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TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY
Measuring White Specks in Dyed Cotton Fabrics Using the Optimas Imaging System
P. Bel* and T. Von Hoven
(Hebert, 1988) and appear as white speck neps, the to capture the images (Dobb and Russell, 1995). Iden-
most critical neps for fabric quality. It is important tifying the correct lighting for capturing the images
for the United States to understand other countries’ was a challenge, since these measurements were de-
perception of U.S. cotton quality. Relaying nep/white pendent on the lighting conditions. It was imperative
speck research to China has helped ensure continued to provide consistent lighting at optimal positions to
access to China, a market worth $733 million in 2003 eliminate any false readings (Dobb and Russell, 1995).
to U.S. cotton producers. Comparing the shade variations between wool and
Scanning electron microscopy (Goynes, 1996) wool/cotton blends provided an interesting challenge
demonstrates that white specks are a mass of imma- for image analysis. Based on the versatility of image
ture fibers that are exceedingly flat and ribbon‑like analysis, it seemed appropriate to evaluate fabric
(Fig. 2). Compared with a fully mature fiber, imma- white speck content because of the high contrast
ture fibers have little secondary wall development between the white speck and the fabric.
that results in a fiber with low stiffness (Furter, 1992). Typically, fabrics are evaluated for their white
Those fibers with a bit of secondary wall develop- speck content in a subjective manner. Image analysis
ment often appear separated, but are still flat and is a tool that permits a consistent, objective means
ribbon‑like, and are typically tangled into knots of quantifying the white speck content of a finished
known as neps. The shortness of the path of light fabric. Several imaging systems are commercially
through the extremely thin walls of the immature available that service a wide variety of applications
and dead fibers accentuates the light-colored or from the medical field to manufacturing tolerance
white appearance of dye resistant neps. In addi- testing; however, not all imaging software and sys-
tion, the immature fibers have an accelerated rate tems are suitable for the macroscopic white speck
of sorption and desorption compared with mature detection. Many systems are capable of defining
fibers and expel dye more easily, so they retain very trends, providing consistent relative rankings, but not
little color (Cheek and Wilcock, 1988). These dead all are capable of yielding the same white speck con-
or undeveloped fibers completely collapse into a flat tent every time the fabric is tested. In order to define
ribbon that reflects light and consequently appear as the appropriate image analysis system and technique
white specks on dark shades of dyed fabric (Peter for white speck analysis, eight fabrics each with a
and Bowes, 1989). Because of this, image analysis visually distinct level of white speck content were
seemed a natural choice to measure the defect, but analyzed. Initial research identified a system that was
because of the reflective nature of the defect, lighting appropriate for white speck detection and a technique
would be critical. for generating consistent data. In initial studies in
white speck analysis using the Optimas system, the
operators adjusted the brightness and contrast and
then manually set the threshold until they felt that
the white speck was accurately highlighted (Von
Hoven, 1997). Consistency was maintained by using
the same technician to perform subsequent studies.
When other technicians tested the fabrics, the data
paralleled the initial technician’s data, but because
Figure 2: Photomicrographs of white specks on a dyed
of operator subjectivity, the white speck data were
fabric.
at a different level. To minimize the subjectivity of
Image analysis is used to detect the pore size in white speck analysis, the lighting factors, reflectance
nonwovens (Xu, 1996), as well as to measure struc- reading from the fabric, contrast, and brightness were
tural parameters of individual fibers and fiber bundles always set to the same level, producing a consistent
(Xu, 1997). Quality control utilizes the techniques of image for analysis. Auto-thresholding was also used
image analysis in order to measure fabric and yarn to eliminate subjectivity of an operator. Using these
density, yarn configuration, and the geometry of knit techniques, the subjectivity of determining dye de-
fabrics to ensure that the specifications for a certain fects has been replaced by objective quantitative data
fabric are met (Zhang et al., 1996). Using the Cam- that can be used for comparative purposes. This tool
bridge Quantimet 570, researchers derived a means to provides a means to study cultivar, harvesting, and
compare the wrinkling of fabrics using a video camera processing effects on dye resistant neps.
JOURNAL OF COTTON SCIENCE, Volume 11, Issue 4, 2007 295
Von Hoven (2000) reported that Optimas was contrast with the fabric, such as white, black, or
a good tool for measuring white specks; however, highly reflective, it will affect the data taken on the
Optimas 5.2 is not a user-friendly program. This edges of the fabric, so the base of the fabric stand
paper reports on the development of an automated was covered with fabric from the study to eliminate
method to measure white specks and was written any problems. It is important to maintain a constant
as a guide for white speck measurements. The new background that will not affect the threshold.
automated measurements are compared with the For the manual thresholding method, the lights
manual measurements from Optimas 5.2 reported on the camera stand were set on low without a rheo-
by Von Hoven (2000). stat, and the base of the camera stand was covered
with black felt fabric. A contrast of 120 and a bright-
MATERIALS AND METHODS ness of 217 were set in the Optimas camera menu
and produced an analyzable image. The contrast
Hardware setup. Image analysis for this study and brightness may be adjusted if factors, such as a
was done using Excel (Microsoft; Redmond, WA) change in lighting because of bulb replacement, or
and the Optimas 5.2 software (Media Cybernetics; lighter or darker fabrics are being analyzed.
