Compare & contrast behavioural and cognitive learning in

Science Education
http://uclinks.org/reference/research/br_cole_socially.pdf
http://books.google.com.au/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=Mnd5qDBHcEQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=Compare+and+contrast
+behavioural+and+cognitive+learning+in+science+education&ots=ZCsrUCzuFv&
sig=A4CnhyHdr2BAJdn8u8GaHrJj4E0#v=onepage&q&f=false

International handbook of science education

 By Kenneth George Tobin

Compare and contrast with Teaching and Learning in Science

- The constructive Classroom

Brian Hand

Vaughn Praim

Something to use without mentioning

http://www.springerlink.com/content/v847450654745541/
A Gen
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A generative theory of textbook design: Using annotated marked
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illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text
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ISSN 1042-1629 (Print) 1556-6501 (Online)
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Issue Volume 43, Number 1 / March, 1995 & Reprints

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DOI 10.1007/BF02300480

Pages 31-41

Subject Collection Humanities, Social Sciences and Law

SpringerLink Date Saturday, February 18, 2006

PDF (742.1 KB) Free Preview

Richard E. Mayer1, Kathryn Steinhoff1, Gregory Bower1 and

Rebecca Mars1

(1)  the Department of Psychology of the University of California at Santa Barbara, USA

Abstract  In three experiments, college students read a text

explaining how lightning works and then took problem-solving transfer
tests. Some students (integrated group) also viewed illustrations
depicting the major stages in the formation of lightning that (a) were
placed adjacent to corresponding text paragraphs and (b) contained
annotations repeating the verbal cause-and-effect information from the
text. Other students (separated group) viewed the same illustrations (a)
on a separate page and (b) without annotations, after they had finished
reading the text. The integrated group generated approximately 50%
more creative solutions on transfer problems than the separated group,
and this pattern was stronger for students who lacked experience in
meteorology than for high-experience students. The positive effects of
integrated illustrations depended on incorporating annotations (i.e.,
captions and labels) into the illustrations rather than placing illustrations
close to corresponding paragraphs. Results were interpreted in light of a
generative theory of multimedia learning which posits that meaningful
learning requires constructing connections between visual and verbal
representations of a system.

CSom
Chapter 8 about Special needs
From Educational Psychology Mars((use)

'Better learning'  (To Find andUse)

Authors: Beverley Bell a;John Pearson a

Affiliation:   a
Centre for Science and Mathematics Education Research, University of Waikato,
Hamilton, New Zealand

DOI: 10.1080/0950069920140310

Publication Frequency: 18 issues per year

Published in: International Journal of Science Education, Volume 14, Issue 3 July 1992 , pages 349 -
361

Subject: Science Education;

Formats available: PDF (English)

Previously published as: European Journal of Science Education (0140-5284) until 1987

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Abstract
The Learning in Science Project (Teacher Development) at the University of Waikato, New Zealand, is
investigating the teacher development required for teachers to implement the findings of the previous
Learning in Science Projects in their classrooms. This paper documents some early findings of the
research on one factor that helped teachers change their classroom activities and their ideas about
teaching and learning. Despite the difficulties in using a new teaching approach, the teachers reported that
they were encouraged to keep on changing as 'better learning' was occurring. Better learning was viewed
by the teachers in terms of better learning conditions and better learning outcomes.

Not to mention

2. What are the benefits of hands-on learning? How do I

justify a hands-on approach?
Teachers who embrace hands-on learning in science seem to recognize certain desirable
outcomes and endorse student-centered instructional approaches. Research has confirmed
many of the seemingly intuitive benefits of hands-on learning and has also documented a
variety of unanticipated benefits. But what effects of hands-on learning are seen by
advocates as most important or valuable?

