WHAT YOU WILL NEED |, Hand specimens of carbonate rocks and well cemented, ‘non-porous sandstones. 2, Rock thin sections prepared from each of the hand specimens (Fig. 3.1). 3. Petrographie microscope or a non-polarizing microscope fitted with pieces of polarizing film as shown in Figure 3.2. (Polarizing film can be purchased from Edmund Seiemtfic, 60 Pearce Ave., Tonawanda, N.Y., www seientifiesonline.com.) MATERIALS NEEDED TO PSL Se eee ee eed 1. Dropper bout, 2-ounce, filled with acetone. 2. Rectangular pieces of the above hand specimens eut into a shape simifar to Figure 3. 1B and polished on at Teast one surface. 3. Squares of cellulose acetate film, 0.0015 or 0.002 inch thickness, cut somewhat larger than the prepared rock surface, 4. Small wooden or cardboard tray containing a few Facial tissues, 5. Paper towels, 6. Two glass plates hinged with tape along one side. Cover glasses from 35 mm slide binders are good for this purpose. Basic INFORMATION Thin Sections Because of small grain size, itis often difficult to identify the mineral components of sedimentary rocks. Identification is ‘easier when a thin section of the rock is examined with the aid of a microscope, A rock thin section (Fig. 3.1) is pre- pared by first cutting a thin slab of rock with a diamond saw. The small slab of rock is then cemented to a glass slide and ground with abrasive powders to a uniform thickness of about 0.03 mm (30 microns), At this thickness, most miner- als are nearly transparent to visible light. A glass cover slip, is cemented over the thin slice of rock, and the completed thin section is placed under the microscope for viewing. ‘The mineral grains in a sedimentary rock thin section ccan be seen more distinctly when viewed between crossed po- larizers (Fig. 3.2). Most minerals are crystalline substances that transmit light between crossed polarizers because each, ‘mineral grain has a different orientation and transmits light 10 FFigure3.1 Preparation ofa thin section involves fist cuting.a thin chip of rock from the hand specimen (A and B) with the use ofa rock saw. The «assed chip (6 then polished on one side and mounted with the polished side down ona las side (C- Canada balsam is usally used as a mounting recium, The chip is then ground (Dt a thickness of about 30 mierans (0.03 mm or 0.001 inch), Aller all riding debris is washed away, a thin cover plas cel upon the completed thin sectionFigure 3.2_ Wide etd microscope prepared fr viewing rock thin sections berween crossed polarizers Upper polarizer Thin section Lower polarizer Microscope lamp a different degree. Quartz and feldspar grains—the common constituents of sandstone—range in color from light gray to black when viewed between crossed polarizers. Plagioclase feldspar often displays a striped pattern in black and gray. ‘The identification of mineral components of a sed ‘mentary rock requires a good deal of practice; however, the {extural relationships of the grains are easy to discern. In Chapter 2, we defined texture as the siz, shape, and arrange- ‘ment of mineral grains in a rock. In this study, textures seen in thin sections or acetate peels can be examined and evalu- ated by comparing them with diagrams and photographs Figs. 3.4 0 3.8). Acetate peels ‘An acetate peel is made by wetting the polished surface of a rock chip with acetone. A piece of acetone film is placed on the polished wet surface. The acetone softens the film, which then records an accurate impression of the texture of the rock. The peel technique is widely used in the study of the texture of carbonate rocks like limestone and dolostone as ‘well as nonporous sandstones. Preparation of Acetate Peels 1. Forsandstone, your insructor will provide a rectangular cut ofthe hand specimen rahe ike that shown in Figure 3.15 but hiker. This chip will have been polished with very fine aluminum oxide (AlO3) powder. Many peels can be made from a single chip. 2. Forearbonate rocks, the smooth surface of the chip is etched lightly with dilute hydrochloric seid (HCD, Several peels can be made from this surface, but ‘eventually it will have to be resurfaced and re-etched, 3. Use crumpled tissues to wedge the rock chip in one comer of the tray so that the prepared surface is facing up and is level 4. Flood the level surface with acetone from the dropper, and within a few seconds place the square of acetate film on the wet surface. a. Ifthe surface is not covered with a continuous layer of acetone, the film will not adhere to it and the peel will not be a success. Because of the speed required, itis easier if two persons work together, fone applying the acetone and the other applying the film, 'b. Opposite edges of the film should be held by the thumb and forefinger and the