Bethesda, MD) on a Gateway 2000 P5‑120 computer For the auto-thresholding method, the lights on
complete with a dual monitor set-up consisting of the the camera stand were set on high and connected to
Gateway computer monitor (Irvine, CA) and a Sony a rheostat. This allowed the lighting system to be
Trinitron RGB Monitor (Tokyo, Japan), an Imaging adjusted to a predetermined meter reading. A contrast
Technologies frame grabber (Bedford, MA), and a of 243 and a brightness of 184 were set in the Opti-
Microimage Video Systems RGB/YC/NTSC color mas camera menu and produced a consistent image
camera (Boyertown, PA) mounted on a camera stand for analysis of each sample as viewed and measured
(Kaiser Fototechnik; Buchen, Germany) with four on the Sony monitor. Many factors affect the level
photographic lights. The F-stop was set at 4, and the of reflected light as measured by the camera, such
lens of the camera was placed 47 cm (18.5 in) above as the position of the operator, room lighting, and
the fabric surface to extract the image. A level was base of the camera stand. It is important that these
used to ensure that the camera was parallel to the factors remain the same when thresholding is set and
fabric sample. A photograph of the analysis system as each 7.62 cm by 10.16 cm (3 in by 4 in) sample
is provided for guidance (Fig. 3). is tested. To maintain a constant background that
will not affect thresholding, the sample should be
large enough to cover the base of the camera stand
as it is moved during testing. The fabric should be
smoothed out before testing as the high and low
areas in the fabrics create shadows that also affect
the data. An easier option is to cover the base of the
camera stand with a piece of fabric, similar in shade
to the sample that is to be tested. The sample is then
laid flat on cardboard that is slightly smaller than the
sample. The cardboard carrier can easily be shifted
to test all areas of the fabric sample.
Light meters. An Extech Instruments digital
Figure 3: The Optimas image analysis system. light meter (Model 401025; Waltham, MA) (Fig.
4) was used to measure illuminance (visible flux
Lighting. A Polaroid MP-3l land camera stand density). The light sensor was mounted in a Kodak
(Waltham, MA) was used with four tungsten (120 Polycontrast Filter holder (Rochester, NY) that was
V, 300 W) flood photography lights for uniform pointed toward the fabric and mounted over the lens
lighting of the fabric. There are arms on either side of the video camera (Fig. 5). The operator could then
of the camera stand, each with two floodlights. The take the measurement while sitting in the same posi-
floodlights on each arm are 47 cm (18.5 in) apart tion as for testing without affecting the lighting. The
with the face of the lamps 47 cm (18.5 in) from the rheostat was adjusted until the light meter luminance
camera. If the base of the camera stand has a strong reading was 234 ± 1 lux (23.4 ± 1 lm/m2).
Bel and Von Hoven: Measuring White Specks Using Optimas 296
peroxide, and Albone 35 (DuPont Chemical Corp.; specks resulting in a more representative measure of
Wilmington, DE), followed by an acid scour at 40 the fabric white speck content. A fabric with a high
°C for 45 min with 0.1% acid, and dyed in a Zimmer white speck impact may have fewer larger white
Dye jig (Zimmer American Inc.; Spartanburg, SC) specks just as a fabric with low white speck content
with 2% Cibacron Navy F‑G Blue (Ciba Specialty may have a large amount of small white specks. The
Chemicals; Greensboro, NC), 0.5% Calgon (Calgon Optimas system provided data that related well to
Carbon Co.; Pittsburgh, PA), 8% sodium chloride, the visual ranking of the fabrics, and further test-
0.8% Na 2CO3, and 0.5% Triton X‑100 (Sigma ing led to a way to minimize operator input. When
Aldrich; St. Louis, MO). All chemicals were deter- the auto thresholding method was used to measure
mined from the weight of the bath, except for the dye, white specks, the only factor that the operator had to
which was based on the weight of the fabric. This is determine was the level to set for the maximum fore-
a fiber reactive dye that binds to cellulose, and since ground limits (10% for low white speck fabrics and
the “specks” have very little cellulose not much, if 20% for normal and high white speck fabrics) (Fig.
any, dye binds to the specks (Fig. 1). 6). Auto thresholding was run with the foreground
Statistical analysis. Eight replications of 30 maximum set to 20% for normal and high white
positions for each of the eight fabrics were evaluated. speck fabrics and to 10% for the three low white
There were no significant differences between the eight speck fabrics. The 20% threshold added false posi-
reps. The 30 positions for each of the eight fabrics for tives to the fabrics with low levels of white specks.
