths. Natural forests are
cleared to give space for growing crops, building farms and other lands for agricultural
purposes. Shifting cultivation or slash and burn is a farming system in which natural forest
lands are cleared and used for the purpose of farming. They are utilized until the soil loses its
fertility and then abandoned. This was mainly practised by the tribal groups of north east
India. The rampant expansion of farming on the hill slopes has been the major cause of
deforestation on hills.

2. Commercial logging: (which supplies the world market with woods such as meranti, teak,
mahogany and ebony) destroys trees as well as opening up forest for agriculture. Cutting of
trees for fire wood and building material, the heavy lopping of foliage for fodder and heavy
grazing of saplings by domestic animals like goals.

3. Mining: This causes environmental impacts like erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of
biodiversity, and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from
mining processes. In some cases, additional forest logging is done in the vicinity of mines to
increase the available room for the storage of the created debris and soil. Contamination
resulting from leakage of chemicals can also affect the health of the local population if not
properly controlled. Extreme examples of pollution from mining activities include coal fires,
which can last for years or even decades, producing massive amounts of environmental
damage.

4. Increase in population: The needs also increase and utilize forests resources. To meet the
demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands and settlements are created
permanently by clearing forests.

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5. Urbanization & industrialization: Since Industrialization and Urbanization needs land to
grow, so major amount of forest lands are cut in order to promote Industrialization and
Urbanization. This creates harmful effect on environment and forest ecological balance.

6. Construction of dam reservoirs: For building big dams, large scale devastation of forests
takes place which breaks the natural ecological balance of the region. Floods, droughts and
landslides become more prevalent n such areas. Forests are the repositories of invaluable gifts
of nature in the form of biodiversity and by destroying these we are going to lose these
species even before knowing them. These species could be having marvellous economic or
medicinal value. These storehouses of species which have evolved over millions of years get
lost due to deforestation in a single stroke.

7. Forest fires: Forest fires are one of the important natural threats leading to decline of
natural forests. Forest fires can be natural as well as man-made. Natural fires are set off by
lightning and dry conditions can cause forest loss whereas man-made fires are sometimes
intentional (for clearing purposes) or accidental (escaped fires).

2.1.4.2 Consequences of deforestation:

Consequences of deforestation can be categorized under two categories:

1. Long-term effects

 Climate change / Global warming: Together with oceans our forests, are the
largest carbon sink on this planet which help to regulate climate and temperature.

 Loss of biodiversity: Collectively with forests numerous animals and plants that
depend on them will also die. Rainforests, for example, are areas of the richest
biodiversity on the earth, and if we continue to destroy them many animals and
plants will become extinct.

2. Short-term effects

 Flooding: Trees are highly efficient in regulating water quantities, and also serve as
a cover against erosion and once they are removed, excess of surface run-off can
lead to flooding downstream.

 Soil erosion: As discussed above the loss of vegetation cover exposes the soil to
erosion caused by wind and water.

 Loss of watersheds: The loss of trees affects the hydrological cycle. When Forest
Mountains are cleared, watersheds are degraded and this leads to the loss of
sustained water supply for valley population.

 Displacement of indigenous communities: The loss of natural forests leads to loss

of local tribal communities and their traditional way of life.

3. Other effects

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  Where forests are replanted, their replacement can mean a loss of quality

 Loss of future markets for ecotourism. The value of a forest is often higher when it
is left standing than it could be worth when it is harvested.

 Some indigenous peoples’ way of life and survival are threatened by the loss of
forests. Fewer trees results an insecure future for forest workers.

 The stress of environmental change may make some species more susceptible to the
effect of insects, pollution, disease and fire

 Most humid regions changes to desert

 Environmental pollution

Case Study: Desertification in hilly regions of the Himalayas

Deforestation in Himalayas, involving clearance of natural forest and plantation of

monocultures like Pinus roxburghi, Eucalyptus camadulensis etc. has upset the ecosystem
by changing various soils and biological properties. Nutrients cycling has become poor,
original rich germplasm is lost and the area is invaded by exotic weeds. These areas are
not able to recover and are losing its fertility. The entire west khasi hill district of
Meghalayas in north east Himalayas, Ladakh and parts of Kumaon and Garhwal are now
facing the serious problems of desertification.

2.1.5 SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT

Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the management of forests according to the

principles of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management uses very broad social,
economic and environmental goals. A range of forestry institutions now practice various
forms of sustainable forest management and a broad range of methods and tools are available
that have been tested over time.

The stewardship and use of forests and forest lands in a way, and at a rate, that maintains
their biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, vitality and their potential to fulfill,
now and in the future, relevant ecological, economic and social functions, at local, national,
and global levels, and that does not cause damage to other ecosystems.

There appears to be growing international consensus on the key elements of sustainable forest
management. Seven common thematic areas of sustainable forest management have emerged
based on the criteria of the nine ongoing regional and international criteria and indicators
initiatives.

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 The seven thematic areas are:

Extent of forest resources

Biological diversity

Forest health and vitality

Productive functions and forest resources

Protective functions of forest resources

Socio-economic functions

Legal, policy and institutional framework

2.1.6 SOME FOREST CONSERVATION METHODS

Conservation of forest includes the development and management of forests in such a way as
to improve climate and water flow, prevent soil erosion and provide optimum sustainable
yield both for present and future generations. In India, increasing destruction and degradation
of forests, especially in mountainous and hilly areas, lead to heavy deforestation. Thus,
forests are to be developed and managed judiciously. These programmes are aimed at
sustainable supply of tree products and services to people and industry and maintenance of
long term ecological balance through production and protection. To achieve these goals
following methods are commonly used.

(a) Conservation of forest is a national problem so it must be tackled with perfect

coordination between forest department and other departments.

(b) People's participation in the conservation of forests is of vital importance. So, we must get
them involved in this national task.

(c) The cutting of trees in the forests must be stopped at all costs.

(d) Celebrations of all functions, festivals should proceed with tree-plantation.

(e) Cutting of timber and other forest produce should be restricted.

(f) Grasslands should be regenerated.

(g) Forest conservation Act 1980 should be strictly implemented to check deforestation.

(h) Joint Forest Management (JFM): The need to include local communities in forest
management has become a growing concern. Local people will only support greening an area
if they can see some economic benefits from conservation. An informal agreement between
local communities and the forest department began in 1972, in the Midnapore district of West
Bengal. JFM has now evolved into a formal agreement which identifies and respects the local

22
community’s right and benefits that they need from forest resources. Under JFM schemes,
forest protection communities (FPCs) from local community members are formed. They
participate in restoring the green cover and protect the area from being over – exploited.

Realising this, the MoEF formulated the National Forest Policy of 1988 to give added
importance to joint forest management (JFM), which co-opts the local village communities
and the forest department to work together to sustainable manage our forests. Another
resolution in 1990 provided a formal structure for community participation though the
formation of village forest communities (VFS). Based on this experience, new JFM
guidelines were issued in 2000 which stipulated that at least 25% of the income from the area
must go to community. From the initiation of the program until 2002, there were 63,618 JFM
communities managing over 140,953 sq km of forest under JFM in 27 states in India.

Case Study: Chipko Movement

About 300 years ago, a ruler in Rajasthan decided to fell the ‘khejri’ trees in his state
to create lime. Local women led by a Bishnoi woman, Amrita Devi, clung to the trees
to prevent the felling of the trees that formed the basis of the scarce resources on
which they were dependent. The women were ruthlessly massacred. It is said that the
ruler later realised his mistake. The story, however, has been remembered and was
revived in the 1970s when severe tree-felling for timber in the Himalayas prompted
local women, supported by people such as Sunderlal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad
Bhat, ted a people’s movement to prevent deforestation by timber contractors. They
catted their movement the ‘Chipko’ movement in memory of the event during which
women had clung to their trees and given up their lives. The movement followed the
path the 300 Bishnoi women had taken three centuries ago in Rajasthan. Chipko is a
movement primarily begun and supported by local women in the hills of Uttarakhand
and Garhwal, where the women (the traditional fuel collectors) have had to bear the
brunt of deforestation. They have not only realized that their fuelwood and fodder
resources have receded away from their ‘resource use areas’ around their settlements
due to commercial timber extraction, but that this has led to serious floods and the toss
of precious soil. Chipko activists have made long padyatras across the Himalayas
protesting against deforestation. The movement has been highly successful and has
been primarily supported by empowering local women’s groups, who are the most
seriously affected segment. The movement has proved to the world that the forests of
the hills are the life-support systems of local communities and of immense value in
terms of local produce, and that the forest has less quantifiable but even more
important ecological services such as soil conservation and the maintenance of the
natural water regime of the whole region. The ability of local women to band together
in the foothills of the Himalayas goes back to the pre independence days when women
such as Miraben, a disciple of Gandhiji, moved to this region and understood that it
was the deforestation that led to floods and devastation of villages in the valleys and
in the Gangetic plains below. They also appreciated that substitution of oak and other
broad-Leaved forests of the Himalayas with the planting of fast-growing pine for
timber and resin was an ecological and social disaster which reduced the forest
23
resources used by traditional hill communities.
The various states have tried a variety of approaches to JFM. The share of profits for the
VFCs ranges from 25% in Kerala to at 100% in Andhra Pradesh, 50% in Gujrat, Maharastra,
Orrisa and Tripura. In many states, 25% of the revenue is used for village development. In
many states, non-timber forest products (NTFPS) are available to the people free of cost.
Some states have stopped grazing completely. While others have rotational grazing schemes
that have helped in forest regeneration.

(i) Agroforestry: A sustainable system of managing a piece of land through combined

production of agricultural crops and forest crops/animals, either simultaneously or
sequentially to ensure the most efficient land use under a management system in accordance
with socio-cultural practices of local people. Types of agroforestry which are categorized on
the basis of their growth or combination with forestry.

 Silvopasture agroforestry introduces forage crops into a forest for animals to

graze.

 Silvoarable agroforestry combines woods with traditional arable crops,

particularly winter varieties that can thrive in deciduous forests.

 Forest forming harvests high-yield crops, including specialty mushrooms such as

shiitake, nuts, honey and forest fruits.

 Forest gardening involves the cultivation of shrubs, flowers and perennial plants
in a wooded setting.

(j) Social Forestry: The rapid rate of deforestation in India has led to a large number of
problems. With the loss of forest cover the satisfaction of basic requirements of forest
products of the rural people, like fuel, fodder etc. have become more and more difficult. To
supply the rural people with these necessities and to develop the rural eco-system social-
forestry programmes were launched in India. The term social forestry first came to
prominence in the 1976 report of the National Commission of Agriculture in India, in which
it was used for a programme of activities to encourage those who depended on fuel wood and
other forest products to produce their own supplies in order to lighten the burden on
production forestry. Government of India has implemented the social forestry programme
with the objectives to encourage the farmers to grow forest species (supplied to them free of
cost) in their fields and along the boundaries to enhance their income, reduce soil erosion,
conserve soil moisture, reduce pollution and to provide them wood for making farm
implements and timber for construction of houses.

2.2 WATER RESOURCES

Water is an indispensable natural resource on this earth on which all life depends. About 97%
of the earth’s surface is covered by water and most of the animals and plants have 60-65%
water in their body.

Water – a unique resource:

24
Water is characterized by certain unique features which make it a marvellous resource:

1) It exists as a liquid over a wide range of temperature i.e. from 0ºC to 100 ºC.

2) It has the highest specific heat, due to which it warms up and cools down very slowly
without causing shocks of temperature jerks to the aquatic life.

3) It has a high latent heat of vaporization. Hence, it takes a huge amount of energy for
getting vaporized. That’s why it produces a cooling effect as it evaporates.

4) It is an excellent solvent for several nutrients. Thus, it can serve as a very good carrier
of nutrients, including oxygen, which is essential for life. But it can easily dissolve
various pollutants and become a carrier of pathogenic microorganisms.

5) Due to high surface tension and cohesion it can easily rise through great heights
through the trunk even in the tallest of the trees like Sequoia.

6) It has anomalous expansion behaviour i.e. as it freezes; it expands instead of

contracting and thus become lighter. It is because of this property that even in extreme
cold, the lakes freeze only on the surface. Being lighter the ice keeps floating,
whereas the bottom waters remain at a higher temperature and therefore, can sustain
aquatic organisms even in extreme cold.

2.2.1 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean. As
moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses to form clouds. Moisture is transported
around the globe until it returns to the surface as precipitation. Once the water reaches the
ground, one of two processes may occur; 1) some of the water may evaporate back into the
atmosphere or 2) the water may penetrate the surface and become groundwater. Groundwater
either seeps its way to into the oceans, rivers, and streams, or is released back into the
atmosphere through transpiration. The balance of water that remains on the earth's surface is
runoff, which empties into lakes, rivers and streams and is carried back to the oceans, where
the cycle begins again.

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 Figure 2.1 Hydrological Cycle

2.2.2 SOURCES OF WATER

Naturally available water can be classified as:

(i) Surface water and

(ii) Ground water

Figure 2.2 Distribution of Earth’s water

2.2.2.1 Surface water:

26
 a) Rain Water – it is the purest form of natural water because it is received by
evaporation of surface water. But it is made impure by the polluted atmosphere from
where it falls. Gases like SO2, CO2, NO and NO2 from the industries and automobiles
dissolve in the rain water forming the corresponding acids. Such polluted rain is acid
rain. Eg.

SO2 + H2O  H2SO3

2SO2 + O2 + H2O  2H2SO4

4NO2 + 2H2O + 2O2  4HNO3

b) River water – River receives water from rain and when this water travels over the
land different minerals of the soil get dissolved in it.

c) Lake water – A lake, unlike a river does not flow through different lands, therefore it
contains much lesser amounts of dissolved minerals and it has a constant chemicals
composition. It can be used for drinking purposes.

d) Sea water – It is the most impure form of natural water because all the impurities
thrown into rivers enter the sea. Continuous evaporation of sea water takes place. Out
of the dissolved salts present in sea water, 2.6 % is NaCl. Sea water also contains
bicarbonates of Ca, K, Mg and bromides of K and Mg in small percentage.

2.2.2.2 Ground water:

About 9.86 % of the total fresh water resources is in the form of groundwater and it is about
35 – 50 times that of surface water supplies. Till some time back groundwater was considered
to be very pure. However of late, even groundwater aquifers have been found to be
contaminated by leachates from sanitary landfills etc.

Sources of groundwater are as follows:

1. Meteoric water: it is the water derived from precipitation (rain and snow). Although bulk
of rainwater or melt water from snow and ice reaches the sea through surface flows or run
off, a considerable part of precipitation gradually infiltrates into ground. This infiltrated water
continues its journey downwards till it reaches the zone of saturation to become a part of
groundwater in aquifer.

2. Connate water: it is known as fossilized water. This is the water present in the rocks from
the time of their deposition in an aqueous environment. During the process of formation of
sedimentary rocks in a lake or sea or river, deposition is followed by compaction, which leads
to the squeezing out of most of the water present between the sediments. Sometimes,
however incomplete compaction may cause retention of some water by these rocks. This is
the connate water and may be encountered in sedimentary rocks like limestone, sandstone
and gravels. It is saline in nature, and is of no importance as a source for exploitable
groundwater.

27
3. Juvenile water: It is also known as magmatic water. It is the water formed in the cracks or
pores of rocks due to condensation of steam emanating from hot molten masses or magmas
existing below the surface of the earth. Some hot springs and geysers are clearly derived from
juvenile water.

4. Metamorphic water: this is the water trapped in metamorphic rocks during the rock
forming process eg: Marbels.

Water bearing quality of rocks

1. Aquifers: Aquifer is a natural formation or a geological structure saturated with water

which has good hydraulic conductivity to supply a reasonable quantity of water to a well or
spring. Some examples of aquifers are sedimentary formation like gravels and sand, fractured
igneous and metamorphic rocks, carbonate rocks with solution cavities. Aquifers may be of
two types:

Aquifers

Unconfined Aquifers Confined Aquifers

a. Unconfined aquifers: Unconfined aquifers are those which are overlaid by permeable
earth materials and they are recharged by water seeping down from above in the form of
rainfall and snow melt.

b. Confined aquifers: Confined aquifers are those which are sandwiched between two
impermeable layers of rock or sediments and are recharged only in those areas where the
aquifers intersect the land surface. Sometimes the recharged area is hundreds of kilometres
away from the location of the well. Ground water is not static, it moves, through at a very
slow rate of about a meter or so in a year.

Figure 2.3: Types of Aquifers

28
2. Aquiclude: A rock body or formation which may be porous enough to hold enough
quantity of water but which by virtue of its other properties does not allow an easy and quick
flow through it, is called an aquiclude. It is to be treated as practically impermeable rock
mass. Compacted clay formations are the best examples of aquicludes.

3. Aquifuge: It is an absolutely impermeable rock formation through which there is no

possibility of storage or movement of water. Such a formation is always free pores and other
interstices. For example compact interlocking granites and quartizites.

4. Aquitard: Aquitards are the formation having insufficient permeability to make it a source
of water but, allows interchange of groundwater between adjacent aquifers due to vertical
leakage. Therefore aquitards serve as semi-confining layers. For example silt, kankar, shale
etc.

2.2.3 OVER EXPLOITATION OF WATER RESOURCES

2.2.3.1 Sources for over exploitation of water resources

Surface water is mainly misuse, due to which its quality and quantity both degrades. Since
lakes, ponds, rivers, sea are used for dumping industrial and sewage wastes, dead bodies,
solid wastes etc. hence their quality degrades, which give rise to many environmental,
ecological and health problems.

Some of the major reasons for the over-exploitation and over-utilization of water resource
are:

(i) Population growth

In 2000, the world population was 6.2 billion. The UN estimates that by 2050 there will be an
additional 3.5 billion people with most of the growth in developing countries that already
suffer water stress. Thus, water demand will increase unless there are corresponding increases
in water conservation and recycling of this vital resource.

(ii) Expansion of business activity

Business activity ranging from industrialization to services such as tourism and entertainment
continues to expand rapidly. This expansion requires increased water services including both
supply and sanitation, which can lead to more pressure on water resources and natural
ecosystems.

(iii) Rapid urbanization

The trend towards urbanization is accelerating. Small private wells and septic tanks that work
well in low-density communities are not feasible within high-density urban areas.
Urbanization requires significant investment in water infrastructure in order to deliver water
to individuals and to process the concentrations of wastewater – both from individuals and
from business. These polluted and contaminated waters must be treated or they pose
unacceptable public health risks.

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 (iv) Climate change

Climate change could have significant impacts on water resources around the world because
of the close connections between the climate and hydrological cycle. Rising temperatures will
increase evaporation and lead to increases in precipitation, though there will be regional
variations in rainfall. Overall, the global supply of freshwater will increase. Both droughts
and floods may become more frequent in different regions at different times, and dramatic
changes in snowfall and snow melt are expected in mountainous areas. Higher temperatures
will also affect water quality in ways that are not well understood. Possible impacts include
increased eutrophication. Climate change could also mean an increase in demand for farm
irrigation, garden sprinklers, and perhaps even swimming pools.

(v) Pollution

Water pollution is one of the main concerns of the world today. The governments of
numerous countries have striven to find solutions to reduce this problem. Many pollutants
threaten water supplies, but the most widespread, especially in developing countries, is the
discharge of raw sewage into natural waters; this method of sewage disposal is the most
common method in underdeveloped countries, but also is prevalent in quasi-developed
countries such as China, India and Iran. In addition to sewage, nonpoint source pollution such
as agricultural runoff is a significant source of pollution in some parts of the world, along
with urban storm water runoff and chemical wastes dumped by industries and governments.

2.2.3.2 Effects of over exploitation of water resources

(i) Ground subsidence: when groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the
sediments in the aquifer get compacted, a phenomenon known as ground subsidence.
Subsidence can occur rapidly due to a sinkhole or underground mine collapse, or during a
major earthquake. Subsidence can also take place slowly, becoming evident over time span of
many years. Once the water has been removed from the sediment, it cannot be replaced. The
clay layers within the aquifer compact and settle, resulting in lowering the ground surface in
the area from which the groundwater is being pumped. The rock compacts because the water
is partly responsible for holding the ground up. When the water is withdrawn, the rock falls in
on itself. It can be triggered by man-made disturbance, a change in drainage patterns, heavy
rain or by water abstraction. Huge economic losses may occur due to this phenomenon
because it results in the sinking of overlying land surface. The common problems associated
with it include structural damage in buildings, fracture in pipes, reversing the flow of sewers
and canals and tidal flooding.

(ii) Lowering of water table: The Earth’s crust can be divided into two main zones: the
unsaturated zone, which contains some water but has room for more, and the phreatic zone, in
which all rocks and soil are completely surrounded and filled with water. The water table is
the point between the two zones at which the ground becomes completely saturated. The
water table rises and falls according to the season of the year and the amount of rain and
snow melt that occurs. Every time it rains, for example, water trickles down through layers of
soil, raising its level. Runoff from lakes, rivers and streams also contributes, as does melted

30
snow. Impermeable rock, like granite or basalt, cannot collect water, although aquifers are
often surrounded by deposits of impermeable rock which keep the water trapped inside. It is
typically higher in early spring and lower in the late summer. Heavy rainfall or drought
conditions may cause changes in the typical pattern; however soil pattern also affects the
specific yield of drainage.

The level of water table can fluctuate considerably, depending upon environmental conditions
like seasonal dryness and tidal changes, as well as human use. A dry spell, for example, can
cause it to drop significantly. In some places, seasonal fluctuations are common enough to be
predicted with some degree of accuracy. The water level near oceans sometimes changes
daily along with the tides, getting higher during high tide and lower as the tide goes out.
Humans sometimes changes water levels intentionally, usually for industrial purposes. For
instance, if there is a deposit of ore below the water table, a mining company might install
wells or pumps to remove the water to get to the ore. After the project is complete, the water
is usually allowed to flow back into the area, raising the level again.

The most severe consequence of excessive groundwater pumping is that the water table,
below which the ground is saturated with water, can be lowered. For water to be withdrawn
from the groundwater must be pumped from a well that reaches below the water table. If
groundwater levels decline too far, then the well owner might have to deepen the well, drill a
new well, or, at least attempt to lower the pump. Also as water levels decline, the yield from
the well may decline.

(iii) Water logging: Another problem associated with excessive irrigation on poorly drained
soils is waterlogging. Waterlogging occurs whenever the soil is so wet that there is
insufficient oxygen in the pore space for plant roots to be able to adequately respire. Other
gases detrimental to root growth, such as carbon dioxide and ethylene also accumulate in the
root zone and affect the plants. It happens because the irrigation water eventually raises the
water table in the ground the upper level of the groundwater from beneath. The raised water
table results in the soils becoming waterlogged. When soils are water logged, air spaces in the
soil are filled with water, and plant roots essentially suffocate due to lack of oxygen.
Waterlogging also damages soil structure. Worldwide, as much as 10% of all irrigated land
may suffer from water logging. Waterlogging damage is worse in the following situations:

 Water accumulating or poorly drained areas;

 Duplex soils, particularly sandy duplex with less than 30 cm sand over clay;

 Low nitrogen status crops;

 Warmer temperatures;

 Deeper sown crops; and

 Saline or mildly saline soil.

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(iv) Salinization: All irrigation water contains dissolved salts derived as it passed over and
through the land, and rain water also contain some salts. These salts are generally in very low
concentration in the water itself. However, evaporation of water from the dry surface of the
soil leaves the salts behind which results the rise in saline groundwater and the build up of
salt in the irrigated soil surface, eventually to toxic levels for plants, the phenomenon is
known as salinization. Salt in soils decreases the osmotic potential of the soil so that plants
can’t up water from it. When soils are salty, the soil has greater concentrations of solute than
does the root, so plants can not get water from soil. The salts can also be directly toxic, but
plant troubles usually result primarily from inability to take up water from salty soils.
Problems with salinization are most commonly associated with excessive water application,
rather than with too little.

The major cause of irrigation salinity include over-irrigation of farm land, inefficient water
use, poor drainage, irrigating on unsuitable or ‘leaky’ soils, high residence time of water in
pond and allowing seepage from irrigation channels, drains and water storages. This increases
leakage to the groundwater system, causing the water table to rise which may mobilize salt
that has accumulated in the soil layers. When the saline water table rises to within two metres
of the surface evaporation concentrates salt at the surface. As the soil becomes accumulated
vegetation and crops die because they have limited access to oxygen and they are not able to
take water up. Soil saturation is compounded by periods of heavy rainfall, but drought helps
improve the situation.+

2.2.3.3 Water Calamities

Water calamities may be caused by both abundance and deficiency of water.

1) FLOODS

Flood refers to the presence of unusually large amount of water at any place, or more water
than what can be handled by the drainage of the area. It is also characterised by the overflow
of rivers. Occurrence of flood depends on many factors such as climate, nature of collecting
basin, streams, soil, vegetation cover, amount of snow melt and overall rainfall.

Classification of Floods

Coastal River Flash Groundwater Sewer

Flooding Flooding Flooding Flooding Flooding

1. Coastal flooding

Heavy storms or other extreme weather conditions combined with high tides can cause sea
levels to rise above normal, force sea water to the land and cause coastal flooding. Proper
flooding defences need to be in place to safeguard life and property. The Environment
Agency constantly monitors sea levels and releases flood warnings when required.

32
2. River flooding

This type of flooding, where a river bursts or overtops its banks and floods the areas around
it, is more common than coastal flooding in the UK. River flooding is generally caused by
prolonged, extensive rain. Flooding can be worsened by melting snow. Flooding can also
occur if the free flow of a river gets blocked by fallen trees, natural overgrowth or rubbish.

People who own land around rivers (riparian owners) have a legal duty to prevent flooding by
making sure that they avoid blocking the free flow of the river.

3. Flash flooding

A flash flood is a fast-moving and unexpected flood. Flash flooding is usually due to heavy
rain. While natural events may be responsible for most flash flooding, it may also arise if the
flood defences fail or the drainage systems are insufficient. It is expected that flash flooding
may become more frequent, due to climate change and too much development in flood plains.

4. Groundwater flooding

Groundwater flooding can occur when water levels underneath the ground rise above normal
levels approaching the surface. It is usually caused by prolonged periods of rainfall.
Groundwater flooding can last for weeks and months. The Groundwater Forum estimates that
groundwater flooding affects several hundred thousand properties in the UK. It differs from
surface water flooding which is caused when heavy rain directly hits the ground surface.

5. Sewer flooding

Sewer flooding may result from a system failure. It may also happen when the sewer system
does not have enough capacity to take water entering the system from heavy rainfall or river
or highway flooding. Sewage water flowing into a building is classified as internal flooding.
When it floods a garden or other open space such as roads or public grounds it is considered
as external flooding.

Effects of Floods:

1. Floods damage property and endanger the lives of humans and animals.

2. Rapid run-off causes soil erosion as well as sedimental deposition problems downstream.

3. Spawning grounds for fish and other wildlife habitats are often destroyed.

4. High velocity currents increase flood damage; prolonged high floods delay traffic and
interfere with drainage and economic use of lands.

5. Bridge embankments, bank lines, sewer outfalls, and other structures within floodways are
damaged, and navigations and hydroelectric power are often impaired.

6. Financial losses due to floods commonly amount to millions of pounds each year.

Control of Floods

33
1. Construction of dams, reservoirs and floodways artificial channels that divert floodwater.

2. Construct coordinated groups of dams and reservoirs on the headwaters of the stream that
lead into the main rivers, so that the water can be stored during periods of heavy run-off
and released gradually during the dry seasons.

3. By restoring vegetation and instituting efficient methods of soil management and

conversation, such as crop rotation and contour ploughing, construction of floodways on
the reaches of rivers to divert flood waters.

4. On the individual level more public awareness programmes are needed to help people
understand living with floods to ensure safety of river ecosystem.

2) DROUGHTS

Drought is a complex physical and social process. It is said to be occurring at a place when
the place does not get as much water as the need, over a significant period of time. Drought is
defined in three ways: an extended period of below normal rainfall, a long term depletion of
groundwater, or the stunting of vegetation growth due to lack of water.

Classification of Droughts

Meteorological Hydrological Agricultural

Droughts Droughts Droughts

1. Meteorological drought

Meteorological drought is often demarked by a period of substantially diminished

precipitation duration or intensity. The commonly used definition of meteorological drought
is an interval of time, generally in the order of months or year, during which the actual
moisture supply at a given place consistently falls below the climatically appropriate moisture
supply.

2. Hydrological drought

It occurs when there is running down of surface water leading to very low stream flow and
drying of lakes, rivers and reservoirs.

3. Agricultural drought

Agricultural drought links various characteristics of meteorological or hydrological drought

to agricultural impacts, focusing on precipitation shortages, differences between actual and
potential evapotranspiration, soil water deficits, reduces ground water or reservoir levels, and
so forth.

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Effects of Drought:

The impacts of droughts may be economic, environmental and social.

1. Drought implies a lack of moisture for an extended period of time which in turns causes a
deficit of moisture in the soil.

2. It results in crop damage and water supply shortage.

3. People consider drought a natural or physical event, it has both natural and social
component.

4. The consequence of drought can be very serious for a country that still depends largely on
rain-fed agriculture.

5. A drought also increase pressure on the environment, in terms of falling groundwater

tables and reduced tree cover. Industry would have to contend with a power crisis, due to
the expected shortfall in hydropower generation. Similarly, even the prosperous irrigated
regions would be hit by a fall in dam reservoir levels.

2.2.4 CONFLICTS OVER WATER

Indispensability of water and its unequal distribution has often led to inter-state or
international disputes. Issues related to sharing of river water have been largely affecting our
farmers and also shaking our governments. Many countries are engaged in bitter rivalries
over this precious resource. For instance,

 Argentina and Brazil, dispute each other's claims to the La Plata river,

 India and Pakistan fight over the rights to water from the Indus,

 Mexico and USA have come in conflict over the Colorado river,

 India and Bangladesh are fighting for Bhrahmaputra river, and

 Iran and Iraq contest for the water from Shatt-Al- Arab River.

Within India, water conflicts are still being continues between the states.

For Eg.,

 Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh,

 Sharing of Siruvani water between Tamilnadu and Kerala, and others.

 Sharing of Cauvery between Karnataka and Tamilnadu

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  On June 2,1990, the Cauvery Water dispute Tribunal was set up which through an
interim award directed Karnataka to ensure that 205 TMCF of water was made
available in Tamil Nadu's Mettur dam every year, till a settlement was reached.

 In 1991-1992 due to good monsoon, there was no dispute. In 1995, the situation
turned into a crisis due to delayed rains and an expert Committee was set up to look
into the matter which found that there was a complex cropping pattern in Cauvery
basin.

 Samba paddy in winter, Kuravai paddy in summer and some cash crops demanded
intensive water; thus aggravating the water crisis.

2.2.5 BIG-DAMS –BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

Dams are built across the river in order to store water for drinking, agricultural, industrial
purpose. Now days they are mainly used for the hydropower production.

2.2.5.1 Benefits

 River valley projects with big dams play a key role in the development process due to
their multiple uses.

 These dams aim at providing employment for tribal people and raising the standard
and quality of life.

 Dams can help in checking floods and generate electricity and reduce water and
power shortage, provide irrigation water to lower areas, provide drinking water in
remote areas and promote navigation, fishery.

2.2.5.2 Problems

PROBLEMS DUE TO LARGE DAMS

Upstream Problems: Downstream problems:

 Displacement of tribal people  Water logging and salinity due

 Loss of forests, flora and fauna to over irrigation
 Changes in fisheries  Microclimatic changes
 Saltation and sedimentation of  Reduced water flow and slit
reservoirs deposition in river
 Loss of non-forest land  Flash foods
 Stagnation and water logging  Salt water intrusion at river
near reservoir mouth
 Breeding vectors and spread of  Loss of land fertility
vector –borne diseases  Outbreak of vector-borne
 Reservoir induces seismicity diseases like malaria.
causing earthquakes
 Microclimatic changes
36
 Growth of aquatic weeds
 Case Study: Water Pollution – Nepal

The Narayani River of Nepal has been polluted by factories located on its banks. This has
endangered the fish, dolphins, crocodiles, and other flora and fauna of the region.

2.2.6 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES

Sustainable development of water resources refers to reducing the usage of water and
recycling of waste water for different purposes such as cleaning, manufacturing, and
agricultural irrigation in such a way that water demands of future generations are not
hampered.

Case Study: Narmada River Dams - For over a decade, villagers have waged an intense
battle to stop dams on India’s Narmada River. The Narmada Valley Development Project
includes 30 major dams and 3,000 smaller dams. The Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) has
gained international notoriety due to intense opposition by villagers. Led by the Narmada
Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada movement), activists and villagers forced the World
Bank to withdraw from the project in the early ‘90s. A case filed with the Indian Supreme
Court stopped construction for nearly six years. However, on October 18, 2000, the Indian
Supreme Court issued a controversial final ruling allowing construction to proceed. About
200 000 people would be displaced for the reservoir; hundreds of thousands more will lose
land or livelihood due to related developments. Thousands of people who have been
resettled are struggling to survive on cramped plots with no arable land or source of
livelihood. Faced with these future prospects, villagers have vowed to remain on their
lands and face submergence behind the partly-built dam rather than face a life of certain
destitution. People affected by the extensive canal system are not considered as project
affected people and are not entitled to the same resettlement and compensation packages
as those living in the reservoir area. There are no credible environmental studies or
rehabilitation plans. Although the legal framework requires that affected people be given
land-for-land compensation, there is no land available for resettlement. The project is
expected to generate only 50MW (of 1450 MW planned) after seasonal water flow and
power consumption for pumping water is accounted for. The project is supposed to irrigate
1.9 million hectares and provide drinking water to over 20 million people. However, these
benefits are based on overestimates of annual flow in the river and assume extremely high
irrigation efficiency. The arid Kutch region will not receive any water supply benefits until
2025.

2.2.6.1. SOCIAL SOLUTIONS

Water conservation programs are typically initiated at the local level, by either municipal
water utilities or regional governments. Common strategies include public outreach
campaigns, tiered water rates (charging progressively higher prices as water use increases), or

37
restrictions on outdoor water use such as lawn watering and car washing. Cities in dry
climates often require or encourage the installation of xeriscaping or natural landscaping in
new homes to reduce outdoor water usage.

2.2.6.2. HOUSEHOLD/DOMESTIC SOLUTIONS Water-saving technology for the home

includes:

 Low-flow shower heads sometimes called energy-efficient shower heads as they also
use less energy,

 Low-flush toilets and composting toilets. These have a dramatic impact in the
developed world, as conventional Western toilets use large volumes of water.

 Saline water (sea water) or rain water can be used for flushing toilets.

 Wastewater reuse or recycling systems, allowing:

 High-efficiency clothes washers

 Weather-based irrigation controllers

 Using low flow taps in wash basins

Water can also be conserved by landscaping with native plants and by changing behavior,
such as shortening showers and not running the faucet while brushing teeth.

2.2.6.3. COMMERCIAL SOLUTIONS Many water-saving devices (such as low-flush

toilets) that are useful in homes can also be useful for business water saving. Other water-
saving technology for businesses includes:

 Infrared or foot-operated faucets, which can save water by using short bursts of water
for rinsing in a kitchen or bathroom

 Pressurized water brooms, which can be used instead of a hose to clean sidewalks

 X-ray film processor re-circulation systems

 Cooling tower conductivity controllers

 Water-saving steam sterilizers, for use in hospitals and health care facilities.

 Rain water harvesting: it means capturing rain, where it falls or capturing the run off
in your own village or town, and taking measures to keep that water clean by not
allowing polluting activities to take place in the catchments. Water harvesting can be
undertaken through variety of ways: 1) capturing runoff from rooftops 2) capturing
runoff from local catchments 3) capturing seasonal flood waters from local streams
and 4) conserving water through watershed management.

2.2.6.4. AGRICULTURAL SOLUTIONS

38
For crop irrigation, optimal water efficiency means minimizing losses due to evaporation,
runoff or subsurface drainage while maximizing production.

 An evaporation pan in combination with specific crop correction factors can be used
to determine how much water is needed to satisfy plant requirements

 Drip Irrigation: Drip irrigation is also known as trickle irrigation or micro

irrigation. It is an irrigation method which saves water and fertilizer by allowing
water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto
the root zone, through a network of valves, pipes and emitters.

Case Study: Israel’s Drip Irrigated Farming

The small and arid state of Israel began using drip irrigation systems, as it is short of
water. With this technique, Israeli farmers have been able to improve the efficiency of
irrigation by 95%. Over a 20 year period, Israel’s food production has doubled without
an increase in the use of water for agriculture. Today Israel is one of the major
suppliers of fruits and vegetables in the world.

In India, some traditional communities in urban and semi urban towns used to grow
their own vegetables in backyards, using wastewater from their own homes. Kolkota
releases its wastewater into surrounding lagoons in which fish are reared and the water
is also used for growing vegetables.

2.2.6.5. ROLE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE GROUNDWATER

MANAGEMENT

The distribution of groundwater is not uniform throughout the country. The spatio – temporal
variations in rainfall and regional/local differences in geology and geomorphology have led
to uneven distribution of groundwater in different regions across the country. Unplanned and
haphazard development of groundwater in some areas has further compounded the problem
and has led to a sharp decline in groundwater levels. Systematic estimation and budgeting of
groundwater resource based on its spatio-temporal distribution, its allocation for meeting the
competing demands for irrigation, industrial and domestic usage, and conjunctive use of
surface and a groundwater resource are, therefore, pre-requisite for optimal utilization of
available groundwater on a sustained basis.

Groundwater study of an area requires the knowledge of the nature of lithological units
occurring in the area, their structural disposition, geomorphic set up, surface water conditions
and climate. These has been studied by the conventional method

39
 2.3 LAND RESOURCES
Land is a major resource for, food production, animal husbandry, industry our growing
human settlements, Forests, wild life and biodiversity. Land on earth is as finite as any of our
other natural resources. Scientists today believe that at least 10 percent of land and water
bodies of each ecosystem must be kept as wilderness for the long term needs of protecting
nature and natural resources.

Soil types are red soil, black cotton soil, literate soil, alluvial soil, desert soil etc. In nature
India is moving North East @5cm/yr (fastest continent) so the Eurasian plate deforms and
India compresses by 4mm/year

2.3.1 IMPORTANCE OF SOIL AS A RESOURCE

Soil is one of the world’s most valuable assets. It is essential to all life forms on this plant due
to the following reasons:

 Soil acts as a sieve to protect the quality of water, air and other resources.

 Soil provides a physical medium, chemical environment and biological setting for
water, nutrient, air and heat exchange for living organisms.

 Soil controls biological activity and molecular exchanges among solid, liquid and
gaseous phases. This affects nutrient cycling, plant growth and decomposition of
organic materials;

 It offers mechanical support for living organisms and their structures, including most
of our buildings, dams, pipelines and underground cables; and

 Soils influence the water distribution of runoff, infiltration, storage and deep drainage.

 They regulate water distribution to runoff, infiltration, storage or deep drainage.

 They regulate water flow, which affects the movement of soluble materials such as
nutrients or pollutants

 Soils make it possible for plants to grow. Soils mediate the biological, chemical and
physical processes that supply nutrients, water and other elements to growing plants.
Soils are the water and nutrient storehouses on which most plants survive.

 We eventually depend on soils for much of our food and fibre.

2.3.2 SOIL PROFILE:

It is an exposure from the surface downward through a soil to its parent material. A general
soil profile has the following horizon.

40
 Figure 2.4: Soil Profile

O – Organic horizon: This horizon contains surficial organic deposit with litter layer of
plant residues in relatively non-decomposed form.

A – Surface horizon: The layer contains organics mixed with mineral matter. This Layer is
of mineral soil with the most organic matter accumulation and soil life. This layer eluviates
(is depleted of) iron, clay, aluminium, organic compounds, and other soluble constituents. A-
horizons may also be the result of a combination of soil bioturbation and surface processes
that winnow fine particles from biologically mounded topsoil. In this case, the A-horizon is
regarded as a "biomantle".

B – Subsurface horizon: Subsurface layer reflecting chemical or physical alteration of parent

material. This layer accumulates iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds, a process referred to
as illuviation.

C – Unconsolidated horizon: The parent material in sedimentary deposits. It is a layer of

large unbroken rocks. This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds.

R - Bedrock: The parent material in bedrock landscapes. This layer denotes the layer of
partially weathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R
horizons largely comprise continuous masses of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand.
Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer. These areas of
bedrock are less than 50 feet of the other profiles.

2.3.1 LAND DEGRADATION: It is the decline in land quality or reduction in its

productivity or production potential caused by human activities. Worldwide 5 -7 m ha farm
land is being degraded annually.

41
2.3.1.1 Mechanisms that Initiate Land Degradation

1) Physical processes: decline in soil structure leading to crusting, compaction, erosion,

decertification, Ana vision, environmental pollution and unsustainable use of natural
resources.

2) Chemical processes: Acidification, leaching, decrease in cations retention capacity and

loss of nutrients.

3) Biological processes: Reduction in total and biomass carbon and decline in land
biodiversity.

Figure 2.5: The vicious cycle of land degradation

2.3.1.2 Causes for Land Degradation

i. Intensive irrigation leads to water logging and salinisation, on which crops cannot grow.

ii. The use of more and more chemical fertilizers poisons the soil so that eventually the land
becomes unproductive.

iii. The roots of trees and grasses bind the soil. If forests are depleted, or grasslands
overgrazed, the land becomes unproductive and wasteland is formed.

iv. Land is also converted into a non-renewable resource when highly toxic industrial and
nuclear wastes are dumped on it.

v. As urban centres grow and industrial expansion occurs, the agricultural land and forests
shrink. This is a serious loss and has long term ill effects on human civilization.

vi. Land degradation/soil erosion due to deforestation is more evident on steep hill slopes in
the Himalayas and in the Western Ghats. These areas are called ‘ecologically sensitive
areas’ or ESAs. To prevent the loss of millions of tons of valuable soil every year, it is

42
essential to preserve what remains of our natural forest cover. It is equally important to
reforest denuded areas. The linkage between the existence of forests and the presence of soil
is greater than the forest’s physical soil binding function alone. The soil is enriched by the
leaf litter of the forest. It is broken down by soil micro-organisms, fungi, worms and insects,
which help to recycle nutrients in the system. Further losses of our soil wealth will
impoverish our country and reduce its capacity to grow enough food in future.

vii. The rate of mangrove loss is significantly higher than the loss of any other types of
forests. If deforestation of mangroves continues, it can lead to severe losses of biodiversity
and livelihoods, in addition to salt intrusion in coastal areas and siltation of coral reefs, ports
and shipping lanes.

Case Study: Salinity and Water logging in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan

The first alarming report of salt-affected wasteland formation in connection with irrigation
practices came from Haryana (then Punjab) in 1858. It was reported that several villages in
Panipat, Rohtak and Delhi lying in command area of western Yamuna canal were suffering
from destructive saline efflorescence. The “Reh Committee” in 1886 drew the attention of
the government on some vital points showing a close relationship between irrigation,
drainage and spread of “reh” and “usar” soils. The floods of 1947, 1950, 1952, 1954-56 in
Punjab resulted in aggravated water logging with serious drainage problems. Introduction
of canal irrigation in 1.2 m ha in Haryana resulted in rise in water table followed by water
logging and salinity in many irrigated areas causing huge economic losses as a result of fall
in crop productivity. Rajasthan too suffered badly in this regard following the biggest
irrigation project “Indira Gandhi Canal Project” and the sufferings of the big area in
Western Rajasthan have changed from a condition of “water-starved wasteland” to that of
a “water soaked wasteland”.

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2.3.2 SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion is the process of removal of superficial layer of the soil from one place to
another. Soil erosion leads to soil infertility as the top soil layer is lost and also ability of soil to
hold water and sediment is reduced.

2.3.2.1 Types of soil erosion

TYPES OF SOIL EROSION

Normal Erosion Accelerated Erosion

 Gradual removal of top soil by  Caused by man-made activities

the natural process.
 The rate of erosion is much faster
 The rate of erosion is slower. than the rate of formation of soil.

2.3.2.2 Agents of soil erosion

AGENTS OF SOIL EROSION

Water Wind

 Sheet Erosion  Saltation

 Rill Erosion  Suspension

 Gully Erosion  Surface Creep

 Slip Erosion

 Stream Bank Erosion

(i)Water

Water causes soil erosion in the form of rain, run-off, rapid flow, wave action.

 Sheet erosion: When there is uniform removal of a thin layer of soil from a large
surface area, it is called sheet erosion.

 Rill erosion: when there is rainfall and rapidly running water produces finger-shaped
grooves or rills over the area, it is called rill erosion.

 Gully erosion: When the rainfall is very heavy, deeper cavities or gullies are formed,
which may be U or V shaped.

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  Slip erosion: This occurs due to heavy rainfall on slopes of hills and mountains.

 Stream bank erosion: During the rainy season, when fast running streams take a turn
in some other direction, they cut the soil and make caves in the bank.

(ii)Wind

Wind is the important climatic agent, who carry away the fine particles of soil and creates
soil erosion.

 Saltation: This occurs under the influence of direct pressure of stormy wind and the
soil particles of 1-1.5 mm diameter move up in vertical direction.

 Suspension: Here fine soil particles (less than 1mm diameter) which are suspended
on the air are kicked up and taken away to distant places.

 Surface creep: Here the large particles (5-10 mm diameter) creep over the soil
surface along with wind.

There are some biotic agents as well which causes soil erosion.

(iii) Biotic Agents

 Overgrazing, mining and deforestation are the major biotic agents, cause soil erosion.

 Deforestation without reforestation, overgrazing by cattle, surface mining without

land reclamation, irrigation techniques that lead to salt build- up, water logged soil,
make the top soil vulnerable to erosion.

 35% of world soil erosion is due to overgrazing.

 30% of world soil erosion is due to deforestation.

2.3.2.3 Soil conservation practices

1. Conservational till farming (or) no-till-farming

In tradition method, the land is ploughed and soil is broken up and leveled to make a planting
surface. This disturbs the soil and makes it susceptible to erosion. However, no-till-farming
causes minimum disturbance to the top soil. Here the tilling machines make slits in the
unploughed soil and inject seeds, fertilizers and water in the slit. So the seed germinates and
the crop grows.

2. Contour farming

It involves planting crops in rows across the contour of gently sloped land. Each row acts
as a small dam to hold soil and to slow water runoff.

3. Terracing

45
It involves conversion of steep slopes into broad terraces, which run across the contour.
This retains water for crops and reduces soil erosion by controlling runoff.

4. Alley cropping (or) Agro forestry

It involves planting crops in strips or alleys between rows of trees of shrubs that can
provide fruits and fuel wood. Even when the crop is harvested, the soil will not be eroded
because trees and shrubs still remain on the soil and hold the soil particles.

Figure 2.6: Alley Cropping

2.3.3 LAND USE PLANNING

Land use planning is an iterative process based on the dialogue amongst all state holders
aiming at the negotiation and decision for a sustainable form of land use. Land use planning
creates the prerequisite required to achieve a type of land use, which is sustainable, socially
and environmentally compatible, socially desirable and economically sound. Planning
approaches often fail because global models and implementation strategies are applied and
taken over automatically and uncritically. Land use planning is not a standardized procedure
which is uniform in its application worldwide its content is based on an initial regional or
local situation analysis. Land use planning should consider following principles.