film bent downward into a U-shape. Quickly place the bottom of the (on the surface and simultancously release the two sides. The film will “recline” onto the wet surface, creating a successful peel, Do not press down on the film or touch it while it sets, Some practice may be required, If you do not suecced in laying the film smoothly on the surface on your first wy. simply ‘wait several minutes forthe film to dry, pul it off, and try again with afresh piece of acetate film. Allow the film to dry for about five minutes, then grasp ‘comer and peel it off slowly, taking care not to tear it ‘The peel will warp on drying. Itcan be flattened by placing it between two glass plates such as the cover glasses provided with 35 mm slide holders. Otherwise it ‘must be held flat while it is being observed under the microscope. ‘TEXTURES OF SANDSTONE ‘The possible rextural components of sandstone are (1) sand- size grains, (2) matrix (which consists of silt and clay), and (3) cement (as discussed in Chapter 1). In composition, the ‘grains of most sandstone range between quartz (or chert), feldspar (cither plagioclase or potassium feldspar), and lithies (rock fragments). Figure 3.3 shows a common elassi- fication scheme for sandstone (or sand-size grains) modi- fied from McBride (1963), Note that a quartz sandstone (containing 90% or more quartz grains) is also called a, ‘quartz arenite, and this type of sandstone is both texturally and compositionally mature. ‘The grains are held together by either cement or ma- trix, However, some varieties of sandstone have little or no. ‘matrix while others have little or no cement. When sand- stones are examined, the textural and compositional maturity changes from immature to submature to mature sandstone are marked by a gradual increase in roundness of grains, im- proved sorting of grains, and decrease in amount of matrix, as shown in Figure 3.4. In general, immature sandstones Chapters 19,Figure3.3_ simplified mineralogical classiiation for sandsones modified from Merde (1963). Note that most sandstones have a variable compositional maturity even when the prainsize ofthe constituent grains s the same. The apices ofthe angular cagram represent 100%. As you move fa fer an pe for example, esp, you decrease the amount of that material nthe sandstone a increase the amounts ofthe other components, Quartz (or Chert) Quartz Sandstone (quartz arenite} Increasing Percentage of Quartz Feldspathic Litnarenite Lithic (Rock) Fragments, o 10 50 90 100 Increasing Percentage of Lithic Fragments Saa—_—_—_—_— Figure 3.4_Testuresof sandstones as seen in thin section uncer the micrascape. Rock names are given at left and op, degrees of textural maturity a bottom. Sometimes the rock names ae not used anda sancstone is dented Simply a immature, submature, or mature. Typically am arkoseis derived from weathered pranite. Graywacke is derived from a variety of rocks, including voleane rocks, slate, and schist. Most ofthese racks have mineral components for the rock fragments themselves that are dark in color and Us impart a dark color to praywacke. Both ankose and graywacke Canton angular and poorly sorted gains, bu groywacke: generally has moe fine grained matt than an arkowe. Submature sandstones typically have fly a small amount ‘of matic and consist of subraunded and moderately sorted rains, some of which may be darkin color. The gains in a mature (quad sandstone ae ypically subrounded to rounds. The sorting of grains is moderate to good, and few, f any, dark grains are present Grains ina ‘mature quartz sandsone are commonly held together by cement COD arian — YY Feromesnasan winerae S Silt and Clay Matrix Feldspar Mica rock: Fragments, Silica Cement Carbonate Cement (QUARTZ SANDSTONE SUBMATURE SANDSTONE GRAYWACKE = “> ARKOSE Submature Mature 20 Sedimentary Rocks Under the MieroscopeFigure 3.5 types af contacts between grains in sandstone. As sandstone is buried o successively greater depths, gains in contac are pressed together, and one othe other grain dissolves atthe contact. This is called pressure solution Abundant matix prevents pressure soltion by keeping {rains apart. The transition fom point contacts to sutured contacts represents an increasing degtee of pressure solution between gaits “Floating” grains Point contacts contain little or no cement, and the sand-sized grains are not in close contact because they are separated by matrix. The ‘mattix, which holds together the sand-sized grains, can be- come very durable if the mineral chlorite or clay minerals (c.g. micas), which are often found in this material, reerys- tallize and grow into larger crystals. From Figure 3.5 you ean see that the compositional maturity of a sandstone depends upon the amount of feldspar (plagioclase or potassium feldspar) grains as well as the amount of lithies (rock frag- ments), An arkose contains more feldspar and quartz grains, ‘than a litharenite, which has more rock fragments and quattz Submature sandstones are held together by a combina sion of matrix, cement, and pressure solution of the grains. Pressure solution occurs when the constituent mineral grains are pressed together under sufficient pressure that chemical reactions occur at the grain boundaries. At the contact, the arains may start to dissolve, and this process cements the grains together. Different degrees of pressure solution are il- Tustrated in Figure 3.5 Mature sandstones (quartz arenites) are held together either by cement or by pressure solution (Fig. 3.6C). Ifthe grains of a sandstone are not closely packed, yet are not separated by matrix, cement is probably present. ‘The most common cements, quartz (SiOz) and calcite (CaCOs), are typically clear and uniform in appearance. Iron oxide (Fe;0x; hematite) cement is commonly dark brown or red, ‘The compositional and textural maturity of a sand- stone is used to interpret the geologic setting for the deposition Concavo-convex. of the sediments. In general, great thicknesses of immature sandstone (e.g., arkose), which occur in many mountain belts, are inferred to have been deposited rapidly on subsiding areas of the earth's crust. The rate of accumulation was too rapid for the grains to be rounded and the matrix to be winnowed out. In contrast, mature sandstones are inferred to have accumulated slowly on more stable parts of the crust, In their movement (by fluvial processes), there was sufficient time (and transport dis- tance) for the sediment grains to become highly rounded and the matrix (e.., clay minerals oF micas) to be winnowed out, In Figure 3.6 you can examine sandstones of three differ- ent maturities in thin section. Using the guidelines suggested in Table 3.1, convince yourself you can recognize the differences in maturity. Your instructor may have additional thin sections ‘or hand samples of sandstone to interpret using Table 3.1 TEXTURES OF CARBONATE ROCK ‘The term carbonate rock includes two very similar kinds of rock: limestone and dolostone. Limestone consists mainly of the mineral calcite (CaCOs), and dotostone consists mainly of the mineral dolomite (CaMg(COs),); both may have a crystalline texture. Limestone and dolostone are sometimes, difficult rocks for the beginner to distinguish, and some car bonate rocks are a mixture of calcite and dolomite (review the material of Chapter 1 for differences in carbonate rocks). ‘Table3.1. Guide for Observing Sandstones Under the Microscope ‘Specimen Number or Other Designat What isthe length ofthe ages rain, in mm? In general, are the sand-szed grains a angulor to subangula, or (b) rounded wo subrounded? By comparison with Figure 3.4, the grain contacts are best described as (a) point, (long) concavo-convex (Gh sured oe) not in contact, Hosting, I. the sandstone apparently held together by (a) coment, {matrix (| pressure soltion contacts, ‘or some combination ofthe above? By comparison with Figure 3.3, s the texture {@) Immature, submature, oF (el mature? Chapters 21Figure3.7 Textures of carbonate rock a sen in thin section ar peel under the microscope. Rock names are given at top ofthe figure, textural camponents are identified 3t baton, Merte Unabraced biociasta in mierite LIMESTONE PoLostone (bids and abraded ‘Unabraded bioclost Doom bioclast in sparry insparty carbonate ‘carbonate Carbonate rocks are classified based on the (1) individ: tual grains, (2) cement, and (3) matrix that make up the rock, uch like the more elastic sandstones. The grains, aecord- ing to the common classification scheme of Folk (1959, 1962), can be separated into four major types. These are bio clasts (made of broken and whole skeletal parts), aBids (spherical grains formed by the precipitation of carbonate around a nucleus), fecal pellets, and intraclasts (which are sand or gravel-size pieces of limestone or dotostone). These grains are called allochemieal grains; along with the amount of cement or matrix, they can be used, as we saw with sandstones, to classify most of the common carbonate rocks The allochemical grains of a carbonate rock are held together by either cement or matrix. The most common car- bonate cement is called sparry carbonate (also called sparite). This cement isa clear crystalline carbonate that has been precipitated between clasts or has developed by the re crystallization of carbonate clasts. Matrix in most carbonate rocks is @ murky, fine-grained calcium carbonate mud called Iicrite. Unlike sparte, the fine-grained carbonate mud is, deposited with the clasts and, during