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Wer Ae hoee Yeats tater Velte4 anoun cement P resistance only, Heaviside showned in his famous Electrical Papers in 1892 that the cicuit had four fundamental electrical constants, the resistance, inducatance, capacity and leakence. He pointed out that in an Atlantic cable the attenuation is very great and increases with the frequency , ' thus leading to a most prodigious distortion in the shape of irregular waves as they travel along’. ' Of couse ' he said , ‘we may send as many waves please per second but they will not be utilisable at the distance end. This distortion is a rather important matter. Mere attenuation if not carried too far, would not do any harm. Within the limits of approximatly constant attenuation the distortion is small. This is what wanted in telephony to be good. Lowering the resistance is perhaps the most important thing of all. Increasing the inductance is another way of improving things. In 1899 Michael Idvorsky Pupin read his paper before the American Institusn Electrical Engineering on the progagation of long electrical waves and took out a patent for distribution inducatance along the length of conductor, which made telephone history . In a fascinating autobiography Pupindescrbes how he was born in a little Serbain village of presant parents, who could neither read nor write, and how , in 1874, he arrived in New York at the age of fifteen, an immigration with only five cent in his pocket. In search of knowledge he had left his birthplace first for Prague and then, having saved the cost of a steerage passage, reached the promised land of so many of his day.In the long-distance circuit in England open lines carried on poles had been strengthened by increasing the size of copper conductors. In 1895 the limit was reached on the London-Leeds Edinburgh line when conductors weighting 800lb. per mile were erected. It was evident that loading by the addition of inductance was necessary to improve the transmission characteristics both of open and underground lines. In 1915 the Post Office carried out a most important experiment. They looped backwards and forwards the 110-mile circuits on the London — Birmingham cable producing equivalent lengths of 220, 440, 660 and 880 miles. By the insertion of inductance coils at 2.5 mile spacing commercial conversation was obtained up to 660 miles, so proving that undergrounding circuits could be provided safely for linking important cities anywhere in Britain. The coils at first had air core but as the technique developed soft iron cores were adopted and later dust cores were proved to be the most efficient. Phantom circuit were also loaded separately and the coils were assembled in scaled cast-iron pots each holding as many as 64 coils. To round off this phase of the application of new science to telecommunication, reference may be made to the position reached in the development of long distance telephone circuits in the united state. After the successful pauperization of the New York Washington and New York Boston lines, the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. naturally tumed its attention to transcontinental possibilities and, by loading and reinforcing overhead lines, a New York Denver circuit of 2200 miles was achieved as a first stage. On 25 January 1915, a commercial telephone service was inaugurated between New York and San Francisco, a distance of 3400 miles over open wires weighing 870 Ib. per mile. Today the United State has a vast system comprising some 200 million miles of 25wire and practically any two telephones can be interconnected on demand. Twenty-five years ago the average American inter-city call gave a conversation efficiency represented by a distance of 35 feet apart between talkers standing only 6 to 12 feet apart. This remarkable achievement has been the result of many other innovation since the first World Was in an ever increasing crescendo of progress- reporters , coaxial cable, carrier transmission, multi- channel voice frequency telegraphs, radio relay lines- culminating within the last three years in magnificent telephone cable link. By 1939 cables with repeater stations every 22 miles formed the normal of long distance circuit in Britain. In trunk cables the chief development was in changing over from the audio frequency range to frequencies up to 60 ke/s for carriers. The quad cable with 20 ib. air spaced paper-covered conductors and loaded with 88 mH coils at 2,000 yards spacing , were only satisfactory up to 3,400 c/s whereas 24-pair 401b. cables used in pairs ‘go! and ‘return’ were suited for 12-channel carriers system. This did, however, involve reducing the 20 mile spacing to 16 miles for subsequent 24-channel working in the frequency band 12 to 108 ke/s adopted later. By the end of the Second World War the trunk network of this country had been almost completely converted to carried working with a consequent enormous increase in the numbers of available trunk circuits, The pre-war 6,800 services over 25 miles in length were increased to over 17,000 and dialing by operators on such circuits had been widly introduced 26/ One of the greatest contribution to the extension of the carrier system has been the development of the coaxial cable. The first to be laid in this country was the London — Birmingham in 1937, which had four individual tubes 0.45 in. diameter with repeaters inserted every 8 miles The effective of bandwidth was 0.5-2.1 Mc/s, providing immediately for 280 circuits. From 1945 fewer 12- channel cartier cables were laid but more cables with coaxial pairs. In 1947, by inserting reporters at 6 miles intervals, the band width was increased to 60-2,850 ke/s accommodating 600 telephone circuits, By 1957 the number of telephones in this country had risen to over seven million and by reducing the spacing of repeaters to three miles in order to meet the demand for long distance conversation it was anticipated that, 1,000 telephone circuits plus a 405-line television circuit could provided by each coaxial tube. The design of the tubes has already passed through many phase from the solid center wire with the spiral of cotopa string, having an outer tube of 0.45 in. internal diameter consisting of several copper tapes. The string was then replaced by the hard rubber disc and one single copper tape made to form a tube. Polythene discs were later introduced, A recent American claim is that two such coaxials