1. It should take into account traditional strategies and local environmental knowledge.

2. Differentiation of state holders and the gender approach are core principles in land use
planning.

3. The ecological, economic technical financial, social and cultural dimension of land use
makes it necessary to work with inter disciplinary approach.

46
4. It should aim at finding solutions for present problems (soil erosion, low yield, and low
income in rural households) with the planning towards long conservations and sustainable use
of land resources.

2.3.4 DESERTIFICATION

It is land degradation occurring in arid, semiarid and dry sub-humid areas of the world. It is a
process where in fertile lands become arid through land mismanagement or climate changes.
Many deserts in the world are man-made. Desertification is taking place much faster
worldwide than historically and usually arises from the demands of increased populations that
settle on the land in order to grow crops and graze animals. These susceptible dry lands cover
40 percent of the earth’s surface and put at risk more than 1 billion people who are dependent
on these lands for survival. Around 80 % of the productive land in the arid and semi-arid
regions of the world is estimated to be converting into deserts and around 600 million people
are threatened by desertification (according to UN EP). Globally around 2 billion acres of
land have become deserts in the past 50 years. The current rate of desertification is around 15
million acres per year, the worst being in sub-saharan Africa. Thar desert in Rajasthan covers
about 12,000 hectares of land.

2.3.4.1 Causes of desertification:

1) Overgrazing: By pounding the soil with their hooves, livestock compact the substrate,
increase the proportion of fine material, and reduce the percolation rate of the soil, thus
encouraging erosion by wind and water. Grazing and the collection of firewood reduce or
eliminate plants that help to bind the soil.

2) Increased population: Livestock pressure on marginal lands accelerates desertification.

3) Deforestation practices: Loss of vegetation results in surface run off as there are no plants
to bind the soil and resulting in soil erosion and depletion of nutrients.

4) Increased food production from marginal lands in arid or semi- arid areas.

5) Irrigation projects in areas with no drainage facility.

6) Shifting of sand dunes by wind storms

Effects: Major impact of desertification is biodiversity loss, and loss of productive capacity,
such as the transition from grassland dominated by perennial grasses to one dominated by
perennial shrubs. In extreme cases, it leads to the destruction of land’s ability to support life.

2.3.4.2 Control of desertification:

1. Afforestation and planting of soil binding grasses can check soil erosion, floods and water
logging.

47
2. Crop rotation and mixed cropping improve the fertility of the soil. It would increase
production which can sustain large population.

3. Desertification can be checked by artificial bunds or covering the area with proper type of
vegetation.

4. Shifting of sand can be controlled by mulching (use of artificial protective covering.)

5. Salinity of the soil can be checked by improved drainage. Saline soil can be recovered by
leaching with more water, particularly where water table of the ground is not very high.

Case Study: Selenium – Punjab

In 1981-82, farmers from Hoshiarpur and Nawanshehar districts approached the scientists
in Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, as their wheat crops had turned white. Soil
analysis indicated selenium levels in the area were above toxic limits. Selenium is
naturally occurring trace element, essential for animal and human health, but the gap
between the requirement and excess is narrow. Soil containing 0.5 µg of selenium per kg
or more is injurious to health. In some areas of Punjab, selenium levels range from 0.31
µg/kg to 4.55 µg/kg. Rice cultivation requires the presence of standing water. Being
highly soluble, selenium dissolves and comes to the surface; the water then evaporates
leaving the selenium behind.

2.3.5 LANDSLIDES

Landslides are the downward and outward movement of a slope composed of earth materials
such as rock, soil, artificial fills. Other names of landslides are rockslide, debris slide, slump,
earth flow and soil creep. During construction of roads and mining activities huge portions of
fragile mountainous areas are cut and thrown into adjacent areas and streams. These land
masses weaken the already fragile mountain slopes and lead to landslides called man induced
landslides.

2.3.5.1 Causes of landslides

1. Removal of vegetation: In the sloppy area creates soil erosion, which leads to landslides.

2. Underground mining: Cause subsidence of the ground.

3. Transport: Due to the movement of buses and trains in the unstable sloppy region cause
landslides.

4. Addition of weight: Addition of extra weight (or) construction on the slope areas leads to
landslide.

5. Ground water level: Over exploitation of ground water also leads to landslides.

2.3.5.2 Harmful effect of landslides

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  Landslide increases the turbidity of nearby streams, thereby reducing their
productivity.

 Destruction of communication links.

 Loss of habitat and biodiversity.

 Loss of infrastructure and economic loss.

Case Study: Landslide in Uttarakhund

The Himalayan State of India, Uttarakhand on 16 June 2013 faced one of the toughest
situations of the century in form of a natural disaster with landslides and flash floods.
Landslides are one of the major forms of natural disaster in the Himalayan ecosystem as it
lies in seismic Zone 5. The natural calamity in Uttarakhand took lives of thousands as per
official and recorded data, but as per the survivors of the crisis, the story is completely
different with more than ten thousands dead. The heavy rainfall created havoc by
affecting the fragile nature of the Himalayan range that is known for its poor soil salinity
in the steep slopes. Apart from the stability of soil in the peaks of the youngest mountains
of the world, the other reasons for the disaster as per the expert are: the blind expansion of
the hydro-power projects and unplanned construction of roads in the Himalayan region, to
match up with the demands of ever increasing traffic in the area. Mining and construction
of big hydropower projects are one of the big reasons behind the disaster that killed
thousands in Uttarakhand.

2.4 MINERAL RESOURCES

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids having a definite chemical
composition and characteristic physical properties. There are thousands of minerals occurring
in different parts of the world. However, most of the rocks, we see everyday are just
composed of a few common minerals like quartz, feldspar, biotite, dolomite, calcite, laterite
etc. There minerals, in turn, are composed of some elements like silicon, oxygen, iron,
magnesium, calcium, aluminium etc.

2.4.1 USE AND EXPLOITATION

Minerals find use in a large number of ways in everyday use in domestic, agricultural,
industrial and commercial sectors and thus form a very important part of any nation’s
economy. The main uses of minerals are as follows:

(i) Development of industrial plants and machinery.

(ii) Generation of energy eg. coal, lignite, uranium.

49
 (iii) Construction, housing, settlements.

(iv) Defence equipments – weapons, armaments.

(v) Transportation means

(vi) Communication – telephone wires, cables, electronic devices.

(vii) Medicinal system – particularly in Ayurvedic system.

(viii) Formation of alloy for various purposes (e.g. steel alloys)

(ix) Agriculture – as fertilizers, seed dressings and fungicides (e.g. zineb containing
zinc, maneb – containing manganese etc.)

(x) Jewellery – e.g. gold, silver, platinum, diamond.

Use of metals by human beings has been so extensive since the very beginning of human
civilization that two of the major epochs of human history are named after them as Bronze
Age and Iron Age. The reserves of metals and the technical know-how to extract them have
been the key elements in determining the economy and political power of nation. Out of the
various metals, those used in maximum quantity are iron and steel (740 million metric tons
annually) followed by manganese, copper, chromium, aluminium and nickel.

2.4.2 SOME MAJOR MINERALS OF INDIA

Principal minerals found in the country along with their estimated reserves are given below:

1) Bauxite Ore (Aluminium)

The total in situation reserves is 3.076 million tonnes. About 84 per cent of this reserve is of
metallurgical grade. The conditional resources of bauxite are about 5, 99,780 tonnes. In
addition, prospective resources are placed at 90 million tonnes. Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Jharkhand are the principal states where bauxite
deposits are located. Major reserves are concentrated in the East Coast Bauxite deposits of
Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

2) Chromite

Total in situ reserves of chromite are estimated at 114 million tonnes. Total geological
resources were estimated at 187 million tonnes, consisting of around 114 million tonnes in
situ reserves and about 73 million tonnes as conditional resources. The largest share (about
96 per cent) in the total geological resources is accounted by the Cuttack district in Orissa.
Deposits of economic significance occur in Orissa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Jharkhand,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu and Manipur. However, refractory grade reserves
of chromite are very meagre.

3) Copper

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The total in situ reserves of copper ore in the country are 712.5 million tonnes, equivalent to
9.4 million tonnes of metal content. The all-India conditional resources of copper are 722
million tonnes (3.15 million tonnes of copper metal) and prospective resources are 0.6
million tonnes of copper ore. Major and important copper ore deposits are located in
Singhbhum district (Jharkhand), Balaghat district (Madhya Pradesh) and Jhunjhunu and
Alwar districts (Rajasthan). In addition, there are small copper ore deposits in Gujarat,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, Meghalaya, Maharashtra and West
Bengal.

4) Gold

There are three important gold fields in the country, namely, Kolar Gold Fields, Kolar
district, Hutti Gold Field in Raichur district (both in Karnataka) and Ramgiri Gold Field in
Anantpur district (Andhra Pradesh). Total in situ reserves of gold ore are estimated at 22.4
million tonnes, with 116.50 tonnes of metal.

5) Iron Ore

The total in situ reserves of iron ore in the country are about 1,23,17,275 thousand tonnes of
haematite and 53,95,214 thousand tonnes of magnetite. The resources of very high-grade ore
are limited and are restricted mainly in the Bailadila sector of Chhattisgarh and to a lesser
extent in Bellary-Hospet area of Karnataka and Barajamda sector in Jharkhand and Orissa.
Haematite resources are located in Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. Magnetite resources are located in Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.

6) Lead-Zinc

Lead-Zinc resources are located in Rajasthan, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu and Sikkim.
Total in situ reserves (all grades) of lead and zinc ores are 231 million tonnes comprising
metal content of 5.1 million tonnes of lead and 17.02 million tonnes of zinc metal.

7) Manganese

The total in situ resources of manganese ore are 406 million tonnes out of which 104 million
tonnes are proved, 135 million tonnes are in probable and 167 million tonnes are in possible
categories. Main reserves fall in Karnataka, followed by Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Goa. Minor occurrences of manganese are in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand,
Gujarat, Rajasthan and West Bengal.

8) Tungsten

The total in situ reserves of tungsten ore have been estimated at 43.15 million tonnes or 1,
32,478 tonnes of W03 content. The main reserves are at Degana, Rajasthan. It also occurs in
Maharashtra, Haryana, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

9) Diamond

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Diamond deposits occur in three types of geological settings such as kimberlite pipes,
conglomerate beds and alluvial gravels. The main diamond bearing areas in India are the
Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh, Munimadugu-Banganapalle conglomerate in Kurnool district,
Wajrakarur Kimberlite pipe in Anantapur district and the gravels of Krishna river basin in
Andhra Pradesh. Reserves have been estimated only in the Panna belt and Krishna Gravels in
Andhra Pradesh. The total in situ reserves are about 26, 43,824 carats. There are conditional
resources of 19, 36,512 carat. The new kimberlite fields are discovered recently in Raichur-
Gulbarga districts of Karnataka.

10) Dolomite

Dolomite occurrences are widespread in almost all parts of the country. The total in situ
reserves of all grades of dolomite are 7,349 million tonnes. The major share of about 90 per
cent reserves is distributed in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Gujarat,
Karnataka, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra.

11) Fluorspar

Total in situ reserves of fluorspar in India are 14.15 million tonnes. Commercial deposits of
Fluorspar are located in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

12) Gypsum

The in situ reserves of gypsum are estimated at 383 million tonnes. Out of this, two millions
are of surgical/plaster grade. 92 million tonnes of fertilizer/pottery grade, 76 million tonnes of
cement/paint grade, 13 million tonnes of soil reclamation grade and the rest is unclassified.
The production of gypsum is confined to Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Jammu and Kashmir, and
Gujarat. Rajasthan is the main producer of gypsum followed by Jammu and Kashmir.

13) Graphite

The in situ reserves of graphite are 16 million tonnes. Orissa is the major producer of
graphite. Almost the entire reserves of Tamil Nadu under the proved category are in
Ramanathapuram district. Deposits of commercial importance are located in Andhra Prade"
Jharkhand, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and
Tamil Nadu.

14) Limestone

The total in situ reserves of limestone of all categories and grades are placed at 1, 69,941
million tonnes. The total conditional reserves have been estimated at 3,713 million tonnes.
The major share of its production comes from Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra
Pradesh, and Gujarat: Rajasthan, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh,
Orissa, Bihar, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh. The remaining part comes from Assam,
Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Ker and Meghalaya.

15) Mica

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India is the world's leading producer of sheet mica and accounts for about 60 per cent of
global mica trade. Important mica-bearing pegmatite occurs in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand
Bihar and Rajasthan. The total in situ reserves of mica in the country are placed at 59, often
tonnes. The in situ reserves of mica in Andhra Pradesh are 42,626 thousand tonnes, Bihar
12,938 tonnes, Jharkhand 1,494 tonnes and in Rajasthan 2,007 tonnes.

16) Magnesite

The total in situ reserves of Magnesite are about 415 million tonnes of which 76 million
tonnes are in the proved category. Major deposits of magnesite are found in Uttaranchal,
Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan while minor deposits are in Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka,
Himachal Prade and Kerala.

17) Other Minerals

Other minerals occurring in significant quantities in India are bentonite (Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Jharkhand and Jammu and Kashmir), corundum (Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Chhattisgarh), clacite (Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Haryana,
Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat), fuller's earth (Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Karnataka), garnet (Tamil Nadu,
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Kerala), pyrites (Jharkhand; Rajasthan, Karnataka,
Himachal Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh), steatite (Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala,
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh), wollastonite (Rajasthan and Gujarat), zircon (beach sand
of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa) and quartz and silica minerals are
widespread and occur in nearly all states. Besides, the country has vast marble, slate and
sandstone. Granite is mainly mined in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
Rajasthan; marble in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh; slate in Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh. Haryana and Andhra Pradesh; and sandstone in Rajasthan

2.4.3 MINING

Mining is the process of taking mineral and other substances from the earth. These substances
include metal compounds, non-minerals such as coal, sand, oil and natural gas and many
other useful things.

Mining provides iron and copper for making aeroplanes, refrigerators. Mines also supply salt
for food, gold, silver and diamonds for jewellery; and coal for fuel. We mine uranium for
nuclear energy, stone for buildings, phosphate for fertilizers and gravel for roads.

Some minerals can be mined more cheaply than others because they are found at the earth’s
surface. Some minerals lie for beneath the surface and can be removed only by digging deep
underground. Other elements are found in oceans, lakes and rivers.

2.3.3.1 Various stages of mineral exploration

The following are the steps / stages of mineral exploration and development:

53
1. Prospecting and Exploration: Prospecting and exploration for precious metals, base
metals, minerals and diamonds begins with research to choose target areas for exploration
and taking samples from areas that look like they might have minerals. Exploration includes
prospecting, mapping and surveying, either on the ground or from a plane or helicopter,
where special equipment measures the magnetic or electrical properties of rocks on the
surface and underground.

2. Discovery and Advanced Exploration: Discovery and advanced exploration happens

when something of value is really found. At this stage, higher impact activities such as
further ground geophysics, channel sampling, trenching and diamond drilling, take place.
Very few discovered mineral deposits become producing mines. It may take between 10-15
years or more for a mine to be developed. The operational challenges such as limited
infrastructure, including roads and power, as well as associated costs such as fuel,
transportation, materials and labour make it much more difficult to move beyond this stage.
Most projects never get past this stage.

3. Development / Construction: Development / construction is based on economics (is an

area or deposit worth mining), and if shareholders approve. During this stage the landowner
raises money in order to begin construction and develop a mine.

4. Operation and Production: Operation and production is the actual mining, milling and
processing of the metal, ore or diamonds. The length of time a mine is in production (the
mine life) depends on the amount (reserve) and quality (grade) of the mineral, metal or gems
and whether the operation is still profitable.

5. Reclamation: Reclamation of a site and protection of the environment starts at the

beginning of the project. All existing and new mines must have closure and reclamation plans
and are required to set aside in a trust, the total estimated reclamation costs. The goal is to
protect the environment right from the beginning, to make sure the site is as productive as
possible and safe for people and animas when the mine closes.

2.4.3.2 Types of Mining:

There are basically two types of mining:

TYPES OF MINING

Open-cast or surface mining Underground mining

 Strip mining process  Slope mining process

 Placer mining process  Hard rock process
 Mountain top process  Drift mining process
 Hydraulic mining  Shaft process
process  Borehole process
 Dredging process
 Open pit process

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(i) Surface mining – in this type of mining the minerals or rocks that are to be mined are
exposed at the surface or very close to the surface. To extract the materials, earlier the miners
used to dig an open-pit on the surface and then dig out the materials. But nowadays, giant
earthmovers remove the top soil and the rocks and the material is extracted.

There are many types of surface mining processes. They are:

Strip mining process – as the name suggests the surface of the earth is stripped. In this
process the soil and rocks that lie above is removed generally by heavy machinery and then
the material is extracted. This type is possible only when the targeted materials are relatively
near the surface. The mineral generally extracted is coal or some kinds of sedimentary rocks.

Placer mining process – in this process alluvial deposits in sand or gravel are extracted. This
process does not involve the usage of any sort of heavy materials and can be considered
relatively easy when compared to others. Generally gold and other gemstones are mined in
this process.

Mountain top process – this process involves blasting of the top of mountains expose the
coal below it. This process is relatively new.

Hydraulic mining process – in this process high pressure water jets are used to dislodge
rocks and minerals. During earlier times gold was found in an easier way by this method.
However, this process has been discontinued due to environmental concerns.

Case Study: Uranium mining in Naldona, A.P.

The present reserves of uranium in Jaduguda mines, Jharkhand can supply yellow lake
only for a few years. There is pressing need for mining more uranium to meet the demand
of India’s nuclear programme. The Uranium Corporation of India(UCIL) proposes to
mine uranium from deposits of Lambapur and Peddagattu villages in Nalgonda district in
Andhra Pradesh and processing unit at about 18km at Mallapur. The plan is to extract
11.02 million ton ore in 20 years. The UCIL is trying its best to allure the villagers
through employement opportunities and some other means. But experts charge for
keeping the company silence on the possible contamination of the nearby water bodies.
The proposed mines are just 900 m away from human habitation and hardly 10kn away
from Nagarjun Sagar dam and barely 4km away from the akkampali reservoir which is
Hyderabad’s new source of drinking water. It is estimated that 20years of mining will
generate 7.5 million metrics ton of waste of which 99.9% will be left behind. The
villagers are likely to be affected by the radioactive waste. Though UCIL claims that
there won’t be any such accidents, but no one can deny that it is a highly hazardous
industry and safety measures cannot be neglected. The pathetic condition of Jaduguda
mine in Jharkhand where there is a black history of massive deaths and devastations have
outraged the public, who don’t want it to be repeated in Nalgonda. The proposed uranium
mines will cover about 445ha of Yellapuram reserve forest and Rajiv Gandhi tiger
sanctuary. The public hearing held in February, 2004 witnessed strong protests from
NGOS and large number of villagers. The fate of the proposed uranium mining in
55
Nalgonda district of A.P. is yet to be decided.
Dredging process – it is the process of underwater excavation by deepening a water body. In
this method sediments and other substances are removed from harbors, rivers and other water
bodies and minerals are extracted.

Open pit process – the easiest and the cheapest way to mine materials that are close to the
surface, large open holes are dug in the ground. Sometimes, explosives are used to get large
blocks of rocks out of the way.

(ii) Underground mining – Regarding underground mining there are five processes. They
are:

Slope mining process – a type of underground mining, slopes are made into the ground and
the desired material is accessed. This is done when the minerals are located far enough and
surface mining cannot be employed to reach it. Generally, coal is mined in this way.

Hard rock process – here tunnels deep in the ground are dug sometimes with dynamite or
large drills. The tunnels are supported by pillars through which miners can move about. Tin,
lead, copper, silver, gold etc are mined with this process. This is typically the mine that
comes to our minds when we think of it.

Drift mining process – this process is carried out when the material is situated sideways of a
mountain. The materials are easier to access and the mouth is made slightly lower than the
resource area so as to allow gravity to pull down the materials easily. Generally, coal or iron
ore is mined through this process.

Shaft process – the deepest form of underground mining, this is done by excavating a
vertical passageway deep down. The materials to be extracted are situated deep inside and
elevators are used to take the miners up and down. It is kept in mind that the tunnels are made
airy for miners to work without any problems. Generally, coal is mined in this process.

Borehole process – using a drill a deep hole is dug and a high pressure water-jet is used to
force the materials up the hole. Sand, galena, gold etc are mined by this process.

Case Study: Mining and quarrying in Udaipur

About 200 open cast mining and quarrying centres in Udaipur, about half of which are
illegal are involved in stone mining including soapstone, building stone, rock phosphate
and dolomite. The mines spread over 15,000 hectares in Udaipur have caused many
adverse impacts on environment. About 150 tonnes of explosives are used per month in
blasting. The overburden, washoff, discharge of mine water etc. pollute the water. The
Maton mines have badly polluted the Ahar River. The hills around the mines are devoid
of any vegetation except a few scattered patches and the hills are suffering from acute
soil erosion. The waste water flows towards a big tank of “Bag Dara”. Due to scarcity of
water people are compelled to use this effluent for irrigation purpose. The blasting
activity has adversely affected the fauna and the animals like tiger, lion, deer and even
hare, fox, wild cats and birds have disappeared from the mining area.

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2.4.3.2 Impacts of mining: Mining is done to extract minerals from deep deposits in soil.

Environmental damages caused by mining activities are as follows:

1) De-vegetation and defacing of lands: Mining requires removal of vegetation along

with underlying soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in destruction of
landscape in the area.

2) Subsidence of land: Subsidence of mining areas results in tilting of buildings, cracks

in houses, buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks and leaking of gas from cracked
pipe lines leading to serious disasters.

3) Groundwater contamination: Mining pollutes the groundwater. Sulphur, usually

present as an impurity in many ores is known to get converted into sulphuric acid
through microbial action, thereby making the water acidic.

4) Surface water pollution: The acid mine drainage often contaminates the nearby
streams and lakes. The acidic water, radioactive substances like uranium, heavy
metals also contaminate the water bodies and kill aquatic animals.

5) Air pollution: In order to separate and purify the metal from other impurities in the
ore, smelting is done which emits enormous quantities of air pollutants. Oxides of
sulphur, arsenic, cadmium and lead etc. shoot up in the atmosphere near the smelters
and the public suffers from several health problems.

6) Social effects: Potential influx of people and significant community change represent
challenges for the existing communities. The stoppage of mining activities imposed
by depletion of the available reserves often leads to migration of people from the
mining areas to other places. This may result in the formation of “ghost towns”, which
are abandoned towns and previous bubbling mining communities.

7) Occupational Health Hazards: Miners working in different type of mines suffer

from asbestosis, silicosis, black lung disease.

8) Economic effects: The mining process results in increased training and skill
development opportunities, which in turn increases buying power and creates positive
role models.

9) Radiation hazards: Exposure to natural radiation emitted by radioactive minerals is a

major source of health hazards. The radiation intensity increases when the minerals
are concentrated.

2.4.4 REMEDIAL MEASURES

Safety of mine workers is usually not a priority subject of industry. Statistical data show that,
on an average, there are 30 non-fatal but disabling accidents per ton of mineral produced and
one death per 2.5 tons of mineral produced.

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In order to minimize the adverse impacts of mining it is desirable to adopt eco-friendly
mining technology. The low grade ores can be better utilised by using microbial leaching
technique. The bacterium Thiobacillus ferroxidans has been successfully and economically
used for extracting gold embedded in iron sulphide ore. The ore are inoculated with the
desired strains of bacteria, which remove the impurities (like sulphur) and leave the pure
mineral. This biological method is helpful from economic as well as environmental point of
view.

Restoration of mined areas by re-vegetating them with appropriate plant species, stabilization
of the mined lands, gradual restoration of flora, prevention of toxic drainage discharge and
confirming to the standards of air emissions are essential for minimizing environmental
impacts of mining.

Case Study: Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan

The Forest Department has leased land for mining in the Sariska Tiger Reserve area by
denotifying the protected forest areas. The local people have fought against the mining
lobby, and have filed a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in the Supreme Court in 1991.
Rajendra Singh, secretary of TBS, points out that as many as 70 mines operate in close
proximity to the forest.

2.5 ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy Distribution –World Scenario

 U.S.A and Canada 5% of the world’s population- consume 25% of the available
world’s energy resources.

 It has been observed, that in U.S.A and Canada an average person consumes 300 GJ
(Giga Joules; equal to 60 barrels of oil) per year.

 But in poor countries like Bhutan, Nepal and Ethiopia, an average person consumes
less than 1 GJ per year.

 So a person in a developed country consumes almost as much energy in a single day

as one person consumes in a whole year in a poor country.

 From the above scenario it is clear that our life style and standard of living are closely
related to energy needs.

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 Figure 2.7: World Energy Consumption Pattern

2.5.1 GROWING ENERGY NEEDS OF INDIA

India, the second largest populated nation in the world with more than a billion people has an
economy which is growing at nearly 8% over the last decade and about 6% on the average
since her independence in 1947. It is expected that India's economy will go at more or less
the same rate even till 2050, which will naturally demand enormous amounts of energy. This
is also highlighted by the fact that globally, the nations with improved quality of life, as
reflected by the larger value of the human development index, consume more amount of
energy per capita (see Figure).

Though India is presently the fourth largest electricity producing country in the world, her per
capita energy consumption (500 kWh) is rather small, which is only about 1/2 of China , ¼ th
of World average and about 1/13th of developed nations. This is also reflected by the low life
expectancy in India and other similar nations. However, India aspires to reach at least the
global average by 2050, which would require her to produce about 1300 GW of electricity,
ten times more than the present value of about 130 GW. Of the present electricity generation,
about 80% of the resources is fossil fuels, Hydro about 15%, renewables about 2% and
nuclear about 3%.

Relying on fossil fuels alone to increase the energy production is both impractical and
impossible, first because of lack of access to required resources and second, even if resources
are available, it would produce irreparable damage to the environment through global
warming. The conventional nuclear power production based on fission reactions is slated to
grow to about 20% of the total by 2050. To meet the energy demand in coming decades, it is
essential to find alternate resources. Thus fusion, which can be viewed as an advance nuclear
technology, provides a great opportunity to countries like India and China to meet their
energy needs.

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Table 2.1: Energy consumption by fuel type (in million tones of oil equivalent) for the year 2004

2.5.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Renewable resources are those which can be generated continuously in nature and are
inexhaustible eg. wood, solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, hydropower, biomass
energy, biofuels, geothermal energy and hydrogen. They are also known as non-
conventional sources of energy and they can be used again and again in an endless manner.

1) Solar Energy: The sun offers an ideal energy source, unlimited in supply, expensive,
which does not add to the earth’s total heat burden and does not produce air and water
pollutants. It is powerful alternative to fossil and nuclear fuels. Solar energy is so abundant
but, with a collection efficiency of only 10%. The daily solar energy incidence is between 5
to 7 kWh/m2 at different parts of the country. This enormous solar energy resource may be
converted into other form of energy through thermal or photovoltaic conversion routes. The
solar thermal route uses radiation in the form of heat that in turn may be converted to
mechanical, electrical or chemical energy.

Limitations for Solar power generation:

1. Intensity of solar energy is not constant.

2. Density of solar energy is low as compared to oil, gas or coal etc.

3. There is problem of economically collecting solar energy over large area.

4. Problems of designing facilities that can utilise diffused sunlight.

Solar thermal devices like solar cookers, solar water heaters, solar dryers, photovoltaic cells,
solar power plats, solar furnace etc.

Solar Heat Collector: These can be passive or active in nature. Passive solar heat collectors
are natural materials like stones, bricks etc. or material like glass which absorb heat during
the day time and release it slowly at night. Active solar collectors pump a heat absorbing

60
medium (air or water) through a small collector which is normally placed on the top of the
building.

Figure 2.8: Solar Heat Collector

Solar Cells: They are also known as photovoltaic cells or PV cells. Solar cells are made of
thin wafers of semi conductor materials like silicon and gallium. When solar radiations fall
on them, a potential difference is produced which causes flow of electrons and produces
electricity. Silicon can be obtained from silica and sand, which is abundantly available and
inexpensive. By using gallium arsenide, cadmium sulphide or boron, efficiency of the PV cell
can be improved. The potential difference produced by a single cell of 4 cm2 size is about
0.4-0.5 V and produces a current of 60 milli amperes.

Solar Cooker: Solar coolers make use of solar heat by reflecting the solar radiations using a
mirror directly on to a glass sheet which covers the black insulated box within which the raw
food is kept.

Solar Heaters: It consists of an insulated box painted black from inside and having a glass
lid to receive and store solar heat. Inside the box it has black painted copper coil through
which cold water is made to flow in, which gets heated and flows out into a storage tank. The
hot water from the storage tank fitted on roof is then supplied through pipes into buildings
like hotels and hospitals.

Solar Furnaces: Here thousands of small planes mirrors are arranged in concave reflectors,
all of which collect the solar heat and produce as high a temperature as 3000ºC

Solar Thermal Power Plant: Solar energy is harnessed on a large scale by using concave
reflectors which cause boiling of water to produce steam. The steam turbine drives a
generator to produce electricity. A solar power plant (50 K Watt capacity) has been installed
at Gurgaon, Haryana.

2) Wind Energy: Wind power is energy from turbines which create the electricity as the
wind turns the blades of wind mills. A large number of wind mills are installed in clusters
called wind farms. The wind turbine is built to a certain specification in order to maximise
the efficiency of the power generation. The typical turbine revolves at about 10 to 25

61
revolutions per minute and the type of wind to yield this rotation is about eight to 10 knots or
10 miles per hour (16 km/h). From a meteorological perspective, wind is described as moving
air and is essentially a movement from an area of high pressure to one of low pressure. This
motion is enhanced when there is little to disrupt the overall flow. Thus, the most effective
wind turbine energy generation should be done in areas of high elevation or over open water.

The wind power potential of our country is estimated to be about 20,000 MW, while at
present we are generating about 1020 MW. The largest wind farm of our country is near
Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu generating 380 MW electricity.

Figure 2.9: Wind Mill

3) Hydropower: The first hydropower station in India was a small hydropower station of 130
KW commissioned in 1897 at Sidrapong near Darjeeling in West Bengal. With the
advancement in technologies and increasing requirement of electricity, emphasis was shifted
to large sized hydropower stations.

The water flowing in a river is collected by constructing a big dam where the water is stored
and allowed to fall from height. The blade of the turbine located at the bottom of the dam
move with the fast moving water which in turn rotates the generator and produces electricity.
We can also construct mini or micro hydel power plant on the river in hilly regions for
harnessing the hydro energy on a small scale, but the minimum height of the waterfalls
should be 10 metres.

Advantages

Hydel power has several advantages such as:

 It is a clean source of energy.

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  It provides irrigation facilities.

 It provides drinking water to people living, particularly in desert of Rajasthan and

Gujarat.

 It is absolutely non-polluting, has a long life, and has a very low operating and
maintenance costs.

 Help in controlling floods and making water available during non-rainy seasons for
irrigation and other uses.

Problems

Hydro power site (dam) has major environmental problems:

 The dam sites are specially the forest and agricultural areas and get submerged during
construction.

 It causes water logging and siltation.

 It cause loss of biodiversity and fish population and other aquatic organisms are
adversely affected.

 Displaced local people and create problems of rehabilitation and related socio-
economic problems.

 Increase seismicity due to large volume of water impounded.

4) Tidal Energy: Ocean tides produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon contain
enormous amount of energy. The ‘high tide’ and ‘low tide’ refer to rise and fall of water in
the ocean. A difference of several meters is required between the height of high tide and low
tide to spin the turbines. The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.
During high tide, the sea-water flows into the reservoir of the barrage and turns the turbine,
which in turn produces electricity by rotating the generators. During low tide, when the sea
level is low, the sea water stored in the barrage reservoir flows out into the sea and again
turns the turbine.

5) Ocean Thermal Energy: The energy available due to difference in temperature of water
at the surface of the tropical ocean and at deeper levels is called Ocean Thermal Energy
(OTE). A difference of 20ºC or more is required for operating OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion) power plants. The warm surface water of ocean is used to boil a liquid like
ammonia. High pressure vapours of the liquid formed by boiling are then used to turn the
turbine of a generator and produce electricity. The colder water from the deeper oceans is
pumped to cool and condense the vapours into liquid.

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 Figure 2.10: OTEC Plant

6) Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It's clean and
sustainable. Resources of geothermal energy range from the shallow ground to hot water and
hot rock found a few miles beneath the Earth's surface, and down even deeper to the
extremely high temperatures of molten rock called magma. The steam or the hot water comes
out of the ground naturally through cracks in the form of natural geysers. Sometimes the
steam or boiling water underneath the earth does not find any place to come out. We can
artificially drill a hole up to the hot rocks and by putting a pipe in it make the steam or hot
water gush out through the pipe at high pressure which turns the turbines of a generator to
produce electricity.

7) Biomass Energy: We have used biomass energy or bio-energy, the energy from organic
matter for thousands of years, ever since people started burning wood to cook food or to keep
warm. And today, wood is still our largest biomass energy resource. But many other sources
of biomass can now be used, including plants, residues from agriculture or forestry, and the
organic component of municipal and industrial wastes. Even the fumes from landfills can be
used as a biomass energy source. The use of biomass energy has the potential to greatly
reduce our greenhouse gas emissions. Biomass generates about the same amount of carbon
dioxide as fossil fuels, but every time a new plant grows, carbon dioxide is actually removed
from the atmosphere. The net emission of carbon dioxide will be zero as long as plants
continue to be replenished for biomass energy purposes. These energy crops, such as fast-
growing trees and grasses, are called biomass feedstocks. The use of biomass feedstocks can
also help increase profits for the agricultural industry.

The burning of plant residues or animal wastes cause air pollution and produce a lot of ash as
waste residue. The burning of dung destroys essential nutrients like Nitrogen and Phosphorus.
It is therefore, more useful to convert the biomass into biogas or bio fuels.

8) Biogas: Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphite,
the major constituents being methane. Biogas is produced by anaerobic degradation of animal
wastes (sometimes plant wastes) in the presence of water. Anaerobic degradation means
breakdown of organic matter by bacteria in the absence of oxygen.

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Biogas is a non-polluting, clean and low cost fuel which is very useful for rural areas where a
lot of animal waste and agricultural waste are available. There is a direct supply of gas from
the plant and there is no storage problem. The sludge left over is a rich fertilizer containing
bacterial biomass with most of the nutrients preserved as such. Biogas plants used in our
country are basically of two types:

1. Fixed dome type biogas plant:

A fixed-dome plant consists of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gas holder, which sits on
top of the digester. When gas production starts, the slurry is displaced into the compensation
tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored and the height difference between
the slurry level in the digester and the slurry level in the compensation tank.

Figure 2.11: Fixed dome type biogas plant

The costs of a fixed-dome biogas plant are relatively low. It is simple as no moving parts
exist. There are also no rusting steel parts and hence a long life of the plant (20 years or
more) can be expected. The plant is constructed underground, protecting it from physical
damage and saving space. While the underground digester is protected from low temperatures
at night and during cold seasons, sunshine and warm seasons take longer to heat up the
digester. No day/night fluctuations of temperature in the digester positively influence the
bacteriological processes.

The construction of fixed dome plants is labor-intensive, thus creating local employment.
Fixed-dome plants are not easy to build. They should only be built where construction can be
supervised by experienced biogas technicians. Otherwise plants may not be gas-tight
(porosity and cracks).

2. Floating-drum type biogas plant:

Floating-drum plants consist of an underground digester and a moving gas-holder. The gas-
holder floats either directly on the fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its own. The gas
is collected in the gas drum, which rises or moves down, according to the amount of gas

65
stored. The gas drum is prevented from tilting by a guiding frame. If the drum floats in a
water jacket, it cannot get stuck, even in substrate with high solid content.

In the past, floating-drum plants were mainly built in India. A floating-drum plant consists of
a cylindrical or dome-shaped digester and a moving, floating gas-holder, or drum. The gas-
holder floats either directly in the fermenting slurry or in a separate water jacket. The drum in
which the biogas collects has an internal and/or external guide frame that provides stability
and keeps the drum upright. If biogas is produced, the drum moves up, if gas is consumed,
the gas-holder sinks back.

The steel drum is relatively expensive and maintenance-intensive. Removing rust and
painting has to be carried out regularly. The life-time of the drum is short (up to 15 years; in
tropical coastal regions about five years). If fibrous substrates are used, the gas-holder shows
a tendency to get "stuck" in the resultant floating scum.

Figure 2.12: Floating - drum type biogas plant

9) Biofuels: Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass can be converted directly into
liquid fuels, called "biofuels," to help meet transportation fuel needs. The two most common
types of biofuels in use today are ethanol and biodiesel.

Ethanol is an alcohol, the same as in beer and wine (although ethanol used as a fuel is
modified to make it undrinkable). It is most commonly made by fermenting any biomass high
in carbohydrates through a process similar to beer brewing. Today, ethanol is made from
starches and sugars, but NREL scientists are developing technology to allow it to be made
from cellulose and hemicellulose, the fibrous material that makes up the bulk of most plant
matter.

Ethanol can also be produced by a process called gasification. Gasification systems use high
temperatures and a low-oxygen environment to convert biomass into synthesis gas, a mixture
of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The synthesis gas, or "syngas," can then be chemically
converted into ethanol and other fuels.

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Ethanol is mostly used as blending agent with gasoline to increase octane and cut down
carbon monoxide and other smog-causing emissions. Some vehicles, called Flexible Fuel
Vehicles, are designed to run on E85, an alternative fuel with much higher ethanol content
than regular gasoline.

Biodiesel is made by combining alcohol (usually methanol) with vegetable oil, animal fat, or
recycled cooking grease. It can be used as an additive (typically 20%) to reduce vehicle
emissions or in its pure form as a renewable alternative fuel for diesel engines.

Research into the production of liquid transportation fuels from microscopic algae, or
microalgae, is re-emerging at NREL. These microorganisms use the sun's energy to combine
carbon dioxide with water to create biomass more efficiently and rapidly than terrestrial
plants. Oil-rich microalgae strains are capable of producing the feedstock for a number of
transportation fuels—biodiesel, "green" diesel and gasoline, and jet fuel—while mitigating
the effects of carbon dioxide released from sources such as power plants.

10) Hydrogen: Hydrogen (H2) is being aggressively explored as a fuel for passenger
vehicles. It can be used in fuel cells to power electric motors or burned in internal combustion
engines (ICEs).

It is an environmentally friendly fuel that has the potential to dramatically reduce our
dependence on imported oil, but several significant challenges must be overcome before it
can be widely used.

Benefits of hydrogen fuel-

1. Produced Domestically: Hydrogen can be produced domestically from several

sources, reducing our dependence on petroleum imports.

2. Environmentally Friendly: Hydrogen produces no air pollutants or greenhouse

gases when used in fuel cells; it produces only nitrogen oxides (NOx) when burned in
ICEs.

Challenges of hydrogen fuel-

1. Fuel Cost & Availability: Hydrogen is currently expensive to produce and is only
available at a handful of locations, mostly in California.

2. Vehicle Cost & Availability: Fuel cell vehicles are currently far too expensive for
most consumers to afford, and they are only available to a few demonstration fleets.

3. Onboard Fuel Storage: Hydrogen contains much less energy than gasoline or diesel
on a per-volume basis, making it difficult for hydrogen vehicles to go as far as
gasoline vehicles between fillups—about 300 miles. Technology is improving, but the
onboard hydrogen storage systems do not yet meet size, weight, and cost goals for
commercialization.

2.5.3 NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

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Non – renewable resources which have accumulated in nature over a long span of time and
cannot be quickly replenished when exhausted eg. coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear
fuel like uranium and thorium.

1) Coal: Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed in several stages as buried remains of land plants
that lived 300-400 million years ago were subjected to intense heat and pressure over millions
of years. The ancient plants along the bank of rivers and swamps were buried after death into
the soil and due to the heat and pressure gradually got converted into peat and coal over
millions of years of time. There are mainly three types of coal namely anthracite (hard coal),
bituminous (soft coal) and lignite (brown coal). Anthracite coal has maximum carbon (90%)
and calorific value (8700 kcal/kg). Bituminous, lignite and peat contain 80, 70 and 60%
carbon, respectively. Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in the world.

When coal is burnt it produces carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas responsible for
causing enhanced global warming.

TYPES OF COAL

ANTHRACITE BITUMINOUS LIGNITE

(Hard coal) (Soft Coal) (Brown Coal)

Figure 2.13: Various stages of coal

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Figure 2.14. Schematic diagram of coal genesis (source: J. C. Macrae, An Introduction to
the study of fuel, Elsevier Publishing Company, 1966)

69
 Figure 2.15: Schematic representation of the processes taking place in a power plant

2) Petroleum

Petroleum is oily, flammable, thick dark brown or greenish liquid that occurs naturally in
deposits, usually beneath the surface of the earth; it is also called as crude oil. Petroleum
means rock oil, (Petra – rock, elaion – oil, Greek and oleum – oil, Latin), the name inherited
for its discovery from the sedimentary rocks. It is used mostly for producing fuel oil, which is
the primary energy source today. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical
products, including solvents, fertilizers, pesticides and plastics. For its high demand in our
day-to-day life, it is also called as ‘black gold’.

Oil in general has been used since early human history to keep fires ablaze, and also for
warfare. Its importance in the world economy evolved slowly. Wood and coal were used to
heat and cook, while whale oil was used for lighting. Whale oil however, produced a black,
smelly, thick liquid known as tar or rock oil and was seen as a substance to avoid.

When the whaling industry hunted the sperm whale almost to extinction and the industrial
revolution needed a fuel to run generators and engines, a new source of energy was needed.
In the search for new products, it was discovered that, from crude oil or petroleum, kerosene
could be extracted and used as a light and heating fuel. Petroleum was in great demand by the
end of the 1800’s, forcing the creation of the petroleum industry.

Petroleum is often considered the lifeblood of nearly all other industry. For its high energy
content and ease of use, petroleum remains as the primary energy source.

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 Table 2.2: Energy density of different fossil fuels
Fuel Energy Density
Petroleum or Crude oil 45 MJ/Kg
Coal 24 MJ/Kg
3
Natural Gas 34 – 38 MJ/m

Large deposits of petroleum have been found in widely different parts of the world and their
chemical composition varies greatly. Consequently the elemental compositions of petroleum
vary greatly from crude oil to crude oil. It is not surprising that the composition varies, since
the local distribution of plant, animal and marine life is quite varied and presumably was
similarly varied when the petroleum precursors formed. Furthermore, the geological history
of each deposit is different and allows for varying chemistry to have occurred as the organic
matter originally deposited matured into petroleum.

Table 2.3: Overall tank Composition of Petroleum

Element Percentage composition
Carbon 83.0-87.0
Hydrogen 10.0-14.0
Nitrogen 0.1-2.0
Sulphur 0.05-6.0
Oxygen 0.05-1.5

Figure 2.16: Schematic diagram of the distillation of crude oil

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG): LPG is manufactured during the refining of crude oil, or
extracted from oil or gas streams as they emerge from the ground. Liquefied petroleum gas
(also called liquefied petroleum gas, liquid petroleum gas, LPG, LP Gas, or auto gas) is a
mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in cooking, heating appliances, vehicles, and

71
increasingly replacing fluorocarbons as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant to reduce
damage to the ozone layer. Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are
primarily propane, mixes that are primarily butane, and mixes including both propane and
butane, depending on the season. Propylene and butylenes are usually also present in small
concentrations. A powerful odorant, ethane thiol, is added so that leaks can be detected
easily.

At normal temperatures and pressures, LPG will evaporate. Because of this, LPG is supplied
in pressurized steel bottles. In order to allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid,
these bottles should not be filled completely; typically, they are filled to between 80% and
85% of their capacity.

3) Natural Gas:

Natural gas has emerged as promising fuel due to its environment friendly nature, efficiency,
and cost effectiveness. Natural gas is considered to be most eco-friendly fuel based on
available information. Economically natural gas is more efficient since only 10 % of the
produced gas wasted before consumption and it does not need to be generated from other
fuels. Moreover natural gas is used in its normal state. Natural gas has high heat content of
about 1000 to 11000 Btu per Scf for pipeline quality gas and it has high flame temperature.
Natural gas is easy to handle and convenient to use and energy equivalent basis, it has been
price controlled below its competitor oil. It is also suitable chemical feedstock for
petrochemical industry. Hence natural gas can substitute oil in both sectors namely fuels
(industry and domestic) and chemicals (fertilizer petrochemicals and organic chemicals).

Table 2.4: All India Region-wise & Sector-wise Gas Supply by GAIL - (2003-04) in
(MMSCMD)

Natural gas was formed from the remains of tiny sea animals and plants that died 200-400
million years ago. Natural gas is a mixture of light hydrocarbons including methane, ethane,
propane, butanes and pentanes. Other compounds found in natural gas include CO 2, helium,
hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen. The composition of natural gas is never constant, however,
the primary component of natural gas is methane (typically, at least 90%). Methane is highly
flammable, burns easily and almost completely. It emits very little air pollution. Natural gas

72
is neither corrosive nor toxic, its ignition temperature is high, and it has a narrow
flammability range, making it an inherently safe fossil fuel compared to other fuel sources. In
addition, because of its specific gravity (0.60), lower than that of air (1.00), natural gas rises
if escaping, thus dissipating from the site of any leak.

Natural gas can be used as a fuel in two ways:

1) Compressed natural gas (CNG), which is the most common form, and as liquefied
natural gas. Cars using natural gas are estimated to emit 20% less greenhouse gases
than gasoline or diesel cars. In many countries NGVs are introduced to replace buses,
taxis and other public vehicle fleets. Natural gas in vehicles is inexpensive and
convenient.

2) Fuel cells: Natural gas is one of the multiple fuels on which fuel cells can operate.
Fuel cells are becoming an increasingly important technology for the generation of
electricity. They are like rechargeable batteries, except instead of using an electric
recharger; they use a fuel, such as natural gas, to generate electric power even when
they are in use. Fuel cells for distributed generation systems offer a multitude of
benefits, and are an exciting area of innovation and research for distributed generation
applications.

Figure 2.17: The flow diagram for commercial use of natural gas

4) Nuclear Energy:

Nuclear energy is known for its high destructive power as evidenced from nuclear weapons.
The nuclear energy can also be harnessed for providing commercial energy. The nuclear
energy can also be harnessed for proving commercial energy. Nuclear energy can be
generated by two types of reaction.

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(i) Nuclear Fission: it is the nuclear change in which nucleus of certain isotopes with
large mass number are split into lighter nuclei on bombardment by neutrons and a
large amount of energy is released through a chain reaction. Nuclear reactors make
use of nuclear chain reaction. In order to control the rate of fission, only 1 neutron
released is allowed to strike for splitting another nucleus. Uranium – 235 nuclei are
most commonly used in nuclear reactors.

92U
235
+ 0n1  36Kr92 +56Ba141 +3 0n1 +Energy

Figure 2.18: Nuclear Fission

(ii) Nuclear Fusion: If light nuclei are forced together, they will fuse with a yield of
energy because the mass of the combination will be less than the sum of the masses of
the individual nuclei. If the combined nuclear mass is less than that of iron at the peak
of the binding energy curve, then the nuclear particles will be more tightly bound than
they were in the lighter nuclei, and that decrease in mass comes off in the form of
energy according to the Einstein relationship. For elements heavier than
iron, fission will yield energy. For potential nuclear energy sources for the Earth,
the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction contained by some kind of magnetic
confinement seems the most likely path. However, for the fueling of the stars, other
fusion reactions will dominate.