lithification, is reerys= tallized. The typical appearance of these components. and some of the common allochemical grains, as seen through the microscope, is shown in Figures 3.7 and 3.8, Table 3.2 shows a modified classification scheme for carbonate rocks based on the work of Dunham (1962). In this classification scheme, the allochemical grains must be fied as discussed above. Although the classification scheme may seem a bit obtuse, i is an attempt to more completely de scribe carbonate rocks (and their variability). There are (wo key observations necessary in using this classification, ‘The first is whether material between the allochemical grains is ‘matrix (mierite) or cement (spatite). The second is whether the allockemical grains form a framework that is self supporting without the presence of matrix or cement. If there are suff cient numbers of allochemical grains and they support them- selves without the intervening matrix (or cement), they are called gruin-supported. However, if the allochemical grains cannot support themselves without the intervening micrite, they are called mud-supported. Use Table 3.2 as a flow chart for examining these differences, For example, in Figure 3.7, the nearly pure micritie limestone to the left of the figure is composed mostly of mi crite with few allochemical grains, Based on the Dunbam (1962) classification, this would be called a mud-supported (mudstone) limestone. By contrast, the limestone in Fig. lure 38A has slightly more than 10% allochemical grains, but is mostly composed of earbonate mud, In this example, there are only a few allochemical grains and the rest is micrite. This type of limestone would be called a mud-supported limestone (Table 3.2), and with more than 10% allochemical grains, it would be called a fossilierous wackestone, Lastly, note that if the limestone is composed of mainly allochemical grains (as in Figure 3.8C), the grains themselves support one an other. This is a good example of a grain-supported limestone. ————— Table 3.2. Classification o |A. Does the limestone have micrit as mati) or spate cement? 2. tthe allochemical grains are not selt-suppontn there a imestones Modified from Dunham (1962) B. Ae the allochemical grains supported by themselves to frm a framework, [or] would they fall apart without the matrix ar cement? 1. lf the allochemica gains are se supporting-—this i a GRAIN-SUPPORTED limestone 2. tthe material between the alchemical grains is micrte—this is a PACKSTONE limestone b. tthe material beween the allochemical gain is cement eparite)—this sa GRAINSTONE limestone. this is MUD-SUPPORTED limestone, 2. there ave < 10% allochemical grains—ths fsa MUDSTONE limestone 10% allochemicalgrains—Ihis isa WACKESTONE limestone Chapter} 23a - a Sti. ss : eSTable3.3_ Guide for Observing Carbonate Rocks Under the Microscope Specimen Number or Other Designation 11. Is micrt (a) absent, (h) minor constituent, less than 25%, fore major constituent, more than 25240 2. Arebioclas (a) absent, (b) minor constituent, fore) major constituent? 3. if pesent, are biocasts generally (a) abraded, ‘orb unabraded? 4 Is spat carbonate (a absent (h} minor constituent, ‘or major constituent? 5. A shomb-shaped crystals of dolomite a absent, 1b) minor coosttaent oc) major canstuent? 6, Was rock probably deposited in (a) quiet water, 12 (by turbulent water, oF () 5 there no basis for inference? Since sparty carbonate cement (and not micrite) cements the grains, this limestone would be called a grainstone Although most carbonate rocks originate as allochemi- cal grains held together by micrite or sparry carbonate cement, the clastic texture is likely to be partly or wholly obliterated by recrystallization. Fine-grained calcite tends, to go into solution and then reerystallizes as larger crystals, and the texture thus becomes partly or wholly erystalline (Fig. 386). The minerals calcite and dolomite are similar in appearance under the microscope, but dolomite usually devel- ‘ops thombshaped crystals, whereas calcite crystals have no regular geometric outline (Fig. 3.8F), Primary crystallization of dolomite is extremely rare in modern sedimentary environments. Most dolomite forms reg SA RR grains are bioelasts, intraclasts, fecal pellets, and olds. arkose red to pink coarse-rained feldspar-rich sandstone composed of poorly (to moderately) sorted angular to subangular grains. Arkoses generally reflect 2 tenestrial depositional environment where an uplifted granitic rock body experienced rapid erosion, ‘wansportation deposition, and burial ioclasts Detrital particles of sediment composed of fragments of calcareous algae, shells, plant matter, or the skeletons of marine invertebrates. cement A chemical precipitate such as SiO>, CaCOs, or