can provide either 1,800 telephone channel or 600 telephone channels, plus a 4-2 Me/s television circuit in each direction. Mention can only be made of the introduction of voice frequency telegraph during the past few decades or of the way in which the telegraph and telephone have approached one another. When the system of this country was recognized in 1930's tele-printers replaced all earlier system and the voice frequency telegraph adopted first 18 channels and the 24 channels, each 120 c/s wide. These were operated on telephone lines, a technique lines, a technique far in advance of anything previously attempted 2.Ff £ Developments in land telephone transmission has been the employment of the microwave telephone link. Between the two world wars difficulties arose in connection with the ever- increasing number of wavelengths and the crowding of the ether , as it was termed. But in 1931 a remarkable proposal was tested which, at one stroke, extended the facilities for transmitting a vastly greater number of simultaneous radio services. This was the microwave link by which, using a parabolic reflector and an acrial less than an inch in length, high quality speech could be transmitted over a distance of forty or fifty miles with an expenditure of less than one watt. The wavelength used was under 20 cm. and in the first demonstration the link was set up successfully between St. Margaret's Bay, Dover, and a point near Calais, a distance of 35 miles. By 1934 the method had been so perfected that the link was taken into commercial use with a mixed telephone and tele-printer service. With the advent of television the need arose for greatly increased transmission facilities, but the newly developed coaxial cable provided most of what was required. One section of the network, however, gave an opportunity for a microwave link which stretched a way north from Manchester to Kirk o' Shotts, between Glasgow and Edinburgh, a distance of over 250 miles, with seven repeaters stations on the way, each with its parabolic aerial. A frequency of 4,750 megacyclé was used. At the time of coronation , 1953, television picture were beamed from the high tower of the university of London to Dover and Cassel in France with intermediate relays. Passed on to the French broadcast system in Pair, the pictures were converted by suitable adjustment from the British 405 — lines standard to the French system. Already in many parts of the multi-channel microwave links are in successful operation on telephone and television_ Transoceanic telephony has made rapid strides since the middle of the century. ¢ Before the second world war there a few audio frequency circuits from this country A to the continent with a limited application of superimposed carrier. The improved dielectric paragutta enable a pair of coaxial cables to Holland to carry twelve circuits. But for real long ocean cables little progress had been made for fifty years, There were no telephone cables and ocean telegraphy continued on a direct current basis with only a moderate increase in speed .Continuous loading of a few had made possible some improvement . For instance, in 1926 a cable laid between fanning Island and bam field, 3,458 nautical miles, was continuously loaded with a new alloy, Mumetal, and gave a speed of working of 250 words a minute against the former usual achievement of 25 words a minute, but the big step forward awaited the combination of the new dielectric polythene and the repeater, both products of intensive scientific research. The first submerged repeater was laid between Holyhead and the Isle of Man in 1943, and this was followed in 1946 by the Anglo-German cable. A repeater had also been inserted in an existing transatlantic telegraph cable and had permitted an increase of 50 per cent in the operating speed. Repeaters were also inserted in various shallow water cables between Britain and the continent and considerable experience had been obtained in the United States by the Bell system, in particular on the Key West — Havana cable. eeAfter many years of collaboration on the proposal to lay a transatlantic telephone cable, a joint decision was taken in 1953 by the authorities in Britain, the U.S.A and Canada. An intensive three years preparation and execution followed until on 14 August 1956 the final splice completed one of the most remarkable feats of electrical engineering over accomplished. The system, consisting of two separate single core cables, provided on completion 29 telephone circuits between London and New York, six between London and Montreal, and a number of other circuits on the Canadian land section. The maximum length of main circuits is 4,157 miles, London to Montreal, and 4,078 London to New York . Some of circuits are permanently connected through to European capitals, the longest being the New York to Copenhagen, 4,948 miles. The vast amount of work which went into the preparation and installation of the cables is fully described in a symposium held in 1957. Each of the two cables on the long intercontinental section between Newfoundland and Scotland has 51 repeaters and the working frequency range of 144 ke/s provides the 35 telephone channels and one telegraph channel, All the ‘go! channels are in one cable and the 'return' channels in the other. Some 300 thermion valves are thus operating in submerged repearters at depths up to more than 2(1/4) miles. By means of the separate 4 ke/s channels the equivalent number of telegraph channels which could be obtained is 864, a great achievement and a striking advance over the early telegraph cables limited to obout threk words a minute. Jo & \ oOUU The Electron in Engineering The application of the electron forms the basis of a vast branch of modern electrical engineering. There remains, however , an important part of electrical history to recount in tracing the development from J.J. Thomson 's remarkable discoveries which in 1897 established the free electron as vital factor in modern engineering practice. In the year 1883 Edison had observed that the bulb of a carbon filament lamp become coated with a black deposit. He also discovered that when a metal plate was suspended inside the bulb and connected externally through a galvanometer to the positive end the filament a steady current flowed into the plate as long as the filament was heated. In 1904 Professor J.A. Fleming , of University College, London after studying both the Edison effect and