four different dates were included in the statistical A series of tests were run with a clear template on
analysis. Analysis of variance was performed on the which each white speck was marked for the real
complete data set (SAS Institute; Cary, NC). The area white specks for each fabric. The template was laid
of white is calculated as the percentage of the fabric over screen. Some of the results are shown in Figure
that appears white (percentage white). The means of 6. A threshold of 20% worked for all of the fabrics
two, three, and up to thirty positions (sub-samples) except for those with very low levels of white specks.
were plotted against the number of replications to The threshold was incrementally dropped by 1%
indicate the minimum number of images needed to until all three fabrics with low levels of white specks
produce the percentage white mean. To verify the tested accurately. This threshold was 10%.
minimum number of images required per fabric, an
analysis was performed on a data set containing 30 0.3
max=5% max=10% max=20%
max=50% max=95%
images and a data set containing 25 images to see if 0.25
0.2
The validity of the technique was checked by
comparing the image analysis data to the white speck 0.15
for both the manual and automatic threshold analysis and the graphical technique agreed that 25 images
(Fig. 7). The data also matched the subjective visual on a particular fabric were sufficient for white speck
rankings as shown by Von Hoven (2000). The single detection. Von Hoven’s (2000) study using manual
and tandem carded fabrics for EA-C 332 and STV thresholding only needed 24 images.
825 had visually high (unacceptable quality) levels
of white specks. Both EA-C 30 fabrics and the single CONCLUSIONS
carded DP 90 fabric had visually low levels of white
specks (high quality). The number of white specks is important but does
0.3
not fully account for the appearance of the dyed fabric.
0.275
Manual
Percentage white area is a value that can then be used
0.25
0.225
Thresholding to judge the overall quality of the fabric’s appearance.
Auto Thresholding
Twenty‑five replications for each fabric provided
White area (%)
0.2
0.175
0.15
repeatable, statistically sound means for white speck
0.125 content. The manual thresholding data correlated well
0.075
0.1
with the automatic thresholding data. The subjectivity
0.05 of determining these dye defects was replaced by objec-
0.025
tive quantitative data that can be used for comparative
0
30S 30T 32S 32T 90S 90T 825S 825T purposes. Lighting levels are critical for the auto-thresh-
Fabric olding method. A light meter should be used to assure
Figure 7: Comparison of manual and auto thresholding.
Maximum foreground set to 20% for normal and high
constant brightness and contrast values for analysis
white speck fabrics (32S, 32T, 90T, 825S, and 825T) and of fabric. Image analysis with auto-thresholding and
to 10% for low white speck fabrics (30S, 30T, and 90S). multiple replications is less dependent on the operator
and white speck count is more consistent with visual
The daily percentage white area values for each count. The manual thresholding proved consistent, but
of the fabrics had very little variation, indicating the actual counts were low. A new system specifically
that the image analysis system and technique were for white speck analysis is being developed, and plans
measuring the white speck content consistently. A are for the system to eliminate operator decisions. In
regression analysis of the relationship between the making the image analysis system operator indepen-
two thresholding methods provided a coefficient dent, industry will be able to have a standardized system
of determination (R2) of 0.81 (Fig. 8). Using the of measuring white specks with the ability to compare
graphic technique, the percentage white area means other studies.
stabilized with 25 replications for the most variable This tool also provides a means to study cultivar,
fabric. For the eight fabrics, an ANOVA demon- harvesting, and processing effects on dye resistant
strated that 25 images per fabric were not statistically neps. Future research will concentrate on minimiz-
different from 30 images per fabric. The ANOVA ing operator dependence and increasing speed of
0.12 testing by concentrating on automatic thresholding
32T
techniques and automatic fabric manipulation.
0.1 825T
32S
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
from auto thresholding
0.08
White area (%)
825S
0
Mention of a trademark, warranty, proprietary
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 product or vendor does not constitute a guarantee
White area (%) from manual thresholding by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and does not
Figure 8: Comparison of percentage white area for imply approval or recommendation of the product to
manual thresholding and automatic thresholding. the exclusion of others that may be suitable.
JOURNAL OF COTTON SCIENCE, Volume 11, Issue 4, 2007 299
REFERENCES Zhang, Y. F., and R.R. Bresee. 1995. Fabric defect detection
and classification using image analysis. Textile Res. J.
Bel, P.D., J. J. Hebert, G. Ruppernicker, and H.B. Cooper. 65:1-9.
1993. Effect of cotton variety and their fiber parameters
on mill performance and product quality. p. 1431-1433.
In Proc. Beltwide Cotton Conf., New Orleans, LA. 10-14
Jan. 1993. Natl. Cotton Counc. Am., Memphis, TN.