e103 that erystallizes in voids between sedimentary particles following their deposition, = through diagenetic alteration of limestone. In general, the pres- ence of micrite suggests deposition in quiet water because fine carbonate mud would not likely settle to the bottom in turbu- lent water. Whole, unbroken fossil shells also indicate deposi- tion in quiet water because they would be abraded or broken in turbulent water. Today, earbonate sediments are accumulating ‘in quantity in the oceans and some large lacustrine (lake) sys- tems and presumably this has been true ofthe geologie past, In Figure 3.8 you can examine a variety of carbonate rocks in thin section, Using the guidelines suggested in Tables 3.2 and 33, convince yourself that you can classify these carbonate rocks as mud-supported or grain-supported. ‘Your instructor may have additional thin sections or hand sam- ples of carbonate rocks to interpret using Tables 3.2 and 3.3 a Se ‘lastic Pertaining to a tock or sediment composed of broken fragments of preexisting rocks, minerals, or skeletal matter (called clasts). The individual clasts are described based on identity, grain size, degree of rounding, and sorting. compositional maturity A measure of the amount of ‘weathering, erosion, and transport experienced by sediment, as indicated by the variety of mineral constituents ultimately deposited to form the sedimentary rock, Examples: Feldspars (plagioclase or potassium feldspar) weathered to clay; ferromagnesian ‘minerals (olivine or pyroxene) weathered into iron oxides, such as the minerals limonite oF hematite cexystalline A term that describes a sedimentary rock composed of crystals (rather than clasts) precipitated from a saturated solution. The mineral erystals are fine {0 very fine in grain size and form an interlocking ‘mosaic. Rocks formed by chemical precipitation are called chemical sedimentary rocks, Chaprer3 25‘sraywacke A dark gray. firmly indurated coarse-grained ssndstone that consists of poorly sorted angular 0 subangular grains of quartz and feldspar, with a variety of rock and mineral fragments embedded in a clayey matrix (exturally and compositionally immature). Graywackes ‘generally reflect a marine depositional environment \where rapid erosion, transportation, deposition, and burial ‘are associated with an orogenic tectonic setting intraclasts Gravel-, sand, or silt-sized particles of limestone (or dolostone) rock fragments found as framework grains in carbonate rocks. These grains range from angular to rounded in shape. ‘matrix Clastic, fine-grained particles (often clay) that are deposited at the same time as larger grains and help to hold (or bind) the grains together. Also called the groundnass. ‘maturity _ measure of the weathering and transportation of a clastic sedimentary rock by evaluation of the heterogeneity of its composition (i.e., compositional maturity) and the amount and degree of rounding and sorting (ie, textural maturity). ‘micrite Mechanically deposited lime mud with particle sizes in the 1-to 3-mieron range that has been subsequently Iithified (or experienced recrystallization) to form a very finely textured limestone. ‘bids Spherical particles of sand size that are mostly ‘composed of concentric laminae of calcium carbonate. Limestone mau up of cemented obids has an odlitic texture, 26 Sedimentary Rocks Under the Microscope pressure solution ‘The dissolution of elastic mineral grains atthe points of grain contacts because of the concentration of pressure at those locations. quartz arenite Another term for a sandstone that has 90% (or more) sand-size quartz grains. This is texturally and compositionally mature quartz sandstone. reerystallization ‘The formation of new mineral crystals in ‘a rock ater the rock has formed. This process may result from changes in pressure or temperature, or from the reorganization of the chemical elements of preexisting minerals into new minerals. roundness (of sedimentary particles) The degree of abrasion of a clastic particle as shown by the sharpness ofits edges and comers sorting ‘The process by which sedimentary particles having some particular characteristic, such as Size, shape, oF specific gravity, are separated from other dissimilar particles by the agents of transportation (e.g, running water, waves, glacial ice, wind, ec) sparry carbonate Clear, crystalline calcite or dolomite deposited as cement between clasts or developed by reerystallization of clasts. Also called sparite. textural maturity measure of size and shape variation of the constituents of a sedimentary rock. texture (sedimentary) ‘The general physical appearance of the rock, including the size, shape, and arrangement of the constituent mineral (or rock) components.