the work on discharge through gases being carried out by Thomson and his collaborators at Cambridge, saw an application in the new field of wireless telegraphy in which Marconi was then making such rapid stride. But to appreciate fully significance of Fleming's idea it is necessary to trace first the course of another tributary to our main stream, this time the development of wireless telegraphy itself. The idea of transmitting intelligent electrically without wires may be said the sending signals across canal by means of four sunken earth plates, two in transmitting circuit on one bank and two in the receiving circuit on the other bank. The system was applied practically by Sir William Preece twenty-five years later and again by field units in France in the 1914-18 war. In this case the enemy discovered that by sinking earth plates has also could pick up the signals, although the employment of Aberdonians to speak and receive the messages introduced a simple but effective code which overcome the objection. Earth conduction systems had no great practical use for long distance signaling , and it was only when electric or Hertzain waves were employed that any significant advance took place. In 1864 Maxwell had predicted that electromagnetic waves could travel through space with the velocity of light and it was known through the work of Henry , Kirchoff, Heaviside , Helmholtz and others that the frequency of the oscillatory discharge of a charged condenser was controlled by the capacity and inductance of the in mind Heinrich Hertz, a professor at Karlsruhe carried out in 3l{ 2 1886 a series of experiments great fundamental importance to the future of radio- telegraphy. A predecessor at Karlsrushe, for some reason unknown , had made some flat coils of wire insulated with sealing wax mounted coaxially and with the ends brought out to open terminals. Hertz observed that when a Leyden jar was discharged through one of these coils a spark passed across the gap between the ends of the other coil. The idea of tuning one circuit to another by adjusting the capacity and inductance occurred to Hertz and he quickly realized that, in this way, resonance could be obtained and more powerful results achieved. The Leyden jar become unnecessary and the effect could be obtained by simply connecting an induction coil direct to one of the coils. Hertz extended his investigation over a comprehensive range of experiment with powerful results on our knowledge of high frequency oscillatory currents and spark discharge, but for our present purpose we need only record the two main achievements. He found in the first place that the primary circuit , instead of being a coil , could comprise a straight conductor with a spark gap at the center of its length , and terminating at each end in a large metal ball. Secondary, and most fundamentally , he established the fact that the transmission mechanism between the primary circuit and the secondary detector coil was a straightforward wave a motion in space. He measured the length of these electromagnetic waves, related the wavelength to the frequency of the oscillatory current in the transmitter, and demonstrated such phenomena as reflection , interference standing waves and so on. He showed that the waves were transmitted with the velocity of light , 300,000 kilometers a second and , what was so important, electromagnetic action did not fall off as the square of the distance. He soon found it possible to detect the wave with his resonator — a small coil with a tiny spark gap- at a distance of many meters with original frequencies of the order of a hundred million a second producing waves of only a few meters in length.Hertz carried out over many years a wide range of investigations in the field of high frequency oscillatory circuit and the Propagation of electromagnetic waves, as evidenced by this writings in the Annalen der physic und chemie, collected as a Treatise in 1891 and by the comprehensive modern display of his original apparatus in the Deutsches Museum in Munich. It is clear , however , that the he did not see the possibilities of employing Hertzain waves for radio -communication . The question was raised by a correspondent , Huber, and Appleyard, in his book quoted, reproduces a reply sent by Hertz on 3 Dec. 1889 , in which he says ' if you could construct a mirror as large as a continent, you might succeed with such experiment , but as large continent , you might succeed with such experiments, but it is impracticable to do anything with ordinary mirrors as there would not be the least effect observable’. Other student of the work of Hertz were more optimistic . in the year following this letter Professor Branly of Paris noticed that an electric spark occurring near an ebonite tube of metal filings increased their conductivity appreciably. Such a tube of metallic powder does not normally pass the current when placed in circuit with a battery and galvanometer , but after being subjected to the rapid oscillatory current from a condenser discharge the conductivity is increased to such an extent that appreciable deflections are obtained on the galvanometer. This 33device at once offered a much more sensitive detector of electromagnetic waves than Hertz's spark gap. On the death of Hertz in 1894 Sir Oliver Lodge delivered a memorial lecture at the Royal Istitution, which repeated many of Hertz experiment , gave the name 'coherer’ to Branly's detector , and showed that two metallic spheres in light contact which one another display the same phenomenon. He also demonstrated a de-cohering device which automatically restored the high resistance of the coherer through mechanical tapping by an electric bell mechanism in the battery circuit, a proposal also made by the Russian, Popoff. In the year 1899it became known that, some years before Hertz's fundamental discovery of electromagnetic waves in 1886, Professor Hughes, the inventor of the microphone, which he had used in telephony, had observed ‘invisible electric waves which evidently permeated great distance’. These came from a coil or frictional electric machine and were detected on sensitive microphone: contacts. From 1879 to 1886 he had carried out an extensive investigation in this field and had demonstrated aerial transmission over distance of several hundred yards to a number of well-known scientist. The results created interest. Professor Stokes, one of the two honorary secretaries of the R