1H
2
+ 1H2  3He2 +0n1 + Energy

Figure 2.19: Nuclear Fusion

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Nuclear energy has tremendous potential but any leakage from the reactor may cause
devastating nuclear pollution. Disposal of the nuclear waste is also a big problem. Nuclear
power in India is still not very well developed. There are four nuclear power stations with an
installed capacity of 2005 MW.

The advantages and disadvantages of using nuclear power are given in Table 2.3.

Table 2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of nuclear energy

Advantages Disadvantages

Nuclear power costs about the same as Although not much waste is produced, it is
coal, so it’s not expensive to make. dangerous. It must be sealed up and buried for
many years to allow the radioactivity to die
away

Does not produce smoke or carbon Nuclear power is reliable, but a lot of money
dioxide, so it does not contribute to has to be spent on safety – if it does go wrong, a
greenhouse effect. nuclear accident can be a major disaster

Produces huge amounts of energy from

small amounts of fuel.

Produces small amounts of waste

Nuclear power is reliable

2.6 FOOD RESOURCES

We have thousands of edible plants and animals over the world out of which only about three
dozen types constitute the major food of humans.

2.6.1 TYPES OF FOOD RESOURCES

There are three major resources of human food supply: agricultural crops, livestock and fish.

1) Agricultural Crops: All cereals, wheat, maize, rice, barley, pulses, etc. fruits and
vegetables are important sources of food. Rice, wheat and maize are the major grains,
about 1500 million metric tons of which are grown each year, which is about half of
all the agricultural crops. Most of the world’s food is provided by 20 crop species
including wheat, rice, corn, potato, bananas, coconuts etc.

2) Livestock: Livestock are the by-products of animal’s metabolic activities. Milk is

obtained from cattle. Similarly food items such as meat, eggs, honey, etc are obtained
from animals. In addition, a number of bird species such as chicken are also used as
food material globally.

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 3) Fish: A major part of the world’s populations depends on fish as food source other
aquatic organisms such as crabs, prawns, shrimps etc. are also eaten. Artificial
production of these may be done in aquaculture and marine culture.

2.6.2 WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS

There is a wide gap between developing and developed countries with regards to the
production of food. In spite of several efforts many countries of the world are still facing
acute problems of food shortage and starvation. Some of the important problems related to
the food resources are:

1. Natural catastrophes (droughts, heavy rain and flooding, crop failures): Hurricanes,
floods, land or mudslides, volcanic eruptions, and sea surges directly influence food
availability as well as in the survival of livestock. Standing crops may be completely
destroyed, and seed stores and family food supply may be lost, especially if there is o
warning period. Volcanic eruptions can cause widespread crop destruction: food crops may
be burned, defoliated, and buried under ash-fall; reduced photosynthesis resulting from ash
clouds limits subsequent production.

2. Environmental degradation (soil erosion and inadequate water resources):

Environmental degradation due to unsustainable human practices and activities endangers the
entire production platform of the planet. Land degradation and conversion of cropland for
non-food production including bio-fuels, cotton and others are major threats that could shrink
the available cropland. Species infestation of pathogens, weeds and insects, combined with
water scarcity from overuse and the melting of Himalayan glaciers, soil erosion and depletion
as well as climate change may reduce current yields.

3. Food supply and demand imbalances: The basic cause of food crisis can be attributed to
supply and demand imbalance. It is in turn due to a “production crisis” coupled with
increasing material demand and purchasing power in recent years. Specifically, these include
the strong combination of effects arising from low food stocks and climate change and
growing demand for some food products, linked with population and income growth,
urbanization, and changing diets in urban centres. Demographic pressures have indeed been
increasing while harvests have been declining. In the case of India for instance, it is estimated
that per capita production of cereals and pulses has declined considerably.

4. Inadequate food reserves: Food inadequacy exists when people are undernourished as a
result of the physical unavailability of food, their lack of social or economic access to
adequate food, and / or inadequate food use.

5. Warfare and civil disturbances: The agriculture requires numerous things in order to
thrive. Farmland must be productive and relatively undisturbed by human activities. A local
workforce must be available for either traditional manual sowing and harvesting, or to
operate modern equipment that accomplishes those tasks. There must be a market for the
goods produced, whether it is a local farmer’s market or the international commodities
market. Warfare can have a shocking impact on these aspects. It can have direct impacts as

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farmers are driven off the land, or recruited into the conflict as soldiers. In other areas, farm
fields may be laden with land mines, which can make fields unstable even years after
conflicts end. Conflict can also have indirect effects as international cooperation breaks down
to prevent epidemic or conflict prevents the transportation of foodstuffs. Sometimes famine
becomes a weapon of war to punish an enemy population.

6. Migration refugees: Population migration affects food production and the nutritional well
being of citizens. Migration may be seasonal or permanent, but either way it often causes the
major burden on farming, while the demand for additional food to provide for the city
dwellers continually increases.

7. Declining ecological conditions in agricultural regions: Demographic and

environmental pressures such as population growth, deforestation, and soil erosion, reduce
the agricultural productivity of the land. As rural incomes are closely related to the
productivity of the land, decreasing productivity increases poverty Land scarcity and
degradation threatens the ability of food production to keep pace with population growth.

8. Excessive population growth: Population growth directly affects needs and forces many
farm families into marginal areas where conservation practices are essential. Such area
includes cleared forest soils of fragile structure, steeply sloping lands and dry land areas with
limited rainfall. In addition, the increased demand for fuel wood for cooking may leave
marginal lands permanently denuded of soil cover and subject to erosion. Such loss of
productivity in the resource base inevitably reduces food supplies and increases food
insecurity and nutritional stress. Reduction in the availability of fuel or time for cooking (as
women have to walk further to gather wood) could also result in preparation of fewer cooked
meals or inadequate reheating of foods, thus decreasing food consumption by children and
increasing the risk of microbial contamination of food.

9. Pollution: To survive humans need food. Healthy food needs a healthy ecosystem balance
within an unpolluted air, water and soil system. Soil and water pollutants that adversely affect
agriculture include sediment, out of place plant nutrients, inorganic salts and minerals,
organic waste, infectious agents, industrial and agricultural chemicals and heat. Air pollutants
cause injury to agricultural crops when present in high concentrations. Injury ranges from
visible marking on the foliage, to reduce growth and yield, to premature death of the plant.

10. Economic causes: When global community as a whole faces financial crisis. Countries
exporting agricultural commodities are affected by the global recession. The impact of global
financial crisis creates fall in agricultural commodity prices. The financial crisis also causes
less export demand which in turn, creates unfavourable environment for procedures. Under
such circumstances, farmer reduce the area under cultivation, use lesser amount of farm
inputs especially chemicals which generally are not affordable by resource – poor farmers
and thus eventually cause negative effect on overall food production and national food
security.

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2.6.3 IMPACTS OF OVERGRAZING AND AGRICULTURE

Efforts to increase food production have several side effects.

(A) OVERGRAZING: Livestock wealth plays a crucial role in the rural life of our
country. India leads in livestock population in the world. The huge population of
livestock needs to be fed and the grazing lands or pasture areas are not adequate. Very
often we find that the livestock grazing on a particular piece of grassland or pasture
surpass the carrying capacity. Following are the impacts of overgrazing.

IMPACTS OF OVERGRAZING

Land Degradation Soil Erosion Loss of Useful Species

(i) Land Degradation: Overgrazing removes the vegetal cover over the soil and the
exposed soil gets compacted due to which the operative soil depth declines. So the roots
cannot go much deep into the soil and adequate soil moisture is not available. Organic
recycling also declines in the ecosystem because not enough detritus or litter remains
on the soil to be decomposed. The humus content of the soil decreases and overgrazing
leads to organically poor, dry, compacted soil. Due to trampling by cattle the soil loses
infiltration capacity, which reduces percolation of water into the soil and as a result of
this more water gets lost from the ecosystem along with surface run off. Thus
overgrazing leads to multiple actions resulting in loss of soil structure, hydraulic
conductivity and soil fertility.

(ii) Soil Erosion: Due to overgrazing by cattle, the cover of vegetation almost gets
removed from the land. The soil becomes exposed and gets eroded by the action of
strong wind, rainfall etc. the grass roots are very good binders of soil. When the grasses
are removed, the soil becomes loose and susceptible to the action of wind and water.

(iii) Loss of useful species: Overgrazing adversely affects the composition of plant
population and their regeneration capacity. The original grassland consists of good
quality grasses and herbs with high nutritive value. When the livestock graze upon
them heavily, even the root stocks which carry the reserve food or regeneration get
destroyed. Now some other species appear in their place. These secondary species are
hardier and are less nutritive in nature. Some livestock keep on overgrazing these
species also.

(B) AGRICULTURE: The type of agriculture practiced these days is very different from
the traditional ones and their outputs in the terms of yield as well as their impacts on the
environment show lots of differences.

IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURE

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 Traditional Agriculture Modern Agriculture

 Deforestation  High yielding varieties

 Soil erosion  Fertilizers
 Depletion of nutrients  Pesticides
 Improper Irrigation
Practices

(i) Traditional Agriculture and its Impacts: the main impacts of this type of agriculture are
as follows:

Deforestation – The slash and burn of trees in forests to clear the land for cultivation and
frequent shifting result in loss of forest cover.

Soil erosion – Clearing of forest cover exposes the soil to wind, rain and storms, thereby
resulting in loss of top fertile layer of soil.

Depletion of nutrients – During slash and burn the organic matter in the soil get
destroyed and most of the nutrients are taken up by the crops within a short period, thus
making the soil nutrient poor which makes the cultivators shift to another area.

(ii) Modern Agriculture and its impacts: Modern agriculture gave rise to several
problematic off-shoots as discussed:

- Impacts related to high yielding varieties (HYV)

The uses of HYVs encourage monoculture i.e. the same genotype is grown over vast areas.
In case of an attack by some pathogen, there is total devastation of the crop by the disease
due to exactly uniform conditions, which help in rapid spread of the disease.

 Monoculture wipes out natural variability, destroys the diversity and replaces it with a
single cultivar or genetically similar crop.

 In monoculture there is a massive range of genetically identical plants, against wild

pests, which include fungi, bacteria, insects and numerous other organisms.
Monocultures are particularly susceptible to disease because a pathogen that can
infect one plant will be able to infect the whole field, leading to an epidemic. For
instance, the Irish potato famine of the 1840s was due mainly to the crop’s
susceptibility to a particular mould.

 Because monoculture farming requires ever increasing levels of chemical inputs, the
negative impacts on the environment also increase continuously.

 Uniform cultivars are able to better use available light and space, but also drain soil
nutrients more.

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  Continuously growing the same crop tends to exploit the same soil root zone which
can lead to a decrease in available nutrient for plant growth and to a decrease in root
development.

- Fertilizer related problems

1) Micronutrient imbalance: Chemical fertilizers have nitrogen, phosphorus and

potassium (N, P and K) which are essential macronutrients. Excessive use of
fertilizers cause micronutrient imbalance. For example, excessive fertilizer use in
Punjab and Haryana has caused deficiency of the micronutrient Zinc in the soils,
which is affecting productivity of the soil.

2) Nitrate Pollution: Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the fields often leach deep into
the soil and ultimately contaminate the ground water. The nitrates get concentrated in
the water and when their concentration exceeds 25 mg/L, they become the cause of a
serious health hazard called "Blue Baby Syndrome" or methaenoglobinemia. This
disease affects the infants to the maximum extent causing even death.

3) Eutrophication: A large proportion of nitrogen and phosphorus used in crop fields is

washed off along with runoff water and reach the water bodies causing over
nourishment of the lakes, a process known as Eutrophication. (Eu=more,
tropic=nutrition). Due to Eutrophication the lakes get invaded by algal blooms. These
algal species grow very fast by rapidly using up the nutrients. The algal species
quickly complete their life cycle and die thereby adding a lot of dead matter. The
fishes are also killed and there is lot of dead matter that starts getting decomposed.
Oxygen is consumed in the process of decomposition and very soon the water gets
depleted of dissolved oxygen. This further affects aquatic fauna and ultimately
anaerobic conditions are created where only pathogenic anaerobic bacteria can
survive. Thus, due to excessive use of fertilizers in the agricultural fields the lake
ecosystem gets degraded.

- Pesticide related problems

Thousands of types of pesticides are used in agriculture. The first generation pesticides
include chemicals like sulphur, arsenic, lead or mercury to kill the pests. They have number
of side effects as discussed below:

1) Creating resistance in pests and producing new pests: About 20 species of pests
are now known which have become immune to all types of pesticides and are known
as "Super pests".

2) Death of non-target organisms: Many insecticides not only kill the target species but
also several non-target species that are useful to us.

3) Biological magnification: Many of the pesticides are non-biodegradable and keep on

accumulating in the food chain, a process called biological magnification. This is very
harmful.

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- Improper Irrigation Practices

Salinity from irrigation can occur over time wherever irrigation occurs; since almost all water
(even natural rainfall) contains some dissolved salts. When the plants use the water, the salts
are eft behind in the soil and eventually begin to accumulate. Excess of irrigation, in the
absence of leaching, can bring salts to the surface. The salts from the groundwater are raised
by capillary action to the surface of the soil.

Irrigation salinity occurs due to increased rates of seepage and groundwater recharge causing
the water table to rise. Growing water tables can transport salts into the plant root zone which
affects both plant development and soil structure. The salt remains behind in the soil when
water is taken up by plants or lost to evaporation. In efficient irrigation and drainage systems
are a major cause of excess leakage and increase the risk of salinity and water logging in
irrigation areas.

As salts build up in saline release areas they can reach levels that affect plants in a following
ways:

 Under normal conditions, plants readily obtain water from the soil by osmosis
(movement of water from a lower salt concentration outside the plant to a higher salt
concentration in the plant). As soil salinity increases this balance shifts making it
more difficult for plants to extract water.

 Plant growth can be directly affected by high levels of toxic ions such as sodium and
chloride. Excess sodium accumulation in leaves can cause leaf burn, necrotic (dead)
patches and even defoliation.

 An excess of some salts can cause an imbalance in the ideal ratio of salts in solution
and reduce the ability of plants to take up nutrients.

 Waterlogging aggravates the effect of salinity. Waterlogged plant roots are unable to
exclude sodium and chloride due to the increased rates of transport of these ions, and
concentrations in the plant shoot increase. Poor aeration also affects soil biology
responsible for responsible for converting nutrients to their plant available form,
causing nutrient deficiencies.

2.7 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Already we know that natural resources are exhausting rapidly, we must

conserve for future generation. So it’s a duty of individual to conserve natural resources.

2.7.1 MEASURES OF CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES:

1. Conservation of energy:

 Switch off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use.

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  Use solar heater for cooking your food on sunny days, which will cut down your LPG
expenses.

 Grow trees near the houses and get a cool breeze and shade .this will cut off your
electricity charges on air conditioners and coolers.

 Use always pressure cooker.

2. Conservation of water:

 Use minimum amount of water for all domestic purposes.

 Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.

 Reuse the soapy water, after washing clothes, for washing off the courtyards, drive
ways, etc..,

 Built rainwater harvesting system in your house.

3. Conservation of soil:

 Grow different types of plants, herbs, trees and grass in your garden and open areas,
which bind the soil and prevent erosion.

 Don't use more fertilizer and pesticides.

 Use nature manure to the crops.

 While constructing the house don't uproot the trees as far as possible.

 Use mixed cropping, so that some specific soil nutrients will not get depleted.

4. Conservation of food resources:

 Don’t wastes the food instead gives it to someone before getting spoiled.

 Cook only required amount of the food.

 Store the food resources for the future use.

5. Conservation of forest:

 Use non-timber products.

 Plant more trees and protect them.

 Over grassing must be controlled.

 Minimise the use of papers and fuel wood.

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 Avoid of executing developmental works like dam, road and industrial constructions
in forest areas.

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 UNIT – III
ECOSYSTEM

3.1 CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM

The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by the Oxford ecologist Arthur Tansley to
encompass the interactions among biotic and abiotic components of the environment at a
given site. The living and non-living components of an ecosystem are known as biotic and
abiotic components, respectively. Ecosystem was defined in its presently accepted form by
Eugene Odum as, “an unit that includes all the organisms, i.e., the community in a given area
interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined
trophic structure, biotic diversity and material cycles, i.e. exchange of materials between
living and non-living, within the system”.

Smith (1966) has summarized common characteristics of most of the ecosystems as follows:

1. The ecosystem is a major structural and functional unit of ecology.

2. The structure of an ecosystem is related to its species diversity in the sense that
complex ecosystem have high species diversity.

3. The function of ecosystem is related to energy flow and material cycles within and
outside the system.

4. The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its

structure. Complex ecosystems needed less energy to maintain themselves.

5. Young ecosystems develop and change from less complex to more complex
ecosystems, through the process called succession.

6. Each ecosystem has its own energy budget, which cannot be exceeded.

7. Adaptation to local environmental conditions is the important feature of the biotic

components of an ecosystem, failing which they might perish.

8. The function of every ecosystem involves a series of cycles, e.g. water cycle, nitrogen
cycle, oxygen cycle, etc. these cycles are driven by energy. A continuation or
existence of ecosystem demands exchange of materials/nutrients to and from the
different components.

3.2 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

We can classify ecosystems as follows:
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(a) Natural Ecosystems: These ecosystems are capable of operating and maintaining
themselves without any major interference by man. A classification based on their
habitat can further be made.

1. Terrestrial ecosystems – forest, grassland and desert.

2. Aquatic ecosystems – fresh water ecosystem, viz. pond, lake, river and marine
ecosystems, viz. Ocean, sea or estuary.

(b) Artificial Ecosystem: These are maintained by man. These are manipulated by man for
different purposes, eg. croplands, artificial lakes and reservoirs, townships and cities.

3.3 BASIC STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Every ecosystem has a non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic) components.

3.3.1 ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

Basic inorganic compounds of an organism, habitat or an area like carbon dioxide, water,
nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, etc. that are involved in the material cycles are collectively
called as abiotic component. The amount of these inorganic substances present at any given
time, in an ecosystem is called as the standing state or standing quality of an ecosystem.
Whereas, organic components, e.g. proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids that are
synthesized by the biotic counterpart of an ecosystem make the biochemical structure of the
ecosystem. The physical environment, viz. climatic and weather conditions are also included
in the abiotic structure of the ecosystem.

3.3.2 BIOTIC COMPONENTS

From the trophic (nutritional) point of view, an ecosystem has autotrophic (self nourishing)
and a heterotrophic (other nourishing) components.

(a) Autotrophic component (Producers): this component is mainly constituted by

the green plants, algae and all photosynthetic organisms. Chemosynthetic bacteria,
photosynthetic bacteria, algae, grasses, mosses, shrubs, herbs and trees
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 manufacture food from simple inorganic substances by fixing energy and are
therefore called as producers.

(b) Heterotrophic component (Consumers): the members of this component cannot

make their own food. They consume the matter built by the producers and are
therefore called as consumers. They may be herbivores, carnivores or omnivores.
Herbivores are called as primary consumers whereas carnivores and omnivores
are called as secondary consumers. Collectively we can cal them as
macroconsumers.

(c) Decomposers: Heterotrophic organisms chiefly bacteria and fungi that breakdown
the complex compounds of dead protoplasm, absorb some of the products and
release simple substances usable by the producers are called as decomposers or
reducers. Collectively we call them as micro consumers.

3.4 FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

All ecosystems maintain themselves in a characteristic dynamic state. They are kept going by
the energy that flows through their biotic components and by the circulation of materials like
N, C, H2O within and outside the system. Ecological kinship in the final analysis is energy
oriented. Ultimate source of energy is the sun. Solar energy is trapped by the autotrophs, it
moves to heterotrophs producer-consumer, or producer-herbivore-carnivore relationship. It
means that energy is transferred from one trophic level to the other in succession in the form
of a chain called as food chain.

Following are the functional aspects of ecosystem:

1. Energy flow in an ecosystem

2. Food chain, food web and ecological pyramids

3. Biogeochemical cycles

4. Ecological succession

3.4.1 ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external
sources. At the first trophic level, primary producers (plants, algae, and some bacteria) use
solar energy to produce organic plant material through photosynthesis. Herbivores, those
animals that feed solely on plants, make up the second trophic level. Predators that eat
herbivores comprise the third trophic level; if larger predators are present, they represent still
higher trophic levels. Organisms that feed at several trophic levels (for example, grizzly bears
that eat berries and salmon) are classified at the highest of the trophic levels at which they
feed. Decomposers, which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects, break down
wastes and dead organisms and return nutrients to the soil.

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On average about 10 percent of net energy production at one trophic level is passed on to the
next level. Processes that reduce the energy transferred between trophic levels include
respiration, growth and reproduction, defecation, and non predatory death (organisms that die
but are not eaten by consumers). The nutritional quality of material that is consumed also
influences how efficiently energy is transferred, because consumers can convert high-quality
food sources into new living tissue more efficiently than low-quality food sources

The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels makes decomposers generally more
important than producers in terms of energy flow. Decomposers process large amounts of
organic material and return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic form, which is then taken
up again by primary producers. Energy is not recycled during decomposition, but rather is
released, mostly as heat.

3.4.1.1 Productivity of an ecosystem: The productivity of an ecosystem refers to the rate of

production, i.e., the amount of organic matter accumulated in a unit time interval.
Productivity is of following types:

(a) Primary productivity: It is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is stored
by photosynthetic and chemosynthetic activity of producers. An ecosystem's gross
primary productivity (GPP) is the total amount of organic matter that it
produces through photosynthesis. Net primary productivity (NPP) describes the
amount of energy that remains available for plant growth after subtracting the
fraction that plants use for respiration. Productivity in land ecosystems generally
rises with temperature up to about 30°C, after which it declines, and is positively
correlated with moisture. On land primary productivity thus is highest in warm,
wet zones in the tropics where tropical forest biomes are located. In contrast,
desert scrub ecosystems have the lowest productivity because their climates are
extremely hot and dry.

(b) Secondary productivity: It refers to the consumers or heterotrophs. These are the
rate of energy stored at consumer level. As consumers only use food material in
their respiration, simply changing the food matter to different tissues by an overall
process, secondary productivity is not classified as gross and net amounts.
Secondary productivity actually keeps on moving from one organism to another,
i.e. remains mobile and does not live in situ like the primary productivity.

(c) Net productivity: This refers to the rate of shortage of organic matter not used by
the heterotrophs (consumers), i.e., equivalent to net primary production minus
consumption by the heterotrophs during the unit time, as a season or year etc. SO,
it is the rate of increase of biomass of the primary producers which has been left
over by the consumers.

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 Figure 3.1: Energy flow in ecosystem

The simplest way to describe the flux of energy through ecosystems is as a food chain in
which energy passes from one trophic level to the next, without factoring in more
complex relationships between individual species. Some very simple ecosystems may
consist of a food chain with only a few trophic levels.

3.4.1.2 Y-Shaped Model of Energy Flow: We know that energy flow through grazers can be
called as grazing food chain and the energy flow through detritus consumers as detritus food
chain. Partners of these food chains are so intimately associated that sometimes it is difficult
to determine their relative effect on the breakdown of original primary production.

Herbivores Predators

Plants Grazing Food Chain

Sunlight

Detritus Food Chain

Detritus Consumers

Figure 3.2: The Y-shaped energy flow model showing linkage between the grazing and
detritus food chains.

As shown in Figure 3.2 one arm represents the herbivore food chain and the other the detritus
food chain. They are sharply separated. However, under natural conditions, they are not
completely isolated from one another. For instance, small dead animals that were once a part
of grazing food chain become incorporated in detritus food chain like the faeces of grazing
animals. This interdependence when represented in the form of figure resemble the letter ‘Y’
therefore, E.P. Odum (1983) called it a Y-shaped model of energy flow.

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Y-shaped model is more realistic and practical working model than single channel models,
because,

 It confirms to the basic stratified structure of ecosystems,

 It separates the grazing and detritus food chains in both time and space, and

 Microconsumers and macroconsumers differ greatly in size metabolism relations.

3.4.2 FOOD CHAIN, FOOD WEB AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

3.4.2.1 Food Chains: A food chain is a series of populations through which food and the
energy contained in it passes in an ecosystem. A food chain is simple if it has only one
trophic level besides the decomposers, eg. Eichhornia in eutrophic pond. A complex food
chain has both producer and consumer trophic levels. Trophic levels are various steps in the
passage of food. There are two main types of food chain:

TYPES OF FOOD CHAINS

Predator or grazing food chain Saprophytic or detritus food chain.

(i) Predator or grazing food chain: The grazing food chain begins with the
photosynthetic fixation of light, carbon dioxide, and water by plants (primary
producers) that produce sugars and other organic molecules. Once produced, these
compounds can be used to create the various types of plant tissues. Primary
consumers or herbivores form the second link in the grazing food chain. They gain
their energy by consuming primary producers. Secondary consumers or primary
carnivores, the third link in the chain, gain their energy by consuming herbivores.
Tertiary consumers or secondary carnivores are animals that receive their organic
energy by consuming primary carnivores.

Eg. i) Grass  Cattle  Man

ii) Grass  Rabbit  Fox  Wolf  Tiger

(ii) Detritus food chain: The detritus food chain differs from the grazing food
chain in several ways:

 The organisms making it up are generally smaller (like algae, bacteria, fungi,
insects, & centipedes)

 The functional roles of the different organisms do not fall as neatly into
categories like the grazing food chain's trophic levels.

 Detrivores live in environments (like the soil) rich in scattered food particles.
As a result, decomposers are less motile than herbivores or carnivores.
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 Decomposers process large amounts of organic matter, converting it back into
its inorganic nutrient form.

Eg. A common terrestrial detritus food chain is:

Detritus  Earthworm  Sparrow  Falcon

Figure 3.3: Grazing food chain

Figure 3.4: Detritus food chain

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3.4.2.2 Food Web: Under natural conditions, the linear arrangement of food chains hardly
occurs & these remains connected interconnected with each other through different types of
organisms. Interlocking pattern of several interlinked food chains is termed as FOOD WEB.

Figure 3.5: Food web in grassland ecosystem

Food web illustrates several alternative pathways. Food webs are very useful in maintaining
stability of an ecosystem. If the number of rabbits in an area decreases, owls are expected to
die of starvation. But due to decrease in the number of rabbits, more grass is left out that
helps to increase the population of rats. Owls now feed upon rats and allow the rabbits to
increase in number. Thus the ecosystem does not get permanently disturbed when food
operates.

The complexity of any food web depends on the diversity of organisms in the system.
Accordingly, it would depend on two main points:

(i) Length of the food chain: Diversity in the organisms based on their food habits
would determine the length of food chain. More diverse the organisms in food habits,
longer would be the food chain.

(ii) Alternatives at different points of consumers in food chain: more the alternatives
more would be the interlocking pattern. In deep oceans, seas etc, where we find
different types of organisms, the food webs are much complex.

3.4.2.3 Ecological Pyramids: The quantitative and the easiest method for studying the
relationship between organisms in an ecosystem and for showing them diagrammatically, is
the ecological pyramid, given by Elton (1927). In these pyramids the lower most trophic
level is formed by the producers, while the topmost trophic level is that of carnivores.
Generally, three types of pyramids are considered:

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 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Pyramid of Number Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Energy

(i) Pyramid of numbers: This pyramid illustrates the relationship between the number of
producers, herbivores and carnivores. The organisms of an area are first counted and then
grouped into their trophic levels. We have studied three common ecosystems, viz. forest
ecosystem, grassland ecosystem and pond ecosystem.

 In forest ecosystem, the shape of pyramid is rhomboidal. The producers are

represented by an angle large tree, on which depend several fruit eating birds etc.
Therefore, the number of primary consumers is more than the number of producers.
Thereafter, the number of secondary and tertiary consumers decreases progressively.

 In grassland ecosystem, grasses are producers. The number of consumers decreases

towards the top of the pyramid. The number of primary consumers or herbivores like
rats, rabbits etc, is lesser than the number of grasses. The number of secondary
consumers like lizards, snakes etc. is lesser than the number of primary consumers.
The number of last or tertiary consumers is still less than the number of secondary
consumers. So, we see that the number of organisms falls progressively from the first
trophic level to the last trophic level. Therefore, pyramid of number in grassland is
straight or upright.

 In pond ecosystem, the number of organism decreases progressively from the first
trophic level to the last trophic level. Therefore, the pyramid of number in pond
ecosystem is straight upright.

Figure 3.6: Upright Pyramid of Numbers (A) Grassland Ecosystem (B) Pond Ecosystem

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 Figure 3.7: Pyramid of number in Forest Ecosystem

(ii) Pyramid of Biomass: The total mass of organisms is called biomass. It can be
determined in terms of net mass, dry mass or ash free dry weight. The biomass at the time of
sampling is called standing biomass or standing crop biomass.

In forest ecosystem and grassland ecosystem, the pyramid of biomass is upright. The
amount of biomass continues to decrease progressively from the first trophic level of
producers to the last trophic level of carnivores.

In pond ecosystem, the number of producers is large, but their biomass is the least of all,
being very small in size. The amount of biomass continues to increase progressively with
primary, secondary and tertiary trophic levels. Therefore the pyramid of biomass in pond
ecosystem is inverted.

Figure 3.8: Inverted Pyramid of Biomass in Aquatic Ecosystem

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 Figure 3.9: Upright Pyramid of Biomass for Grassland Ecosystem

(iii) Pyramid of Energy: The most ideal and fundamental method of representing the
relationships between organisms in different trophic levels is the pyramid of energy.

We know that in every ecosystem, only producers possess the capacity to use the energy from
the sun and convert it into food. The energy in the form of food gets transferred from one
trophic level to another. Therefore the flow of energy is always uni-directional. The amount
of energy that reaches the net trophic level is lesser than it was present in the earlier trophic
level. Thus, the amount of energy decreases with each successive higher trophic level.
Therefore, in all types of ecosystem, such a pyramid would be upright.

Figure 3.10: Upright Pyramid of Energy

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3.4.3 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING

The transport and transformation of substances in the environment, through life, air, sea, land,
and ice, are known collectively as biogeochemical cycles. These global cycles include the
circulation of certain elements, or nutrients, upon which life and the earth's climate depend.

3.4.3.1 Carbon Cycle - the movement of carbon, in its many forms, between the biosphere,
atmosphere, oceans, and geosphere.

 Plants obtain carbon dioxide from the air and, through photosynthesis, incorporate
carbon into their tissues

 Producers & consumers - transform part of the carbon in their food back into
carbon dioxide via respiration

 Decomposers - release the carbon tied up in dead plants & animals into the
atmosphere

 Another major exchange of carbon dioxide occurs between the oceans and the
atmosphere. The dissolved CO2 in the oceans is used by marine biota in
photosynthesis.

 Two other important processes are fossil fuel burning and changing land use. In
fossil fuel burning, coal, oil, natural gas, and gasoline are consumed by industry,
power plants, and automobiles. Changing land use is a broad term which
encompasses a host of essentially human activities, including agriculture,
deforestation, and reforestation.

Figure 3.11: Carbon Cycle

The global carbon cycle is out of balance, making rapid global climate change more
likely. Atmospheric CO2 levels are rising rapidly -- currently, they are 25% above where
they stood before the industrial revolution. Carbon dioxide forms when the carbon in
biomass oxidizes as it burns or decays. Many biological processes set in motion by people
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release carbon dioxide. These include burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, & natural gas), slash-
and-burn agriculture, clearing land for permanent pasture, cropland, or human
settlements, accidental and intentional forest burning, and unsustainable logging and fuel
wood collection. Clearing vegetation cover from a forested hectare releases much of the
carbon in the vegetation to the atmosphere, as well as some of the carbon lodged in the
soil. Logging or sustainable fuel wood collection can also degrade vegetation cover and
result in a net release of carbon.

3.4.3.2 Nitrogen Cycle - Almost all of the nitrogen found in terrestrial ecosystems
originally comes from the atmosphere. Small proportions enter the soil in rainfall or
through the effects of lightning. Most, however, is biochemically fixed within the soil by
specialized micro-organisms like bacteria. Members of the bean family (legumes) and
some other kinds of plants form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing
bacterial. In exchange for some nitrogen, the bacteria receive from the plants
carbohydrates and special structures (nodules) in roots where they can exist in a moist
environment. Scientist estimates that biological fixation globally adds approximately 140
million metric tons of nitrogen to ecosystems every year.

Figure 3.12: Nitrogen Cycle

3.4.3.3 Phosphorus Cycle – Phosphorus is the key to energy in living organisms, for it is
phosphorus that moves energy from ATP to another molecule, driving an enzymatic
reaction, or cellular transport. Phosphorus is also the glue that holds DNA together,
binding deoxyribose sugars together, forming the backbone of the DNA molecule.
Phosphorus does the same job in RNA.

Again, the keystones of getting phosphorus into trophic systems are plants. Plants absorb
phosphorous from water and soil into their tissues, tying them to organic molecules. Once
taken up by plants, phosphorus is available for animals when they consume the plants.

When plants and animals die, bacteria decompose their bodies, releasing some of the
phosphorus back into the soil. Once in the soil, phosphorous can be moved 100s to 1,000s

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 of miles from were they were released by riding through streams and rivers. So the water
cycle plays a key role of moving phosphorus from ecosystem to ecosystem.

Figure 3.13: Phosphorus Cycle

3.4.4 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

The gradual and continuous replacement of plant and animal species by other species until
eventually the community, as a whole, is replaced by another type of community. It is a
gradual change, and it is the organisms present which bring about this change. It involves the
processes of colonization, establishment, and extinction which act on the participating
species. It occurs in stages, called seral stages that can be recognized by the collection of
species that dominate at that point in the succession.

Succession begins when an area is made partially or completely devoid of vegetation because
of a disturbance. Some common mechanisms of disturbance are fires, wind storms, volcanic
eruptions, logging, climate change, severe flooding, disease, and pest infestation. It stops
when species composition no longer changes with time, and this community is called the
climax community.

3.4.4.1 Types of Succession: The various types of succession have been grouped in different
ways on the basis of different aspects. Some basic types of succession are, however, as
follows:

1. Primary succession: It occurs on an area of newly exposed rock or sand or lava or any
area that has not been occupied previously by a living (biotic) community.

2. Secondary succession – It takes place where a community has been removed, e.g., in a
plowed field or a clear cut forest.

3. Autogenic Succession – After the succession has begun, in most of the cases, it is the
community itself, which as a result of its reactions with the environment modifies its own

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 environment and thus causing its own replacement by new communities. This course of
succession is known as autogenic succession.

4. Allogenic Succession – In some cases, however, the replacement of the existing

community is caused largely by any other external condition and not by the existing
organisms. Such a course is referred to as allogenic succession.

On the basis of successive changes in nutritional and energy contents, successions are
sometimes classified as:

1. Autotrophic Succession – It is characterized by early and continued dominance of

autotrophic organisms like green plants. It begins in a predominantly inorganic
environment and the energy flow is maintained indefinitely. There is gradual increase in
the organic matter content supported by energy flow.

2. Heterotrophic Succession – It is characterized by early dominance of heterotrophs,

such as bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi and animals. It begins in a predominantly organic
environment, and there is a progressive decline in the energy content.

3.4.4.2 Ecological Succession Based on Habitat: The following types of succession are
known which are based on the type of habitat:

(i) Hydrosere or hydrarch: This type of succession occurs in water bodies like ponds, lakes,
streams etc.

Succession that occurs in water bodies is called hydrosere. It is a succession occurring in the
aquatic environment. It starts with the colonization of phytoplankton and finally terminates
into a forest. There are about seven stages of hydrosere.

1) Phytoplankton Stage: It is pioneer stages of hydrosere. In this stage many organisms

like bacteria, algae and aquatic plants occur. All these organisms add a large amount of
organic matter death and decay.

2) Submerged Stage: It comes after phytoplankton stage, when a loose layer of mud is
formed on the bottom of pond. Some rooted submerged plants develop.

3) Floating Stage: As water depth reduces the submerged plants give way to a new form
of aquatic vegetation. This may be a cause for disappearance of submerged plants. Later
rapid soil building process reduces the water depth to such n extent that it becomes too
shallow for survival of the floating plants.

4) Amphibious Stage: Due to rapid soil formation ponds and lakes become too shallow
so the habitat is unfit for floating plants. Under these conditions the amphibious plants
appear. These plants live in aquatic as well as in aerial environment.

5) Sedge-Meadow Stage (Marginal mats): Soil formation takes place and this result in
marshy soil, which may be too dry. Important plants of this stage are the member of
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 cyperaceae and gramineae. These dry habitats may be totally unfit for hydrophytic plants
and gradually shrubs and small size trees starts appearing.

6) Woodland Stage: In this stage large amount of human, bacteria, fungi and other
accumulate in the soil. All this favors the entry of many trees in the vegetation leading to
the climax Stage.

7) Climax Stage: Hydrosere may change in to climax forest, vegetation. In this stage
herbs and trees are most common. The nature of the climax is dependent upon the climate
of the region. It is a very slow process and requires many years to reach the climax stage.

Figure 3.14: Process of Hydrosere

(ii) Xerosere or xerarch: This type of succession occurs in terrestrial areas with low
moisture, eg. rock, sand etc.

It takes place on the surface, which is extremely dry characterized by deficiency of water and
available nutrients. It starts on a base rock. In such extreme dry environment only those
plants can survive which can resist the extreme dry environment only. The various stages of
Xerosere have been described as follows:

1) Crustose Lichen Stage: The rocks are completely devoid of moisture and nutrients. It
is the pioneers in Xerosere. The important crustose lichens are Rhizocarpus. The Lichens
secrete carbonic acid which helps to corrode and decompose the rock supplementing the
other factors of waethering.

2) Foliose Lichen Stage: Weathering of the rocks and decaying of the crustose lichens
forms the first layer of the soil on the rock surface. Gradually the conditions become
favourable for the existing foliose and fructicose lichens.

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 3) Moss Stage: The foliose and fructicose lichens stage is followed by moss stage. As soil
formation takes place on rocks surface, Xerophytic masses grow and become dominant.
Common examples of Xerophytic mosses are Polytrichum, Tortula, Grimmia etc.. This
mat of moss is formed on the soil. As the mat become thicker, it increases the water
holding capacity of soil. Now moss stage is replaced by new herbaceous stage.

4) Herbaceous Stage: Initially certain annual herbs migrate and germinate. The humans
of the soil increases year after year because of the death and decay of annual herb. Slowly
biennials and perennial herbs grow. The more organic matter and nutrients accumulate in
the soil. This makes the habitat more suitable for woody plants.

5) Shrub Stage: More and more soil is formed in the herbaceous stage for the woody
shrubs. The herbs are shaded by the over growing shrubs, decaying herbs and leaves,
twigs of shrubs. These also enrich the soil with humus. The humidity is increased over
such areas. All this favors the growth of large mesophytic trees.

6) Climax Stage: This stage is occupied by large number of trees. The first trees growing
in such areas are relatively small with the increase in water holding capacity of the soil,
these trees disappear and large mesophytic trees develop.

Figure 3.15: Process of Xerarch

(iii) Lithosere: This type of succession starts on a bare rock.

(iv) Halosere: This type succession starts on saline water or soil.

(v) Psammosere: This type of succession starts on a sandy area.

3.4.4.3 Process of Ecological Succession: Every primary succession, irrespective of the bare
area from which it initiates, exhibits the following five steps which follow in succession
stages.

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 (i) Nudation: The step involves the development of bare area which may be due to soil
erosion, deposition etc.

(ii) Invasion: The step involves the successful establishment of a species in a bare area.
The species reaches this area from some other region.

(iii) Competition and Co-action: The species occupied new area develops intra and inter-
specific competition for food and space. The completion between already existing species
and those which have just entered the area, results in the destruction of one of them which
is unsuitable.

(iv) Reaction: The species or the community that has established itself in a new area
affects the environment by modifying light, water, soil etc. This results in the elimination
of the community which then makes way for another community for which the modified
environment is more suitable. The different communities or stages represented by
combination of mosses, herbs, shrubs and trees replacing one another during succession
are known as seral stages, seral communities or developmental stages.

(v) Stabilization: This is the final stage, during the course of succession when a
community attains equilibrium with the climate of an area and becomes comparatively
stable. This final community is known as climax community.

3.5 STRUCTURE OF DIFFERENT ECOSYSTEMS

3.5.1 FOREST ECOSYSTEM (TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM)

A forest is an area with a high density of trees. World’s total land area is 13,076 million
hectares, of which total forests account for about 31% of the world’s land area. In India, the
forest cover is roughly 19% of the total land area. The forest ecosystems are of great concern
from the environmental point of view. It provides numerous environmental services.

Biotic components

The various biotic components, representatives from the three functional groups, of a forest
ecosystem are:

1) Producer Organisms: In a forest, the producers are mainly trees. Trees are of different
kinds depending upon the type of forest developed in that climate. Dominant species of trees
in major types of forest ecosystems are Tectona grandis, Acer, Betula, Picea, Pine, Cedrus.

2) Consumers: In a forest, consumers are of three main types:

a) Primary Consumers - These are Herbivores which feed directly on producers. Eg.
Ants, Beetles, Bugs, spiders etc. feeding on tree leaves. Larger animals such as Elephants,
Deer, giraffe etc. grazing on shoots and/or fruits of trees.

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 b) Secondary Consumers - These are carnivores and feed on primary consumers. Eg:
Birds, Lizards, Frogs, Snakes and Foxes.

c) Tertiary Consumers - These are secondary carnivores and feed on secondary

consumers. These include top carnivores like Lion, Tiger.

3) Decomposers: These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like; Bacteria
(Bacillus Sp., Clostridium sp., pseudomonas), Fungi (Aspergillus sp., Ganoderma sp.,
Fusarium) and Actinomycetes (Streptomyces). They attack the dead or decayed bodies of
organisms & thus decomposition takes place. Therefore, nutrients are released for reuse.

Abiotic components

These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in the soil & atmosphere. In
addition dead organic debris is also found littered in forests.

3.5.2 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM (TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM)

Grasslands (also called Greenswards) are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses
and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants. Grasslands occupy about 24% of the earth’s
surface. They occur in regions too dry for forests and too moist for deserts. The annual
rainfall ranges between 25- 75 cm, usually seasonal. The principal grasslands includes
Prairies (Canada, USA), Pampas (South America),Steppes (Europe & Asia), Veldts (Africa).
The highest abundance & greatest diversity of large mammals are found in these ecosystems.
The dominant animal species include wild horses, asses & antelope of Eurasia, herds of Bison
of America; and the antelope & other large herbivores of Africa.

Biotic components

1) Producer Organisms: In grassland, producers are mainly grasses; though, a few herbs &
shrubs also contribute to primary production of biomass. Some of the most common species
of grasses are: Brachiaria sp., Cynodon sp., Desmodium sp., Digitaria sp.

2) Consumers: In grassland, consumers are of three main types;

a) Primary Consumers - The primary consumers are herbivores feeding directly on

grasses. These are grazing animals such as Cows, Buffaloes, Sheep, Goats, Deer, Rabbits
etc. Besides them, numerous species of insects, termites, etc are also present.

b) Secondary Consumers - These are carnivores that feed on primary consumers

(Herbivores). These include;-Frogs, Snakes, Lizards, Birds, Foxes, Jackals etc.

c) Tertiary Consumers - These include hawks etc. which feed on secondary consumers.

3) Decomposers: These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like: Bacteria;
Fungi; Actinomycetes.

Abiotic components
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These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in the soil & aerial environment.
The essential elements like C, H, N, O, P, S etc. are supplied by water, nitrogen, nitrates,
sulphates, phosphates present in soil & atmosphere.

3.5.3 DESERT ECOSYSTEM (TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM)

A desert is a landscape or region that receives almost no precipitation. Deserts are defined as
areas with an average annual precipitation of less than 250 millimetres per year. It occupies
about 17% of the earth’s surface. Deserts are characterized by hot days & cold nights. The
deserts of the world are mainly located in the South- western United States, Mexico, North
America, Asia (Thar, Gobi, Tibet) & west Asia. Deserts are characterized by scanty flora &
fauna. Soils of deserts often have abundant nutrients but little or no organic matter.

Biotic components

1) Producer Organisms: In a desert, producers are mainly shrubs/bushes; some grasses & a
few trees. Dominant plant species include: Succulents (water - retaining plants adapted to arid
climate or soil conditions) & hardy grasses. Besides some lower plants such as lichens &
xerophytic mosses are also present.

2) Consumer Organisms: These include animals such as insects, reptiles which are capable
of living in xeric conditions. Besides some nocturnal rodents, birds & some mammalians like
camel etc are also found.

3) Decomposers: Due to poor vegetation with very low amount of dead organic matter,
decomposers are poor in desert ecosystem. The common decomposers are some bacteria &
fungi, most of which are thermophillic.

Abiotic components

Due to high temperature & very low rainfall, the organic substances are poorly present in the
soil.

3.5.4 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Aquatic ecosystems deal with biotic community present in water bodies. In terrestrial
ecosystem, carbon dioxide & oxygen are present in gaseous form whereas in aquatic
ecosystem, these are available in dissolved state. Depending upon the quality and nature of
water, the aquatic ecosystem is categorized into:

i. Freshwater Ecosystem and

ii. Marine Ecosystem.

3.5.4.1 FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS:

Freshwater ecosystems cover 0.8% of the Earth's surface and contain 0.009% of its total
water. They contain 41% of the world's known fish species. Aquatic ecosystems perform
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many important environmental functions. For example: They recycle nutrients, purify water,
attenuate floods, recharge ground water and provide habitats for wildlife. Aquatic ecosystems
are also used for human recreation, and are very important to the tourism industry, especially
in coastal region. There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:

i. Lentic: slow-moving water, including Pools, Ponds, and Lakes.

ii. Lotic: rapidly-moving water, for example Streams and Rivers.

iii. Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated with water or inundated for at least part of
the time

Lakes & Pond Ecosystem: A pond is a place where living organisms not only live but
interact with biotic & abiotic components. Ponds are often exposed to tremendous
anthropogenic pressure which significantly affects the system. Lakes are usually big standing
freshwater bodies. They have a shallow water zone called Littoral zone; an open water zone
where effective penetration of solar light takes place, called limnetic zone and a deep water
zone where light penetration is negligible, called Profoundal zone.

Biotic components

1) Producer Organisms: It includes submerged, free floating and amphibious macrophytes

(like; Hydrilla, Utricularia, Wolfia, Azolla, Typha etc.) and minute floating and suspended
lower phytoplanktons (like; Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oedogonium etc.)

2) Consumer Organisms

a) Primary consumers - These are zooplanktons (ciliates, flagellates, other protozoan,

and small crustaceans) and benthos.

b) Secondary consumers - These are carnivores like insects and fishes feeding on
herbivores

c) Tertiary consumers - These are the large fishes feeding on small fishes.

3) Decomposers: Micro – organisms like bacteria, fungi and actinomyctes.

Abiotic component

These are the inorganic as well as organic substances present in the bottom soil or dissolved
in water. In addition, to the minerals, some dead organic matter is also present.

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 Figure 3.16: Zonation in a lake ecosystem

3.5.4.2 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS:

Marine ecosystems are among the Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They include: oceans, estuaries
and lagoons, mangroves and coral reefs, the deep sea and the sea floor. These are the gigantic
reservoirs of water covering approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 361
million square kilometers). These ecosystems are different from freshwater ecosystem mainly
because of its salty water. The salt concentration in an open sea is usually 3.5% (35 parts per
thousand (ppt)). Dominant ions are sodium & chloride. Average temperature of Marine
ecosystem is 2-3 degree centigrade, devoid of light.

Biotic components

1) Producers: It includes phytoplanktons (diatoms, dinoflagillates), large seaweeds (mainly

algae like chlorophyceae, phaeophyceae & rhodophyceae; angiosperms like Ruppia, Zostera,
posidonia ), and mangrove vegetation (like Rhizophora, Carapa etc.)

2) Consumers:

a) Primary consumers - These are herbivores and feed directly on producers

(Crustaceans, Mollusks, fish etc.)

b) Secondary consumers - These are carnivorous fishes (Herring, Sahd and Mackerel)

c) Tertiary consumers - These are top carnivorous fishes (Cod, Haddock, etc.)

3) Decomposers These are micro – organisms like bacteria, fungi

Abiotic components

High Na, Ca, Mg and K salt concentration, variable dissolved oxygen content, light &
temperature make a unique physiochemical conditions in marine water.
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 Figure 3.17: Zonation in an oceanic ecosystem

Case study: Threats to wetlands in Assam

Almost 40% of all wetlands in Assam are under threat. A survey conducted by the
Assam Remote Sensing Application Centre (ARSAC), Guwahati, and the Space
Research Centre, Ahmadabad, has revealed that 1367 out of 3513 wetlands in Assam
are under severe threat due to the invasion of aquatic weeds and several developmental
activities. The wetlands of Assam form the greatest potential source of income for the
state in terms of fisheries and tourism. Through the wetlands of Assam have the
capacity of producing 5,000 t/ha/yr of fish, around 20,000 t of fish have to be imported
to meet local demands. This is primarily due to poor wetland management.

QUENTIONS
1. Define an ecosystem.

2. What is the structure of an ecosystem?

3. Explain the function of the ecosystem.

4. Explain the following:

(a) Producers

(b) Consumers

(c) Decomposers

(d) Food Chain

(e) Food Web

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 (f) Ecological Pyramids

5. What is ecological succession? Explain.

6. Discuss energy flow in an ecosystem.

7. What is ecosystem energetic? Describe the energy flow in a typical ecosystem.

8. Mention the differences between grazing and detritus food chains.

9. Discuss Y-shaped energy flow model.

10. Describe features and structure of the following ecosystem:

(a) Grassland ecosystem

(b) Pond ecosystem

(c) Desert ecosystem

(d) Ocean ecosystem

(e) Forest ecosystem

11. What is ‘ecological succession’? Describe the causes and basic types of ecological
succession.

12. Define food web. Depict diagrammatically a terrestrial food web and oceanic food
web.

13. ‘The flow of energy is one way and continuous in an ecosystem’. Jutify.

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 UNIT – V
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION

Pollution is derived from Latin word ‘polluere’ which means ‘to contaminate’ any feature of
environment. Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have
harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings. This occurs only when short term
economic gains are made at the cost of long term ecological benefits of humanity.
Environmental pollution is defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical and
biological characteristics of any component of the environment (water, soil, air) that can
cause harmful effect on various forms of life and property. Pollution can be primary (effects
immediately on release to the environment) or secondary (product of interaction after release
with moisture, sunlight, other pollutants etc.) pollution may be local, regional, trans boundary
or global. The agents which cause pollution are called pollutants.

Pollutants can be classified as:

1. Degradable or non persistent pollutants: These can be rapidly broken by natural

processes. Eg. Domestic sewage, discarded vegetables etc.

2. Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants: These remain in the environment for many
years in an unchanged condition and take decades or longer to degrade. Eg: DDT

3. Non degradable pollutants: These cannot be degraded by natural processes. Eg: Toxic
elements like lead or mercury, plastic, and nuclear wastes.

5.2 AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in
quantities that are harmful to human health and environment. It can be defined as presence of
foreign matter either gaseous or particulate or combination of both in the air which is
detrimental to the health and welfare of human beings.

5.2.1 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

1) Primary Pollutants:

Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources are produced by natural events
can be in the form of particulate matter or gaseous form. These are called primary
pollutants Ex: Dust storms and volcanic eruptions and through human activities like
emission from vehicles, industries etc. There are five primary pollutants that contribute to
90% of global air pollution.

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 (i) Oxides of carbon like carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (CO & CO2).

(ii) Oxides of nitrogen, like NO, NO2, NO3 (expressed as NOx).

(iii) Oxides of sulphur particularly sulphur dioxide (SO2).

(iv) Volatile organic compounds, mostly hydrocarbons.

(v) Suspended particulate matter (SPM).

Particulate pollutants are categorized according to size, mode of formation (source) or

physical state.

• Aerosol (general term for particles suspended in air)

• Mist (aerosol containing liquid droplets eg. H2SO4 mist)

• Dust (aerosol containing solid particles)

• Smoke (aerosol containing mixture of solid and liquid particles produced by chemical
reaction such as fire)

• Fume (same as smoke by produced by condensation of hot vapors of metals eg. Zinc
and Lead fumes)

• Plume ( smoke coming out of chimney)

• Flyash (finely divided non combustible particles present in the gases arising from fuel
combustion. It contains inorganic metallic or mineral substances released when the
organic part of the coal is burnt.)

• Natural particulates (Natural particulates are pollen grains spores bacterial, viruses,
protozoal, fungal spores and volcanic dusts.)

Figure 5.1 Types and sources of primary pollutants

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2) Secondary Pollutants:

The pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere, when certain chemical reactions take
place among the primary pollutants and with others in the atmosphere are called secondary
air pollutants. Eg: Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, ozone, formaldehydes and
peroxy-acyl-nitrate (PAN).

Particulates are small pieces of solid material. Particulate matter can be

1) Natural such as dust, seeds, spores, pollen grains, algae fungi, bacteria and viruses

2) Anthropogenic such as mineral dust, cement, asbestos dust, fibers, metal dust, fly ash
smoke particles form fires etc.

5.2.2 CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION:

Air pollution may originate from one or more variety of sources. The natural pollution
includes sources such as oceanic aerosol, volcanic emissions, biogenic sources, windblown
terrestrial dust and lightening. The artificial pollution generates from human activities and
includes sources such as fuel burning, refuge burning, transportation, construction of
buildings, chemical factories, metallurgical factories and, vehicles. The third category
includes solvent usage and sources include spray painting and solvent extraction.
Automobiles are the first rate of polluters. Industries occupy second position.

5.2.3 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION:

i) Effects on human health: Particulates cause carcinogenic effects, accumulate in lungs

and interfere with ability of lungs to exchange gases. Prolonged exposure causes lung cancer
and asthma. Cigarette smoking is responsible for greatest exposure to carbon monoxide (CO).
Exposure to air containing even 0.001% of CO for several hours can cause collapse, coma
and even death. As CO remains attached to haemoglobin in the blood for a long time, it
accumulates and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. This impairs thinking, causes
headaches, drowsiness and nausea. SO2 irritates the respiratory tissues. NO2 can irritate lungs;
aggravate asthma and susceptibility to influenza and common colds. Many volatile organic
compounds (benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates can cause mutations and
cancer. Lead causes neurological problems and cancer.

ii) Effects on plants: Gaseous pollutants enter the leaf pores and damage the leaves of crop
plants, interfere with photosynthesis and plants growth and reduces nutrient uptake and
causes the leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether.

iii) On materials: Air pollutants break down the exterior paint on cars and houses.

iv) Ozone Layer Depletion: The upper stratosphere consists of considerable amounts of
ozone, which works as an effective screen for UV light. This region is called ozone layer,
which extends up to 60km above the surface of the earth. Ozone is a form of oxygen with 3
atoms instead of 2. It is produced naturally in the atmosphere. Presence of certain pollutants
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can accelerate the breakdown of ozone. Depletion of ozone effects human health, food
productivity and climate. Sun burn, cataract, aging of skin and skin cancer are caused by
increased UV radiation. It weakens the immune system by supporting the body’s resistance to
certain infections like measles, chickenpox & other viral diseases. UV radiation affects the
ability of plants to capture light energy during the process of photosynthesis. This reduces the
nutrient content and growth of plants mostly in legumes and cabbage. Plants and animals are
damaged by UV radiations. Contribute to global warming, a phenomenon which is caused
due to the increase in concentration of certain gases like CO2, NO2 methane and
chloroflorocarbons (CFCs).

v) Photochemical Smog: Photochemical smog is highly oxidising polluted atmosphere

comprising largely of ozone, Nox, hydrogen peroxide, organic peroxides, PAN and
peroxybenzoil nitrate (PBzN). This is produced as a result of photochemical reaction among
Nox, hydrocarbons and oxygen. Effects of photochemical smog are as follows:

• Breathing ozone results in respiratory distress, headaches.

• PAN damages plants

• PAH's polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, carcinogenic.

The London smog of 1952: A classic air pollution case study

During the cold month of December, the people of London burnt large amounts of coal
for heating their homes, which resulted in a huge amount of smoke, soot, ash, sulphur
oxides etc. generated from the chimneys. On 5 December 1952, the temperature went
down to -1°C and the humidity at 80%. There was a thick fog and the air near the
ground was moist.The accumulation of smoke close to the ground was so much that
the sunlight was totally cut off and the air stayed cool and static. The term smog means
fog that has soot in it. Average smoke measurements in London showed the PM
concentration was 56 times the level normally experienced and the sulphur dioxide
level increased by 7 times (700 ppb). Around 4000 people died due to the smog
causing pneumonia, bronchitis, tuberculosis, heart failure, asphyxiation, chest pains,
inflammation of the lungs, damage to respiratory cells, permanent lung damage,
respiratory ailments, susceptibility to cancers etc. The effects on vegetation were
profound due to the resulting acidic rain. Following this disastrous event, London
formulated the Clean Air Act, 1956 and all the traditional coal fires were converted to
heaters fuelled by gas, steam, hot water, oil, smokeless coal and electricity.

vi) Acid Rain: Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic,
i.e. elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic
animals, and infrastructure through the process of wet deposition. Acid rain is caused by

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emissions of compounds of ammonium, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur which react with the
water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.

H2O (l) + CO2 (g) → H2CO3 (aq)

Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of hydronium and
carbonate ions.

2 H2O (l) + H2CO3 (aq) → CO32− (aq) + 2 H3O+ (aq)

Acid deposition as an environmental issue would include additional acids to H2CO3.

Figure 5.2: Formation of Acid rain

The effects of acid rain have been known for a long time. Though experts admit that the
problem of acid rain is generally under control, it’s still worth reiterating the effects brought
on by acid rain on the wider environment.

Acid rain has adverse effects on:

• Forests & other vegetation

• Freshwater lakes & streams destroying aquatic life

• Soil

• Buildings & materials

vi) Global Warming: Carbon dioxide and other gases allow light to pass, but trap heat in the
atmosphere much like glass in a greenhouse traps heat. This greenhouse effect is thought to
be responsible for global warming. Carbon dioxide contributes to only 56% of greenhouse
heating. The average surface temperature of Earth is about 15°C (59°F). Global Warming is
increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere, oceans, and landmasses of Earth.
Effects of global warming are as follows:

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  Temperature extremes

 Rise in sea level, and change in precipitation

 Injuries from storms, coastal flooding

 Interruption of power supply, contamination of drinking water

 Droughts

 Food shortages due to shift in agricultural food production

 Air pollution ( made worse by warming)

 Asthma, bronchitis, emphysema complications

 Strain on public health systems

 Increased need due to population migrations

 Unable to contain spread of infectious diseases

Taj Mahal, Agra, India: A symbol of love affected by air pollutants

Emperor Shah Jahan constructed this historic monument in the memory of his wife
Mumtaz Mahal at Agra, India in the year 1648. The innumerable industries in and around
Agra released a large amount of sulphur dioxides, suspended particulate matter, smoke,
soot etc causing tanning, blackening, and yellowing of the marble stone. The oxides
reacting with rainwater resulted in acid precipitation and in return caused the
deterioration and corrosion of the Taj Mahal. In 1984, the Supreme Court of India
ordered designated polluting industries in the Taj area to be shut down and or adopt
cleaner control technologies.

5.2.4 CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION:

5.2.4.1 Zoning:

The zoning of the industries is done based on the type of industries, their function etc. every
city has its own zoning rules. Zoning of the industries may be based on:

(a) Their Functions: the functions include industries such as linkages for industries,
sidings etc.

(b) Performance: the performance includes classification of industries according to their

nuisance value such as (i) Traffic congestion (ii) Obnoxious and hazardous emissions,
and (iii) Industrial nuisance such as smoke, dust , dirt, odour, noise etc.

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If zoning is done properly, it results inconsiderable improvement of health of the community
as a whole. It prevents the invasion of undesirable in and around residential areas and so
toxic, hazardous and harmful gases and odours are prevented from entering or attacking the
humans living in residential areas.

5.2.4.2 Air pollution control at source:

The air pollution problem can be minimized at the source of making use of the following
measures.

(a) Raw Material Substitution: In order to check air pollution, it is desirable to

substitute the raw material if it results in pollution, by another one which is less
polluting. The raw material may contain an ingredient which is not essential but a
pollution source. The pollution can be minimised if the non essential ingredient is
removed before the processing of the raw material. Low sulphur fuels can be used in
place of high sulphur fuels in order to control air pollution by SO 2.

(b) Modification of Process: Pollution reduction can frequently be achieved by using

modified procedure or new process. For example, the use of exhaust hoods and ducts
over several types of industrial ovens allow the recovery of various solvents that
could have become air pollutants.

(c) Equipment Alterations: Equipment alterations such as the use of floating roof tanks
rather than vented tanks can cut down on the evaporation losses. New type of
equipment for example, the basic oxygen furnaces which are replacing the open
hearth furnaces in steel industry, pose much less air pollution problems.

5.2.4.3 Controlling air pollution by devices:

Because of large number of industries, various types of gases are liberated in the atmosphere
along with particulates and become major source of air pollution. In order to prevent these
pollutants into the atmosphere, control devices have been used depending on the collection
property and capacity of the device and nature of the processes used by the particular
industry. Based on the method of removal several types of dust collectors have been used.
Some important control devices are gravity settling chamber, fabric filters, wet scrubbers and
electrostatic precipitator.

Table 5.1 Ambient air quality standards in India by the central pollution control board

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 The terrible Bhopal Gas tragedy of India, 1984

Another classic case study involving air pollution is one of World’s worst industrial
disasters, which occurred on December 3, 1984 in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh (India). The
Union Carbide Company used methyl isocyanate in manufacturing Carbaryl (carbamate)
pesticides. On the fatal day none of the safety devices worked and there was a functional
failure of the vent scrubber outlet. There was a violent chemical reaction in the tank and
the pressure built up. This popped the safety valve open. The safety valve remained open
for more than two hours. As a result over 30 - 40 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) and 35
– 40 kg phosgene were emitted into the atmosphere. The gas spread over the entire region
and city, air being the medium. Approximately 5000 people died in the disaster. More
than 2,50,000 people were exposed to the gas. MIC afflicts the lungs, eyes, skin,
respiratory system, gastrointestinal system etc. The clean up of the tragedy cost
approximately 570 million U.S. dollars compared to the cost of the safety devices, which
would have cost only 1 million U.S. dollars if it had been installed before the tragedy.
The after effects of the Bhopal gas tragedy are seen even today with people and children
having genetic disorders.

5.3 WATER POLLUTION

When the quality or composition of water changes directly or indirectly as a result of man’s
activities such that it becomes unfit for any useful purpose is said to be polluted.

5.3.1 TWO TYPES OF POLLUTIONS:

1. Point source of pollution: This source of pollution can be readily identified because it has
a definite source and place, where it enters the water. Eg: Municipal industrial discharges
pipes.

2. Non point source of pollution: when a source of pollution cannot be readily identified
such as agricultural runoff, acid rain etc, it is called as non point source of pollution.

5.3.2 CAUSES OF SURFACE WATER POLLUTION:

 Disease causing agents parasitic worms, bacteria, viruses, protozoa that enter water
from domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes.

 Oxygen depleting wastes: These are organic wastes that can be decomposed by
aerobic bacteria. The amount of oxygen required to break down a certain amount of
organic matter is called BOD. It is an indicator of level of pollution.

 Inorganic plant nutrients: There are water soluble nitrates and phosphates.

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  Excess pesticides: For control of pest pesticides are used in discriminately. These fall
on ground and leach with rain water to canals and rivers.

 Water soluble organic chemicals: These are acids, salts and compounds of toxic
metals such as mercury & lead.

 Variety of organic chemicals: includes oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, detergents

& many other chemicals.

 The sediments of suspended matter: Occur when soil is eroded.

 Water soluble radioactive isotopes: Enter the water courses along with rain water.

 Hot water released by power plants & industries that use large volume of water to
cool the plant results in a rise in temp of local water bodies.

 Acid drainage into rivers.

5.3.3 CAUSES OF GROUND WATER POLLUTION:

A greater threat to human life comes from ground water which is used for drinking and
irrigation being polluted.

 Urban runoff of untreated or poorly treated waste water storage and garbage

 Industrial waste storage located above or near aquifer

 Agricultural practices such as application of large amounts of fertilizers and

pesticides, animal feeding operations etc in rural sector

 Leaks from underground storage tanks containing gasoline and other hazardous
substances

 Leachate from land fills

 Poorly designed and inadequately maintained septic tanks

 Mining waters

5.3.4 EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION:

1. Large amount of human waste in water increase the number of bacteria such as Escherichia
coli and streptococcus species which cause gastro intestinal diseases. Water borne diseases
diarrhea, typhoid etc.

2. If more organic matter is added to water the O2 is used up. This causes fish and other forms
of O2 dependent aquatic life dies.

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3. Eutrophication due to inorganic pollutants: Eutrophication The term “eutrophic” means
well-nourished; thus, “eutrophication” refers to natural or artificial addition of nutrients to
bodies of water and to the effects of the added nutrients. When the effects are undesirable,
eutrophication may be considered a form of pollution (National Academy of Sciences, 1969).
Nixon (1995) defined it as an increase in the rate of supply of organic matter in an ecosystem.
It is the process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of nutrients,
especially phosphates and nitrates. These typically promote excessive growth of algae. As the
algae die and decompose, high levels of organic matter and the decomposing organisms
deplete the water of available oxygen, causing the death of other organisms, such as fish.
Similarities include subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia, and severe
reductions in water quality, fish and other animal populations may occur. Other species may
experience an increase in population that negatively affects other species in the direct
ecosystem. In simpler terms it is the bloom of phytoplankton in a water body. It is often the
result of anthropogenic pollution with nutrients, particularly the release of sewage effluent
and agricultural run-off carrying fertilizers into natural waters. However, it also occurs
naturally in situations where nutrients accumulate (e.g. depositional environments) or where
they flow into systems on an ephemeral basis. Eutrophication generally promotes excessive
plant growth and decay, favours simple algae and plankton over other more complicated
plants, and causes a severe reduction in water quality. In aquatic environments, enhanced
growth of choking aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton (eg: algal blooms) disrupts normal
functioning of the ecosystem, causing a variety of problems such as a lack of oxygen in the
water, needed for fish and shellfish to survive. The water then becomes cloudy, coloured a
shade of green, yellow, brown, or red.

Human society is impacted as well: eutrophication decreases the resource value of rivers,
lakes, and estuaries such that recreation, fishing, hunting, and aesthetic enjoyment are
hindered. Health-related problems can occur where eutrophic conditions interfere with
drinking water treatment.

4. Biomagnification due to excess use of pesticides: Biomagnification, also known as

bioamplification or biological magnification, is the increase in concentration of a
substance, such as the pesticide DDT that occurs in a food chain as a consequence of:

 Persistence (can't be broken down by environmental processes)

 Food chain energetic

Low (or nonexistent) rate of internal degradation/excretion of the substance (often due to
water-insolubility). Biological Magnification often refers to the process whereby certain
substances such as pesticides or heavy metals move up the food chain, work their way into
rivers or lakes, and are eaten by aquatic organisms such as fish, which in turn are eaten by
large birds, animals or humans. The substances become concentrated in tissues or internal
organs as they move up the chain. Bioaccumulants are substances that increase in
concentration in living organisms as they take in contaminated air, water, or food because the

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substances are very slowly metabolized or excreted. For example, though mercury is only
present in small amounts in sea water, it is absorbed by algae (generally as methyl mercury.
Bioaccumulation and bioconcentration result in buildup in the adipose tissue of successive
trophic levels: zooplankton, small nekton, larger fish etc. Anything which eats these fish also
consumes the higher level of mercury the fish have accumulated. This process explains why
predatory fish such as swordfish and sharks or birds like osprey and eagles have higher
concentrations of mercury in their tissue than could be accounted for by direct exposure
alone. For example, herring contains mercury at approximately 0.01 ppm and shark contains
mercury at greater than 1 ppm (EPA 1997).

Pesticide pollution in India

One of the most terrifying effects of pesticide contamination of groundwater came to light
when pesticide residues were found in bottled water. Between July and December 2002,
the Pollution Monitoring Laboratory of the New Delhi-based Center for Science and
Environment (CSE) analyzed 17 brands of bottled water, both packaged drinking water
and packaged natural mineral water, commonly sold in areas that fall within the national
capital region of Delhi. Pesticide residues of organochlorine and organophosphorus
pesticides, which are most commonly used in India, were found in all the samples.

One may wonder as to how these pesticide residues get into bottled water that is
manufactured by several big companies. This can be traced to several facts. There is no
regulation that the bottled water industry must be located in 'clean' zones. Currently, the
manufacturing plants of most brands are situated in the dirtiest industrial estates or in the
midst of agricultural fields.

These plants use membrane technology, where the water is filtered using membranes with
ultra-small pores to remove fine suspended solids and all bacteria and protozoa and even
viruses. While nanofiltration can remove insecticides and herbicides, it is expensive and
thus rarely used. Most industries also use an activated charcoal adsorption process, which
is effective in removing organic pesticides but not heavy metals. To remove pesticides, the
plants use reverse osmosis and granular activated charcoal methods. So even though the
manufacturers claim to use these processes, the presence of pesticide residues points to the
fact that either the manufacturers do not use the treatment process effectively or only treat
a part of the raw water.

5. High levels of organic chemicals (acids, salts& toxic metals) can make the water unfit to
drink, harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields

6. Variety of organic chemicals / oil gasoline, plastics detergents) are harmful to aquatic life
and human life

7. Sediments (erosion) fish, clog the lakes and artificial reservoirs

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8. Radioisotopes cause birth defects, cancer and genetic damage. Hot water cause thermal
pollution not only decrease the solubility of O2 but also changes the breeding cycles of
various aquatic organisms

9. Hot water because of thermal pollution not only decreases the solubility of O2 but also
changes the breeding cycles of various aquatic organisms.

10. Accidental oil spills cause environmental damage.

11. Minamata disease is caused due to mercury poisoning of water.

12. Fluorine contamination in drinking water causes Fluorosis, NO 3 contamination causes

Blue baby disease (Methaemoglobinaceae) and PO4 contamination causes bone marrow
disease.

13. Arsenic poisioning is the major effect mostly in West Bengal. Arsenicosis or arsenic
toxicity develops after 2-5 years exposure to arsenic contaminated drinking water.

5.3.5 CONTROL MEASURES OF WATER POLLUTION:

 Setting up of effluent and sewage treatment plants to treat waste water can reduce the
pollution load in the recipient water. The treated effluent and domestic water can be
reused either for gardening or cooling purposes or wherever possible. Sewage
treatment either removes the harmful components or converts them into harmless
components.

 Integrated nutrient management (INM) and integrated pest management (IPM)

practices will reduce the effects caused due to excess pesticides.

 For effective control of water pollution, legal provisions regarding water pollution
should be enforced by special administrative machinery comprising of highly
qualified and experienced personnel.

5.3.5.1 Treatment of Domestic Sewage

Domestic sewage can be purified even to make it suitable for drinking; however the process
is expensive. Usually, treatment of sewage to reduce its organic matter content is adopted. In
this treatment, three steps are involved:

Step 1: Primary Treatment

In this step the following are affected:

a) Large objects are trapped.

b) Dust, grease, scum are removed.

c) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is removed.

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 d) Suspended matter is made to settle down by passing water through the gut chamber.

Step 2: Secondary Treatment

In this step, following are affected:

a) BOD is further reduced.

b) By aeration using a trickling filter, aerobic organisms are grown to decompose

pollutants.

c) The water at the end of this step can be used for irrigation and in industries.

Step 3: Tertiary Treatment

In this expensive step,

a) Organic chemicals and nutrients are removed.

b) The dissolved organic salts are removed using coagulation or distillation or reverse
osmosis.

c) Pathogens are destroyed by disinfection.

The water after this treatment is fit for groundwater recharge. After chlorination and proper
check, it can be used for drinking.

5.4 THERMAL POLLUTION

Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that increases the
ambient water temperature. The increase in temperature (a) decreases the dissolved
oxygen/oxygen supply, and (b) affects ecosystem composition.

5.4.1 SOURCES OF THERMAL POLLUTION:

1) Industries: A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by

power plants and industrial manufacturers.

i) Hydro-electric power plants

ii) Coal fired power plants

iii) Nuclear power plants

iv) Industrial effluents from power, textiles, paper and pulp industries

2) Urban runoff: storm water discharged to surface waters from roads and parking lots can
also be a source of elevated water temperatures.

3) Domestic sewage: municipal sewage normally has a higher temperature.

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5.4.2 EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION:

The warmer temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen and increases the metabolism of
fish. Tropical marine animals are generally unable to withstand a temperature increase of 2 to
30C and most sponges, mollusks and crustaceans are eliminated at temperatures above 370C.
When a power plant first opens or shuts down for repair or other causes, fish and other
organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by the abrupt rise in water
temperature known as 'thermal shock'.

 Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen (DO) in water.
The decrease in levels of DO can harm aquatic animals such as fish and amphibians.

 Thermal pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme
activity, resulting in these organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if
their environment were not changed. In Australia, where many rivers have warmer
temperature regimes, native fish species have been eliminated, and macro invertebrate
fauna have been drastically altered and impoverished.

 An increased metabolic rate may result to fewer resources; the more adapted
organisms moving in, may have an advantage over organisms that are not used to the
warmer temperature. As a result one has the problem of compromising food chains of
the old and new environments. As a result Biodiversity can be decreased.

 Releases of unnaturally cold water from reservoirs can dramatically change the fish
and macro invertebrate fauna of rivers, and reduce river productivity.

 Increase in toxicity: The rising temperature changes the physical and chemical
properties of water. A100 C rise in temperature doubles the toxic effect of potassium
cyanide.

 Interference with reproduction: In fishes, several activities like nest building,

spawning, hatching, migration and reproduction etc. depend on some optimum
temperature. For instance, the maximum temperature at which lake trout will spawn
successfully is 8.90 C. the warm water not only disturbs spawning, but also destroys
the laid eggs.

 Increased vulnerability to disease: Activities of several pathogenic microorganisms

are accelerated by higher temperature. Hot water causes bacterial disease in salmon
fish.

 Invasion of destructive organisms: Thermal pollutants may permit the invasion of

organisms that are tolerant to warm water and highly destructive. Invasion of
shipworms into New jersey’s Oyster Creek constitute the best example.

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  Many of the planktons, small fish and insect larvae that re sucked into the condenser
along with the cooling water are killed by the thermal shock, increased pressure and
water viscosity.

River pollution in India

Almost all the rivers in India are polluted. The causes of pollution may also be more or
less similar. This is a case study of the River Damodar as reported in Down to Earth.
The 563-km long Damodar River originates near Chandwa village in the Chhotanagpur
hills in Bihar's Palamau district. It flows through one of the richest mineral belts in the
world before draining into the Hooghly, about 50 km south of Kolkota. Indian industry
depends heavily on this region as 60% of the coal consumed in our country comes from
the Chhotanagpur belt. Coal-based industries of all types dot the area because of
locational advantages and the easy availability of water and power. In addition, various
industries such as steel, cement, fertilizer and explosive plants are also located here.
The River Damodar is polluted with minerals, mine rejects and toxic effluents. Both its
water and its sand are infested by coal dust and waste from these industries. There are
seven thermal power plants in the Damodar valley. The states of Bihar and West Bengal
depend almost entirely on this area for their power requirements. These power plants
not only consume a lot of water but also dump ash in the valley.

5.4.3 CONTROL MEASURES OF THERMAL POLLUTION:

 Thermal pollution can be controlled by passing the heated water through a cooling
pond or a cooling tower after it leaves the condenser. One method is to construct a
large shallow pond. Hot water is pumped into one end of pond and cooler water is
removed from the other end. Another method is using a cooling tower.

 During warm weather, urban runoff can have significant thermal impacts on small
streams, as storm water passes over hot parking lots, roads and sidewalks. Storm
water management facilities that absorb runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as
bioretention systems and infiltration basins, can reduce these thermal effects.
Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be
heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.

5.5 MARINE POLLUTION

Marine pollution is defined as the introduction of substances to the marine environment

directly or indirectly by man resulting in adverse effects such as hazardous to human health,
obstruction of marine activities and lowering the quality of sea water

5.5.1 SOURCES OF MARINE POLLUTION:

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  Municipal waste & sewage from residences and hotels in coastal towns are directly
discharged into sea

 Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture which are washed off by rain enter water
courses & finally to sea. India is estimated to use 55,000 tons of pesticides annually
and about 25 percent of it is carried to ocean.

 Petroleum & oil washed of from roads normally enter sewage system & finally into
seas

 Ship accidents & accidental spillage at sea can therefore be very damaging to the
marine environment.

 Off shore oil exploration also pollute the sea water to a large extent.

 Dry docking: All ships periodic dry docking servicing; cleaning the hulls etc. during
this period when cargo compartments are emptied, residual oil goes into sea.

 Pollution due to organic wastes: When O2 concentration falls 1.5 mg/l, the rate of
aerobic oxidants reduced and replaced by the anaerobic bacteria that can oxidize the
organic molecules without the use of oxygen.

 Pollution due to oil: Crude oil is transported by sea after a tanker has unloaded its
cargo of oil; it has to take on sea water ballast for return journey. This ballast water is
stored in cargo compartments that previously contained oil. During unloading of
cargo certain amount of oil remains clinging to the walls of container & this may
amount to 800t in a 200,000t tankers. The ballast water thus contaminated with oil.
When fresh crag of oil is to be loaded these compartments are clean with water which
discharges the dirty ballast along with oil into sea.

 Tanker accidents: In the natural process, a large no of oil tanker accidents happen
every year. Sometimes this can results in major disasters.

 Volcanic eruptions in the sea.

 Deep sea mining is a relatively new mineral retrieval process that takes place on the
ocean floor. Ocean mining sites are usually done at about 1,400 - 3,700 meters below
the ocean’s surface. The vents create sulfide deposits, which contain precious metals
such as silver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc. These raises questions about
environment damage to surrounding areas. Removal of parts of the sea floor will
result in disturbances to the benthic layer, and habitat of benthic organisms. Beside
from direct impact of mining the area, leakage, spills and corrosion would alter the
mining area’s chemical makeup.

5.5.2 EFFECTS OF MARINE POLLUTION:

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 Apart from causing Eutrophication, a large amount of organic wastes can also result
in the development of ‘red tides’. These are phytoplankton blooms because of which
the whole area is discolored.

 Commercially important marine species are also killed due to clogging of gills and
other structures.

 When oil is spilled on the sea, it spreads over the surface of the water to form a thin
film called as oil slick. This damages marine life to a large extent. Commercial
damage to fish by tainting which gives unpleasant flavor to fish and sea food reduces
market values of sea food and causes death of birds through its effect on feathers.
Birds often clean their plumage by pruning and in the process consume oil which can
lead to intestinal, renal and liver failure.

 For salt marshy plants oil slick can affect the flowering, fruiting and germination.

 Organic waste addition results in end products such as hydrogen sulphide, ammonia
and methane which are toxic to many organisms. This process results in the formation
of an anoxic zone which is low in its oxygen content; from which most life disappears
except for anaerobic microorganisms and renders the water foul smelling.

 The coral reefs are the productive ecosystems offer many benefits to people. These
coral reefs are threatened by a) the sediments from deforestation carried by the
runoffs. b) the agricultural and industrial chemicals reaching through river discharges.
To mention an example, River Ganga is estimated to carry 1.5 billion tons of
sediments due to deforestation and intensive farming in India, Bangladesh and Nepal
through which it flows to Bay of Bengal.

 Drill cuttings dumped on the seabed result in the production of toxic sulphides in the
bottom sediment thus eliminating the benthic fauna.

Case study: Marine Pollution in Tamil Nadu: Oceans not spared

Industrial pollution has threatened the natural habitats of pearls in the pearl banks of
Tuticorin coast in the Gulf of Mannar. It has affected fish and other organisms as far as
30 kms south of Tuticorin due to effluents released from chemical industries. Tannery
wastes have caused the pollution of coastal waters from Chennai to Vedaranyam. The
effect of diversity of phytoplankton ecology of mangrove estuaries of Tuticorin is
greatly affected by industrial effluents. The Chennai coastal waters showed high levels
of pesticides like DDT, lindane, endosulphan and heptachlor. The bioaccumulation of
these pesticides in marine organisms could pose major health hazards.(Ref:.Sushmitha
Baskar and R.Baskar)

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5.5.3 CONTROL MEASURES OF MARINE POLLUTION:

 Introduction of sewage treatment plants to reduce BOD of final product before

discharging into sea.

 Cleaning oil from surface waters and contaminated beaches can be accelerated
through the use of chemical dispersants which can be sprayed on the oil.

 Load on top system reduce oil pollution cleaned with high pressures jets of water.

 Crude oil washing: The clingage is removed by jets of crude oil while the cargo is
being unloaded.

5.6 NOISE POLLUTION

Noise may not seem as harmful as the contamination of air or water, but it is a pollution
problem that affects human health and can contribute to a general deterioration of
environmental quality. Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. All sound is not noise. It
may be considered as music to one person and may be noise to another. Noise is defined as
‘unwanted or offensive sound that unreasonably intrude into our daily activities’. Sound is
measured in a unit called the decibel (dB). The permitted noise level is 125 decibels as per
the Environment Protection Rules 1999.

5.6.1 SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION:

There are numerous sources but may be broadly classified into two classes such as indoor and
outdoor.

1) Outdoor - Industries/factories, vehicular movements such as car, motor, truck, train,

tempo, motor cycle, aircrafts, trains, Construction work, defence equipments, explosions,
playing of loudspeakers during various festivals etc. The higher the speed of an air crafts the
greater the noise pollution. The invention of supersonic air crafts has added more noise for
the persons who live near aerodromes. Another source of noise pollution connected with
aeroplanes has been scaring away of birds. Satellites are projected into space with the help of
high explosive rockets also contributes to noise pollution.

2) Indoor - Loudly played radio or music systems, and other electronic gadgets etc.

5.6.2 EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION:

 Emotional or psychological effects - irritability, anxiety and stress. Lack of

concentration and mental fatigue are significant health effects of noise.

 It has been observed that the performance of school children is poor in comprehension
tasks when schools are situated in busy areas of a city and suffer from noise pollution
disturbance.

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  Interferes with normal auditory communication, it may mask auditory warning signals
and hence increases the rate of accidents especially in industries.

 The effects can range in severity from being extremely annoying to being extremely
painful and hazardous Lowers workers efficiency and productivity and higher
accident rates on the job.

 Physical damage to the ear and the temporary hearing loss often called a temporary
threshold shift (TTS). People suffering from this condition will be unable to detect
weak sounds. However, hearing ability is usually recovered within a month of
exposure. Permanent loss, usually called Noise Induced Permanent Threshold Shift
(NIPTS) represents a loss of hearing ability from which there is no recovery. Below a
sound level of 80 dB. hearing loss does not occur at all. However temporary effects
are noticed at sound levels between 80 and 130 dB. About 50 percent of the people
exposed to 95 dB sound levels at work will develop NIPTS and most people exposed
to more than 105 dB will experience permanent hearing loss. A sound level of 150 dB
or more can physically rupture the human eardrum and >180dB can kill a person.

 In additions to hearing losses, excessive sound levels can cause harmful effect on the
circulatory system by raising blood pressure and altering pulse rates.

5.6.3 NOISE CONTROL TECHNIQUES:

There are 4 fundamental ways in which noise can be controlled. 1) Reduce noise at the source
2) block the path of noise 3) increase the path length and 4) protect the recipient.

1) Reduce noise at the source

 Make sure that all openings are acoustically sealed. Noise, lake water rushes out
through any cracks or openings. Muffling vehicles and machinery to reduce the noise.

 In industries, different types of absorptive material can be used to control interior

noise. Noise reduction can be done by using rigid sealed enclosures around machinery
lined with acoustic absorbing material. Isolating machines and their enclosures from
the floor using special spring mounts or absorbent mounts and pads and using flexible
couplings for interior pipelines also contribute to reducing noise pollution at the
source

 Regular and thorough maintenance of operating machinery. We should reduce

mechanical run out of shafts. By reducing this source of vibration excitation many
components like bearing gears and cans may generate less noise and have generate
life. We must improve lubrications. We should install bearings correctly. Improper
installation sometimes is the reason for bearing noise problems

 Traffic volume and speed also have significant effects on the overall sound. Ex:
doubling the speed increases the sound levels by about 9 dB and doubling the traffic
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 volume (number of vehicles per hour) increases sound levels by about 3 dB. A
smooth flow of traffic causes less noise than a stop-and-go traffic pattern. Thus proper
highway planning and design are essential for controlling traffic noise.

 Establishing lower speed limits for highways that pass through residential areas,
limiting traffic volume and providing alternative routes for truck traffic are effective
noise control measures.

 Using efficient flow techniques: for reducing noise associated with high fluid
velocities and turbulence.

 Reducing fluid jet velocities: As jet noise is proportional to the eight power of jet
velocity.

Case study: Noise Hits Whales in Hong Kong

Studies have shown that shipping traffic in Hong Kong, which is one of the busiest ports
in the world with approximately half a million oceanic vessels traveling through its
waters every year (including over 10,000 transits by high speed ferries) has caused
changes in the dolphin and whale behavior especially in response to fast moving vessels.
A special sanctuary was established by the Hong Kong government in 1995, surrounding
the islands of Sha Chau and Lung Kwu Chau, an important place occupied by the
humpback dolphins. At any given time approximately 200 vessels surrounds this
sanctuary. The sanctuary was a measure to mitigate boat traffic and tremendous noise
produced. Adjacent to the sanctuary is an airport, where 700 planes descend and take off
everyday, directly over the sanctuary. All the above activities have caused high noise
input into the natural whale habitat. Noise, a major anthropogenic stress factor has caused
a2)general
Block decline in of
the path thenoise:
whalethrough
populations. (Ref: .Sushmitha
construction Baskar and Baskar)
of temporary/permanent barriers

 Planting of trees around houses can also act as effective noise barriers.

 Highly absorptive interior finish material for walls, ceilings and floors can decrease
indoor noise levels significantly.

3) Increasing the path length: Increasing distance from the noise source and the
recipient offers a passive means of control.

 Municipal land- use ordinances pertaining to the location of airports make use of the
attenuating effect of distance on sound levels.

4) Protect the recipient

 Use of earplugs and earmuffs. Specially designed earmuffs can reduce the sound level
reaching the eardrum by as much as 40 dB.

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Besides these in general making Legislation, Educating and bringing awareness in the people
is common for control of any pollution Ex: Ban on loud speakers from 10pm to 6pm.

5.7 NUCLEAR POLLUTION

Radionuclides are elements (uranium 235, uranium 283, thorium 232, potassium 40, radium
226, carbon 14 etc) with unstable atomic nuclei and on decomposition release ionizing
radiations in the form of alpha, beta and gamma rays. Out of the known 45O radioisotopes
only some are of environmental concern like strontium 90, tritium, plutonium 239, argon 41,
cobalt 60, cesium 137, iodine 131, krypton 85 etc. These can be both beneficial and harmful,
depending on the way in which they are used. We routinely use X-rays to examine bones for
fractures, treat cancer with radiation and diagnose diseases with the help of radioactive
isotopes. About 17% of the electrical energy generated in the world comes from nuclear
power plants.

Radioactive substances when released into the environment are either dispersed or become
concentrated in living organisms through the food chain. Other than naturally occurring
radioisotopes, significant amounts are generated by human activity, including the operation
of nuclear power plants, the manufacture of nuclear weapons, and atomic bomb testing.

For example, strontium 90 behaves like calcium and is easily deposited and replaces calcium
in the bone tissues. It could be passed to human beings through ingestion of strontium-
contaminated milk. Again another example is tritium, which is radioactive hydrogen. The
amount of tritium released from nuclear power plants to the atmosphere have reached as high
as tens of thousands of curies in one year, and releases to bodies of water have measured as
high as tens of millions of picocuries per litre. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
standard for permissible levels of tritium in drinking water is 20,000 picocuries per litre.
Nuclear power plants routinely and accidentally release tritium into the air and water. Tritium
has a half- life of 12.3 years and emits radioactive beta particles. Once tritium is inhaled or
swallowed, its beta particles can bombard cells causing a mutation.

Few occupations that involve radioactive exposures are uranium mineworkers, radium watch
dial painters, technical staff at nuclear power plants, etc. Exposure to radioactive and nuclear
hazards has been clinically proven to cause cancer, mutations and teratogenesis
(Teratogenesis is a prenatal toxicity characterized by structural or functional defects in the
developing embryo or fetus).

Nuclear hazard effects can be either initial or residual. Initial effects occur in the immediate
area of explosion and are hazardous immediately after the explosion where as the residual
effects can last for days or years and cause death. The principal initial effects are blast and
radiation. Blast causes damage to lungs, ruptures eardrums, collapses structures and causes
immediate death or injury. Thermal Radiation is the heat and light radiation, which a nuclear
explosion’s fireball emits producing extensive fires, skin burns, and flash blindness. Nuclear
radiation consists of intense gamma rays and neutrons produced during the first minute after
the explosion. This radiation causes extensive damage to cells throughout the body. Radiation
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damage may cause headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and even death, depending on the
radiation dose received.

5.7.1 SOURCES OF NUCLEAR POLLUTION

The sources of radioactivity include both natural and manmade.

Sources of Nuclear Pollution

NATURAL SOURCES MAN-MADE SOURCES

 Cosmic rays from outer space.
 Emissions from radioactive materials in the
earth’s crust (rocks, marine sediments etc).
 Mining and processing of radioactive ores
 Use of radioactive materials in power
plants
 Use of radioactive isotopes in medical
technology (x-ray machines, radioisotopes
used in medicine)
 Industrial applications include wastes from
nuclear reactors
 Research applications: radioactive fallouts
during nuclear weapons testing.
 In a nuclear power plant, any leak or
accident taking place emit nuclear
radiation.
 Nuclear tests Conducted under the ground
or under oceans which also release
radiation.
 Uranium mining and milling, Nuclear
reactors and reprocessing of nuclear fuel
cause nuclear pollution.

5.7.2 EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR POLLUTION

Studies have shown that the health effects due to radiation are dependent on the level of dose,
kind of radiation, duration of exposure and types of cells irradiated. Radiation effects can be
somatic or genetic.

Radiation effects

Somatic effects Genetic effects

1. Somatic effects the function of cells and organs. It causes damages to cell
membranes, mitochondria and cell nuclei resulting in abnormal cell functions, cell
division, growth and death.

2. Genetic effects the future generations. Radiations can cause mutations, which are
changes in genetic makeup of cells. These effects are mainly due to the damages to
DNA molecules. People suffer from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to doses

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 around 100 to 1000 roentgens. Instantaneous deaths on exposure in the event if
disasters are many.

5.7.3 CONTROL MEASURES

 Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and scientifically.

 Nuclear power plants should be located in areas after careful study of the geology of
the area, tectonic activity and meeting other established conditions.

 Appropriate protection against occupational exposure

 Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, careless use of radioactive

elements as fuel and careless handling of radioactive isotopes must be prevented.

 Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements must be ensured in

nuclear plants.

 Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for diagnosis by x- rays.

 Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high risk area should
be ensured.

Among the many options for waste disposal, the scientists prefer to bury the waste in
hundreds of meters deep in the earth’s crust is considered to be the best safety long term
option.

The Chernobyl nuclear disaster: A lesson in the technological disaster of human

history.

This disaster that occurred on April 26, 1986 in Ukraine, (i.e. former USSR) at the
Chernobyl power plant reactor, designed to produce 1000 MW of electrical energy. It
resulted in the release of Sr-90, Ce-134, Ce-137, 1-131 etc. which polluted the whole
region. The explosion occurred due to faulty shutting down of the plant. Combustion of
the graphite rods inside the rector resulted in fire and the temperature of the reactor went
up to 2000°C. The radioactive debris, gases and plume drifted over the entire northern
hemisphere affecting mostly Sweden, Norway, Poland, and Denmark etc. More than 2000
people died in the disaster and many children were affected with congenital
abnormalities. The disaster damaged agricultural crops, plants and caused cancer, lung,
eye and blood disorders. Many European countries like Denmark and Sweden had banned
the import of milk and milk containing products from the former USSR. This was
because the milk was contaminated by 1-131, which had entered the cows through
grazing on pastures and plants, contaminated with the same.

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5.8 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

The combined effects of population explosion and changing modern living standards have
had a cumulative effect in the generation of a large amount of various types of wastes. Solid
waste can be classified into different types depending on their source.

Municipal solid waste (MSW)

Hazardous waste

Industrial waste

Biomedical or hospital waste: as infectious waste.

Agricultural waste

5.8.1 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW):

The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is generally used to describe most of the non-
hazardous solid waste from a city, town or village that requires routine collection and
transport to a processing or disposal site. Sources of MSW include private homes,
commercial establishments and institutions, as well as industrial facilities. However, MSW
does not include wastes from industrial processes, construction and demolition debris,
sewage sludge, mining waste or agricultural wastes. MSW is also called as trash or garbage.
In general, domestic waste and MSW are used as synonyms.

Municipal solid waste contains a wide variety of materials. It can contain food waste (like
vegetable and meat material, leftover food, eggshells etc.), which is classified as wet garbage
as well as paper, plastic, tetrapack, plastic cans, newspaper, glass bottles, carboard boxes,
aluminum foil, metal items, wood pieces, etc., which is classified as dry garbage. The
different types of domestic wastes generated and the time taken for them to degenerate is
illustrated in the table given below.

Table 5.2: Domestic wastes and their degeneration time

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India’s urban population slated to increase from the current 330 million to about 600 million
by 2030, the challenge of managing municipal solid waste (MSW) in an environmentally and
economically sustainable manner is bound to assume gigantic proportions. The country has
over 5,000 cities and towns, which generate about 40 million tonnes of MSW per year today.
Going by estimates of The Energy Research Institute (TERI), this could well touch 260
million tonnes per year by 2047.

5.8.1.1 The functional elements of MSW management

The municipal solid waste industry has four components: recycling, composting, landfilling,
and waste-to-energy via incineration. The primary steps are generation, collection, sorting
and separation, transfer and disposal/utilisation.

1. Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no

longer being of value and are either thrown out or gathered together for disposal.

2. The functional element of Collection includes not only the gathering of solid waste
and recyclable materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to
the location where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be a materials
processing facility, a transfer station or a landfill disposal site.

3. Waste handling and separation involves activities associated with waste

management until the waste is placed in storage containers for collection. Handling
also encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection.
Separating different types of waste components is an important step in the handling
and storage of solid waste at the source. The types of means and facilities that are now
used for the recovery of waste materials that have been separated at the source include
curbside collection, drop off and buy back centers.

4. Transfer and transport involves two main steps. First, the waste is transferred from
a smaller collection vehicle to larger transport equipment. The waste is then
transported, usually over long distances, to a processing or disposal site.

5. Today the disposal of wastes by land filling or land spreading is the ultimate fate of
all solid wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly
to a landfill site, residual materials from materials recovery facilities (MRFs), residue
from the combustion of solid waste, compost or other substances from various solid
waste processing facilities. A modern sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an
engineered facility used for disposing of solid wastes on land without creating
nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, such as the breeding of insects and the
contamination of ground water. Municipal solid waste can be used to generate energy.

Several technologies have been developed that make the processing of MSW for energy
generation cleaner and more economical than ever before, including landfill gas capture,
combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and plasma arc gasification. While older waste

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incineration plants emitted high levels of pollutants, recent regulatory changes and new
technologies have significantly reduced this concern.

In USA, EPA regulations in 1995 and 2000 under the Clean Air Act have succeeded in
reducing emissions of dioxins from waste-to-energy facilities by more than 99 percent below
1990 levels, while mercury emissions have been by over 90 percent The EPA noted these
improvements in 2003, citing waste-to-energy as a power source “with less environmental
impact than almost any other source of electricity”.

Municipal solid waste management is more of an administrative and institutional mechanism

failure problem rather than a technological one. Until now, MSW management has been
considered to be almost the sole responsibility of urban governments, without the
participation of citizens and other stakeholders. The Centre and the Supreme Court, however,
have urged that this issue be addressed with multiple stakeholder participation. Cities in India
spend approximately 20% of the city budget on solid waste services.

5.8.2 HAZARDOUS WASTES

Hazardous wastes are those that can cause harm to human and the environment.

5.8.2.1 Characteristics of hazardous wastes:

Wastes are classified as hazardous if they exhibit any of four primary characterises based on
physical or chemical properties of toxicity, reactivity ignitability and corrosivity.

1) Toxic wastes: Toxic wastes are those that are poisonous in small or trace amounts.
Some may have acute or immediate effect on human or animals. Carcinogenic or
mutagenic causing biological changes in the children of exposed people and animals.
Eg: pesticides, heavy metals.

2) Reactive wastes: reactive wastes are those that have a tendency to react vigorously
with air or water are unstable to shock or heat, generate toxic gases or explode during
routine management. Eg: Gun powder, nitro glycerine.

3) Ignitable waste: are those that burn at relatively low temperatures (<60o C) and are
capable of spontaneous combustion during storage transport or disposal. Eg:
Gasoline, paint thinners and alcohol.

4) Corrosive wastes: are those that destroy materials and living tissues by chemical
reactions. Eg: acids and base.

5) Infectious wastes: included human tissue from surgery, used bandages and hypoderm
needles hospital wastes.

5.8.2.2 Sources of Hazardous Wastes:

Chemical manufacturing companies, petroleum refineries, paper mills, smelters and other
industries. Plastic industries Thousand of chemicals are used in industries every year. When
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used incorrectly or inappropriately they can become health hazards. PCBs (Polychlorinated
biphenyls) are resistant to fire and do not conduct electricity very well, which makes them
excellent materials for several industrial purposes. Rainwater can wash PCBs out of disposal
areas in dumps and landfills thus contaminating the water. PCBs do not break open very
rapidly in the environment and thus retain their toxic characteristics. They cause long-term
exposure problems to both human and wildlife. Many household chemicals can be quite toxic
to humans as well as wildlife. Most of the dangerous substance in our homes are found in
various kinds of clearness, solvents and products used in automotive care. When these
products are used incorrectly they have the potential to be harmful.

5.8.2.3 Effects of Hazardous Wastes:

As most of the hazardous wastes are disposed off or in land, the most serious environmental
effect is contaminated ground water. Once ground water is polluted with hazardous wastes, it
is very often not possible to reverse the damage. Pesticides form residues in the soil that are
washed into streams which then carry them forward. The residues may persist in PCBs (poly
chlorinated biphenyls) are concentrated in the kidneys and liver and cause damage; they
cause reproductive failure in birds and mammals .The soil or in the bottom of lakes and
rivers. Exposure can occur through ingestion, inhalation and skin contact, resulting acute or
chronic poisoning. Lead, mercury and arsenic are hazardous substances which can often refer
to as heavy metals. Most of the lead absorbed by people is stored in the bones. Lead can
affect red blood cells by reducing their ability to carry oxygen and shortening their life span.
Lead may also damage nervous tissue, resulting in brain disease. Mercury is used in
production of chlorine and as a catalyst in the production of some plastics.

Mercury build up in body over long period of time is known to cause brain damage.
Minamata disease occurs due to mercury poisoning. Vinyl chloride is a chemical that is
widely used in plastic manufacture. A long continuous exposure in humans it can cause
deafness, vision problem circulation disorders and bone deformities.

Case Study: Minamata – An important lesson about mercury

A case of human mercury poisoning which occurred about forty years ago in the
Minamata Bay in Japan taught the world an important lesson about the dangers of mercury
poisoning. A large plastics plant located near the Minamata bay used mercury containing
compound in a reaction to produce vinyl chloride, a common plastic material. The left
over mercury was dumped into the Bay along with other wastes from the plant. Through
the mercury was in its less toxic inorganic state when dumped, the microorganisms at the
bottom of the bay converted the mercury into its organic form. This organic mercury then
entered into the tissues of fish which were, in turn consumed by the people living in the
area. The contaminated fish thus caused an outbreak of poisoning, killing and affecting
several people. Mothers who had eaten the contaminated fish gave birth to infants who
showed signs of mercury poisoning. Mercury poisoning is thus called ‘Minamata Disease’.

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5.8.2.4 Control of Hazardous Wastes:

Common methods for disposing of hazardous wastes are land disposal and incineration
Industries need to be encouraged to generate less hazardous waste in the manufacturing
process. Although toxic wastes cannot be entirely eliminated, technologies are available for
minimizing recycling and treating the wastes. Integrated pest management practices (IPM)
reduce the usage of pesticides. Substitute the use of PCBs and vinyl chloride with chemicals
that are less toxic. Polyvinyl chloride use can be lowered by reducing the use of plastics.

5.8.3 INDUSTRIAL WASTES

These contain more of toxic and require special treatment.

5.8.3.1 Source of Industrial Wastes:

Food processing industries, metallurgical chemical and pharmaceutical unit’s breweries,

sugar mills, paper and pulp industries, fertilizer and pesticide industries are major ones which
discharge toxic wastes. During processing, scrap materials, tailings, acids etc.

5.8.3.2 Effects of Industrial Wastes:

Most common observation is that the health of the people living in the neighborhood of
dumping sites is severely affected. The exposure may cause disorders of nervous system,
genetic defects, skin diseases and even caner. The liquid effluents discharged by the
industries contain inorganic and organic pollutants and they enter into water bodies causing
destruction of fish, formation of sediments, and pollution of ground water and release of foul
odours.

5.8.3.3 Control of Industrial Wastes:

Waste minimization technologies have to be developed. Source reduction recycling and reuse
of materials need to be practiced on a large scale. Hazardous waste should not mix up with
general waste. Source reduction involves altering the design, manufacture or use of products
& materials to reduce the amount and toxicity of materials that get thrown away. Local
communities and voluntary organizations should educate the industrialists as well as the
public about dangers of pollution and the need to keep the environment clean. Land filling,
incineration & composting technologies to be followed. Biogas is obtained from solid waste
treatment of industrial and mining waste is done for the recovery of useful products.

5.8.4 AGRICULTURAL WASTES

5.8.4.1 Sources of Agricultural Wastes:

The waste generated by agriculture includes waste from crops and live stock. In developing
countries, this waste does not pose a serious problem as most of it is used e.g. dung is used
for manure, straw is used as fodder. Some agro-based industries produce waste e.g., rice

155
milling, production of tea, tobacco etc. Agricultural wastes are rice husk, degasses, ground
nut shell, maize cobs, straw of cereals etc.

5.8.4.2 Effects of Agricultural Wastes:

If more C: N ratio wastes like paddy husk or straw may cause immobilization of nutrients if
applied on the fields. It occupies to large land areas if not properly disposed.

5.8.4.3 Management of Agricultural Wastes:

1. Waste to energy

i) Gasification: It is the process in which chemical decomposition of biomass takes place in

the presence of controlled amounts of oxygen, producing a gas. This gas is cleaned and used
in an internal combustion engine to produce electric power. Without clean up also, the gas
can be used in boilers to produce electric power. This technology is highly suited to generate
electric power from agrl wastes like rice husks, groundnut shells etc.

ii) Pyralysis: It is similar to gasification except that the chemical decomposition of biomass
wastes takes place in the absence or reduced presence of O2 at high temp. Mixtures of gases
result from decomposition including H2, NH4 Co, CO2 depending on the organic nature of
waste matter. This gas used for power generation.

2. Biogas production: Animal wastes, food processing wastes and other organic matter are
decomposed anaerobically to produce a gas called biogas. It contains methane and CO2. The
methane can provides gas for domestic use. The byproduct of this technology is slurry, settled
out the bottom of the digester. This can be used as manure.

3. Agricultural waste like corn cobs, paddy husk, bagasse of sugarcane, waste of wheat, rice
and other cereals, cotton stalks, coconut wastes, jute waste etc can be used in making of paper
and hard board.

5.8.5 BIO-MEDICAL WASTES

Bio-medical waste means any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or
immunisation of human beings or animals or in research activities pertaining thereto or in the
production or testing of biological.

5.8.5.1 Segregation, packaging, transportation and storage

(1) Bio-medical waste shall not be mixed with other wastes.

(2) Bio-medical waste shall be segregated into containers/bags at the point of generation prior
to its storage, transportation, treatment and disposal. The containers shall be properly
labelled.

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 (4) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, or rules there
under, untreated biomedical waste shall be transported only in such vehicle as may be
authorised for the purpose by the competent authority as specified by the government.

(5) No untreated bio-medical waste shall be kept stored beyond a period of 48 hours.
Provided that if for any reason it becomes necessary to store the waste beyond such period,
the authorised person must take permission of the prescribed authority and take measures to
ensure that the waste does not adversely affect human health and the environment.

5.8.5.2 Categories of Bio-medical Wastes

Table 5.3: Categories of bio-medical wastes

Option Treatment & Disposal Waste Category

Cat. No. 1 Incineration /deep burial Human Anatomical Waste (human tissues, organs,
body parts)

Cat. No. 2 Incineration /deep burial Animal Waste Animal tissues, organs, Body parts
carcasses, bleeding parts, fluid, blood and
experimental animals used in research, waste
generated by veterinary hospitals / colleges,
discharge from hospitals, animal houses)

Cat. No. 3 Local autoclaving/ micro
waving/ incineration
Microbiology & Biotechnology waste (wastes from
laboratory cultures, stocks or specimens of micro-
organisms live or attenuated vaccines, human and
animal cell culture used in research and infectious
agents from research and industrial laboratories,
wastes from production of biological, toxins,
dishes and devices used for transfer of cultures)

Cat. No. 4 Disinfections (chemical Waste Sharps (needles, syringes, scalpels blades,
treatment glass etc. that may cause puncture and cuts. This
/autoclaving/micro includes both used & unused sharps)
waving and mutilation
shredding

Cat. No. 5 Incineration / destruction Discarded Medicines and Cytotoxic drugs (wastes
& drugs disposal in comprising of outdated, contaminated and
secured landfills discarded medicines)

Cat. No. 6 Incineration , Solid Waste (Items contaminated with blood and
autoclaving/micro waving body fluids including cotton, dressings, soiled
plaster casts, line beddings, other material

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 contaminated with blood)

Cat. No. 7 Disinfections by chemical Solid Waste (waste generated from disposable
treatment items other than the waste sharps such as tubing,
autoclaving/micro catheters, intravenous sets etc.)
waving& mutilation
shredding.

Cat. No. 8 Disinfections by chemical Liquid Waste (waste generated from laboratory &
treatment and washing, cleaning , house-keeping and
discharge into drain disinfecting activities)

Cat. No. 9 Disposal in municipal Incineration Ash (ash from incineration of any bio-
landfill medical waste)

Cat. No. 10 Chemical treatment & Chemical Waste (chemicals used in production of
discharge into drain for biological, chemicals, used in disinfect ion, as
liquid & secured landfill insecticides, etc)
for solids

Figure 5.3: Waste Management Flowchart

5.8.6 WASTE MINIMIZATION

Waste production can be minimized by adopting the 3 R’s principle: Reduce, Reuse, and
Recycle.

Reduce the amount and toxicity of garbage and trash that you discard.

Reuse containers and try to repair things that is broken.

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Recycle products wherever possible, which includes buying recycled products i.e.
recycled paper books, paper bags etc.

These are processes that involve integrated waste management practices (IWM). They can
reduce the wastes generated by approximately 50 %.

5.8.6.1 Reduce (Waste prevention):

Waste prevention, or “source reduction,” means consuming and discarding less, is a

successful method of reducing waste generation. Backyard composting, double sided copying
of papers, purchasing durable, long- lasting environmentally friendly goods; products and
packaging that are free of toxics, redesigning products to use less raw material production
and transport packaging reduction by industries are the normal practices used and have
yielded substantial environmental benefits. Source reduction prevents emissions of many
greenhouse gases, reduces pollutants the need saves energy, conserves resources, and reduces
wastes for new landfills and combustors. It reduces the generation of waste and is generally
preferred method of waste management that goes a long way toward saving the environment.

5.8.6.2 Re-use:

Re-use is the process, which involves reusing items by repairing them, donating them to
charity and community groups, or selling them. Reusing products is an alternative to
recycling because the item does not need to be reprocessed for its use again. Using durable
glassware, steel using cloth napkins or towels, reusing bottles, reusing boxes, purchasing
refillable pens and pencils are suggested.

5.8.6.3 Recycling:

The process of recycling, including composting, has diverted several million tons of material
away from disposal. Recycled materials include batteries, recycled at a rate of 93%, paper
and paperboard at 48%, and yard trimmings at 56%. These materials and others may be
recycled through drop off centers, buy-back programs, and deposit systems. Recycling
prevents the emission of many greenhouse gases that affect global climate, water pollutants,
saves energy, supplies valuable raw materials to industry, creates jobs, stimulates the
development of greener technologies, conserves resources for our children’s future, and
reduces the need for new landfills and combustors. For example, by recycling of solid waste
in 1996, the United States prevented the release of 33 million tons of carbon into the air
roughly the amount emitted annually by 25 million cars. Recycling can create valuable
resources and it generates a host of environmental, financial, and social benefits. Materials
like glass, metal, plastics, and paper are collected, separated and sent to processing centers
where they are processed into new products. The advantages of recycling are it conserves
resources for future generation, prevents emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants, saves
energy, supplies valuable raw, materials to industries, stimulates the development of greener
technologies, reduces the need for new landfills and incinerators.

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5.9 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION
The role of every individual in preventing pollution is of paramount importance because if
every individual contributes substantially the effect will be visible not only at the community,
city, state or national level but also at the global level as environment has no boundaries. It is
the responsibility of the human race which has occupied the commanding positions on this
earth to protect the earth and provide conducive environment for itself an innumerable other
species which evolved on this earth. A small effort made by each individual at his own place
will have pronounced effect at the global level. It is appropriately said “Think globally act
locally”.

Each individual should change his or her lifestyle in such a way as to reduce environmental
pollution. It can be done through following suggestions:

1. Help more in pollution prevention than pollution control

2. Use eco-friendly products

3. Cut down the use of CFCs as they destroy the ozone layer. Do not use polystyrene cups
that have CFC molecules in them which destroy ozone layer-Hon’ble Mr. Lalu prasad Yadav-
Railway Minister has initiated use of earthen pots for tea serving in Railway which is a
commendable decision in this regard.

4. Use the chemicals derived from peaches and plums to clean computer chips and circuit
boards instead of CFCs.

5. Use CFC free Refrigerators.

The manufacture and operation of such devices should be encouraged that don’t pollute. If
they cost more than their higher prices may be offset by including environmental and the
social costs of pollution in the price of such products which pollute environment. Air
pollution can be prevented by using really clean fuel i.e. hydrogen fuel. Hydrogen for that
matter should not be produced by passing current in water as for generation of this current;
again the environment will be polluted, so solar hydrogen fuel is the need of the hour.

5.10 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Geological processes like earthquakes, volcanoes, floods and landslides are normal natural
events which have resulted in the formation of the earth that we have today. They are
however disastrous in their impact when they affect human settlements. Human societies
have witnessed a large number of such natural hazards in different parts of the world and
have tried to learn to control these processes to some extent.

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 Table5.4: Frequently occurring natural disaster in India

Major such disasters include a devastating earthquake which hit Bhuj Town in Gujarat caused
massive damage, Earth-quake generated water waves called Tsunamis caused tremendous
damage in Tamil nadu and Kerala.

5.10.1 TYPES OF DISASTERS

There are two types of disasters:

(i) Natural Disasters: The disasters that are caused by nature are termed as natural
disasters eg. earthquake, cyclone etc.

(ii) Man-made Disaster: The disasters which are caused as a result of human activities
are termed as Man-Made Disasters eg. Road accident, terrorist attack.

Figure 5.4: Types of Disasters

5.10.1.1 Natural Disasters

1) Earthquake: Earthquake is a sudden and violent shaking of ground causing great

destruction as a result of movement of earth’s crust. An earthquake has the potential to
tsunami or volcanic eruption. Earthquake of magnitude 9.2 on the Richter's scale in 2004
in Indonesia second largest earthquake ever recorded. The deadliest earthquake happened

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 in Central China, killing over 800,000 in 1556. People during that time and region lived
in caves and died from the caves collapsing.

Earthquake mitigation strategies:

• Existing critical facilities built on reclaimed land should be inspected and retrofitted if
necessary to ensure earthquake resistance.

• Future critical facilities should not be located on reclaimed land because of the high
potential for liquefaction.

• Older unreinforced masonry buildings should be inspected and retrofitted if necessary

to increase earthquake resistance.

• Older unreinforced masonry buildings should not be used for critical functions.

2) Cyclone: Cyclones (or more properly called Tropical Cyclones) are a type of severe
spinning (rotating) storm that occurs over the ocean near the tropics. The most famous
Australian historic Cyclone was Cyclone Tracy, December 1974, where around 49
people died in Darwin, Northern Territory. There were another 16 who died but this has
been revised with another 6 more lost making total of 71. The direction they spin
depends on which hemisphere they are in. In the Southern hemisphere they spin in a
clockwise direction and Northern hemisphere they spin in an anti-clockwise direction.

Figure 5.5: Saffir-Simpson scale

Cyclone mitigation strategies:

• Future critical facilities should not be located in areas of accelerated winds.

• The most significant aspect of structural damage to buildings by high velocity wind
results from roof damage. The roofs of existing buildings should be inspected and if
necessary retrofitted to adequate standards.

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 • The roofs of existing critical facilities should be retrofitted to a higher standard to
ensure wind resistance.

• Make sufficient stock of food grains or food packets, kerosene lanterns and other dry
food commodities are available for distribution to the victims

• Building openings such as windows and doors also suffer damage from high velocity
winds. These openings if not constructed of wood or metal should be protected with
shutters or temporary covers of adequate design.

Table 5.5: Classification of cyclone based on speed

3) Tsunami: Tsunamis are giant waves, initiated by a sudden change (usually in relative
position of underwater tectonic plates). The sudden jerk is enough to propagate the
wave; however, its power can be enhanced and fed by lunar positioning and boundaries
that focus its energy.

Tsunami mitigation strategies:

• In some tsunami-prone countries earthquake engineering measures have been taken to

reduce the damage caused onshore.

• Japan, where tsunami science and response measures first began following a disaster
in 1896, has produced ever-more elaborate countermeasures and response plans. That
country has built many tsunami walls of up to 4.5 metres (15 ft) to protect populated
coastal areas.

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 • Other localities have built floodgates and channels to redirect the water from
incoming tsunami.

Figure 5.6: Formation of Tsunami

4) Volcanic eruptions: Volcanic disasters are caused by lava flows, volcanic mudflows and
pyroclastic flows triggered by volcanic activities such as eruptions. It covers extensive
areas, volcanic disasters can cause a large-scale damages and serious personal injury.
Secondary disasters such as debris flows are often triggered by rainfall after a volcanic
eruption. In the 1815, the Indonesian eruption threw rocks more than 100 cubic km of
ash killing 92,000 people. The island was lowered by 1.25 km. The greatest volcanic
explosion occurred in Indonesia in 1883, which resulting in rocks hurling 55km up into
the air. The explosion was heard in Australia and generated a 40m high tsunami, killing
36,000 people.

Volcanic disasters mitigation strategies:

 Learn about community warning systems and of disasters that can come from
volcanoes (earthquakes, flooding, landslides, mudflows, thunderstorms, tsunamis)

 Make evacuation plans to higher ground with a backup route

 Get a pair of goggles and a throw-away breathing mask for each member of the
household teach children how and when to cal 9-1-1

 Have disaster supplies on hand (flashlight, extra batteries, portable battery-operated

radio, first aid kit, emergency food and water, nonelectric can opener, cash and credit
cards, and sturdy shoes)

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5) Floods: Flooding is the unusual presence of water on land to a depth which affects
normal activities. Flooding can arise from: overflowing rivers (river flooding), heavy
rainfall over a short duration (flash floods), or an unusual inflow of sea water onto land
(ocean flooding). Ocean flooding can be caused by storms such as hurricanes (storm
surge), high tides (tidal flooding), seismic events (tsunami) or large landslides.

Flood mitigation strategies:

• Watercourses which pass through significant settlement areas should be properly

configured and lined with concrete.

• Existing bridges should be inspected to determine which ones are too low or which
have support pillars within the watercourse channel. Where possible these should be
replaced as these features restrict water flow and cause the channels to be easily
blocked with debris.

• Future bridges should not be built with these undesirable features.

• Buildings constructed adjacent to watercourses should be elevated by at least one

meter to prevent potential flood inundation.

• Critical facilities should not be located adjacent to watercourses.

5.10.1.2 Man-made Disasters

1) Road Accidents: Road accidents are common in India due to reckless driving,
untrained drivers and poor maintenance of roads and vehicles. According to Lifeline
Foundation, the Ahmedabad based organization working for road safety, India
accounts for 13 per cent of road accident fatalities worldwide. With 130,000 deaths in
2007, India tops in the number of people killed in road accidents, surpassing China’s
90,000. Most of these deaths occurred due to bad road designs and lack of proper
traffic management systems to separate different streams of traffic.

2) Building and Bridge Collapse: Building collapses are frequent in India where
construction is often hastily done, with little regard for safety regulations, particularly
in the western part of the country.

3) Terrorist Attack: Devastating acts such as the terrorist attacks on the World Trade
Centre and the Pentagon have left many concerned about the possibility of future
incidents in the United States and their potential impact. Terrorism may involve
devastating acts using weapons of mass destruction ranging from chemical agents,
biological hazards, a radiological or nuclear device, and other explosives. At least 67
people were killed and 50 injured when two firebombs went off on the New Delhi-
Wagah Samjhauta Express just before midnight on 18 February. Most of the dead,
including three children, were Pakistani citizens on their way back home.

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 Mitigation strategies for man-made disasters:

• For road accidents, traffic rules and regulations need to be followed strictly.

• For building and bridge collapse, standard building materials should be used.

• Moreover, more and more public awareness should be made to minimize the effects
of man-made disasters.

If a Terrorism-Related Event Happens:

• Stay calm and be patient.

• Listen to a local radio or television station for news and follow the instructions of
emergency service personnel.

• Be vigilant. If the incident occurs near you, look out for secondary hazards such as
falling debris or additional attacks.

• Check for injuries and summon help for seriously injured people.

5.10.2 AWARENESS THROUGH MASS MEDIA

 Media plays a significant role in educating the population about disaster and its
management

 Without media we could not aware people about disaster in remote areas of the
country

5.10.3 CENTRAL SECTOR SCHEME FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

 Human resource Development

 Setting up of National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM)

 Setting up of Disaster Management Faculties in States

 UNDP is a united nation’s global development programs working in 166 countries.

 Programs for Community Participation and Public Awareness

 Observing National Disaster Reduction Day

QUESTIONS
1. What is pollution? Give examples of natural pollutants of air.

2. Discuss in brief, the causes, kind and control measures of pollution.

3. Give an account of the following:

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 (a) Noise pollution

(b) Radioactive pollution

(c) Soil pollution

(d) Water pollution

(e) Minamata disease

(f) Biomagnification

(g) Itai-Itai disease

(h) Blue baby syndrome

(i) BOD

4. What are pesticides and weedicides? How do they affect our environment?

5. Discuss the efforts of the Indian government to control pollution.

6. What is water pollution? Mention the water pollutants.

7. Describe major water pollutants and their removal.

8. Give an account of indoor air pollution.

9. Discuss various sources of marine pollution. How can you prevent pollution of our
oceans?

10. How does soil pollution affects soil productivity? What measures can be taken to
prevent soil pollution?

11. What type of damage ionisation radiation can cause?

12. Classify solid waste. What are the sources of urban and industrial solid waste?

13. Write short notes on:

(a) Floods

(b) Cyclones

(c) Landslides

(d) Earthquakes

(e) Nitrogen cycle

(f) Carbon cycle

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14. What are the causes of landslides? Discuss its consequences and suggest the
methodology to fight back such hazards.

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 UNIT – VI
SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT.

6.1 FROM UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable Development is such a concept that signifies that “rate of consumption or use of
natural resources should be approximate the rate at which these resources can be substituted or
replaced”.

It also requires that a nation or society should be able to satisfy its requirements- social,
economic and others- without undermining the interest of future generations. Countries of
north use too many natural resources and such practice cannot continue long. Mother Nature
has been making available its resources and services as well it is also serving as receptacle for
absorbing wastes for too long a time. We have to realize now that, Nature today is very fragile.
Nature is finite. And experts have warned that it has reached to a critical threshold beyond
which it would lead to Ecological Decline that would further lead to nothing but “disaster”.

These experts are strong advocates of “limits to growth” philosophy. This concept of
sustainable development can be further extended with the principle of justice and equity
[equal distribution] between the peoples of North and South. Therefore, the national as well
as international leaders and institutions respectively have major responsibility for
sound developmental, economic and environmental issues. They should keep in view the
principle of equity and those principles that determine the intergenerational inequities.

Another aspect of sustainable development is related to, System Analysis, that is to say, how
economic, social and environmental systems interact at various scales of operation to lead
sustainable development that will strike optimal balance among the three subsystems. It must
ultimately lead to reducing poverty of people in developing countries by minimizing
resources depletion, environmental damage and social instability. Marching towards the goal
of sustainable development world summit on Sustainable Development was convened during
August/ September 2002 at Johannesburg. It is the biggest summit convened so far to discuss
the future of the earth and its inhabitants. This summit analyzed the Agenda 21 and agreed on
plan of implementation and declaration of political commitment. United Nations World
Commission on Environment and Development propagates that sustainable development
must meet the needs of the present generation without compromising on the ability of the
future generation to meet their own need and aspirations.

To summarize, Sustainable Development:-

1 Protecting environment

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2 Avoiding depletion of non-renewable resources

3 Seek reliance on alternative sources

4 Equal access to resources

5 Principle of Intergenerational distribution of resources.

6 Systems thinking

Figure 6.1: Sustainable development triangle – key elements and interconnections (corners,
sides, center). (Source: adapted from Munasinghe 1992a, 1994a)

Measures for Sustainable Development: Some of the important measures for sustainable
development are as follows:

 Using appropriate technology is one which is locally adaptable, eco-friendly,

resource-efficient and culturally suitable. It mostly involves local resources and local
labour. Indigenous technologies are more useful, cost – effective and sustainable.
Nature is often taken as a model, using the natural conditions of that region as its
components.

The technology should use less of resources and should produce minimum waste

(i) Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle (3R) approach

(ii) Prompting environmental education and awareness

(iii) Resource utilization as per carrying capacity: any system can sustain a limited
number of organisms on a long term basis which is known as its carrying
capacity.

Carrying capacity has two basic components:

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 - Supporting capacity i.e. the capacity to regenerate.

- Assimilative capacity i.e. the capacity to tolerate different stresses.

In order to attain sustainability it is very important to utilize the resources based upon the
above two properties of the system. Consumption should not exceed regeneration and
changes should not be allowed to occur beyond the tolerance capacity of the system.

6.2 URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY

Urban centre use enormous quantities of energy. In the past, urban housing required
relatively smaller amounts of energy than we use at present. Traditional housing in India
required very little temperature adjustments as the material used, such as wood and bricks,
handled temperature changes better than the current concrete, glass and steel of ultra-modern
building.

Cities are the main centres of economic growth, trade, education, innovations and
employment. Until recently a big majority of human population lived in rural areas and their
economic activities cantered on agriculture, cattle, rearing, fishing, hunting or some cottage
industry. It was some two hundred years ago with the dawn of industrial era the cities showed
rapid development. Now about 50% of the world population lives in urban areas and there is
increasing movement of rural folk to cities in search of employment. The urban growth is so
fast that it is becoming difficult to accommodate all the industrial, commercial and residential
facilities within a limited municipal boundary. As a result there is spreading of the cities into
the sub-urban or rural areas too, this phenomenon is known as “urban sprawl”.

In developing countries too urban growth is very fast and in most of the cases it is
uncontrollable and unplanned growth. In contrast to the rural set up, the urban set up is
densely populated, consumes a lot of energy and materials and generates a lot of waste.

Energy use is closely related to development in industry, transport, communication,

commercial, household and agricultural activities. The energy requirement of urban
population is much higher than that of rural ones. This is because urban people have a higher
standard of life and their lifestyle demands more energy inputs in every sphere of life.

In urban areas the need of energy is increasing by leaps and bounds. Moreover, countries use
energy in an uneven manner in the world. In developed countries the amount of energy used
is much more compared to developing countries. Industrialised developed countries use
energy for these purposes:

(i) Residential and commercial

(ii) Industrial

(iii) Transportation.

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The two sources of energy are renewable and non renewable energy sources. Optimal usage
shall be the ideal mode for energy conservation. For an integrated management system we
should have renewable energy as well as non renewable energy sources. At local level,
biomass energy tapping, use of solar cooker, solar water heaters and solar photovoltaic cells
must be encouraged. This shall be utilised besides the conventional energy from fossil fuels,
hydel, thermal and nuclear power resources.

Due to high population density and high energy demanding activities, the urban problems
related to energy are much more magnified as compared to rural population. There are
several hurdles that play havoc in energy conservation. They are:

(i) Lack of awareness

(ii) Attitude

(iii) Lack of technical knowledge

(iv) Market distortion

(v) Capital shortages.

Regardless of the level of economic development, it is essential to realize sustainable growth

of the economies in order to maintain a world order, and restrictions on energy supply which
may hinder a sustainable economic development should be avoided at all costs. At the same
time, however, inefficient final energy consumption which may result in aggravation of the
global environmental problems should not be allowed.

Figure 6.2: India’s fuel share of energy consumption, 2001 (Btu)

6.3 WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING AND

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

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6.3.1 WATER CONSERVATION

Water conservation is a big thing, but every little bit helps, so don't think that what you do
doesn't matter. A whole lot of people doing a little bit adds up to a whole lot. We must all
make changes in our lifestyles that will change the course of our water and its quality. Water
conservation needs to be a way of life, not just something we think about once in a while. If
we all do our part in conserving Washington's water, we can make a huge difference for the
environment. Water conservation means using our water wisely and caring for it properly.
Since each of us depends on water for life, it is our responsibility to learn more about water
conservation and how we can help keep our water pure and safe for generations to come.
Since we all enjoy the benefits of having pure, clean water, we must help conserve water so
that we may continue to enjoy these benefits.

Water conservation is not a job that is just for the technician, soil scientist, hydrologist,
forester, wildlife manager, plant scientist, city planner, park manager, farmer, rancher, or
mine owner alone. It is a job for the every day person who just likes to have access to the life
sustaining resource of water. We must all recognize that water conservation really is our
personal responsibility and not just leave it up to other people. Our water supply is finite,
which means that we do not have an endless supply. We only have the water that we have
now. Ninety - seven percent of all the water on the earth is salt water which is not suitable for
drinking. Only three percent of all the water is fresh water, and only one percent is available
for drinking water. The other two percent is locked in ice caps and glaciers.

With all the people on Earth relying on such a small percentage of all the water on Earth, it
only makes sense that we must preserve and conserve our water. We must not pollute our
water because it is the only water we will ever have. Some people do not realize the
importance of water, and they are continually polluting it. Only about ten percent of waste
water is disposed of properly. We must learn to save water now for the future. The quality of
our water is very important. We have the same amount of water now as there was when the
earth was created. This is the water we have, and we must preserve its quality. Water is the
foundation of food and life. Next to air, water is our most precious resource. We cannot live
without water. Saving water helps to preserve our environment. It reduces the energy
required to process and deliver water, which helps in reducing pollution and in conserving
fuel resources. Saving water now means having water available in the future for recreational
purposes, too. Conserving the water we have minimizes the effects of water shortages and
helps build a better defence against future drought years. If we save water now, we are
helping to ensure a water supply adequate for future generations. Saving water saves money.

We must save water today so that it will be available to us in the future. We need to think of
future generations, people who will not have a sufficient supply of water unless we become
more concerned with how we use our water today.

The following strategies can be adopted for conservation of water.

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1. Decreasing run-off losses: Huge water-loss occurs due to run-off on most of the soils,
which can be reduced by allowing most of the water to infiltrate into the soil. This can be
achieved by using contour cultivation, terrace framing, water spreading, chemical treatment
or improved water-storage system.

a) Contour cultivation: on small furrows and ridges across the slopes trap rainwater
and allow more time for infiltration.

b) Terrace farming: Terracing constructed on deep soils has large water-storage

capacity. On gentle slopes trapped run off is spread over a large area (for better
infiltrations)

c) Conservation-bench terracing: It involves construction of a series of benches for

catching the run off water’s.

d) Water spreading: Water spreading is done by channelling or lagoon-levelling, in

Channelling, water flow is controlled by a series of diversions with vertical
intervals. In lagoon levelling, small depressions are dug in the area so that there is
temporary storage water.

e) Chemical wetting agents (Surfactants): These seem to increase the water intake
rates when added to normal irrigated soiled) Surface crop residues, tillage, mulch,
animal residues etc. help in reducing run-off by allowing more time for water to
penetrate into the land’s) Chemical conditioners like gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
when applied to sonic soils improve soil permeability and reduce run off. Another
useful conditioner is HPAN(hydrolyzed poyacrylonitrile)g) Water-storage
structures like farm ponds, dug-outs etc. build by individual farmers can be useful
measures for conserving water through reduction of runoff.

2. Reducing evaporation losses: This is more relevant in humid regions. Horizontal barriers
of asphalt placed below the soil surface increase water availability and increase crop yield by
35-40%. This is more effective on sandy soil but less effective on loamy sand soils. A co-
polymer of starch and acrylonitrile called ‘super slumper’ has been reported to absorb water
up to 1400 times its weight. The chemical has been found to be useful for sandy soils.

3. Storing water in soil: Storage of water takes place in the soil root zone inhumed regions
when the soil is wetted to field capacity. By leaving the soil fallow for one season water can
be made available for the crop grown in next season.

4. Reducing irrigation losses:

a) Use of lined or covered canals to reduce seepage.

b) Irrigation in early morning or late evening to reduce evaporation losses.

c) Sprinkling irrigation and drip irrigation to conserve water by 30-50%.

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 d) Growing hybrid crop varieties with less water requirements and tolerance to saline
water help conserve water.

5. Reuse of water:

a) Treated wastewater can be used for ferti-irrigation.

b) Using grey water from washings, bath-tubs etc. for watering gardens, washing cars
or paths help in saving fresh water.

6. Preventing wastage of water: This can be done in households, commercial buildings and
public places.

a) Closing taps when not in use.

b) Repairing any leakage from pipes.

c) Using small capacity flush in toilets.

7. Increasing block pricing: The consumer has to pay a proportionately higher bill with
higher use of water. This helps in economic use of water by the consumers.

6.3.2 RAINWATER HARVESTING

Rainwater harvesting is the collection of raindrops. In most cases, a roof is used for this
purpose. The rainwater then flows through the gutters, into a collection tank. The collected
water can be used for small scale irrigation (of vegetable gardens etc.), clothes washing,
bathing and after treatment also for drinking and food preparation. Rainwater harvesting is a
technique of increasing the recharge of groundwater by capturing and storing rainwater. This
is done by constructing special water-harvesting structures like dug wells, percolation pits,
lagoons, check dams etc. Rainwater, wherever it falls, is captured and pollution of this water
is prevented. Rainwater harvesting is not only proving useful for poor and scanty rainfall
regions but also for the rich ones. The annual average rainfall in India is 1200 mm; however,
in most places it is concentrated over the rainy season, from June to September. It is an
astonishing fact that Cherapunji, the place receiving the second highest annual rainfall
as11000 mm still suffers from water scarcity. The water flows with runoff and there is little
vegetation to check the runoff and allow infiltration. Till now, there is hardly any rain-water
harvesting being done in this region, thereby losing all water that comes through rainfall.

Rainwater harvesting has the following objectives:

1. To reduce run off loss

2. To avoid flooding of roads

3. To meet the increasing demands of water

4. To raise the water table by recharging ground water

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 5. To reduce ground water contamination

6. To supplement ground water supplies during lean seasons

Rainwater offers advantages in water quality for both irrigation and domestic use. Rainwater
is naturally soft (unlike well water), contains almost no dissolved minerals or salts, is free of
chemical treatment, and is a relatively reliable source of water for households.

In India, it is an old practice in high rainfall areas to collect rainwater from roof tops into
storage tanks. In foot-hills water flowing from springs is collected by embankment type water
storage. In Himalayan foot-hills people use the hollow bamboos as pipelines to transport the
water of natural springs. Rajasthan is known for its “Tanks” (underground tanks) and
“Chains” (Embankments) for harvesting rainwater. In our ancient times, we had adequate
Taalaabs, Baawaris, Johars, Hauz etc. in every city, village and capital cities of our Kings and
Lords which were used to collect rainwater and ensure adequate water supply in dry periods.

In arid and semi-arid regions artificial ground water recharging is done by constructing
shallow percolation tanks. Check-dams made of any suitable native material (brush, polls,
rocks, plants, loose rocks, wire nets, stones, slabs, sacks etc.) are constructed for harvesting
runoff from large catchments areas. Rajendra Singh of Rajasthan popularly known as
“Waterman” has been doing a commendable job for harvesting rainwater by building check-
dams in Rajasthan and he was honoured with the prestigious Magsaysay Award for his work.
Ground water flow can be intercepted by building ground water dams or storing water
underground. As compared to surface dams, ground water dams have several advantages like
minimum evaporation loss, reduced chances of contamination etc. In roof top rainwater
harvesting which is a low cost and effective technique for urban houses and buildings, the
rainwater from the top of the roofs is diverted to some surface tank or pit through a delivery
system which can be later used for several purposes. Also it can be used to recharge
underground aquifers by diverting the stored water to some abandoned dug well or by using a
hand pump. All the above techniques of rainwater harvesting are low cost methods with little
maintenance expenses. Rainwater harvesting helps in recharging the aquifers, improves
ground water quality by dilution, improves soil moisture and reduces soil erosion by
minimizing run-off water.

Rainwater can be mainly harvested by anyone of the following methods:

1. By storing in tanks or reservoirs above or below ground

2. By constructing pits, dug wells, lagoons, trench or check dams on small rivulets.

3. By recharging the ground water.

Before adopting a rainwater harvesting system, the soil characteristics, topography, rainfall
pattern and climatic conditions should be understood.

Rainwater harvesting can be harvested from the following surfaces:

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1. Rooftops: If buildings with impervious roofs are already in place, the catchment area is
effectively available free of charge and they provide a supply at the point of consumption.

A rooftop rainwater harvesting system consists the following elements:

1. Collection area,

2. Conveyance system,

3. Filtration /treatment

4. Storage

5. Usage/ Recharge

The collection area in most cases is the roof of a house or a building. The effective roof area
and the material used in constructing the roof influence the efficiency of collection and the
water quality. A conveyance system usually consists of gutters or pipes that deliver rainwater
falling on the rooftop to cisterns or other storage vessels. Both drainpipes and roof surfaces
should be constructed of chemically inert materials such as wood, plastic, aluminium, or
fibreglass, in order to avoid adverse effects on water quality. The water ultimately is stored in
a storage tank or cistern, which should also be constructed of an inert material. Reinforced
concrete, fibreglass, or stainless steel are suitable materials. Storage tanks may be constructed
as part of the building, or may be built as a separate unit located some distance away from the
building.

2. Paved and unpaved areas: i.e., landscapes, open fields, parks, stormwater drains, roads
and pavements and other open areas can be effectively used to harvest the runoff. The main
advantage in using ground as collecting surface is that water can be collected from a larger
area. This is particularly advantageous in areas of low rainfall.

3. Waterbodies: The potential of lakes, tanks and ponds to store rainwater is immense. The
harvested rainwater can not only be used to meet water requirements of the city, it also
recharges groundwater aquifers.

4. Stormwater drains: Most of the residential colonies have proper network of stormwater
drains. If maintained neatly, these offer a simple and cost effective means for harvesting
rainwater.

6.3.2.1 The advantages of rainwater harvesting

1. One of the beauties of rainwater harvesting systems is their flexibility. A system can be as
simple as a barrel placed under a rain gutter downspout for watering a garden or as complex
as an engineered, multi-tank, pumped and pressurized construction to supply residential and
irrigation needs.

2. Rainwater harvesting systems are integrated with the house, which makes the water easily
accessible.
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3. Rainwater harvesting systems are personal, which prevents arguments about who should
take care of maintenance.

4. One time Installation cost, roughly some rupees 2500 to 5000 per system including slow
sand filter while sustainability of the construction is larger than that of a pump or well.

5. The used materials can be kept simple, are obtainable nearly everywhere at local (low) cost
price.

6. The construction is easy and cheap in maintenance.

6.3.3 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Water management means properly organising the hydrosphere in order to prevent major
water crisis in future. Important aspects of water management include:

(i) Hydrosphere

(ii) Hydrological cycle

(iii) Exchange of water

(iv) Transportation of water and irrigation.

Water shed is an area bounded by the divide line of water flow. It may be drainage basin or
stream. The management of rainfall and resultant runoff is based on a natural unit called
water shed. The Himalayas are one of the most critical water sheds in the world. Our water
regimes in the mountain ranges are threatened resulting in the depletion of water resources.
The damage of reservoirs and irrigation systems and misuse of Himalayan slopes are
mounting as are the costs for control measures during the flood season every year. The
hydroelectric power potential can be harnessed from Himalayan water sheds only when
proper control measures are taken. These include soil and land use survey, soil conservation
in catchments of River valley projects and flood prone rivers, afforestation, social forestry
programmes, drought prone area development programme, desert development and control of
shifting cultivation.

The watersheds are very often found to be degraded due to uncontrolled, unplanned and
unscientific land use activities. Organizing, deforestation, mining, construction activities,
industrialization, shifting cultivation, natural and artificial fires, soil erosion and ignorance of
local people have been responsible for degradation of various watersheds

Water loss can also be prevented by certain good agricultural practices. They are:

(i) Growing luxuriant vegetation on slopes and adopting no ploughing cultivation

during rains.

(ii) Spreading and retaining crop residues on the fields.

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 (iii) Provision of contour ditches shall prevent water loss.

(iv) Construction of small check dams across rivulets.

(v) Maintaining of wetlands like marshes and bogs as such.

6.3.3.1 Objectives of watershed management:

Rational utilization of land and water sources for optimum production causing minimum
damage to the natural resources is known as watershed management. The objectives of
watershed management are as follows:

1. To rehabilitate the watershed through proper land use adopting conservation strategies for
minimizing soil erosion and moisture retention so as to ensure good productivity of the land
for the farmers.

2. To manage the watershed for beneficial developmental activities like domestic water
supply, irrigation, hydropower generation etc.

3. To minimize the risks of floods, droughts and land slides.

4. To develop rural areas in the region with clear plans for improving the economy of the
regions.

6.3.3.2 Watershed management practices:

In the fifth year plan, watershed management approach was included with a number of
programs for it and a national policy was developed. In watershed management the aspects
of development are considered with regard to availability of the resources.

The practices of conservation and development of land and water are taken up with respect to
their suitability for people’s benefit as well as sustainability. Various measures taken up for
management include the following:

1. Water harvesting: Proper storage of water is done with provision for use in dry
seasons in low rainfall areas. It also helps in moderation of floods.

2. Afforestation and agro-forestry: In watershed development, afforestation and crop

plantation play a very important role. They help to prevent soil erosion and retention
of moisture. In high rainfall areas, woody trees are grown in between crops to
substantially reduce the runoff and loss of fertile soil. In Dehradun trees like
Eucalyptus, Leucaena and grasses like Chrysopogon are grown along with maize or
wheat to achieve the objectives. Woody trees grown successfully in such agro-forestry
programs include Sheesham, Teak and Keekar which havebeen used in watershed
areas of river Yamuna.

3. Mechanical measures for reducing soil erosion and runoff losses: Several
mechanical measures like terracing, bunding, bench terracing, no-till farming, contour
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 cropping, strip cropping etc. are used to minimize runoff and soil erosion particularly
on the slopes of watersheds. Bunding has proved to be a very useful method in
reducing runoff, peak discharge and soil loss in Dehradun and Siwaliks.

4. Scientific mining and quarrying: Due to improper mining, the hills lose stability and
get disturbed resulting in landslides, rapid erosion etc. Contour trenching at an
interval of one meter on overburdened dump, planting some soil binding plants land
draining of water courses in the mined area are recommended for minimizing the
destructive effects of mining in watershed areas.

5. Public participation: People’s involvement including the farmers and tribal is the
key to the success of any watershed management program, particularly the soil and
water conservation. People’s cooperation as well as participation has to be ensured for
the same. The communities are to be motivated for protecting a freshly planted areas
and maintaining a water harvesting structure implemented by the government or some
external agency (NGO) independently or by involving the locale people. Properly
educating the people about the campaign and its benefits or sometimes paying certain
incentives to them can help in effective people’s participation. Successful watershed
management has been done at Sukhomajri, Panchkula, Haryana through active
participation of the local people. Watershed management in Himalayan region is of
vital importance since most of the watersheds of our country lie there. Several
anthropogenic activities accelerate its slope instability which need to be prevented and
efforts should be made to project the watershed by preventing overgrazing, terracing
and contour farming to check runoff and erosion etc. On steeper slopes with sliding
faces, straw mulching tied with thin wires and ropes helps in establishing the
vegetation and stabilizing the slopes.

Figure 6.3: Watershed Adaptive Management

6.4 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION ISSUES

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Resettlement is a term used to describe the movement of individuals or groups from one
location to another, usually with the intention that this move be permanent. Although the term
can refer to voluntary or involuntary human migration, it is often a euphemism for forced
migration or population transfer. Where a population is required to move due to the
destruction of their environmental or economic conditions, the government responsible for
that geographic area may assist with resettling the population. Conversely, governments
sometimes force communities to resettle in designated sites so that the government can make
other uses of the land.

Resettlement and rehabilitation become necessary when human habitats are destroyed by
natural calamities, earthquake, mudflows or tidal waves. People are forced to go out during
reservoir filling or other developmental stages of projects. Large reservoir projects have been
the forerunners in displacing several millions of people. Sardar Sarovar Dam in Narmada
Valley Project, Tehri Dam Project in Garwal is a few cases where rehabilitation has become a
controversy.

6.4.1 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH RESETTLEMENT

The main drawback of the developmental activities is inadequate provision for rehabilitation
of affected population. Till recently, it was considered that cash compensation to people who
lost their land and livelihood can take care of the problem. However, it has been observed
that cash payment created different types of problem, including bungling and corruption.
Even if the amount was given to the affected people, it was not feasible for them to start any
profitable venture which could compensate for their earlier profession. For example, farmer
cannot easily buy land at another place and start farming. Eventually, in the absence of cash
and land they end up living below the poverty line. The affected population is drawn to the
cities and that is one of the reasons the population in urban areas is increasing rapidly.

Case Study: Jharia coal fields, Jharkhand (Displacement issue due to mining)

Jharia coal fields have been posing a big problem to the local residents due to
underground fires and they are asked to vacate the area. The proposal of large scale
evacuation of about 0.3 million population of Jharia immediately raises the question of
their relocation and rehabilitation for which proper planning is required. Some 115 crores
of rupees have been spent to put out the fires since 1976, still the problem persists.

The people of Jharia are being asked to evacuate the area, but till now there is no
alternative land and rehabilitation package prepared. As a result of it, the local people
have formed a “Jharia coalfield Bachao Samiti”. They have apprehensions that they are
going to be left in the lurch. The latest estimates show that about Rs. 18,000 crores will be
spent for shifting the Jharia population while the cost for extinguishing the fire would be
around 8,000 crore. Perhaps scientific fire – fighting will prevent the Jharia residents from
undergoing the hardship of displacement.

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6.4.2 REHABILITATION ISSUES

The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights has declared that right to
housing is a basic human right. In India, most of the displacements have resulted due to land
acquisition by the government for various reasons. For this purpose, the government has the
Land Acquisition Act, 1894 which empowers it to serve notice to the people to vacate their
lands if there is a need as per government planning. Provision of cash compensation in lieu of
the land vacated exists in the Act. The major issues related to displacement and rehabilitation
is as follows:

a) Tribal are usually the most affected amongst the displaced who are already poor.
Displacement further increases their poverty due to loss of land, home, jobs, food insecurity,
loss of access to common property assets, increased morbidity and mortality and social
isolation.

b) Break up of families in an important social issue arising due to displacement in which the
women are the worst affected and they are not even given cash/land compensation.

c) The tribal are not familiar with the market policies and trends. Even if they get cash
compensation, they get alienated in the modern economic set up.

d) The land acquisition laws ignore the communal ownership of property, which is an inbuilt
system amongst the tribal. Thus the tribal lose their communitarian basis of economic and
cultural existence. They feel like fish out of water.

e) Kinship systems, marriages, social and cultural functions, their folk-songs, dances and
activities vanish with their displacement, even when they are resettled; it is individual-based
resettlement, which totally ignores communal settlement.

f) Loss of identity and loss of the intimate link between the people and the environment is
one of the biggest losses. The age-long indigenous knowledge, which has been inherited and
experienced by them about the flora, fauna, their uses gets lost.

Case Study: The Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary

The Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala has caused displacement of 53,472 tribal
families. At the time of its initiation it was decided to transfer land to these tribal families
in order to settle them. However, till 2003 only 843 families could get the land. As a result
of this the tribals felt cheated and in January, 2003 they encroached into the forest in large
number, cut down the trees, started constructing huts and digging wells causing a violent
encounter with the forest officials, ultimately causing injuries and death to the people.

6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

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Environmental ethics is a branch of environmental philosophy that studies the ethical
relationship between human beings and the environment. Environmental ethics has given a
new dimension to the conservation of natural resources. Environmental ethics believes in the
ethical relationship between human beings and the natural environment. Human beings are a
part of the society and so are the other living beings. When we talk about the philosophical
principle that guides our life, we often ignore the fact that even plants and animals are a part
of our lives. They are an integral part of the environment and hence have a right to be
considered a part of the human life. On these lines, it is clear that they should also be
associated with our guiding principles as well as our moral and ethical values.

It is rigidly said, “the environmental crisis is an outward manifestation of the crisis of mind
and spirit.’ It all depends on how do we think and act. If we think “Man is all powerful and
the supreme creature on this earth and man is the master of nature and can harness it at his
will”, it reflects our human-centric thinking. On the other hand, if we think “Nature has
provided us with all the resources for leading a beautiful life and she nourishes us like a
mother, we should respect her and nurture her”, this is an earth-centric thinking.

These two world-views are discussed in here in relation to environmental protection:

a) Anthropocentric Worldview:

This view is guiding most industrial societies. It puts human beings in the center giving them
the highest status. Man is considered to be most capable for managing the planet earth. The
guiding principles of this view are:

1. Man is the planet’s most important species and is in the in-charge of the rest of the nature.

2. Earth has an unlimited supply of resources and it all belongs to us.

3. Economic growth is very good and more the growth, the better it is, because it raises our
quality of life and the potential for economic growth is unlimited.

4. A healthy environment depends upon a healthy economy.

5. The success of mankind depends upon how good managers we are for deriving benefits for
us from nature.

b) Eco-centric Worldview:

This is based on earth-wisdom. The basic beliefs are as follows:

1. Nature exists not for human beings alone, but for all the species.

2. The earth resources are limited and they do not belong only to human beings.

3. Economic growth is good till it encourages earth-sustaining development and discourages

earth-degrading development.

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4. A healthy economy depends upon a healthy environment.

5. The success of mankind depends upon how best we can cooperate with the rest of the
nature while trying to use the resources of nature for our benefit.

In 1985, Anil Agarwal published the first report on the Status of India’s Environment. It
emphasized that India’s environmental problems were caused by the excessive consumption
patterns of the rich that left the poor poorer. It was appreciated for the first time that tribal,
especially women and other marginalized sectors of our society, were being left out of
economic development. There are multiple stake holders in Indian society who are dependent
on different natural resources which cater directly or indirectly to their survival needs. Anil
Agarwal brought forth a set of 8 propositions which are of great relevance to the ethical
issues that are related to environmental concern. This includes:

(i) Environmental destruction is largely caused by the consumption of the rich.

(ii) The worst suffers of environmental destruction are the poor.

(iii) Even where nature is being “recreated”, as in afforestation, it is being transformed

away from the needs of the poor and towards those of the rich.

(iv) Even among the poor, the worst suffers are the marginalized cultures and
occupations and, most of all, women.

(v) There cannot be proper economic and social development without a holistic
understanding of society and nature.

(vi) If we care for the poor, we cannot allow the Gross Nature Product (GNP) to be
destroyed any further. Conserving and recreating nature has become our highest
priority.

(vii) The Gross Nature Product will be enhanced only if we can arrest and reverse the
growing alienation between the people and the common property resources. In this
we will have to learn a lot from our traditional cultures.

(viii) It is totally inadequate to talk only of sustainable rural development, as the world
conservation strategy does. We cannot save the rural environment or rural people
dependent on it, unless we can bring about sustainable urban development.

6.6 CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING, ACID RAIN, OZONE

LAYER DEPLETION, NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST
6.6.1 CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate means the average pattern in which weather varies in time. The climate of region
depends on the presence or absence of water, the reflection of solar radiation or albedo, the
ability to transfer water to the atmosphere (evaporation), the capacity to store heat,

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topography and texture of the region. Although they constitute only a fraction of the total
land area of the earth, metropolitan areas emits the bulk of all air pollutants. These air
pollutants influence temperature, visibility and precipitation as well as other climatic
elements.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climatic
change as a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that
alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time period.

Projections of future climate change are derived from a series of experiments made by
computer based global climate models. These are calculated based on factors like future
population growth and energy use. Climatologists of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) have reviewed the result of several experiments in order to estimate changes
in climate in the course of this century. These studies have shown that in the near future the
global mean surface temperature will rise by 1.4º -5.8 º C. this ‘warming’ will be greatest
over land areas, and at high latitudes. The projected rate of warming is greater than has
occurred in the last 10,000 years. The frequency of weather extremes is likely to increase,
leading to floods or drought. There will be fewer cold spells but more heat waves. The
frequency and intensity of the El Nino is likely to increase.

Figure 6.4 : Climate Change

6.6.2 GLOBAL WARMING

Atmospheric carbon dioxide, and a host of other gases, such as methane, nitrous oxide,
tropospheric ozone and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), transmit short wavelength radiations
from the sun; whilst at the same time absorb long wavelength infrared radiations from the
earth. As the concentration of these gases increases, less of the earth’s long wavelength
radiations escape into space. The result is that the earth’s atmosphere is warming up. This

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global warming called greenhouse effect is said to be one of the most important
environmental problem.

6.6.2.1 Sources OF Global Warming

The following factors are largely responsible for the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations.

1. Burning of fossil fuels: The most important and significant source of atmospheric carbon
dioxide is the burning of fossil fuels. With the escalation of population and increase in
industrial growth, the demand for fossil fuel has greatly increased.

2. Deforestation: Deforestation adds carbon dioxide to the atmosphere in two ways: Firstly,
most of the trees are either burned or decomposed by bacteria, emitting carbon dioxide
directly to the air. Secondly, the deforested land is unable to sequester carbon dioxide through
photosynthesis. As a result of these two phenomena, deforestation contributes 10 to 30% as
much carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as fossil fuel emissions do.

3. Volcanoes: Volcanoes emits huge amount of carbon dioxide approximately 25 million

tons, therefore the entire region around the volcano is enriched in carbon dioxide.

4. Greenhouse role of trace gases: The important trace gases which contribute to the
greenhouse effect are methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and chlorofluorocarbons. Addition of
one molecule of CFC can have the same greenhouse effect as the addition of 10 4 molecules of
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Since their atmospheric levels are rising rapidly and since
each molecule of these gases absorbs more infrared radiations than a carbon dioxide
molecule, their combined greenhouse effect is almost equal to that of carbon dioxide.

5. Methane: The principal source of methaneare:

1. Action of anaerobic bacteria on rice paddies and wetlands.

2. Leakage from coal mines and natural gas pipeline.

3. Decomposition of organic matter in landfills.

4. Incomplete combustion of forest or range fires.

Methane contributes to the greenhouse effect to an extent of 19%.

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 Figure 6.5: The Greenhouse effect (Source: U.S. Department of state, 1992)

6. Nitrous oxide: The major sources of nitrous oxide are:

1. Microbial action on nitrogenous fertilizers in soil.

2. Burning of biomass, fossil fuels and forests.

Its contribution to greenhouse effect is about 4%.

Figure 6.6: Global Warming

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6.6.2.2 Consequences of Global Warming

1. Changing patterns of rainfall – Patterns of rainfall would change worldwide causing

large shifts in agriculturally productive areas.

2. Carbon dioxide fertilization – An elevated carbon dioxide levels might seem an

agricultural blessing, accelerating the pace of photosynthesis. The increase in rate of
photosynthesis as a result of enhanced carbon dioxide levels is called carbon dioxide
fertilization.

3. Lower nitrogen content – The dead plant material, such as fallen leaves and twigs, are
rich in nitrogen. These act as natural fertilizers, providing nitrogen – based nutrients to
the soil and thereby increasing soil productivity. However, plants growing in higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide have less nitrogen and more carbon content. Less
nitrogen in plants means less protein content. Insect pests that feed on carbon dioxide
fertilized plants, therefore, would eat more leaf to obtain enough nitrogen.

4. Increased rate of decomposition – As a result of increased global temperature due to

greenhouse effect, the dead plant matter and soil organic matter would decompose at the
rate higher than normal. The decomposition shall yield more carbon dioxide, which
would supplement the greenhouse phenomena.

5. Evaporation of water from soil – Due to increase in temperature, the moisture content
of soil would decrease, and so would its fertility towards many crops.

6. Effect on human health – An increase in average global temperature is likely to increase

the incidence of infectious diseases, such as malaria, schistosomiasis, sleeping sickness,
dengue and yellow fever. An increase in the global temperature is suspected to extend the
range of vectors the mosquitoes, flies and snails that transmit infectious disease. Due to
the global warming, one of the prime carriers of dengue and yellow fever the Aedes
aegypti has extended its range in such diverse regions as Coasta Rica, Colombia, Kenya
and India.

7. Effects on Wildlife – With every rise of 1ºC, plant and tree species will have to move
about 90 Kilometres pole wards to survive. Changing rainfall patterns will compound the
ecological disaster, while rise in sea levels will swamp coastal habitats. As trees and
plants die out and habitats disappear, so will the animals that depend on them. And as the
world continues to get warmer there will be nowhere for habitats to re-establish
themselves.

8. Climate effects – Work done with different climatic models shows there is scientific
uncertainty about the effects of global change. However, work on these simulation
models has agreed on many common things, including:

1. There will be a warming of the earth’s surface and lower atmospheric and a cooling of
stratosphere.
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 2. The warming trend over the earth’s surface is varied. Warming in the tropics is
smaller than the global mean by about 2-3ºC depending on seasonal changes, which in
other latitudes the average warming might account for 5-10 ºC increase in
temperatures.

3. Precipitation patterns will be changed. Some areas will become wetter and some areas
dryer.

4. Seasonal patterns will change due to the changing of temperature and precipitation
patterns.

5. Soil moisture regimes will be changed due to the changes in evaporation and
precipitation.

6. With the decrease in cloud cover over Eurasia in summer, contrast, tropical monsoons
will be driven with more severity and intensity.

7. Wind direction and wind stress over the sea surface will be changed, which will alter
ocean currents and cause change in nutrient mixing zones and productivity of the
oceans.

9. Rise in sea level – In the absence of efforts to cut green house gas emissions, sea levels
will rise by between 10 and 30 cm by the year 2030 and 30 to 100 cm by the end of next
century. The direct effects are:

1. Recession of shorelines and wetlands.

2. Increased tidal range and estuarine salt – front intrusion, and

3. An increase in salt-water contamination of coastal fresh-water aquifers. All the above

effects have profound implication for human society, especially in many coastal areas
that are densely populated.

6.6.3 ACID RAIN

The term ‘Acid Rain’ was first used by Robert A. Smith in 1872 from his studies of air in
Manchester, England. The widespread occurrence of acid rain was recognized only in 1980.
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, i.e. elevated
levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). What we call acid rain is the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen
originating from industrial operations and fossil fuel combustion, the major sources of acid
forming gases combine with the water in the air. Acid forming gases are oxidized over
several days by which time they travel several thousand kilometres. In the atmosphere these
gases are ultimately converted into sulphuric and nitric acids. This acidic mixture then falls as
rain, sleet, mist or snow or as solid flakes. Hydrogen chloride emission forms hydrochloric
acid. These acids cause acidic rain.

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Rain water is turned acidic when its pH falls below 5.6. In fact clean or natural rain water has
a pH of 5.6 at 20˚ c because of formation of carbonic acid due to dissolution of CO2 in water.
Parts of India such as North East, Coastal regions of Kerela, Orissa, Bihar, and West Bengal
have reported decline in fertility of soil due to reduced pH of soil (increased in acidity).

Acid rain is the phenomenon of wet and dry acidic deposition.

Figure 6.7: Acid Rain Formation

Wet deposition: Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow,
and so on.) removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can
result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry
above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet
removal of both gases and aerosols are both of importance for wet deposition.

Dry deposition: Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of
precipitation. This can be responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition. This
occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces.

During the last few decades acid rain occurred within the downwind of areas of major
industrial areas in Europe and America. Emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) into sulphate or
No2 into nitrate particles and by combining with water vapour into mild sulphuric or nitric
acids and return to earth as dew, drizzle, fog, sleet, snow, and rain is the mechanism of acid
rain. Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually toxic, meaning
that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on
plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen acids, which react with the water, smell molecules in the atmosphere to
produce acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of
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sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be
produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulphur dioxide is produced by volcanic
eruptions. The chemicals in acid rain can cause paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures
such as bridges, and erosion of stone statues.

"Acid u" is a popular term referring to the deposition of wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog, cloud
water, and dew) and dry (acidifying particles and gases) acidic components. Distilled water,
once carbon dioxide is removed, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are
acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline. “Clean” or unpolluted rain has an
acidic pH, but usually no lower than 5.7, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react
together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid. However, unpolluted rain can also contain other
chemicals which affect its pH. A common example is nitric acid produced by electric
discharge in the atmosphere such as lightning. Carbonic acid is formed by the reaction.

H2O (l) + CO2 (g) H2CO3 (aq)

Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of hydronium and
carbonate ions:

H2O (l) + H2CO3 (aq) HCO3− (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

Acid deposition as an environmental issue would include additional acids to H2CO3.

6.6.3.1 Causes of Acid Rain

Acid deposition can occur via natural sources like volcanoes but it is mainly caused by the
release of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide during fossil fuel combustion. When these
gases are discharged into the atmosphere they react with the water, oxygen, and other gases
already present there to form sulphuric acid, ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. These acids
then disperse over large areas because of wind patterns and fall back to the ground as acid
rain or other forms of precipitation.

The gases responsible for acid deposition are normally a by-product of electric power
generation and the burning of coal. As such, it began entering the atmosphere in large
amounts during the Industrial Revolution and was first discovered by a Scottish chemist,
Robert Angus Smith, in 1852. In that year, he discovered the relationship between acid rain
and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England. Although it was discovered in the 1800s,
acid deposition did not gain significant public attention until the 1960s and the term acid rain
was coined in 1972

6.6.3.2 Adverse Effects

Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing
insect and aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on
human health.

1. Surface waters and aquatic animals:

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Both the lower pH and higher aluminium concentrations in surface water that occur as a
result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pH lower than 5
most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pHs can kill adult fish. As lakes and rivers become
more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish
species, including the brook trout in some lakes, streams, and creeks in geographically
sensitive areas, such as the Adirondack Mountains of the United States. However, the extent
to which acid rain contributes directly or indirectly via runoff from the catchments to lake
and river acidity (i.e., depending on characteristics of the surrounding watershed) is variable.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) website states: "Of the lakes
and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75 percent of the acidic lakes and about 50
percent of the acidic streams". As the lake becomes more acidic the fish find it more difficult
to reproduce successfully. It is not only the acid in the water that kills them, but also
poisonous minerals like aluminium that are washed out of the surrounding ground into the
water. The birds that eat the fish also begin to suffer as the harmful minerals build up inside.

2. Soils:

Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable
to tolerate changes to low pH and are killed. The enzymes of these microbes
are denatured (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions
of acid rain also mobilize toxins such as aluminium, and leach away essential nutrients and
minerals such as magnesium.

2 H+ (aq) + Mg2+ (clay) 2 H+ (clay) + Mg2+ (aq)

Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base cations, such as calcium and
magnesium, are leached by acid rain thereby affecting sensitive species, such as sugar
maple (Acer saccharum).

Acid rain can damage soil by destroying many vital substances and washing away the
nutrients. Soils naturally contain small amounts of poisonous minerals such as mercury and
aluminium. Normally these minerals do not cause serious problems, but when acid rain falls
on the ground and the acidity of the soil increases, chemical reactions occur allowing the
poisonous minerals to be taken up by the plant roots. The trees and plants are then damaged
and any animals eating them will absorb the poisons, which will stay in their bodies.

3. Forests and other vegetation:

The acid takes important minerals away from the leaves and the soil. Without these minerals,
trees and plants cannot grow properly. Damaged trees lose their leaves, have stunted growth
and damaged bark. This makes it easier for fungi and insects to attack the tree, and as a result
the tree may die. Acid rain not only damages soil but can also affect the trees directly.
Pollutants can block or damage the little pores on the leaves through which the plant takes in
the air it needs to survive. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often
surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain.

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Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the effect on food crops is minimized by
the application of lime and fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone
may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is
largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands. When calcium is leached from the needles of
red spruce, these trees become less cold tolerant and exhibit winter injury and even death.

4. Human health effects

Acid rain does not directly affect human health. The acid in the rainwater is too dilute to have
direct adverse effects. However, the particulates responsible for acid rain (sulphur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides) do have an adverse effect. Increased amounts of fine particulate matter
in the air do contribute to heart and lung problems including asthma and bronchitis.

5. Other adverse effects on Monuments

Acid rain can also damage buildings and historic monuments and statues, especially those
made of rocks, such as limestone and marble that contain large amounts of calcium
carbonate. When sulphur pollutants fall on to buildings made from limestone and sandstone
they react with minerals in the stone to form a powdery substance that can be washed away
by rain. Acids in the rain react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum,
which then flakes off.

CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones, where acid rain can cause the
inscriptions to become completely illegible. Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of
metals, in particular iron, steel, copper and bronze. Famous buildings like the Statue of
Liberty in New York, the Taj Mahal in India and St. Paul's Cathedral in London have all been
damaged by this sort of air pollution.

Acid rain can also damage stained glass windows in churches, railway lines and steel bridges.
The acid rain slowly eats away them all. Building materials crumble away, metals are
corroded.

6.6.3.3 Control of Acid Rain:

1. Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and power plants should be reduced by using
pollution control equipments such as scrubbers in the smokestacks of factories. These spray a
mixture of water and limestone into the polluting gases, recapturing the sulphur.

2. Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effects of acid rain.

3. A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water pipes
for drinking water.

4. In catalytic converters, the gases are passed over metal coated beads that convert harmful
chemicals into less harmful ones.

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6.6.4 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone depletion describes two distinct, but related observations: a slow, steady decline of
about 4 percent per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth’s stratosphere (Ozone layer)
since the late 1970s, and a much larger, but seasonal, decrease in stratospheric ozone over
earth’s polar regions during the same period. The latter phenomenon is commonly referred to
as the ozone hole. In addition to this well – known stratospheric ozone depletion, there are
also topospheric ozone depletion events, which occur near the surface in polar region during
spring.

Ozone is formed in the atmosphere when ultraviolet radiation from the sun strikes the
stratosphere, splitting oxygen molecule (O2) into atomic oxygen (O). The atomic oxygen
quickly combines with further oxygen molecules to form ozone.

O2 + hν  O + O

O + O2  O3

Ozone is also destroyed by the following reaction with atomic oxygen.

O + O3  O2 + O2

All the three reactions are known as champan reaction. Ozone formation reaction becomes
slower, with increase in altitude while reaction of decomposition of ozone becomes faster.
The concentration of ozone is a balance between these two complimentary reactions.

The most common stratospheric ozone measuring unit is dobson unit (DU). The average
amount of ozone in the stratosphere across the globe is about 300 DU. Highest level of ozone
are usually found in the mid to high latitude. When stratospheric ozone falls below 200 DU,
this is considered low enough to represent the beginning of an ozone hole.

6.6.4.1 Consequences of ozone Layer Depletion

1. On vegetation – An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number

of economically important species of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanobacteria residing
on their roots for the retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV light and they
would be affected by its increase.

2. On plankton – There is a difference in the orientation and motility of planktons when

excess of UV rays reach earth. Researchers speculate that the extinction was caused by a
significant weakening of the ozone layer at that time when the radiation from the supernova
produced nitrogen oxides that catalyzed the destruction of ozone (plankton are particularly
susceptible to effects of UV light, and are vitally important to marine food webs).

3. On man – UVB (the higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone) is generally accepted
to be a contributory factor to skin cancer. In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased
tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans.

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 Figure 6.8: Ozone Layer Depletion

6.6.4.2 Montreal Protocol

Following the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in the late 1985, governments recognized
the need for stronger measures to reduce the production and consumption of a number of
CFCs (CFC 11, 12, 113, 114 and 115) and several Halons (1211, 1301, 2402).

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was adopted on 16 th
September 1987 at the headquarters of the International Civil Aviation Organization in
Montreal. The Protocol was designed so that the phase out schedules could be revised on the
basis of periodic scientific and technological assessments. Following such assessments, the
Protocol was adjusted to accelerate the phase out schedules. It has also been amended to
introduce other kinds of control measures and to add new controlled substances to the list.
The Protocol came into force on 1st January, 1989.

6.6.5 NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST

A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic agency as an “event
that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility”. Examples
include lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release to the environment, or “reactor
core melt.” The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one in which a reactor core is
damaged and significant amounts of radiation are released, such as in the Chernobyl
Disaster in 1986.

The impact of nuclear accidents has been a topic of debate practically since the first nuclear
reactors were constructed. It has also been a key factor in public concern about nuclear
facilities. Some technical measures to reduce the risk of accidents or to minimize the amount
of radioactivity released to the environment have been adopted. Despite the use of such
measures, "there have been many accidents with varying impacts as well near misses and
incidents".

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Benjamin K. Sovacool has reported that worldwide there have been 99 accidents at nuclear
power plants. Fifty-seven accidents have occurred since the Chernobyl disaster, and 57% (56
out of 99) of all nuclear-related accidents have occurred in the USA. Serious nuclear power
plant accidents include the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011), Chernobyl
disaster (1986), Three Mile Island accident (1979), and the SL-1 accident (1961).Stuart Arm
states, "apart from Chernobyl, no nuclear workers or members of the public have ever died as
a result of exposure to radiation due to a commercial nuclear reactor incident."

Case Study: Nuclear holocaust in Japan, 1945

Two nuclear bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki cities of Japan. One fission
bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. This holocaust (large scale destruction of human lives
by fire) killed about 100,000 people and destroyed the city. This forceful explosion
emitted neutrons and gamma radiations. It had the force of 12 kilotons of trinitrotoluene
(TNT). The radioactive strontium (Sr90) liberated in the explosion resembles calcium and
has the property of replacing calcium of the bones. As a result large scale bone
deformities occurred in the inhabitants of these cities. Even after more than 50 years the
impacts of the nuclear fallout are still visible.

Nuclear-powered submarine mishaps include the K-19 reactor accident (1961), the K-
27reactor accident (1968), and the K-431 reactor accident (1985).Serious radiation accidents
include the Kyshtym disaster, Windscale fire, radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica,
radiotherapy, radiation accident in Morocco, Goiania accident, radiation accident in Mexico
City, radiotherapy unit accident in Thailand, and the Mayapuri radiological accident in India.

Two of the major nuclear accidents are as follows:

(i) Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster:

26th of April 1986 witnessed one of the world’s worst Nuclear Disaster ever in Chernobyl.
Chernobyl is approximately 80 miles (which is 120 kilometres) north of the capital city of the
Ukraine, Kiev. The accident took lives of30 people immediately and vast evacuation of
135000 people wtihin 20 mile radius of the power plant was carried out after the accident.

- Causes of the accident

There was not one cause of this accident, there were several which all contributed to it. This
accident happened while testing an RMBK reactor. A chain reaction occurred in the reactor
and got out of control, causing explosions and a huge fireball which blew off the heavy
concrete and steel lid on the reactor. These are the causes:

1. Design fault in RBMK reactor

2. A violation of procedures

3. Breakdown of communication
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 4. Lack of a 'Safety Culture' in the power plant

- Consequences of the accident

1. Environmental consequences: The radioactive fallout caused radioactive material to

deposit itself over large areas of ground. It has had an effect over most of the northern
hemisphere in one way or another. In some local ecosystems within a 6 mile (10km) radius of
the power plant the radiation is lethally high especially in small mammals such as mice and
coniferous trees. Luckily within 4 years of the accident nature began to restore itself, but
genetically these plants may be scarred for life.

2. Health effects: Firstly, there was a huge increase in Thyroid Cancer in Ukrainian children
(from birth to 15 years old). From 1981-1985 there was an average of 4-6 patients per million
but between 1986 and 1997 this increased to an average of 45 patients per million. It was also
established that 64% of Thyroid Cancer patients lived in the most contaminated areas of the
Ukraine (Kiev province, Kiev city, provinces of Rovno, Zhitomir, Cherkassy and Chernigov).

3. Psychological consequences: There has been an increase in psychological disorders such

as anxiety, depression, helplessness and other disorders which lead to mental stress. These
disorders are not a consequence of radiation, but a consequence from the stress of evacuation,
the lack of information given after the accident and the stress of knowing that their health and
their children's health could be affected.

4. Economic, political and social consequences: The worst contaminated areas were
economically, socially and politically declining as the birth rate had decreased and emigration
numbers had substantially risen which had caused a shortage in labour force. These areas
could not evolve industrially or agriculturally because of strict rules that were introduced
because the area was too contaminated. The few products made were hard to sell or export
because people were aware that it had come from the Ukraine and so were scared of being
affected, this caused a further economic decline. Socially people have been limited on their
activities making everyday life very difficult.

Now in the year 2000, everything is looking a lot better and is starting to rise again and
probably in about 10 years time almost everything will be as good as normal in the Ukraine.

(ii) Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster:

The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster was a series of equipment failures, nuclear
meltdowns, and releases of radioactive materials at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant,
following the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011. It is the largest nuclear
disaster since the Chernobyl disaster of 1986. The plant comprises six separate boiling water
reactors originally designed by General Electric (GE), and maintained by the Tokyo Electric
Power Company (TEPCO). At the time of the quake, Reactor 4 had been de-fuelled while 5
and 6 were in cold shutdown for planned maintenance. The remaining reactors shut down
automatically after the earthquake, and emergency generators came online to control
electronics and coolant systems. The tsunami resulted in flooding of the rooms containing the
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emergency generators. Consequently those generators ceased working, causing eventual
power loss to the pumps that circulate coolant water in the reactor. The pumps then stopped
working, causing the reactors to overheat due to the high decay heat that normally continues
for a short time, even after a nuclear reactor shut down. The flooding and earthquake damage
hindered external assistance. In the hours and days that followed, Reactors 1, 2 and 3
experienced full meltdown. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several
hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred. The hydrogen gas was produced by high heat in
the reactors causing a hydrogen-producing reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding
and the water surrounding them. The government ordered that seawater be used to attempt to
cool the reactors this had the effect of ruining the reactors entirely. As the water levels in
the fuel rods pools dropped, they began to overheat. Fears of radioactivity releases led to a
20 km (12 mi)-radius evacuation around the plant. During the early days of the accident
workers were temporarily evacuated at various times for radiation safety reasons. Electrical
power was slowly restored for some of the reactors, allowing for automated cooling.

6.7 WASTELAND RECLAMATION

Land is an important resource since it is put to different uses by man. India has a land area of
nearly 32.88Xkm2 which is about 2.4 percent of the world. Loss of vegetation cover leads to
loss of soil through erosion, which ultimately creates wastelands. Wastelands are lands which
are unproductive, unfit for cultivation, grazing and other economic uses due to rough terrain
and eroded soils. The lands which are waterlogged and saline are also termed as wastelands.
The loss of fertility followed by erosion also leads to the conversion of marginal forest lands
into wastelands. In the absence of land management policy, geomorphic processes become
active due to which soil layers are eroded and transported, making these lands infertile, stony
and useless. This is one of the pressing problems of one country as loss of soil has already
ruined large amounts of cultivable lands. If it remains unchecked it will affect the remaining
lands. Hence, conservation of soil, protecting the existing cultivable lands and reclaiming the
already depleted wastelands figure predominantly among the priority tasks of planning for the
future.

It is reported that every year about 3 million hectares of cropland are ruined by various kinds
of erosion. About 4 million hectares are converted into deserts and 8 million hectares are
taken away for non- agricultural purposes such as plots for houses, roads, factories and
reservoirs.

6.7.1 CLASSIFICATION OF WASTELANDS

The wastelands are broadly classified into two categories:

1. Barren and uncultivable wastelands: These lands cannot be brought under

cultivation or economic use except at a very high cost, whether they exist as isolated
pockets or within cultivated holdings. Such lands are sandy deserts, gully land, stony
or leached land, lands on hilly slopes, rocky exposures etc.

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 2. Cultivable wastelands: These lands are not cultivated for five years or more. It
consists of lands available for cultivation, but not used for cultivation. Next to fallow
lands, cultivable wastelands are important for agricultural purposes, because they can
be reclaimed through conservational methods for cultivation, grazing or agroforestry.

6.7.2 RECLAMATION OF WASTELANDS

The different methods used for the reclamation of wastelands are:

1) These lands can be brought under cultivation by using excess water and fertilizers.

2) Afforestation and agronomical methods are used to conserve the soil, which help us to
use it for agriculture.

3) Contour bunds are constructed which afford safe disposal of water of the catchment
areas.

4) These lands can be used for settling the landless agricultural laborers.

For effective developmental planning for wastelands, correct assessment is needed, which is
being taken up by various Land use development boards and organizations across the globe
using new technologies like remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS)
techniques. It is being strongly felt that wastelands need to be mapped at sufficiently large-
scale. Further to mapping, a detailed action plan can be generated for reclamation of
wastelands with due regard to other resource information.

Figure 6.9: Mapping of wastelands using remote sensing and GIS technique
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6.8 CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS
The word consumerism means the consumption of resources by the people. It is a process and
habit of the chronic purchasing of new goods and services, with scant attention to the true
need, durability, origin of the product or the environmental impacts during manufacture and
disposal. Modern societies that are based on using large amounts of goods, especially those
that are manufactured for one time use, are extremely wasteful. The current consumption
patterns are depleting non- renewable resources, poisoning and degrading ecosystems, and
altering the natural processes on which life depends. People in the industrialized countries
make up 205 of the world population but consume 80% of the world’s resources and produce
80% of wastes. This is due to a pattern of economic development that ensures that people go
on consuming evev more than they actually need. India is rapidly moving into this
unsustainable pattern of economic growth and development. It is seen that today’s
consumption patterns are not only depleting natural resources at a rapid rate, but also
widening the inequalities in consumption in different societies. Money is not the only way to
measure the cost of an item that we use. When one adds up all the raw material and energy
that goes into the manufacture of goods or the services provided by nature that one uses
during a day’s activities, the toll on the environment is large. When this cost is multiplied
over a lifespan, the amount is staggering. If one considered the over- utilization in each
family, city or a country, the impacts are incredibly high.

The new generation grows up without knowing what quality goods are. Friendship and family
relations are promoted only as a vehicle of giving and taking gifts. Mother’s day, Father’s
day, Valentine day, Brothers' day, Sisters' day and Akshaya Thrithya are celebrated as a part
of consumerism. Consumerism is related to the constant purchasing of new goods, with little
attention to their true need, durability, product origin, or the environmental consequences of
their manufacture and disposal. It is driven by huge sums spent on advertising designed to
create both a desire to follow trends, and a personal feeling of satisfaction based on
acquisition.

The mega shows sponsored by manufactures of automobiles, televisions, refrigerators, air-

conditioners, Cosmetics, Soaps, detergents, textiles with prizes and other incentives kindle
passion and unquenchable desire to have the latest items in their fold. Thus vital materials
and energy resources are squandered for various sections of the society. Once used, the goods
are thrown as wastes. So energy and space required to dispose those used articles triggers
energy crisis and shortage of land. Pizza huts, vending places for coke, Pepsi, Kentucky
chicken and such other items are other sign of consumerism. Plastics are yet another item that
creates more problems now.

The fast changing population trends influence consumerism of natural resources and
generation of waste lands. Two types of conditions of population and consumerism exists.

1) Overpopulation of People: Overpopulation of people results in having more people than

available supplies of water, food and other important resources in the area. The excessive

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population problem causes degradation of limited resources and there are poverty, under-
nourishment or mal-nutrition and starvation deaths. This mainly occurs in less developed
countries (LDC). In such countries, due to large number of people, enough resources are not
available for all. So, there is less per capita consumption, though overall consumption is high.

2) Consumption overpopulation: This problem occurs in more developed countries

(MDC).where population size is smaller and resources are plenty. Due to luxurious life style,
per capita consumption of resources is very high. More the consumption of resources more is
the waste generation and greater is the degradation of the environment.

The consumerism varies from country to country, United States of America(USA) is known
for maximum consumerism. The population of India is nearly 3-5 times more than that of
USA but its overall energy and waste products generation are less than one-eighth that of
USA. Therefore, we can infer that more consumerism leads to more waste production and
also pollution.

We can utilize the waste products for our benefits as summarized below:

1) Paper from agricultural wastes

2) Cellulose from sugarcane bagasse

3) Medicines from agricultural wastes like corn, oat hulls and bagasse.

4) Medium density fibre from dry agricultural stalks

5) Proteins and sugars from cellulose waste

6) Use of fly ash for making bricks, tiles and extraction of alumina

6.9 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT

The Environment Act is the most important Act in the context of environmental management
and was passed by the parliament in the year 1986. This Act draws its inspiration from the
‘International Conference on Human Environment held at Stockholm (Sweden) in 1972. It
was started in the year 1986 in Bhopal. It extends to the whole of India .It shall come into
force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,
appoint and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act and for
different areas.

Power of central government to take measures to protect and improve environment

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government shall have the power to take
all such measures as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and
improving the quality of the environment and preventing controlling and abating
environmental pollution.

(2)In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the provisions of sub-section (1),
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such measures may include measures with respect to all or any of the following matters,
namely:--

(i) Co-ordination of actions by the State Governments, officers and other authorities

 under this Act, or the rules made thereunder, or

 under any other law for the time being in force which is relatable to the objects of this
Act;

(ii) Planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;

(iii) Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;

(iv) Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from
various sources whatsoever provided that different standards for emission or discharge
may be laid down under this clause from different sources having regard to the quality or
composition of the emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from such sources;

(v) Restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of

industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject
to certain safeguards;

(vi) Laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may
cause environmental pollution and remedial measures for such accidents;

(vii) Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;

(viii) Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as are

likely to cause environmental pollution;

(ix) Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of
environmental pollution;

(x) Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other

processes, materials or substances and giving, by order, of such directions to such
authorities, officers or persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the
prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;

(xi) Establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and institutes to carry out

the functions entrusted to such environmental laboratories and institutes under this Act;

(xii) Collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to

environmental pollution;

(xiii) Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;

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 (xiv) Such other matters as the Central Government deems necessary or expedient for the
purpose of securing the effective implementation of the provisions of this Act.

(3) The Central Government may, if it considers it necessary or expedient so to do for the
purpose of this Act, by order, published in the Official Gazette, constitute an authority or
authorities by such name or names as may be specified in the order for the purpose of
exercising and performing such of the powers and functions of the Central Government under
this Act and for taking measures with respect to such of the matters.

6.10 AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT

It is also a comprehensive legislation with more than fifty sections. It makes provisions,
interalia, for Central and State Boards, power to declare pollution control areas, restrictions
on certain industrial units, authority of the Boards to limit emission of air pollutants, power of
entry, inspection, taking samples and analysis, penalties, offences by companies and
Government and cognizance of offences etc. The Act specifically empowers State
Government to designate air pollution areas and to prescribe the type of fuel to be used in
these designated areas. According to this Act, no person can operate certain types of
industries including the asbestos, cement, fertilizer and petroleum industries without consent
of the State Board. The Board can predicate its consent upon the fulfillment of certain
conditions. The Air Act apparently adopts an industry wide “best available technology”
requirement. As in the Water Act, courts may hear complaints under the Act only at the
instigation of, or with the sanction of, the State Board. The Government passed this Act in
1981 to clean up our air by controlling pollution. It states that sources of air pollution such as
industry, vehicles, power plants, etc., are not permitted to release particulate matter, lead,
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or
other toxic substances beyond a prescribed level. To ensure this, Pollution Control Boards
(PCBs) have been set up by Government to measure pollution levels in the atmosphere and at
certain sources by testing the air. This is measured in parts per million or in milligrams or
micrograms per cubic meter. The particulate matter and gases that are released by industry
and by cars, buses and two wheelers is measured by using air-sampling equipment. However,
the most important aspect is for people themselves to appreciate the dangers of air pollution
and reduce their own potential as polluters by seeing that their own vehicles or the industry
they work in reduces levels of emissions. This Act is created to take appropriate steps for the
preservation of the natural resources of the Earth which among other things includes the
preservation of high quality air and ensures controlling the level of air pollution. The main
objectives of the Act are as follows:

(a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.

(b) To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to implement the
Act.

(c) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to
the Boards functions relating to pollution
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Air pollution is more acute in heavily industrialized and urbanized areas, which are also
densely populated. The presence of pollution beyond certain Limits due to various pollutants
discharged through industrial emission is monitored by the PCBs set up in every state.

6.10.1 POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BOARDS

6.10.1.1 Central Pollution Board: The main function of the Central Board is to implement
legislation created to improve the quality of air and to prevent and control air pollution in the
country. The Board advises the Central Government on matters concerning the improvement
of air quality and also coordinates activities, provides technical assistance and guidance to
State Boards and lays down standards for the quality of air. It collects and disseminates
information in respect of matters relating to air pollution and performs functions as
prescribed in the Act.

6.10.1.2 State Pollution Control Boards: The State Boards have the power to advise the
State Government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of air pollution. They
have the right to inspect at all reasonable times any control equipment, industrial plant, or
manufacturing process and give orders to take the necessary steps to control pollution. They
are expected to inspect air pollution control areas at intervals or whenever necessary. They
are empowered to provide standards for emissions to be laid down for different industrial
plants with regard to quantity and composition of emission of air pollutants into the
atmosphere. A State Board may establish or recognize a laboratory to perform this function.
The State Governments have been given powers to declare air pollution control areas after
consulting with the State Board and also give instructions to ensure standards of emission
from automobiles and restriction on use of certain industrial plants.

6.10.2 PENALTIES

The persons managing industry are to be penalized if they produce emissions of air pollutants
in excess of the standards laid down by the State Board. The Board also makes applications
to the court for restraining persons causing air pollution. Whoever contravenes any of the
provision of the Act or any order or direction issued is punishable with imprisonment for a
term which may extend to three months or with a fine of Rs 10,000 or with both, and in case
of continuing offence with an additional fine which may extend to Rs 5,000 for every day
during which such contravention continues after conviction for the first contravention.

6.11 WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT

The government formulated this act in 1974 to prevent the pollution of water by industrial,
agricultural and household wastewater that can contaminate our water sources. Wastewaters
with high levels of pollutants that enter wetlands, rivers, lakes, wells as well as the sea are
serious health hazards. Controlling the point sources by monitoring the levels of different
pollutants is one way to prevent pollution, by punishing the polluter. Individuals can also do
several things to reduce water pollution such as using biodegradable chemicals for household
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use, reducing the use of pesticides in gardens, and identifying polluting sources at work
places and in industrial units where oil are or other petroleum products and heavy metals are
used. Excessive organic matter, sediments and infecting organism from hospital wastes can
also pollute our water. Citizen needs to develop a watchdog force to inform authorities to
appropriate actions against different types of water pollution. However, preventing pollution
is better than trying to cure the problems it has created, or punishing offenders.

The main objectives of the Water Act are to provide for prevention, control and abatement of
water pollution and the maintenance or restoration of the wholesomeness of water. It is
designed to assess pollution levels and punish polluters. The Central Government and State
Government have set up PCBs to monitor water pollution.

The Water Act 1974 with certain amendments in 1978 is an extensive legislation with more
than sixty sections for the prevention and control of water pollution. Among other things, the
Act provides for constitution of central and State Boards for preventing water pollution,
power to take water samples and their analysis, discharge of sewage or trade effluents,
appeals, revision, minimum and maximum penalties, publication of names of offenders,
offences by companies and Government departments, cognizance of offences, water
laboratories, analysis etc. Prevention and control of water pollution is achieved through a
permit or ‘consent administration’ procedure. Discharge of effluents is permitted by obtaining
the consent of the State Water Board, subject to any condition they specify. Any person who
fails to comply with a directive of the State cannot, however, entertain in suit under this Act
unless the suit is brought by, or with the sanction of the State Board.

Water Pollution Cess Act 1977 According to this Act, anyone consuming water has to pay
certain amount of cess depending on:

1. Whether the industry is using water for industrial cooling, spraying in mine pits or boilers
feed,

2. For domestic purposes,

3. In processing, whereby water gets polluted and pollutants are easily biodegradable, and

4. In processing whereby water ge ts polluted and the pollutants are not easily bio-degradable
and are toxic. Those industries that had installed a suitable treatment plant for the treatment
of industrial effluents can get a rebate of 70 per cent on the cess payable.

6.12 WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT

The Wildlife Act was passed in 1972 to protect the wildlife and their habitats. The habitat destruction due to
agriculture, industries, urbanisation and other human activities had led to the erosion of the country’s wildlife.

The major activities and provisions in the act can be summed up as follows:

1. It defines the wild-life related terminology.

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 2. Enactment of an All India Wildlife Protection Act (1972).

3. It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory Board, Wildlife warden,

their powers, duties etc.

4. Becoming a party to the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of

Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1976).

5. Launching a national component of UNESCO’S ‘Man and Biospere Programme’

(1971).

6. Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wild life species was done for the
first time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned.

7. Protection to some endangered plants.

8. The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.

9. The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.

10. There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for
sale, possession, transfer etc

11. The act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.

12. It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders.

It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species. Several Conservation
Projects for individual endangered species like Lion (1972), Tiger (1973), Crocodile (1974)
and Brown antlered Deer (1981) were stated under this Act. The Act is adopted by all states
in India except J & K, which has it own Act. Some of the major drawbacks of the Act include
mild penalty to offenders, illegal wild life trade in J & K, personal ownership certificate for
animal articles like tiger and leopard skins, no coverage of foreign endangered wildlife,
pitiable condition of wildlife in mobile zoos and little emphasis on protection of plant genetic
resources

6.13 FOREST PROTECTION ACT

The Indian Forest Act of 1927 consolidated all the previous laws regarding forests that were
passed before the 1920s. The Act gave the Government and Forest Department the power to
create Reserved Forests, and the right to use Reserved Forests for Government use alone. It
also created Protected Forests, in which the use of resources by local people was controlled.
Some forests were to be controlled by the village community, and these were called village
Forests. The Act remained in force till the 1980s when it was realized that protecting forests
for timber production alone was not acceptable. The other values of protecting the services
that forests provide and its valuable assets such as biodiversity began to overshadow the
importance of their revenue earnings from timber. This led to the Forest Conservation Act of

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1980 and its amendment 1988. India’s first Forest Policy was enunciated in 1952. Between
1952 and 1988, the extent of deforestation was so great that it became essential to formulate a
new policy on forests and their utilization. The earlier forest policies had focused only on
revenue generation. In the 1980’s it became clear that forests must be protected for their other
functions such as the maintenance of soil and water regimes centered on ecological concerns.
It also provided for the use of goods and services of the forest for its local inhabitants,

The new policy framework made conversion of forests into other uses much less possible.
Conservation of the forests as a natural heritage finds a place in the new policy, which
includes the preservation of its biological diversity and genetic resources. It also values
meeting the needs of local people for food, fuel wood, fodder and Non Timber Forest
Produce (NTFPs). It gives priority to maintaining environmental stability and ecological
balances. It expressly states that the network of Protected Areas should be strengthened and
extended.

The Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was enacted to control deforestation, it ensured that
forestlands could not be de-reserved without prior approval of the Central Government; This
was created as some states had begun to dereserve the Reserved Forests for non-forest use.
These states had regularized encroachments and resettled ‘project Affected people’ from
development projects such as dams in these de-reserved areas. The need for a new legislation
became urgent. The Act made it possible to retain a greater control over the frightening level
of deforestation in the country and specified penalties for offenders.

6.13.1 PENALTIES

Penalties for offences in Reserved Forests:

No person is allowed to make clearing or ser fire to a reserved forest. Cattle are not permitted
to trespass into the reserved forest, cutting, collecting of timber, bark or leaves, quarrying or
collecting any forest products is punishable with imprisonment for a term of six months or
with a fine which may extended to Rs 500 or both.

Penalties for offences in protected Forests:

 A person who commits any of the following offences like cutting of trees, stripping
the bark or leaves of trees, set fire to such forests or permits cattle to damage any tree,
shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extended to six months
or with a fine which any extended to Rs 500 or both.

 Any forest officer even without an order from the magistrate or a warrant can arrest
any person against whom a reasonable suspicion exists.

6.14 ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT OF

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

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The environmental issue in India looks gloomy despite so many Legislations and Acts. The
rivers and lakes continue to be choked with industrial waste and sewage. The air in many
cities of India is heavily polluted. Deforestation takes place quite normally. The protection of
wildlife is not carried out in its true spirit, despite the enforcement of Acts.

The people must be guided and helped to establish the trend of acceptance of preventing the
environment as a whole, our health and Earth's resources. The presence of legislation to
protect the air, water, soil etc., doesn't necessarily mean the problem is addressed. Once the
legislation is made at the global, national or state level, it has to be implemented. For
environmental legislation to be successfully implemented there has to be an effective agency
to collect relevant data, process it and pass it on to a law enforcement agency. If the law or
rule is broken by an individual or institution, this has to be punished through the legal
process.

The Government of India constituted a Central Board for prevention and control of water
pollution after the Water Act, 1974 was passed. Subsequently Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act 1986 was passed. The Central Board for prevention and control of water
pollution was entrusted to manage the affairs enumerated in Air Act 1986 and Environment
Act 1986. Several other acts and rules were enacted. All the state governments also
constituted pollution central boards in their respective states and accepted the central
legislation in their respective legislative assemblies. Some of the pollution monitoring is
carried out by other agencies, e.g., vehicular pollution is monitored by transport department.
This is a real drawback because several agencies cannot control pollution.

Environmental litigation is more expensive than other types of disputes, as it involves expert
testimony and technical evidence central and state boards must be able to afford the expertise
and the administrative backing. So, efforts are made to share the costs of anti-pollution
measures taken by the industry to avoid state sponsored expensive and lengthy legal battles.
The laws enacted by the government should be made very stringent and harsh so that every
citizen may not dare to play with the environment and instead he/she should protect it.

Three issues that are especially important for environmental legislation are:

1. The precautionary principle: This principle has evolved to deal with risks and
uncertainties faced by environmental management. The principle implies that an ounce of
prevention is worth a pound of cure it does not prevent problems but may reduce their
occurrence and helps ensure contingency plans are made. The application of this principle
requires either cautious progress until a development can be judged ‘innocent’, or avoiding
development until research indicates exactly what the risks are, and then proceeding to
minimize them. Once a threat is identified, action should be taken to prevent or control
damage even if there is uncertainly about whether the threat is real. Some environmental
problems become impossible or costly to solve if there is delay, therefore waiting for research
and legal proof is not costless.

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2. The polluter-pays principle: In addition to, the obvious the polluter pays for the damaged
caused by a development this principle also implies that a polluter pays for monitoring and
policing. A problem with this approach is that fines may bankrupt small businesses, yet be
low enough for a large company to write them off as an occasional overhead, which does
little for pollution control. There is, thus, debate as to whether the principle should be
retrospective. Developing nations are seeking to have developed countries pay more for
carbon dioxide and other emissions controls, arguing that they polluted the global
environment during the Industrial Revolution, yet enjoy the fruits of invention from the era.
This principle, in fact, is more a way of allocating costs to the polluter than a legal principle.
This principle was adopted by OECD member countries in 1972, at least in theory.

3. Freedom of information: Environmental planning and management is hindered if the

public, NGOs or even official bodies are unable to get information. Many countries have now
begun to release more information, the USA has a Freedom of Information Act, and the
European Union is moving in this direction. But still many governors and multinational
corporations fear that industrial secrets will leak to competitors if there is too much
disclosure, and there are situations where authorities declare strategic’ needs and suspend
disclosure.

6.15 PUBLIC AWARENESS

Environmental sensitivity in our country can only grow through a major public awareness
campaign. This has several tools-the electronic media, the press, school and college
education, adult education, which are all essentially complementary to each other. Green
movements can grow out of small local initiatives to become major players in advocating
environmental protection to the Government. Policy makers will only work towards
environmental preservation if there is a sufficiently large bank of voters that insist on
protecting the environment. Orienting the media to project pro-environmental issues is an
important aspect. Several advertising campaigns frequently have messages that are negative
to environmental preservation.

The increasing awareness of environmental issues has generated great activity in recent years.
It has also brought to the knowledge of common citizens of India that for sustaining
agriculture and maintaining the quality of environment at least one third of the country's land
should be under forest. This public awareness has helped government as well as voluntary
organizations to take up the issue of environmental protection. People and activists agitation
in connection with chipko Movement, appiko Movement, silent valley (Kerala) and sardar
sarovar Project on Narmada are some illustrations to show how to clean and pollution free.

There has been several tools, the electronic media, the press, school and college education,
adult education, which are all essentially complementary to each other. Green movements can
grow out of small local initiatives to become major players in advocating environmental
protection to the government. Merging the ideas and philosophy of environmentalism with
the structure of formal education systems, it strives to increase awareness of environmental

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problems as well as to foster the skills and strategies for solving those problems. Nature
education expanded the teaching of biology, botany and other natural sciences out into the
natural world, whose students learned through direct observation. Both governmental and
citizen entities included an educational component to spread their message to the general
public. Many states required their schools and colleges to adopt environmental observation
education as part of their curriculum so that they are prepared to deal with environmental
problems in the real world. Teaching training programs were developed to meet the
increasing demand.

Publications of environment related resources material in the form of pamphlets or booklets

published by Ministry of Environment & Forests can also help in keeping this section abreast
of the latest developments in the field.

Before we can all take up the task of environmental protection and conservation, we have to
be environmentally educated and aware. It is aptly said “if you want to act green, first think
green”.

QUESTIONS

1. State and explain sustainable development.

2. What are the recent approaches to achieve sustainable development?

3. Discuss major causes of wastage of water resources. How can water be conserved?

4. What are wastelands? Name and discuss the various methods of wasteland reclamation.

5. Discuss briefly the salient features of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.

6. Describe the urban problems which are related to energy.

7. What are problems faced during the rehabilitation and resettlement of people?

8. Discuss the significance of rain water harvesting and watershed management.

9. Describe the issues involved in the enforcement of environmental legislation.

10. Explain the following:

(i) Environmental Protection Act

(ii) Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act

(iii) Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act

(iv) Wildlife Protection Act

(v) Forest Conservation Act

11. Define consumerism and its relation to waste products.

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12. Discuss briefly the environmental ethics and related issues with their solutions.

13. Briefly discuss the objectives of Resettlement and Rehabilitation Policy.

14. What is ozone hole? What are the causes of ozone hole formation. Discuss the effects of
ozone layer depletion and its remedial measures.

15. Briefy discuss the salient features of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

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 UNIT – VII
HUMAN POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT
7.1 POPULATION

In nature, we rarely find isolated, single individuals of any species; majority of them live in
groups in a well defined geographical area, share or compete for similar resources, potentially
interbreed and thus constitute a population. Although the term interbreeding implies sexual
reproduction, a group of individuals resulting from even asexual reproduction is also generally
considered a population for the purpose of ecological studies. A population has certain attributes
that an individual organism does not. An individual may have births and deaths, but a population
has birth rates and death rates. The rates, hence, are expressed is change in numbers (increase
or decrease) with respect to members of the population. Another attribute characteristic of a
population is sex ratio. An individual is either a male or a female but a population has a sex ratio
(e.g., 60 per cent of the population are females and 40 per cent males). A population at any given
time is composed of individuals of different ages. If the age distribution is plotted for the
population, the resulting structure is called an age pyramid. For human population, the age
pyramids generally show age distribution of males and females in a combined diagram.

The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the population whether it is growing,
stable or declining.

Figure 7.1: Representation of age pyramid for human population

The size of the population tells us a lot about its status in the habitat. The size, in nature, could be
as low as less than 10 (Siberian cranes at Bharatpur wetlands in any year) or go into millions
(Chlamydomonas in a pond). Population size, more technically called population density, need
not necessarily be measured in numbers only. Although total number is generally the most
appropriate measure of population density, it is in some cases either meaningless or difficult to
determine. Sometimes, for certain ecological investigations, there is no need to know the
absolute population densities; relative densities serve the purpose equally well. For instance, the
number of fish caught per trap is good enough measure of its total population density in the lake.
We are mostly obliged to estimate population sizes indirectly, without actually counting them or

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seeing them. The tiger census in our national parks and tiger reserves is often based on pug
marks and fecal pellets.

Variation of population based on age structure

Pyramid shaped Bell shaped Urn shaped

(India, Bangladesh, and Ethiopia) (France, USA, and UK) (Germany, Italy and Japan)

Figure 7.2: Bell and Pyramid shaped Population structure

Figure 7.3: Urn shaped Population structure

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7.2 POPULATION GROWTH
The size of a population for any species is not a static parameter. It keeps changing in time,
depending on various factors including food availability, predation pressure and reduced
weather. In fact, it is these changes in population density that give us some idea of what is
happening to the population, whether it is flourishing or declining. Whatever might be the
ultimate reasons, the density of a population in a given habitat during a given period, fluctuates
due to changes in four basic processes, two of which (natality and immigration) contribute an
increase in population density and two (mortality and emigration) to a decrease.

(i) Natality refers to the number of births during a given period in the population that are added
to the initial density.

(ii) Mortality is the number of deaths in the population during a given period.

(iii) Immigration is the number of individuals of the same species that have come into the
habitat from elsewhere during the time period under consideration.

(iv) Emigration is the number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and gone
elsewhere during the time period under consideration.

Under normal conditions, births and deaths are the most important factors influencing population
density, the other two factors assuming importance only under special conditions. For instance, if a new
habitat is just being colonised, immigration may contribute more significantly to population growth
than birth rates.

Characteristics of population growth

Exponential growth

Doubling time

Infant mortality rate

Total fertility rate

Replacement level

Male/female ratio

Demographic transition.

7.3 GROWTH MODELS

We have been concerned about unbridled human population growth and problems created by it in our
country and it is therefore natural for us to be curious if different animal populations in nature behave
the same way or show some restraints on growth. Perhaps we can learn a lesson or two from nature on
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how to control population growth.

7.3.1 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH

Resource (food and space) availability is obviously essential for the unimpeded growth of a population.
Ideally, when resources in the habitat are unlimited, each species has the ability to realise fully its innate
potential to grow in number, as Darwin observed while developing his theory of natural selection. Then
the population grows in an exponential or geometric fashion.If in a population of size N, the birth rates
are represented as b and death rates as d, then the increase or decrease in N during a unit time period t
(dN/dt) will be:

dN/dt = (b – d) × N

Let (b–d) = r, then

dN/dt = rN

The r in this equation is called the ‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’ and is a very important
parameter chosen for assessing impacts of any biotic or abiotic factor on population growth. Any
species growing exponentially under unlimited resource conditions can reach enormous population
densities in a short time.

7.3.2 LOGISTIC GROWTH

No population of any species in nature has its disposal unlimited resources to permit exponential
growth. This leads to competition between individuals for limited resources. Eventually, the ‘fittest’
individual will survive and reproduce. The governments of many countries have also realised this fact
and introduced various restraints with a view to limit human population growth. In nature, a given
habitat has enough resources to support a maximum possible number, beyond which no further growth
is possible. Let us call this limit as nature’s carrying capacity for that species in that habitat. A
population growing in a habitat with limited resources show initially a lag phase, followed by phases of
acceleration and deceleration and finally an asymptote, when the population density reaches the
carrying capacity. A plot of N in relation to time results in a sigmoid curve. This type of population
growth is called Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth and is described by the following equation.

dN/dt =rN(k-n)/k

Where N = Population density at time t

r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase

k = Carrying capacity

Figure 7.4: S-shaped Growth Curve

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Since resources for growth for most animal populations are finite and become limiting sooner or later,
the logistic growth model is considered a more realistic one. Gather from Government Census data the
population figures for India for the last 100 years, plot them and check which growth pattern is evident.

There are two types of growth curves:

(i) S-shaped growth curve

(ii) J-shaped growth curve

Figure: 7.5: J-shaped growth curve

Table 7.1: Difference between S-shaped and J-shaped growth curve

7.4 POPULATION GROWTH, VARIATION AMONG NATIONS

Our global human population, 6 billion at present, will cross the 7 billion mark by 2015. The needs of
this huge number of human beings cannot be supported by the Earth’s natural resources, without
degrading the quality of human life. In the near future, fossil fuel from oil fields will run dry. It will be
impossible to meet the demands for food from existing agro systems. Pastures will be overgrazed by
domestic animals and industrial growth will create ever-greater problems due to pollution of soil, water
and air. Seas will not have enough fish. Larger ozone holes will develop due to the discharge of
industrial chemicals into the atmosphere, which will affect human health. Global warming due to
industrial gases will lead to a rise in sea levels and flood all low-lying areas, submerging coastal
agriculture as well as towns and cities. ‘Famines’ due to the depletion of fresh water, will create unrest
and eventually make countries go to war. The control over regional biological diversity, which is vital

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for producing new medicinal and industrial products, will lead to grave economic conflicts between
biotechnologically advanced nations and the bio rich countries. Degradation of ecosystems will lead to
extinction of thousands of species, destabilizing natural ecosystems of great value. These are only some
of the environmental problems related to an increasing human population and more intensive use
of resources that we are likely to face in future. These effects can be averted by creating a mass
environmental awareness movement that will bring about a change in people’s way of life. Increase in
production per capita of agricultural produce at a global level ceased during the1980’s. In some
countries, food shortage has become a permanent feature. Two of every three children in South
Africa are underweight. In other regions famines due to drought have become more frequent.
Present development strategies have not been able to successfully address these problems related to
hunger and malnutrition. On the other hand, only 15% of the world’s population in the developed
world is earning 79% of income. Thus the disparity in the extent of per capita resources that are used by
people who live in a ‘developed’ country as against those who live in a ‘developing’ country is
extremely large. Similarly, the disparity between the rich and the poor in India is also growing. The
increasing pressures on resources place great demands on the in-built buffering action of nature that has
a certain ability to maintain a balance in our environment.

Case studies:

 Ethiopia is a developing nation with a pyramid shaped age structure indicating

expanding population. Its TFR is 6.9 presently. Even if it aims to reach the
replacement level by the year 2050, its population that is 57 million now would rise to
225 million by 2050 when TFR (the average number of children that would be born to
a women in her lifetime becomes 2.1 and continue growing until it levels off, 100
years later, at 370 million.

 Population growth is also affected due to AIDS in the HIV-prevalent countries mainly
in Africa. The earlier population projections of UN are now found to be reduced by
8% in the seriously HIV-affected countries i.e. Mali, Rwanda, Uganda and Zambia. In
Zimbabwe, HIV affects a quarter of the population aged between 15-49 yrs. In
Botswana, 2/3 rd of the 15 year olds are predicted to die of AIDS before reaching 50
years of age. About 30% of adult population in many African countries in HIV –
positive. This has drastically reduced life expectancy in these countries.

7.5 POPULATION EXPLOSION

There has been a dramatic reduction in the doubling time (the time needed for a population to double its
size at a constant annual rate) of the global human population. In the 20th century, human population
has grown much faster than ever before. In the year 2000, the world population was 6.3 billion and it is
predicted to grow four times in the next 100 years. This unprecedented growth of human population at
an alarming rate is referred to as population explosion.
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 Figure7.6: World Population Growth

Population explosion is causing severe resource depletion and environmental degradation. Our resource
like land, water, fossil fuels, minerals etc. are limited and due to overexploitation these resources are
getting exhausted. Even many of these renewable resources like forest, grassland etc. are under
tremendous pressure. Industrial and economic growth are raising our quality of life but adding toxic
pollutants into the air, water and soil. As a result, the ecological life support systems are getting
jeopardized. There is a fierce debate on this issue as to whether we should immediately reduce fertility
rates through worldwide birth control programs in order to stabilize or even shrink the population or
whether human beings will devise new technologies for alternate resources, so that the problem of
crossing the carrying capacity of the earth will never actually come. The only remedy for the
population explosion is birth control programmes.

7.6 FAMILY PLANNING

Family planning is the planning of when to have children and the use of birth control and other
techniques to implement such plans. Other techniques commonly used include sexuality
education prevention and management of sexually transmitted infection pre-conception
counselling and management, and infertility management.

Family planning is sometimes used as a synonym for the use of birth control however; it often
includes a wide variety of methods, and practices that are not birth control. It is most usually
applied to a female-male couple who wish to limit the number of children they have or to control
the timing of pregnancy. Family planning may encompass sterilization as well as abortion.

Family planning services are defined as "educational, comprehensive medical or social activities
which enable individuals, including minors, to determine freely the number and spacing of their
children and to select the means by which this may be achieved." Waiting until the mother is at
least 18 years old before trying to have children improves maternal and child health.

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7.6.1 OBJECTIVES OF FAMILY PLANNING PROGRAMME

 Reduce infant mortality rate.

 Encourage late marriages.

 Improve women’s health.

 Control of communal diseases.

7.6.2 FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF FAMILY PLANNING

Family planning is among the most cost-effective of all health interventions. "The cost savings
stem from a reduction in unintended pregnancy, as well as a reduction in transmission of
sexually transmitted infections, including HIV."

Childbirth and prenatal health care cost averaged $7,090 for normal delivery in the US in 1996.
US Department of Agriculture estimates that for a child born in 2007, a US family will spend an
average of $11,000 to $23,000 per year for the first 17 years of child's life.

7.10 ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

Health is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being. In humans, it is the
general condition of a person's mind, body and spirit, usually meaning to be free
from illness, injury or pain. The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined health in its
broader sense in 1946 as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity."

A disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It may be caused by

external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as
autoimmune diseases. In humans, "disease" is often used more broadly to refer to any condition
that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, or death to the person afflicted, or similar
problems for those in contact with the person.

Human health is influenced by many factors like nutritional, biological, chemical or

psychological. It is quite true that environment has a direct impact on those living in it and many
diseases are the outcome of man’s maladjustment to his environment. The factors, which affect
human health and cause disease, can be dividing into two categories:

Factors affecting human health

Intrinsic or Internal Factors Extrinsic or External Factors.

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The factors such as malfunctioning of the body parts, hormonal imbalances, malfunctioning of
immune system and genetic disorders, which exist within the human body, are called Intrinsic
Factors. The disease caused by intrinsic factors is called organic diseases or metabolic diseases.
Some examples of diseases caused by extrinsic factors are: Heart attack, Kidney failure,
Cataract, Diabetes etc. The disease caused by intrinsic factors can be cured by proper medical
treatment.

The factors, such as malnutrition, disease causing microorganisms, environmental pollutants use
of tobacco, alcohol and narcotics, which exist outside the human body, are called Extrinsic
Factors. Some examples of disease caused by extrinsic factors are Kwashiorkor, Goiter, Malaria,
Cholera, Tetanus etc. The diseases caused by extrinsic factors can be cured by providing
wholesome food, by providing clean environment, by social remedies which encourage good
habits.

Many chemicals applied to skin, inhaled or taken by mouth are also known to cause cancer.
These chemicals, which can cause cancer, are known as carcinogenic. Carcinogenic agents in
foods may be natural substances or they can be chemicals (food additives) which are deliberately
added to food as flavoring agent, as colouring agent, as sweetener as a preservative. Cancerous
growths or tumors can be treated only at early stages. Cancerous growths in advanced stages
often result in death.

There are three types of health hazards:

HEALTH HAZARDS

Physical Hazards Chemical Hazards Biological Hazards

1. Physical Hazards – Radioactive and UV radiations, Global warming, Chlorofluro carbons, Noise
etc.

2. Chemical Hazards – Combustion of Fossil fuels, industrial effluence, pesticides, heavy metals.

3. Biological Hazards - Bacteria, Viruses, Parasites.

7.10.1 INFECTIOUS ORGANISMS

Infectious diseases, also known as transmissible diseases or communicable diseases comprise

clinically evident illness resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic
biological agents in an individual host organism. Infectious pathogens include some
viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular parasites, and aberrant proteins known as prions.
These pathogens are the cause of disease epidemics, in the sense that without the pathogen, no
infectious epidemic occurs. Transmission of pathogen can occur in various ways including

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physical contact, contaminated food, body fluids, objects, airborne inhalation, or
through vector organisms.

Infectious organisms can also cause respiratory diseases (pneumonia, tuberculosis, influenza
etc.) and gastrointestinal diseases (diarrhea, dysentery, cholera etc.)

Case Study: Tuberculosis in India

There are 14 million TB patients in India, accounting for one-third of the global cases of TB.
Every day, 20,000 Indians contract TB and more than 1,000 die due to this chronic illness.
TB attacks working adults in the age group of 15-50 years.

7.10.2 MALNUTRITION

The term malnutrition refers to an unhealthful intake of dietary nutrients. Malnutrition may arise
with inadequate or overabundant food intake, an imbalance of dietary nutrients or an inability to
digest, absorb or utilize the food you eat. Because all organ systems in your body require the
building blocks and energy food provides, malnutrition can adversely affect your health in ways
that range from mild to potentially life threatening. Eating a nutritious, well-balanced diet is one
of the most important factors in achieving and maintaining your good health. Increased Risk of
Disease Malnutrition increases your risk of developing medical conditions associated with
inadequate or excessive consumption of specific nutrients. For example, deficiencies of vitamin
C, B12, B6 or iron can lead to a low red blood cell count, or anemia.

Excess consumption of cholesterol and saturated fats increases your risk of developing
atherosclerosis, or fatty blockages in your arteries. Increased risk of infections may occur if your
diet lacks adequate amounts of protein, zinc or vitamin C, Calcium and vitamin D deficiencies
increase your risk of osteoporosis and bone fractures. Malnutrition during infancy and early
childhood may increase your risk of developing chronic diseases, including diabetes, asthma,
allergies and heart disease.

7.10.3 FOOD ADULTERATION

Adulteration of food is defined as the addition or subtraction of any substance to or from food, so
that the natural composition and quality of the original food substance is affected. It is difficult
for the consumer to detect the extent of adulteration. Adulteration of foods can either be
intentional, unintentional or natural.

Adulteration of food causes several heath problems in humans. Some of the health hazards
include stomach ache, body ache, anemia, abortion, paralysis, and increase in the incidence of
tumors, pathological lesions in vital organs, abnormalities of skin and eyes. Hence food
adulteration should be given great importance due to its effect in the health significance of the
public.
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Epidemic dropsy is a form of edema of extremities due to intoxication with Argemone mexicana
(Mexican prickly poppy). Epidemic dropsy is a clinical state resulting from use of edible oils
adulterated with Argemone mexicana seed oil. Epidemic dropsy occurs as an epidemic in places
where use of mustard oil, (from the seeds of Brassica juncea commonly known as Indian
mustard) as cooking medium is common.

Removal of the adulterated oil and symptomatic treatment of congestive cardiac failure and
respiratory symptoms, along with administration of antioxidants and multivitamins, remains the
mainstay of treatment. Selective cultivation of yellow mustard, strict enforcement of the Indian
Food Adulteration Act, and exemplary punishment to unscrupulous traders are the main
preventive measures.

7.10.4 RADIATION

High doses of radiation can be harmful or even fatal. The damage caused by exposure to
radiation is determined by the type of radiation, the duration of exposure, and the part of the
body that is exposed. It is important to note that an average of one in four people develops some
form of cancer.

Although a dose of just 25 rems causes some detectable changes in blood, doses to near 100 rems
usually have no immediate harmful effects. Doses above 100 rems cause the first signs of
radiation sickness including nausea, vomiting, headache and some loss of white blood cells.
Doses of 300 rems or more can cause temporary hair loss, but also more significant internal
harm, including damage to nerve cells and the cells that line the digestive tract.

Severe loss of white blood cells, which are the body's main defense against infection, makes
radiation victims highly vulnerable to disease. Radiation also reduces production of blood
platelets, which aid blood clotting, so victims of radiation sickness are also vulnerable to
hemorrhaging. Half of all people exposed to 450 rems die, and doses of 800 rems or more are
always fatal.

Besides the symptoms mentioned above, these people also suffer from fever and diarrhea. As of
yet, there is no effective treatment--so death occurs within two to fourteen days. In time, for
survivors, diseases such as leukemia (cancer of the blood), lung cancer, thyroid cancer, breast
cancer, and cancers of other organs can appear due to the radiation received.

7.11 HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights are commonly understood as "inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is
inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived
as universal and egalitarian. These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in
both national and international law. Many of the basic ideas that animated the movement
developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the atrocities of The Holocaust,
culminating in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United
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Nations General Assembly in 1948. The ancient world did not possess the concept of universal
human rights. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed
with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Case Study: Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Many people at Hiroshima and Nagasaki died not directly from the actual explosion, but from
the radiation released as a result of the explosion. For example, a fourteen-year-old boy was
admitted to a Hiroshima hospital two days after the explosion, suffering from a high fever and
nausea. Nine days later his hair began to fall out. His supply of white blood cells dropped
lower and lower. On the seventeenth day he began to bleed from his nose, and on the twenty-
first day he died.

At Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the few surviving doctors observed symptoms of radiation
sickness for the first time. In his book Nagasaki 1945, Dr. Tatsuichiro Akizuki wrote of the
puzzling, unknown disease, of symptoms that "suddenly appeared in certain patients with no
apparent injuries." Several days after the bombs exploded, doctors learned that they were
treating the effects of radiation exposure. "We were now able to label our unknown adversary
'atomic disease' or 'radioactive contamination' among other names. But they were only labels:
we knew nothing about its cause or cure... Within seven to ten days after the A-bomb
explosion, people began to die in swift succession. They died of the burns that covered their
bodies and of acute atomic disease. Innumerable people who had been burnt turned a
mulberry color, like worms, and died… The disease," wrote Dr. Akizuki, "destroyed them
little by little. As a doctor, I was forced to face the slow and certain deaths of my patients."
Doctors and nurses had no idea of how their own bodies had been affected by radioactivity.
Dr. Akizuki wrote, "All of us suffered from diarrhea and a discharge of blood from the gums,
but we kept this to ourselves. Each of us thought: tomorrow it might be me... We became
stricken with fear of the future." Dr. Akizuki survived, as did several hundred thousand others
in or near Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In fact, at least ten people who had fled from Hiroshima
to Nagasaki survived both bombs. The survivors have suffered physically from cataracts,
leukemia and other cancers, malformed offspring, and premature aging, and also emotionally,
from social discrimination. Within a few months of the nuclear explosions, leukemia began to
appear among the survivors at an abnormally high rate. Some leukemia victims were fetuses
within their mothers' wombs when exposed to radiation. One child who was born two days
after the Hiroshima explosion eventually died of acute leukemia at the age of eighteen. The
number of leukemia cases has declined with time, but the incidence of lung cancer, thyroid
cancer, breast cancer, and cancers of other organs has increased among the survivors.

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7.11.1 OBJECTIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS

 To promote interdependence among countries in all areas of cooperation by identifying

country’s common strengths and opportunities which will help reduce poverty and
improve the quality of life for people whilst developing a knowledge-based society
within country and enhancing community and people empowerment;

 To expand the trade and financial market within country and increase the bargaining
power of Asian countries in lieu of competition and, in turn, enhances country’s’
economic competitiveness in the global market;

 To ultimately transform the continent into community, capable of interacting with the rest
of the world on a more equal footing and contributing more positively towards mutual
peace and prosperity.

HUMAN RIGHTS

Human right to freedom

Human right to property

Human right to freedom of religion

Human right to culture and education

Human right to constitutional remedies

Human right to equality

Human right against exploitation

Human right to food and environment

Human right to good health.

7.11.2 THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (UDHR)

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a

declaration adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly on 10 December 1948 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris.
This declaration provided comprehensive protection to all
individuals against all forms of injustice and human rights
violations. The UDHR defines specific rights, civil, political,
economic, and social as well as cultural. It defines the rights to
life, liberty, and security, fair trial by law, freedom of thought,
expression, conscience, association and freedom of movement.

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It emphasizes right to equal pay for equal work, right to form and join trade unions, right to
health care, education, adequate rest etc.

Human rights violations occur when actions by state (or non-state) actors abuse, ignore, or deny
basic human rights (including civil, political, cultural, social, and economic rights). Furthermore,
violations of human rights can occur when any state or non-state actor breaches any part of the
UDHR treaty or other international human rights or humanitarian law.

In efforts to eliminate violations of human rights, building awareness and protesting inhumane
treatment has often led to calls for action and sometimes improved conditions. The UN Security
Council has interceded with peace keeping forces, and other states and treaties (NATO) have
intervened in situations to protect human rights.

7.11.3 HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA

Human rights in India is an issue complicated by the country's large size, its tremendous
diversity, its status as a developing country and a sovereign, secular, democratic republic.
The Constitution of India provides for Fundamental rights, which include freedom of religion.
Clauses also provide for Freedom of Speech, as well as separation of executive and judiciary and
freedom of movement within the country and abroad.

According to the United States Library of Congress, although human rights problems do exist in
India, the country is generally not regarded as a human rights concern, unlike other countries
in South Asia. Based on these considerations, the 2010 report of Freedom in the
World by Freedom House gave India a political rights rating of 2, and a civil liberties rating of 3,
earning it the highest possible rating of free.

7.12 VALUE EDUCATION

Values education is a term used to name several things, and there is much academic controversy
surrounding it. Some regard it as all aspects of the process by which teachers (and other adults)
transmit values to pupils. Others see it as an activity that can take place in any organization
during which people are assisted by others, who may be older, in a position of authority or are
more experienced, to make explicit those values underlying their own behavior, to assess the
effectiveness of these values and associated behavior for their own and others' long term well-
being and to reflect on and acquire other values and behavior which they recognize as being
more effective for long term well-being of self and others.

This means that values education can take place at home, as well as in schools, colleges,
universities, offender institutions and voluntary youth organizations. There are two main
approaches to values education. Some see it as inculcating or transmitting a set of values which
often come from societal or religious rules or cultural ethics. Others see it as a type of Socratic
dialogue where people are gradually brought to their own realization of what is good behavior

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for themselves and their community. Value education also leads to success. It has values of hard
work, how nobody is useless and loving studies.

VALUE EDUCATION

Explicit Value Education Implicit Value Education

Explicit values education is associated with those different pedagogies, methods or programmes
that teachers or educators use in order to create learning experiences for students when it comes
to value questions.

Implicit values education on the other hand covers those aspects of the educational experience
resulting in value influence learning, which can be related to the concept of hidden curriculum.

This discussion on implicit and explicit raises the philosophical problem of whether or not an
unintentional action can be called education.

7.12.1 OBJECTIVES OF VALUE EDUCATION

 To improve the integral growth of human begins.

 To create attitudes and improvement towards sustainable lifestyle.

 To increase awareness about our national history our cultural heritage, constitutional
rights, national integration, community development and environment.

 To create and develop awareness about the values and their significance and role.

 To know about various living and non- living organisms and their interaction with
environment.

7.12.2 VALUE BASED ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Let us see how environmental education be made value-oriented.

1. Human Values: Preparation of text-books and resource materials about environmental

education can play an important role in building positive attitudes about environment.
The basic human value ‘man in nature’ rather than ‘nature for man’ needs to be infused
through the same.

2. Social Values: Love, compassion, tolerance and justice which are the basic teachings of
most of our religions need to be woven into environmental education. These are the
values to be nurtured so that all forms of life and the biodiversity on this earth are
protected.

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 3. Cultural and Religious Values: These are the values enshrined in Vedas like ‘Dehi me
dadami te’ i.e. “you give me and I give you” (Yajurveda) emphasize that man should not
exploit nature without nurturing her. Our cultural customs and rituals in many ways teach
us to perform such functions as would protect and nurture nature and respect every aspect
of nature, treating them as sacred, are it rivers, earth, mountains or forests.

4. Ethical Values: Environmental education should encompass the ethical values of earth-
centric rather than human-centric world-view. The educational system should promote
the earth-citizenship thinking. Instead of considering human being as supreme we have to
think of the welfare of the earth.

5. Global Values: The concept that the human civilization is a part of the planet as a whole
and similarly nature and various natural phenomena over the earth are interconnected and
inter-linked with special bonds of harmony. If we disturb this harmony anywhere there
will be an ecological imbalance leading to catastrophic results.

6. Spiritual Values: Principles of self-restraint, self-discipline, contentment, reduction of

wants, freedom from greed and austerity are some of the finest elements intricately
woven into the traditional and religious fabric of our country. All these values promote
conservationism and transform our consumeristic approach.

7.13 HIV/AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus infection / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS)
is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
During the initial infection a person may experience a brief period of influenza-like illness. This
is typically followed by a prolonged period without symptoms. As the illness progresses it
interferes more and more with the immune system, making people much more likely to get
infections, including opportunistic infections, and tumours that do not usually affect people with
working immune systems.

Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in west-central Africa during the early twentieth
century. AIDS was first recognized by the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in
1981 and its cause, HIV infection was identified in the early part of the decade. Since its
discovery, AIDS has caused nearly 30 million deaths (as of 2009). As of 2010, approximately
34 million people have contracted HIV globally. AIDS is considered a pandemic—a disease
outbreak which is present over a large area and is actively spreading.

Origin of HIV/AIDS:

1. Through African Monkey To human.

2. Through Vaccine Programme

(a)Polio, small pox vaccine from monkey’s kidney-Africa.

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 (b) Hepatitis-B viral vaccine-Los Angles and New York

HIV/AIDS has had a great impact on society, both as an illness and as a source of discrimination.
The disease also has significant economic impacts. There are many misconceptions about
HIV/AIDS such as the belief that it can be transmitted by casual non-sexual contact. The disease
has also become subject to many controversies involving religion.

7.13.1 SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

There are three main stages of HIV infection: acute infection, clinical latency and AIDS.

Stages of HIV Infection

Acute Infection Clinical Latency AIDS

The initial period following the contraction of HIV is called acute HIV, primary HIV or acute
retroviral syndrome. Many individuals develop an influenza-like illness or a mononucleosis-like
illness 2–4 weeks post exposure while others have no significant symptoms. Symptoms occur in
40–90% of the cases and most commonly include fever, large tender lymph nodes, throat
inflammation, a rash, headache, and/or sores of the mouth and genitals. The rash, which occurs
in 20–50% of cases, presents itself on the trunk and is classically maculopapular. Some people
also develop opportunistic infections at this stage. Gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea,
vomiting or diarrhoea may occur, as may neurological symptoms of peripheral
neuropathy or Guillain-Barre syndrome. The duration of the symptoms varies, but is usually one
or two weeks.

Figure 7.7: Main symptoms of HIV

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 Transmission of HIV

Sexual Contact Exposure to Infected body fluids Pregnancy

HIV is transmitted by three main routes: sexual contact, exposure to infected body fluids or
tissues and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding (known as vertical
transmission). There is no risk of acquiring HIV if exposed to feces, nasal secretions,
saliva, sputum, sweat, tears, urine, or vomit unless these are contaminated with blood. It is
possible to be co-infected by more than one strain of HIV, a condition known as HIV super
infection.

Figure 7.8: CDC poster from 1989 highlighting the threat of AIDS associated with drug use

Figure 7.9: The most common methods of transmission of HIV

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7.13.2 PREVENTION FROM AIDS

Sexual contact: Consistent condom use reduces the risk of HIV transmission by approximately
80% over the long term. When one partner of a couple is infected, consistent condom use results
in rates of HIV infection for the uninfected person of below 1% per year. There is some evidence
to suggest that female condoms may provide an equivalent level of protection. Application of a
vaginal gel containing tenofovir (a reverse transcriptase inhibitor) immediately before sex seems
to reduce infection rates by approximately 40% among African women. By contrast, use of
the spermicide nonoxynol-9 may increase the risk of transmission due to its tendency to cause
vaginal and rectal irritation. Circumcision in Sub-Saharan Africa "reduces the acquisition of HIV
by heterosexual men by between 38% and 66% over 24 months". Based on these studies, the
World Health Organization and UNAIDS both recommended male circumcision as a method of
preventing female-to-male HIV transmission in 2007. Whether it protects against male-to-female
transmission is disputed and whether it is of benefit in developed countries and among men who
have sex with men is undetermined. Some experts fear that a lower perception of vulnerability
among circumcised men may result in more sexual risk-taking behavior, thus negating its
preventive effects. Women who have undergone female genital cutting have an increased risk of
HIV. Programs encouraging sexual abstinence do not appear to affect subsequent HIV
risk. Evidence for a benefit from peer education is equally poor. Comprehensive sexual
education provided at school may decrease high risk behavior. A substantial minority of young
people continues to engage in high-risk practices despite knowing about HIV/AIDS,
underestimating their own risk of becoming infected with HIV. It is not known if treating other
sexually transmitted infections is effective in preventing HIV.

Mother-to-child: Programs to prevent the transmission of HIV from mothers to children can
reduce rates of transmission by 92–99%. This primarily involves the use of a combination of
antivirals during pregnancy and after birth in the infant but also potentially includes bottle
feeding rather than breastfeeding. If replacement feeding is acceptable, feasible, affordable,
sustainable and safe, mothers should avoid breast-feeding their infants, however exclusive
breast-feeding is recommended during the first months of life if this is not the case. If exclusive
breast feeding is carried out, the provision of extended antiretroviral prophylaxis to the infant
decreases the risk of transmission.

Vaccination: As of 2012 there is no effective vaccine for HIV or AIDS. A single trial of the
vaccine RV 144 published in 2009 found a partial reduction in the risk of transmission of
roughly 30%, stimulating some hope in the research community of developing a truly effective
vaccine. Further trials of the RV 144 vaccine are ongoing.

7.14 WELFARE OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN

The department of Women and Child Development in Bellary district working for the welfare,
rehabilitation and development of women and children. The children are covered under
integrated child development programme and also provision is made to protect them in
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correctional institutions. Various schemes are also in operation for the development of women by
Women Development Corporation. The schemes of the department of disabled welfare are also
operated by this department at district level. The national policy for children, 1974 is founded on
the conviction that child development programs are necessary to ensure equality of opportunity
to these children. So, integrated child development service was launched on 2nd October 1975,
in pursuance of the said policy. It is a powerful out reach programs to help and to achieve major
national nutrition and health goals embodied in the national plan of action for children. It
provides increased opportunities for providing early development, associated with improved
enrolment and retention in the early primary stage and releasing girls from burden of sibling care
to reduce the I.M.R.(Infant Mortality Rate).

7.14.1 OBJECTIVES OF WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE PROGRAMMES

 To provide education

 To impart vocational training

 To generate awareness

 To improve employment opportunities

 To restore dignity, equality and respect.

Women and Child Development Department also carries out women development corporation
schemes like training programmes and financial assistance to women through Mahila Mandals,
training cum production schemes, loans schemes like Udyogini, Vikasini, Mane Belaku etc to
strengthen women economically.

7.15ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT AND

HUMAN HEALTH
Information technology has tremendous potential in the field of environment education and
health as in any other field like business, economics, politics or culture. Development of internet
facilities, Geographic Information System (GIS) and information through satellites has generated
a wealth of up-to-date information on various aspects of environment and health. A number of
software have been developed for environment and health studies which are used friendly and
can help an early learner in knowing and understanding the subject.

7.15.1 DATABASE ON ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM

Database is the collection of interrelated data on various subjects. It is usually in computerized

form and can be retrieved whenever required. In the computer the information of database and
can be very quickly retrieved. The comprehensive database includes wildlife database,
conservation database, forest cover database etc. database is also available for diseases like
HIV/AIDS, Malaria, Fluorosis, etc.
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(a) National Management Information System (NM1S): NMIS of the Department of
Science and technology has compiled a database on Research and Development Projects
along with information about research scientists and personnel involved.

(b) Environmental Information System (ENVIS): The Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Government of India has created an information System called Environmental
Information System (ENVIS). With its headquarters in Delhi, it functions in 25 different
centres all over the country. The ENVIS centres work for generating a network of
database in areas like pollution control, clean technologies, remote sensing, coastal
ecology, biodiversity, western Ghats and eastern environmental management, media
related to environment, renewable energy, desertification, mangroves, wildlife,
Himalayan ecology, mining etc.

(c) Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS): Satellite imageries
provide us actual information about various physical and biological resources and also to
some extent about their state of degradation in a digital form through remote sensing.
Satellite imageries provide us actual information about various physical and biological
resources and also to some extent about their state of degradation in a digital form
through remote sensing. We are able to gather digital information on environment aspects
like water logging, desertification, deforestation, urban sprawl, river and canal network,
mineral and energy reserves and so on.

Figure 7.10: Functions of Remote Sensing

(d) Geographical Information System (GIS): GIS has proved to be a very effective tool in
environmental management. GIS is a technique of superimposing various thematic maps
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using digital data on a large number of inter-related or inter dependent aspects. Several
useful soft-wares have been developed for working in the field of GIS. Different thematic
maps containing digital information on a number of aspects like water resources,
industrial growth, human settlements, road network, soil type, forest land, crop land or
grassland etc. are superimposed in a layered form in computer using software. Such
information of polluted zones, degraded lands or diseased cropland etc. can be made
based on GIS. Planning for locating suitable areas for industrial growth is now being
done using GIS by preparing Zoning Atlas. GIS serves to check unplanned growth and
helps in providing correct, reliable and verifiable information about forest cover, success
of conservation efforts etc. They also provide information of atmospheric phenomena,
like approach of monsoon, ozone layer depletion many new reserves of oil; minerals etc.
with the remote sensing and GIS play a key role in resource mapping, environmental
conservation, management, planning and environmental impact assessment.

It also helps in identifying several disease infested areas which are prone to some vector-
borne diseases like malaria, schistosomiasis etc. based upon mapping of such areas.
There are several Distribution Information Centres (DICs) in our country that are linked
with each other and with the central information network having access to international
database.

Figure 7.11: GIS operations

They also provide information of atmospheric phenomena like approach of monsoon,

ozone layer depletion, inversion phenomena, smog etc. We are able to discover many
new reserves of oils, minerals etc. with the help of information generated by remote
sensing satellites. Thus remote sensing and GIS play a key role in resource mapping,
environmental conservation, management, and planning and environmental impact
assessment.

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 Figure 7.12: Satellite data processing

Case Study: Karnataka’s GIS Scheme

Karnataka’s GIS scheme, Bhoomi, has revolutionized the way farmers access their land
records. Farmers can now get a copy of the records of rights, tenancy and crops from a
computerized information kiosk without harassment and bribes. Karnataka has
computerized 20 million records of land ownership of 6.7 million farmers in the state.

(e) The World Wide Web: With resources material on every aspect, class-room activities,
and digital files of photos, power- point lecture presentations, animations, web-exercises
and quiz has proved to be extremely useful both for the students and the teachers of
environmental studies. The role of online learning centre website has the following
features:

(a) Student-friendly features:

These include practice quiz, how to study tips, hyperlinks on every chapter topics with
detailed information, web exercises, case studies, environmental maps, key- terms, career
information, current articles, and interactive encyclopaedia and how to contact your
elected officials.

(b) Teacher-friendly features:

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 These include in addition to above supplement resources charts, additional case studies,
answers to web exercises, solutions to critical thinking, questions, editing facility to add
or delete questions and create multiple version of same test etc.

Information technology is expanding rapidly with increasing applications and new avenues are
being opened with effective role in education, management and planning in the field of
environment and health.

QUESTION
1. Explain population growth. How does it vary among nations?

2. Explain the objectives and usefulness of family welfare programme.

3. Write short notes on ‘population explosion’.

4. Discuss the environment and its effect on human health.

5. Discuss population explosion in Indian context. What should be the objectives of a sound
population policy?

6. Write a note on women and child welfare.

7. Write short note on following:

(a) Human rights

(b) Value education

(c) Population explosion

(d) AIDS

8. What are the sources and mode of transmission of HIV infection?

9. What is ‘Value Education’? Discuss the concept of value education with the help of
suitable examples.

10. What do understand by term ‘Human Rights’?

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 UNIT – IV
BIODIVERSITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The great variety of life on earth has provided for man’s needs over thousands of years. This
diversity of living creatures forms a support system which has been used by each civilization for
its growth and development. Those that used this “bounty of nature” carefully and sustainably
survived. Those that overused or misused it disintegrated. Biodiversity is the part of nature which
includes the difference in genes among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of
all the plant and animal species at different scales in space, locally in a region, in the country and
the world and various types of ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic within a defined area.
Biodiversity deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere.

‘Biological diversity’ or biodiversity is that part of nature which includes the differences in genes
among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species at
different scales in space, locally, in a region, in the country and the world, and various types of
ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic, within a defined area.

Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. This variety can be
observed at three levels; the genetic variability within a species, the variety of species within a
community, and the organization of species in an area into distinctive plant and animal
communities constitutes ecosystem diversity.

Figure 4.1: Biodiversity of Earth

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4.2 TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
4.2.1 GENETIC DIVERSITY

Each member of any animal or plant species differs widely from other individuals in its genetic
makeup because of the large number of combinations possible in the genes that give every
individual specific characteristic. Thus, for example, each human being is very different from all
others. This genetic variability is essential for a healthy breeding population of a species. If the
number of breeding individuals is reduced, the dissimilarity of genetic makeup is reduced and in-
breeding occurs. The diversity in wild species forms the ‘gene pool’ from which our crops and
domestic animals have been developed over thousands of years. Today the variety of nature’s
bounty is being further harnessed by using wild relatives of crop plants to create new varieties of
more productive crops and to breed better domestic animals. Modern biotechnology manipulates
genes for developing better types of medicines and a variety of industrial products.

4.2.2 SPECIES DIVERSITY

Species is a basic unit of classification and is defined as a group of similar organisms that mate
and produce offspring’s with one another and thus, share a common lineage. The numbers of
species of plants and animals that are present in a region constitutes its species diversity. This
diversity is seen both in natural ecosystems and in agricultural ecosystems. Some areas are richer
in species than others. Natural undisturbed tropical forests have much greater species richness
than plantations. A natural forest ecosystem provides a large number of non-wood products that
local people depend on such as fruit, fuel wood, fodder, fiber, gum, resin and medicines. At
present conservation scientists have been able to identify and categorize about 1.75 million
species on earth. However, many new species are being identified, especially in the flowering
plants and insects. Areas that are rich in species diversity are called ‘hotspots’ of diversity. India
is among the world’s 15 nations that are exceptionally rich in species diversity.

4.2.3 ECOSYSTEM OR COMMUNITY DIVERSITY

There are a large variety of different ecosystems on earth, which have their own complement of
distinctive inter linked species based on the differences in the habitat. Ecosystem diversity can be
described for a specific geographical region, or a political entity such as a country, a state or a
taluka. Distinctive ecosystems include landscapes such as forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains,
etc., as well as aquatic ecosystems such as rivers, lakes, and the sea. Ecosystems are most natural
in wilderness areas. If natural ecosystems are overused or misused their productivity eventually
decreases and they are then said to be degraded. India is exceptionally rich in ecosystem
diversity.

Community diversity has three perspectives:

1) Alpha Diversity: It is the biodiversity within a particular area, community or ecosystem.

It is usually expressed by the number of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem.
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 This can be measured by counting the number of taxa (distinct groups of organisms)
within the ecosystem (eg. families, genera, and species).

2) Beta Diversity: Beta diversity (β-diversity) is a measure of biodiversity which works by

comparing the species diversity between ecosystems or along environmental gradients.
This involves comparing the number of taxa that are unique to each of the ecosystems. It
is the rate of change in species composition across habitats or among communities. It
gives a quantitative measure of diversity of communities that experience changing
environments.

3) Gamma Diversity: It refers to the total species richness over a large area or region. It is
a measure of the overall diversity for the different ecosystems within a region. It is the
product of α diversity of component ecosystems and the β diversity between component
ecosystems. Gamma diversity can be expressed in terms of the species richness of
component communities as follows:

γ = S1 + S2 − c

Where, S1= the total number of species recorded in the first community, S 2= the total
number of species recorded in the second community, c= the number of species common
to both communities.

Figure: 4.2 Types of Biodiversity

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 Figure 4.3 Three perspectives of Community Biodiversity

4.3 BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

The vastness of India and the diversity in its physiography and climate have provided suitable
conditions for biological diversity. Though, India occupies only 2.4% of the world’s land area,
its contribution to the world. Biogeography is the study of the biosphere and of human effects on
plants and animals. According to a recent classification done by the Wild-Life Institute of india,
the country has ten biogeographic zones, each of which is characterised by unique assemblages
of flora and fauna. The main bio-geographic zones of the country are as follow:

4.3.1 TRANS-HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS

Distribution: The Himalayan range immediately north of the Great Himalayan range is called
the Trans – Himalayas. The region comprises of Ladakh in Kashimir and Lahaul – Spiti in
Himachal Pradesh.

Flora: The Trans – Himalayan region is mostly bare with its sparse vegetation.

Fauna: The wildlife is represented by richest wild sheep and goat community in the world. The
snow leopard and the migratory black-necked crane are found here.

4.3.2 HIMALAYAN REGION

Distribution: The Himalayas consist of the youngest and loftiest mountain chains in the world.
The Himalayas have attained a unique personality owing to their high altitude, steep gradient and

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rich temperate flora. It extends from Kashmir in the north- west to Arunachal Pradesh in the
north- east.

Flora: The forests are very dense with extensive growth of grass and evergreen tall trees. Oak,
chestnut, conifer, ash, pine, deodar are abundant in Himalayas. There is no vegetation above the
snowline.

Fauna: Several interesting animals live in the Himalayan range. Chief species include wild
sheep, mountain goats, ibex, shrew, panda and snow leopard.

4.3.3 SEMI-ARID AREAS

Distribution: Adjoining the desert are the semi-arid areas, a transitional zone between the desert
and the denser forests of the Western Ghats.

Flora: The natural vegetation is thorn forest. This region is characterized by discontinuous
vegetation cover with open areas of bare soil and soil-water deficit throughout the year. Thorny
shrubs, grasses and some bamboos are present in some regions. A few species of xerophytic
herbs and some ephemeral herbs are found in this semi-arid tract.

Fauna: Birds, jackals, leopards, eagles, snakes, fox, and buffaloes are found in this region.

4.3.4 WESTERN GHATS

Distribution: The Mountains along the west coast of peninsular India are the Western Ghats,
which constitute one of the unique biological regions of the world. The Western Ghats extend
from the southern tip of the peninsula (8°N) northwards about 1600 km to the mouth of the river
Tapti (21°N). The mountains rise to average altitudes between 900 and 1500 m above sea level,
intercepting monsoon winds from the southwest and creating a rain shadow in the region to their
East. The varied climate and diverse topography create a wide array of habitats that support
unique sets of plant and animal species. Apart from biological diversity, the region boasts of high
levels of cultural diversity, as many indigenous people inhabit its forests. The Western Ghats are
amongst the 25 biodiversity hot – spots recognized globally. These hills are known for their high
levels of endemism expressed at both higher and lower taxonomic levels.

Flora: The region also shares several plant species with Sri lanka. The higher altitude forests
were, if at all, sparsely populated with tribal people. Rice cultivation in the fertile valley
proceeded gardens of early commercial crops like areca nut and pepper. The original vegetation
of the ill-drained valley bottoms with sluggish streams in elevations below 100m would be often
a special formation, the Myristica swamp.

Expansion of traditional agriculture and the spread of particularly rubber, tea, coffee and forest
tree plantations would have wiped out large pockets of primary forests in valleys.

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 Fauna: The Western Ghats are well – known for harbouring 14 endemic species of caecilians
(i.e. legless amphibians) out of 15 recorded from the region so far. It supports certain unique
animals like Lion – tailed macaques, Nilgiri langurs and many birds.

4.3.5 NORTH – WEST DESERT REGIONS

Distribution: This region consists of parts of Rajasthan, Kutch, Delhi and parts of Gujrat. The
climate is characterised by very hot and dry summer and cold winter. Rainfall is less than 70
cms.

Flora: The plants are mostly xerophytic. Babul, kikar, wild palm grows in area of moderate
rainfall.

Fauna: Indian bustard, a highly endangered bird is found here. Camels, wild asses, foxes, and
snakes are found in hot and arid deserts.

4.3.6 DECCAN PLATEAU

Distribution: Beyond the Ghats is Deccan Plateau, a semi – arid region lying in the rain shadow
of the Western Ghats. This is the largest unit of the Peninsular Plateau of India.

Flora: The highlands of the plateau are covered with different types of forests, which provide a
large variety of forest products.

Fauna: Important animals like tigers, leopards, sambhars, neelgais, wild buffaloes, elephants,
birds, etc are found here.

4.3.7 GANGETIC PLAIN

Distribution: In the North is the Gangetic plain extending up to the Himalayan foothills. This is
the largest unit of the Great Plain of India. Ganga is the main river after whose name this plain is
named. The aggradational Great Plain cover about 72.4 mha areas with the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra forming the main drainage axes in the major portion. The thickness in the alluvial
sediments varies considerably with its maximum in the Ganga plains. The physiogeographic
scenery varies greatly from arid and semi-arid landscapes of the Rajasthan Plains to the humid
and per-humid landscapes of the Delta and Assam valley in the east.

Flora: Topographic uniformity, except in the arid Western Rajasthan is a common feature
throughout these plains. The plain supports some of the highest population densities depending
upon purely agro-based economy in some of these areas. The trees belonging to these forests are
teak, sal, shisham, mahua, khair etc.

Fauna: The fauna is represented by elephants, tigers, leopards, members of the deer family,
bear, boars.

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4.3.8 NORTH – EAST INDIA

Distribution: North-east India is one of the richest flora regions in the country.

Flora: It has several species of orchids, bamboos, ferns and other plants. Here the wild relatives
of cultivated plants such as banana, mango, citrus and pepper can be found.

4.3.9 ISLANDS

Distribution: These are represented by the Andaman and Nicobar islands in the east and
Lakshadweep islands in the west.

Flora: Andaman and Nicobar islands support many characteristic plants and animals. The forests
range from tropical evergreen to moist deciduous and even mangroves.

Fauna: Many varied marine fauna are present here that include turtles, crabs, molluscs and
fishes.

4.3.10 COASTS

Distribution: India has a coastline extending over 5,500 kms. The Indian coasts vary in their
characteristics and structures. The west coast is narrow except around the Gulf of Canbary and
the Gulf of Kutch. In the extreme south, however, it is somewhat wider along the south Sahyadri.
The backwaters are the characteristic features of this coast. The east coast plains, in contrast are
broader due to depositional activities of the east-flowing rivers owing to the change in their base
levels. Extensive deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are the characteristic
features of this coast.

Flora: Mangrove vegetation is characteristics of estuarine tracts along the coast for instance, at
Ratnagiri in Maharashtra. Larger parts of the coastal plains are covered by fertile soils on which
different crops are grown. Rice is the main crop of these areas. Coconut trees grow all along the
coast.

Fauna: The fauna includes crocodiles, dolphins, turtles, tortoises and a number of mammals and
birds.

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 Figure 4.4 : Map of India displaying geographic regions as affecting its bio-diversity

4.4 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the most precious gift of nature mankind is blessed with. As all the organisms in
an ecosystem are interlinked and interdependent, the value of biodiversity in the life of all the
organisms including humans is enormous. The role of biodiversity in providing ecosystem
services is twofold. Firstly, biodiversity is directly used as a source for food, fibre, fuel and other
extractable resources. Secondly, biodiversity plays an important role in ecosystem processes
providing the regulating, cultural and supporting services. For example, vegetation cover protects
the soil from erosion by binding soil particles and minimizing the effects of water runoff.
Likewise, cultivation of crops is to a large extent dependent on the availability of pollinating
insects. Biodiversity has a fundamental value to humans because we are so dependent on it for
our cultural, economic, and environmental well-being. Elements of biodiversity can contribute to
cultural identity, and many ecosystem characteristics are frequently incorporated into cultural
traditions. Other facts of human well-being, such as health and economic and political security,
can influence the value of biodiversity. Many arguments to increase efforts to conserve diversity
often emphasize the value of the “un-mined riches” that has yet to be discovered. These include
potential sources of new foods, medicines, and energy which can further fuel economic activity,

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as well as a healthier population. Biodiversity has proven to hold enormous value when adapted
for use in health, agricultural, or industrial applications. In the field of medicine alone,
approximately 50% of current prescription medicines are derived from or modelled on natural
substances. The health and diversity of ecosystems can have a significant effect on the overall
stability of nearby communities.

Figure 4.5: Values of Biodiversity

1. Environmental Value

The environmental value of biodiversity can be found by examining each ecosystem process and
identifying the ecosystem services that result. For instance, in wetlands the vegetation captures
water-carried sediment and the soil organisms break down a range of nutrients and pollutants
washed into the area. These processes provide the ecosystem service of purifying water.
Wetlands also act as spawning and nursery grounds for some fish and provide a refuge for
animals in times of drought. Some ecosystem services are easy to overlook until the underlying
process is impaired. For instance, dryland salinity has emerged as a problem following sustained
clearance of deep rooted perennial plants over wide areas. Water tables have raised carrying
dissolved salts which then concentrate in the soil. Forests regulate the amount of carbon dioxide
in the air by releasing oxygen as a by-product during photosynthesis, and control rainfall and soil
erosion.

2. Social Value

The social value of biodiversity includes aesthetic, recreational, cultural and spiritual values. To
this can be added health benefits resulting from recreational and other activities. While
traditional societies which had a small population and required less resources had preserved their
biodiversity as a life supporting resource, modern man has rapidly depleted it even to the extent
of leading to the irrecoverable loss due to extinction of several species. Thus apart from the local
use or sale of products of biodiversity there is the social aspect in which more and more
resources are used by affluent societies. The biodiversity has to a great extent been preserved by
traditional societies that valued it as a resource and appreciated that its depletion would be a
great loss to their society. There can be marked differences in landscape and biodiversity
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preferences according to age, socioeconomic factors and cultural influences. The lifestyle of the
ancient people was closely interwoven with their surroundings. The life of the indigenous people
in many parts of the world still revolves around the forests and environment, even in these
modern times, many of them still live in the forests and meet their daily requirements from their
surroundings. The biodiversity in different parts of the world has been largely preserved by the
traditional societies. Since the indigenous people always protect the forests for their own benefit.
In ancient times, especially in India, the environment in totally i.e flora, fauna, etc were held in
high esteem. Trees like Peepal, Banyan and Tulsi are still worshipped. Ladies offering water to
Tulsi daily is considered good and there are festivals when ladies tie sacred threads around
Peepal and Banyan trees and pray for the welfare of their families.

3. Ecosystem Services

These services also support human needs and activities such as intensely managed production
ecosystems. Ecosystem service includes:

 the production of oxygen by land based plants and marine algae;

 the maintenance of fresh water quality by vegetation slowing run off, trapping sediment
and removing nutrients and by soil organisms breaking down pollutants;

 the production and maintenance of fertile soil as a result of many interacting processes;

 the provision of foods such as fish, pastures for cattle and sheep, timber, fire wood and
harvested wildlife such as kangaroos and native cut flowers;

 the provision of native species and genes used in industry research and development, for
instance, in traditional breeding and biotechnology applications in agriculture, forestry,
horticulture, mariculture, pharmacy, chemicals production and bioremediation;

 pollination of agricultural crops, forest trees and native flowering plants by native insects,
birds and other creatures;

 pest control in agricultural land by beneficial native predators;

 flood mitigation by vegetation slowing run off and trapping sediment;

 breakdown of pollutants by micro-organisms in soil and aquatic ecosystems and

sequestration of heavy metals in marine and fresh water sediments;

 greenhouse gas reduction by, for instance, sequestering atmospheric carbon in wood and
marine calcium carbonate deposits;

 maintenance of habitats for native plants and animals; and

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  maintenance of habitats that are attractive to humans for recreation, tourism and cultural
activities and that have spiritual importance.

4. Economic Value

The economic potential of biodiversity is immense in terms of food, fodder, medicinal, ethical
and social values. Biodiversity forms the major resource for different industries, which govern
the world economy. The salient features regarding the economical potential of biodiversity are
given below:

1. The major fuel sources of the world including wood and fossil fuels have their origin due
to biodiversity.

2. It is the source of food for all animals and humans.

3. Many important chemicals havr their origin from the diverse flora and fauna, used in
various industries.

4. Diverse group of animals are used for medical research during the testing of new drugs.

5. Consumptive use value

This is related to natural products that are used directly for food, fodder, timber, fuel wood etc.
Humans use at least 40,000 species of plants and animals on a daily basis. Many people around
the world still depend on wild species for most of their needs like food, shelter and clothing. The
tribal people are completely dependent on the forests for their daily needs.

6. Productive Use Value

This is assigned to products that are commercially harvested and marketed. Almost all the
present date agricultural crops have originated from wild varieties. The biotechnologists
continuously use the wild species of plants for developing new, better yielding and disease
resistant varieties. Biodiversity represents the original stock from which new varieties are being
developed.

7. Ethical and Moral Value

It is based on the principle of ‘live and let others live’. Ethical values related to biodiversity
conservation are based on the importance of protecting all forms of life. All forms of life have
the right to exist on earth. Man is only a small part of the Earth’s great family of species. Don’t
plants and animals have an equal right to live and exist on our planet which is like an inhabited
spaceship? Morality and ethics teach us to preserve all forms of life and not to harm any
organism unnecessarily. Some people take pleasure in the hunting of animals. People also
sometimes degrade and pollute the environment by their unethical actions. Through proper
education and awareness, the people’s conscience against such practices must be raised.

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 8. Aesthetic Value

The beauty of our planet is because of biodiversity, which otherwise would have resembled other
barren planets dotted around the universe. Biological diversity adds to the quality of life and
provides some of the most beautiful aspects of our existence. Biodiversity is responsible for the
beauty of a landscape. People go far off places to enjoy the natural surroundings and wildlife.
This type of tourism is referred to as eco-tourism, which has now become a major source of
income in many countries. In many societies, the diversity of flora and fauna has become a part
of the traditions and culture of the region and has added to the aesthetic values of the place.

4.5 BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS

There are at present 1.8 million species known and documented by scientists in the world.
However, scientists have estimated that the number of species of plants and animals on earth
could vary from 1.5 to 20 billion! Thus the majority of species are yet to be discovered.
Biodiversity is the measure of the variety of earth's animal, plant and microbial species; of
genetic differences within species; and of the ecosystems that support the species. Out of an
estimated 30 million species on earth, only one-sixth has been identified and authenticated in the
past 200 years. An estimated biodiversity covers 400,000 higher plants. Most of the world’s bio-
rich nations are in the South, which are the developing nations. In contrast, the majority of the
countries capable of exploiting biodiversity are Northern nations, in the economically developed
world. These nations however have low levels of biodiversity. Thus the developed world has
come to support the concept that biodiversity must be considered to be a ‘global resource’.
However, if biodiversity should form a ‘common property resource’ to be shared by all nations,
there is no reason to exclude oil, or uranium, or even intellectual and technological expertise as
global assets.

India’s sovereignty over its biological diversity cannot be compromised without a revolutionary
change in world thinking about sharing of all types of natural resources. Biodiversity of 89
countries with diversities higher than India are located in South America such as Brazil, and
South East Asian countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia. The species found in these countries,
however, are different from our own. This makes it imperative to preserve our own biodiversity
as a major economic resource. While few of the other ‘megadiversity nations’ have developed
the technology to exploit their species for biotechnology and genetic engineering, India is
capable of doing so.

Throughout the world, the value of biologically rich natural areas is now being increasingly
appreciated as being of unimaginable value. International agreements such as the World
Heritage Convention attempt to protect and support such areas. India is a signatory to the
convention and has included several protected Areas as World Heritage sites. These include
Manas on the border between Bhutan and India, Kaziranga in Assam, Bharatpur in U.P.,
Nandadevi in the Himalayas, and the Sunderbans in the Ganges delta in West Bengal. India has
also signed the Convention in the Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) which is intended to
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reduce the utilization of endangered plants and animals by controlling trade in their products and
in the pet trade.

Biologically, tropical rain forests are the centres of the world much of the earth's contemporary
flora and fauna originated in the humid tropics. For millions of years, tropical rain forests have
been factories of evolutionary diversity from which plants and animals, capable of adapting to
more difficult environments, have gone forth to populate the subtropical and temperate regions.
It is essential to maintain areas of tropical rain forest large enough for this evolution to continue.
The tropical forests are regarded as the richest in biodiversity. Species diversity in tropics is
high. The reasons are as follows:

1. Warm temperate and high humidity provide favourable conditions for many species.

2. Tropical communities are more productive because these areas receive more solar energy.

3. Over geographical times the tropics have had a more stable climate. In tropics, therefore, local
species continued to live there itself.

4. Among plant rates of out crossing appear to be higher in tropics.

Biodiversity exists on earth in eight broad realms with 193 biogeographical provinces. Each
biogeographical province is composed of ecosystems, which are constituted by communities of
living species existing in an ecological region. The developing countries, located in subtropical/
tropical belt are far richer in biodiversity than the industrial countries in the temperate region.
The Valvilovian Centres of diversity of crops and domesticated animals are also located in the
developing countries.

It is important to preserve the numerous varieties of plants and animals that belong to one
species. Each variety within a species contains unique genes and the diversity of genes within a
species increases its capacity to adapt to pollution disease and other changes in the environment.

4.6 INDIA AS A MEGA – DIVERSITY NATION

Geological events in the landmass of India have provided conditions for high levels of biological
diversity. A split in the single giant continent around 70 million years ago, led to the formation
of northern and southern continents, with India a part of Gondwanaland - the southern landmass,
together with Africa, Australia and the Antarctic. Later tectonic movements shifted India
northward across the equator to join the Northern Eurasian continent. As the intervening shallow
Tethis Sea closed down, plants and animals that had evolved both in Europe and in the Far East
migrated into India before the Himalayas had formed. A final influx came from Africa with
Ethiopian species, which were adapted to the Savannas and semi-arid regions. Thus India’s
special geographical position between three distinctive centers of biological evolution and
radiation of species is responsible for our rich and varied biodiversity. Among the biologically
rich nations, India stands among the top 10 or 15 countries for its great variety of plants and

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animals, many of which are not found elsewhere. India has 350 different mammals (rated eight
highest in the world), 1,200 species of birds (eighth in the world), and 453 species of reptiles
(fifth in the world) and 45,000 plant species, of which most are angiosperms, (fifteenth in the
world). These include especially high species diversity of ferns (1022 species) and orchids (1082
species). India has 50,000 known species of insects, including 13,000 butterflies and moths. It is
estimated that the number of unknown species could be several times higher. It is estimated that
18% of Indian plants are endemic to the country and found nowhere else in the world. Among
the plant species the flowering plants have a much higher degree of endemism, a third of these
are not found elsewhere in the world. Among amphibians found in India, 62% are unique to this
country. Among lizards, of the 153 species recorded, 50% are endemic. High endemism has also
been recorded for various groups of insects, marine worms, centipedes, mayflies and fresh water
sponges.

The eastern Himalayas from a humid region having high monsoon rain fall milder temperature
and less snowfall. The mighty mountains with their snow-pick and extremely rich forest exert a
tremendous influence on the flora and fauna of the region. Arunachal Pradesh is a land of mighty
rocks and luxuriant forests, gentle streams and raging torrents. It presents a breath taking
spectacle of nature in her glory, beauty of gorges and galaxy of ethnics people make the area as
one of the best in the world. The mountain range in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram and the Darjling hills are symbol of celestial splendor where a good
number of peaks rise well over 7000m., the highest being the Kanchenjunga 8335m which is
very close to Mt. Everest, the world highest peak.

Figure 4.6: India as a Mega – Diversity Nation

4.7 HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that
is under threat from humans. A hotspot is an area which faces serious threat from human
activities and supports a unique biodiversity (endemic, threatened, rare species) with
representatives of evolutionary of speciation and extinction.

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 Figure 4.7: Biodiversity hotspots worldwide

The concept of biodiversity was given by Norman Myers (1988). To qualify as a biodiversity
hotspots on Myers 2000 edition of the hotspot map, a region must meet two strict criteria:

1. It must contain atleast 0.5% or 1500 species of vascular plants of the world.

2. It has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.

Myers originally recognised 25 hotspots but recently the Conservation International has added 9
more biodiversity hotspots which make the present number to 34. These sites support nearly 60%
of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species, with a very high share of
endemic species.

4.7.1 HOTSPOTS IN INDIA

India has two major hotspots. The rate of deforestation in these areas is very high and
ecosystems have reached at a fragile stage.

1. The Western Ghats

About the region: The Western Ghats are a chain of hills that run along the western edge of
peninsular India. They are also known as Sahyadri Mountains. They receive high rainfall. It run
parallel to the west coast of India and constitute more than 1600Km strip of forests in the states
of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

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Flora: These regions have moist deciduous forest and rain forest. The region shows high species
diversity as well as high levels of endemism. There are over 6000 vascular plants belonging to
over 2500 genera in this hotspot, of which over 3000 are endemic. Much of the world's spices
such as black pepper and cardamom have their origins in the Western Ghats. Many economically
important plants such as banana, rice, ginger etc have spread to other parts of the country from
here.

Fauna: Nearly 77% of the amphibians and 62% of the reptile species found here are found
nowhere else. The region also harbours over 450 bird species, about 140 mammalian species,
260 reptiles and 175 amphibians. Over 60% of the reptiles and amphibians are completely
endemic to the hotspot. Remarkable as this diversity is, it is severely threatened.

Figure 4.8: Indian Hotspot – Western Ghats

2. The Eastern Himalayas

About the region: The Eastern Himalayas is the region encompassing Bhutan, northeastern
India, and southern, central, and eastern Nepal. The region is geologically young and shows high
altitudinal variation. Together, the Himalayan mountain system is the world's highest, and home
to the world's highest peaks, which include Mount Everest and K2.

Flora: There are an estimated 10,000 species of plants in the Himalayas, of which one-third are
endemic and found nowhere else in the world. Five families - Tetracentraceae, Hamamelidaceae,
Circaesteraceae, Butomaceae and Stachyuraceae - are completely endemic to this region. Many
plant species are found even in the highest reaches of the Himalayan Mountains. For example, a
plant species Ermania himalayensis was found at an altitude of 6300 metres in northwestern
Himalayas.

Fauna: Few threatened endemic bird species such as the Himalayan Quail, Cheer pheasant,
Western tragopan are found here, alongwith some of Asia's largest and most endangered birds
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such as the Himalayan vulture and White-bellied heron. The Eastern Himalayan hotspot has
nearly 163 globally threatened species including the One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros
unicornis), the Wild Asian Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and in all 45 mammals, 50 birds, 17
reptiles, 12 amphibians, 3 invertebrate and 36 plant species. The Relict Dragonfly (Epiophlebia
laidlawi) is an endangered species found here with the only other species in the genus being
found in Japan.

Figure 4.9: Indian Hotspot – Eastern Himayas

4.8 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Increasing population pressure and over- exploitation of the biotic resources is taking their toll
on biodiversity leading to its loss. The major threats to biodiversity decline are land use changes,
pollution, changes in atmospheric CO2 concentrations, changes in the nitrogen cycle and acid
rain, climate alterations, and the introduction of exotic species, all coincident to human
population growth. For rainforests, the primary factor is land conversion. Climate will probably
change least in tropical regions, and nitrogen problems are not as important because growth in
rainforests is usually limited more by low phosphorus levels than by nitrogen insufficiency. The
introduction of exotic species is also less of a problem than in temperate areas because there is so
much diversity in tropical forests that newcomers have difficulty becoming established.

Let us consider some of the major causes and issues related to threats to biodiversity.

1. Habitat destruction: As recently as 30 years ago, most of the regions in these

biodiversity hotspots were inaccessible and remote. Now, due to better infrastructure,
contact of these areas with humans has increased. Activities such as logging of wood,
increased agriculture, increased human habitation has led to destruction of forests and
pollution of rivers. These factors are causing species ranges to reduce and habitats to
become choppy. The government planned to establish habitat corridors, but these plans
have not yet materialized in most areas. Activities such as mining, construction of large
dams, highway construction has also caused significant destruction of habitats.
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2. Resource mismanagement: Increased tourism without proper regulation has led to
pollution and environmental degradation. Prime examples are pilgrimage destinations
like Rishikesh and hill stations like Dehradoon. These spots, once nestled in the pristine
ranges of the Himalayas, are now dirty commercial destinations. Places like Dehradoon
are even experiencing a construction boom so large that illegal immigrants from
Bangladesh are also flocking there.

3. Poaching: Large mammals such as the tiger, rhinoceros and the elephant once faced the
distinct possibility of complete extinction due to rampant hunting and poaching.
However, efforts by conservationists since the 1970s have helped stabilize and grow
these populations. Still, the trade in tiger hides, elephant tusks, tiger teeth, rhinoceros
horn remains profitable and rampant.

4. Global Warming: There is recent evidence that climate changes are having effects on
tropical forest ecology. Warming in general (as distinct from the effects of increasing
concentrations of CO2 and other greenhouse gases) can increase primary productivity,
yielding new plant biomass, increased organic litter, and increased food supplies for
animals and soil flora (decomposers). Temperature changes can also alter the water cycle
and the availability of nitrogen and other nutrients. Basically, the temperature variations
which are now occurring affect all parts of forest ecosystems, some more than others.
These interactions are unimaginably complex. While warming may at first increase net
primary productivity (NPP), in the longer run, because plant biomass is increasing, more
nitrogen is taken up from the soil and sequestered in the plant bodies. This leaves less
nitrogen for the growth of additional plants, so the increase in NPP over time (due to a
rise in temperature or CO2 levels) will be limited by nitrogen availability. The same is
probably true of other mineral nutrients. The consequences of warming-induced shifts in
the distribution of nutrients will not be seen rapidly, but perhaps only over many years.
These events may affect changes in species distribution and other ecosystem processes in
complex ways. We know little about the reactions of tropical forests, but they may differ
from those of temperate forests. In tropical forests, warming may be more important
because of its effects on evapotranspiration and soil moisture levels than because of
nutrient redistribution.

The migratory patterns of some birds which live in both tropical and temperate regions
during the year seem to be shifting, which is dangerous for these species, as they may
arrive at their breeding or wintering grounds at an inappropriate time. Or they may lose
their essential interactions with plants which they pollinate or their insect or plant food
supplies. Perhaps for these reasons, many migratory species are in decline, and their
inability to coordinate migratory clues with climatic actualities may be partly to blame.
Also, as temperatures rise, some bird populations have shifted, with lowland and foothill
species moving into higher areas. The consequences for highland bird populations are not

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 yet clear. And many other organisms, both plant and animal, are being affected by
warming.

An increase in infectious diseases is another consequence of climate change, since the

causative agents are affected by humidity, temperature change, and rainfall. Many species
of frogs and lizards have declined or disappeared, perhaps because of the increase in
parasites occasioned by higher temperatures. As warming continues, accelerating plant
growth, pathogens may spread more quickly because of the increased availability of
vegetation (a “density” effect) and because of increased humidity under heavier plant
cover. As mentioned above, the fungus Phytophtora cinnamoni has demolished many
Eucalyptus forests in Australia. In addition, the geographical range of pathogens can
expand when the climate moderates, allowing pathogens to find new, non resistant hosts.
On the other hand, a number of instances of amphibian decline seem to be due to
infections with fungi, which flourish at cooler temperatures.

5. Forest Fragmentation: The fragmentation of forests is a general consequence of the

haphazard logging and agricultural land conversion which is occurring everywhere, but
especially in tropical forests. When forests are cut into smaller and smaller pieces, there
are many consequences, some of which may be unanticipated.

i) Fragmentation decreases habitat simply through loss of land area, reducing the probability
of maintaining effective reproductive units of plant and animal populations. Most tropical
trees are pollinated by animals, and therefore the maintenance of adequate pollinator
population levels is essential for forest health. When a forest becomes fragmented, trees
of many species are isolated because their pollinators cannot cross the unforested areas.
Under these conditions, the trees in the fragments will then become inbred and lose
genetic variability and vigor. Other species, which have more wide-ranging pollinators,
may suffer less from fragmentation. Most species are not so tolerant, however. Animals,
particularly large ones, cannot maintain themselves in small fragmented forests. Many
large mammals have huge ranges and require extensive areas of intact forest to obtain
sufficient food, or to find suitable nesting sites. Additionally, their migrations may be
interrupted by fragmentation. These animals are also much more susceptible to hunting in
forest fragments, which accounts for much of the decline in animal populations in
rainforests. Species extinctions occur more rapidly in fragments, for these reasons, and
also because species depend upon each other.

ii) When forests are cut down or burned, the resulting gaps are too large to be filled in by the
normal regeneration processes. This permits the ascendancy of rapid-growing, light-
tolerant species and grasses. Large gaps may then be converted to scrub or grassland.

iii) The use of herbicides and the introduction of exotic species into areas surrounding forest
fragments are detrimental to forest health. Herbicides blow from cleared agricultural
areas into forests, and exotic species introduced by farmers and ranchers spread, often
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 displacing native species. These exotic organisms interrupt the forest ecosystem and,
since they have few or no natural enemies in their new environment, they are difficult to
eradicate.

vi) The fragmentation of forests by logging and agricultural conversion also exaggerates the
probability of major epidemics. Pathogens introduced through human activities by land
use practices in areas surrounding the forest can be lethal to forest plants and animals.

v) Rainforests are losing species, not only because of the disappearance of their habitat, but
also because essential ecological processes are being interrupted by fragmentation.
Fragments are much more easily accessible to human incursions than are intact forests.
This leads to a variety of extractive activities within the forest interior. Intensive hunting,
by depleting animal populations, inhibits plant reproduction, since many seeds can
neither be dispersed, nor flowers be pollinated without them. Where these seed dispersers
have been eliminated, are at low population densities, or cannot move between forest
fragments, seed dispersal will be very limited, and as a result tree species dependent upon
animal dispersers may become locally extinct.

Case Study: Kokkare Bellure, Karnataka: Co-existence (Man and Wildlife)

The pelican, which is an endangered species, breed in large number at Kokkare Bellur,
which is one of ten known breeding sites in India. Kokkare Bellure is a village in
Karnataka in Southern India. In December every year, hundreds of spot – billed
pelicans, painted storks, ibis and other birds migrate to this area to establish breeding
colonies on the tall tamarind trees in the centre of the village. The local people have
protected the birds, believing that they bring good luck with regard to rain and crops.
The villagers collect a rich supply of the natural fertilizer that collects below the nests,
the guano. The droppings of these fish-eating birds are rich in nitrates.

The owners of the trees inhabited by the birds dig deep pits under the trees, into which
the guano falls. Silt from nearby lakes and ponds are mixed with the guano, which is
used in their fields and sold as fertilizer. They have now planted trees around their
homes to encourage nesting.

6. Introduction of exotic species: Human beings, by introducing exotic species (species

belonging to some other place) whether intentionally or accidentally, have created
ecological crisis in many regions. Sometimes, the exotic species disrupt local ecosystems
and, in some cases, even drive the native species to extinction.

7. Overgrazing: The feeding of the worlds livestock is a major problem as fodder is not
available in plenty throughout the year, in many areas. The poor people allow their
livestock to graze the forests and grasslands, which also causes biodiversity loss.

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 8. Natural calamities: Catastrophic events like floods, droughts, cyclones, volcanoes, fires,
etc cause severe biodiversity loss from time to time

4.9 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

The population has the potential to extend forward in time, but various factors may prevent the
perpetuation of the species. Of the well-known species, there are several which are under threat
by human activity. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) categorized these species as vulnerable, rare, threatened and endangered species.

Several plant and animal species in the country are now found in only one or a few protected
areas. Among the important endangered animals are charismatic species such as the tiger, the
elephant, the rhino, etc. The less well-known major mammals restricted to a single area include
the Indian wild ass, the Hangul or Kashmir stag, the Golden langur, the pygmy hog and a host of
others. There are also endangered bird species such as the Siberian crane, the Great Indian
Bustard, the Florican and several birds of prey. During the recent past, vultures which were
common a decade ago, have suddenly disappeared and are now highly threatened. Equally
threatened are several species of reptiles and amphibia. Many invertebrates are also threatened,
including a large number of species that inhabit our coral reefs.

Many plant species are now increasingly threatened due to changes in their habitats induced by
human activity. Apart from major trees, shrubs and climbers that are extremely habitat specific
and thus endangered, there are thousands of small herbs which are greatly threatened by habitat
loss. Several orchids are yet another group of plants that are under threat. Many plants are
threatened due to overharvesting as ingredients in medicinal products.

4.9.1 INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND

NATURAL RESOURCES (IUCN)

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization

dedicated to finding "pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and development
challenges". The organization publishes the IUCN Red List, compiling information from a
network of conservation organizations to rate which species are most endangered.

The IUCN supports scientific research, manages field projects globally and brings governments,
non-government organizations, United Nations agencies, companies and local communities
together to develop and implement policy. IUCN is the world’s oldest and largest global
environmental network a democratic membership union. IUCN's stated vision is "a just world
that values and conserves nature". Its mission is to "influence, encourage and assist societies
throughout the world to conserve the integrity and biodiversity of nature and to ensure that any
use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable".

4.9.1.1 IUCN Red List Objectives: Red data book or red list is a catalogue of taxa that are
facing the risk of extinction. The main objectives are:
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1. Identification and documentation of endangered species.

2. Providing a global index of the decline of biodiversity.

3. Developing awareness about the importance of threatened biodiversity.

4. Defining conservation priorities at the local level and guiding conservation action.

4.9.1.2 IUCN Categories for Species under Threat: International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) categorized species under threat as vulnerable, rare,
threatened and endangered species.

1. Endangered species: These are species which are on verge of extinction.

2. Vulnerable species: These are species which are not endangered but are facing a very
high risk of extinction in the future.

3. Rare species: These are species with small total population size in the world, their
distribution are usually localized within restricted area of world.

4. Threatened species: These are species which decline in number significantly in total
numbers and may be on verge of extinction in certain localities.

4.10 STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Humans have been directly or indirectly dependent on biodiversity for sustenance to a
considerable extent. However, increasing population pressure and developmental activities have
led to large scale depletion of the natural resources. Conservation is the protection, preservation,
management, or restoration of wildlife and natural resources such as forests and water. Through
the conservation of biodiversity and the survival of many species and habitats which are
threatened due to human activities can be ensured. There is an urgent need, not only to manage
and conserve the biotic wealth, but also restore the degraded ecosystems.

4.10.1 TYPES OF CONSERVATION

Conservation can broadly be divided into two types:

1) In – situ conservation

2) Ex- situ conservation

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4.10.1 In-situ conservation:

In situ conservation is on site conservation or the conservation of genetic resources in natural

populations of plant or animal species, such as forest genetic resources in natural populations of
tree species. It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural
habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from
predators. It is applied to conservation of agricultural biodiversity in agro forestry by farmers,
especially those using unconventional farming practices. In-situ conservation is being done by
declaring area as protected area. In India following types of natural habitats are being maintained

1. National parks

2. Wildlife sanctuaries

3. Biosphere reserves

INDIA has over 600 protected areas, which includes over 90 national parks, over 500 animal
sanctuaries and 15 biosphere reserves.

1. National Parks:

A national park is an area which is strictly reserved for the betterment of the wildlife and where
activities like forestry, grazing on cultivation are not permitted. In these parks, even private
ownership rights are not allowed. Their boundaries are well marked and circumscribed. They are
usually small reserves spreading in an area of 100 sq,km. to 500 sq,km. In national parks, the
emphasis is on the preservation of a single plant or animal species.

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 Table 4.1: List of some major National Parks of India.

Area (in
S.No Name State Established
km²)
1 Corbett National Park Uttarakhand 1921 1318.5
2 Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh 1977 490.29
3 Gir National Park Gujarat 1965 258.71
4 Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh 1955 940
5 Kanger Ghati National Park (Kanger Valley) Chhattisgarh 1982 200
6 Kaziranga National Park Assam 1974 471.71
7 Nanda Devi National Park Uttarakhand 1982 630.33
8 Sariska National Park Rajasthan 1955 866
9 Silent Valley National Park Kerala 1980 237
10 Sundarbans National Park West Bengal 1984 1330.12

2. Wildlife Sanctuaries:

A sanctuary is a protected area which is reserved for the conservation of only animals and human
activities like harvesting of timber, collecting minor forest products and private ownership rights
are allowed as long as they do not interfere with well-being of animals. Boundaries of
sanctuaries are not well defined and controlled biotic interference is permitted, e.g-tourist
activity.

Table 4.2: List of some major Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

Area (in
S.No Name State Established
km²)
1 Ghana Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan 1982 28.73
2 Hazaribag Wildlife Sanctuary Jharkhand 1954 183.89
3 Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary Tamil Nadu 1940 321.55
4 Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary West Bengal 2012 216
5 Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary Rajasthan 1960 288.84
Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Indira Gandhi
6 Tamil Nadu 1989 117.10
Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park)

3. Biosphere Reserves:

It is a special category of protected areas where human population also forms a part of the
system. They are large protected area of usually more than 5000 sq.km. A biosphere reserves has
3 parts- core, buffer and transition zone.

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1. Core zone is the inner zone, this is undisturbed and legally protected area

2. Buffer zone lies b/w the core and transition zone. Some research and educational activities
are permitted here.

3. Transition zone is the outermost part of biosphere reserves. Here cropping, forestry,
recreation, fishery and other activities are allowed.

The main functions of biodiversity reserves are:

1. Conservation: To ensure the conservation of ecosystem, species and genetic resources.

2. Development: To promote economic development while maintaining cultural, social and

ecological identity.

3. Scientific Research: To provide support for research related to monitoring and education,
local, national & global issues.

Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as 'living laboratories' for testing out and demonstrating
integrated management of land, water and biodiversity

Table 4.3: List of some major biosphere reserves of India

S.No Name State Established Area (in km²)

2 Nanda Devi Uttarakhand 1982 5,860.69
3 Manas Assam 1990 2837
4 Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu 1980 10,500
Andaman
5 Great Nicobar and Nicobar 1989 885
Islands
Madhya 1999
6 Panchmarhi 4,926.28
Pradesh

- Advantages of in situ conservation:

1. The flora and fauna live in natural habitats without human interference.

2. The life cycles of the organisms and their evolution progresses in a natural way.

3. In situ conservation provides the required green cover and its associated benefits to our
environment.

4. It is less expensive and easy to manage.

5. The interests of the indigenous people are also protected.

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 Case Study: Tiger Project

Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India with the support of WWF-
International in 1973 and was the first such initiative aimed at protecting this key
species and all its habitats. Project Tiger was initiated in nine Tiger Reserves in
different ecosystems of the country, covering an area of 16339 sq km. by 2001, the
number of tiger reserves increased to 27, covering an area of 37761 sq km. The tiger
count climbed from 268 in 1972 in the 9 tiger reserves, to around 1500 in 1997 in the 23
tiger reserves. The project tiger recognized the fact that tigers cannot be protected in
isolation, and that to protect the tiger, its habitat needed to be protected.

4.10.2 Ex-situ conservation:

Ex situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their

natural habitats. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated
or species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities. Such strategies include
establishment of botanical gardens, zoos, conservation strands and gene, pollen seed, seedling,
tissue culture and DNA banks.

 Seed gene bank: These are cold storages where seeds are kept under controlled
temperature and humidity for storage and this is easiest way to store the germ plasma of
plants at low temperature. Seeds preserved under controlled conditions (minus
temperature) remain viable for long durations of time.

 Gene bank: Genetic variability also is preserved by gene bank under normal growing
conditions. These are cold storages where germplam are kept under controlled
temperature and humidity for storage. This is an important way of preserving the genetic
resources.

 Cryopreservation: This is the newest application of technology for preservation of

biotic parts. This type of conservation is done at very low temperature (196°C) in liquid
nitrogen. The metabolic activities of the organisms are suspended under low
temperature, which are later used for research purposes.

 Tissue culture bank: Cryopreservation of disease free meristems is very helpful. Long
term culture of excised roots and shoots are maintained. Meristem culture is very
popular in plant propagation as it’s a virus & disease free method of multiplication.

 Long term captive breeding: The method involves capture, maintenance and captive
breeding on long term basis of individuals of the endangered species which have lost
their habitat permanently or certain highly unfavorable conditions are present in their
habitat.
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  Botanical gardens: A botanical garden is a place where flowers, fruits and vegetables
are grown. The botanical gardens provide beauty & calm environment. Most of them
have started keeping exotic plants for educational & research purposes

 Animal Translocation: Release of animals in a new locality which come from

anywhere else. Translocation is carried in following cases:

1. When a species on which an animal is dependent becomes rare.

2. When a species is endemic or restricted to a particular area.

3. Due to habit destruction & unfavorable environment conditions.

4. Increase in population in an area.

 Zoological Gardens: In zoos wild animals are maintained in captivity and conservation
of wild animals (rare, endangered species). The oldest zoo, the Schonbrumm zoo which
exists today also, was established in VIENNA in 1759. In India, the 1st zoo came into
existence at BARRACKPORE in 1800. In world there are about 800 zoos. Such zoos
have about 3000 species of vertebrates. Some zoos have undertaken captive breeding
programmes.

- Advantages of ex – situ preservation

1. It is useful for declining population of species.

2. Endangered animals on the verge of extinction are successfully breeded.

3. Threatened species are breeded in captivity and then released in the natural habitats.

4. Ex- situ centres offer the possibilities of observing wild animals, which is otherwise not
possible.

5. It is extremely useful for conducting research and scientific work on different species.

4.11 BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT 2002

Biological diversity is a national asset of a country; hence the conservation of biodiversity
assumes greater significance. The first attempt to bring the biodiversity into the legal frame work
was made by way of the biodiversity bill 2000 which was passed by the Lok sabha on 2nd
December 2002 and by Rajya Sabha on the December 2002.

Objectives of the act:

1. To conserve the Biological Diversity

2. Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity

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3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of the B.D

A national biodiversity authority has been established by the Biodiversity Act 2002 to regulate
act implementing rules 2004 has been operationalised since coming in to force.

Act: Regulating access well as pushing the officially sponsored documentation of biological
resources and traditional practices through people’s diversity registers at the local and data bases
at the national levels, respectively. It further probes the extent to which the principles of
conservation have realized.

Provisions of the Act:

1. Prohibition on transfer of Indian genetic material outside the country without specific approval
of the Indian Government

2. Prohibition of anyone claiming an (IPR) such as a patent over biodiversity or related

knowledge without permission of Indian Government.

3. Regulation of collection and use of biodiversity by Indian national while exempting local
communities from such restrictions

4. Measures from sharing of benefits from use of biodiversity including transfer of technology,
monitory returns, joint research and development, joint IPR ownership etc.

5. Measuring to conserve sustainable use of biological resources including habitat and species
protection (EIP) of projects, integration of biodiversity into the plans and policies of various
Departments and Sectors.

6. Provisions for local communities to have a say in the use of their resources and knowledge and
to charge fees for this

7. Protection of indigenous or tradition laws such as registration of such knowledge

8. Regulation of the use of the genetically modified organisms

9. Setting up of National, state and local Biodiversity funds to be used to support conservation
and benefit sharing

10. Setting up of Biodiversity Management committees (BMC) at local village levels, State
Biodiversity Boards at state level and National Biodiversity Authority.

Functions of Authority:

1. Advise the central Government on any matter concerning conservation of biodiversity

sustainable use of its components and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use
of biological resource and knowledge

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2. Coordinate the activities of state biodiversity

3. Provide the technical assistance and guidance to the state biodiversity boards

4. Sponsor investigation and research

5. Engage consultants for a specific period not exceeding 3 years for providing technical
assistance to the Authority in the effective discharges of its functions.

6. Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data, manuals, codes or guides relating to
conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and fair and equitable sharing of
benefits arising out of the use of biological resource and knowledge’s

7. Organize through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding conservation of

biodiversity, sustainable use of components and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out
of the use of biological resources and knowledge.

8. Plan and organize training of personal engaged or likely to be engaged in programmes for the
conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of its components

9. Prepare the annual budget of the authority including its own receipts as also the devaluation
from the central Government provided that the allocation by the central government shall be
operated in accordance with budget provisions approved by the central govt.

10. Recommend creation of posts to the central Government for effective discharge of the
functions by the authority.

11. Approve the method of recruitment to the officers and servants of the authority.

12. Take steps to build up data base and to create information and documentation system for
biological resources and associated traditional knowledge through biodiversity register and
electronic data bases to ensure effective management, promotion and sustainable uses.

13. Give directions to state Biodiversity Boards and the Biodiversity Management Committees in
writing for effective implementation of the act.

14. Report to the central Government about the functioning of the Authority and implementation
of the Act

15. Sanction grants to the State Biodiversity Board and Biodiversity Management committees for
specific purposes.

16. Take necessary measures including appointment of legal experts to oppose grant of
intellectual property right in any country outside India on any biological outside India on any
biological resource and associated knowledge obtained from India and in an illegal manner.

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17. Do such other functions as may be assigned to directed by the central government from time
to time

18. Regulates the commercial utilization or bio-survey and bio-utilization of any biological
resource by Indians.

QUECTIONS

1. Define Biodiversity? What are the threats to biodiversity?

2. What are the hot spots of biodiversity? Discuss India as a mega diversity centre.

3. What is Biogeography? Describe the different biogeographic regions of India.

4. What do you understand by the conservation of biodiversity? Discuss the various methods
applied for in-situ conservation.

5. Differentiate between in-situ and ex-situ methods of conservation. Describe the various
modes of ex-situ conservation.

6. Differentiate and define National Parks and Sanctuaries. What do you understand by
biosphere reserve? Discuss.

7. Explain various threats to wildlife and modes for its conservation.

8. Describe the various uses of biodiversity.

9. Write short note on following:

1. Biosphere reserve

2. Endemic species

3. Endangered species

4. Rare species

5. Red list

6. Threatened species

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