Teacher Responses
  Students in a hands-on science program will remember the material better, feel a
sense of accomplishment when the task is completed, and be able to transfer that
experience easier to other learning situations. When more than one method of
learning is accessed as in hands-on learning, the information has a better chance of
being stored in the memory for useful retrieval. Students who have difficulty in the
learning arena for reasons of ESL barriers, auditory deficiencies, or behavioral
interference can be found to be on task more often because they are part of the
learning process and not just spectators.
 Justifying why I would use hands-on science is based on all the research and
methods studies that are current. They support the notion of multi-faceted
bombardment of information and experiences so that the retention level is
improved. Students who are involved in labs and activities are empowered in their
own learning process. Mary Wieser, French Prairie Middle School, Woodburn, OR
 The benefits of hands-on-learning in my school revolves around those children who
are either not as academically "talented" or have not shown "interest" in school.
This method tends to stimulate these type [of] students into participating and
eventually absorbing information that I believe they would not get from "normal"
show-me - tell-me methods. Marv Hougland, seventh and eighth grade teacher,
Clearview School, Lorain, OH
 The single most important benefit to me is that although it requires a great deal of
preparation time, once a system is developed, hands-on teaching makes teaching
fun. If the kids are learning and having fun doing it, then I am having fun at my job,
and I am a happier person overall. Jeff G. Brodie, fifth and sixth grade teacher, East
Side Elementary, Edinburgh, IN

Developer Thoughts

 I hear and I forget

I see and I remember
I do and I understand

- Chinese Proverb

Although these words may not be the exact translation, they underscore the need for
a hands-on approach to science teaching. Without this approach students must rely
on memory and abstract thought, two methods which restrict learning in most
students. By actually doing and experiencing science, students develop their critical
thinking skills as well as discover scientific concepts. This self discovery stays with
students throughout their lifetimes while memory fades. Carol J. Stadum, The
Planetary Society (producers of Marslink teaching packets), Pasadena, CA

 If students are not doing hands-on science, they are not doing science. Science is a
process and if students are not actively engaged in the process, they are not doing
science. Most science classes in elementary school teach the vocabulary of science
and nothing else.
 Study after study has shown the value of hands-on learning. Students are motivated,
they learn more, even their reading skills improve. How can you justify not doing
hands-on science? Edwin, J.C. Sobey, National Invention Center, Akron, OH

 Learning by well-planned activities and experiences in a well engineered program is

a quality instructional approach. It:
o causes students to rely on the evidence instead of upon authority
(encyclopedia, minister, doctor, text, teacher, parent). Most students live in
an authoritarian world with little or no opportunity to practice decision-
making because nearly everyone tells students what to do and when to do it.
We continually graduate students who do not yet have the ability to set up a
simple experiment with controlled variables, collect and interpret evidence,
or make correct interpretations based upon that evidence.
o provides students with a similar set of experiences so everyone can
participate in discussions on a level playing field regardless of their socio-
economic status. In this way, special benefits are not awarded to those who,
by virtue of their wealth or background, have a greater number of
experiences under their belts.
o forces student thinking by requiring interpretation of the observed events,
rather than memorization of correct responses.
o messages the learner that they, as well as the instructor, can interpret data,
and that various interpretations are possible and often probable. When a text
or teacher tells students that plants need light to grow (an untruth) students
simply memorize this without question and are hampered by the falsehood
for a lifetime. However, when a student personally germinates seeds in the
dark and finds that they grow taller than seeds grown in the light, it has
irrefutable evidence from a personal experience that plants do not need light
to grow. Because he now has evidence that light inhibits growth (which it
does) he now has a chance of figuring out why plants in a house grow toward
the light (cell growth of the lighted side of the stem is repressed while the
unlighted side grows more, thus causing the stem to grow in such a manner
as to aim the upper part of the plant toward the light which is necessary for
growth after the stored food energy is used up.) This information seldom
comes from K-6 texts or teachers , yet is a logical interpretation by 10 year
old students if they conduct the experiments. It:
 encourages questioning of the observed events and the resulting data.
When students carry out their own experiments, they become very
familiar with the events and the variables involved.
 promotes cause and effect thinking.
 reduces dependence upon authority. Practical experiences in
generating hypotheses and planning experiments now, will make the
students more independent later when they no longer have authorities
 standing by at every turn of their lives. Robert C. Knott, Ed.D. Science
Curriculum Improvement Study 3, University of California, Berkeley
 The importance of providing children with direct experiences with materials,
objects, and phenomena is supported by experience and understanding of how
learning takes place. While information can be remembered if taught through books
and lectures, true understanding and the ability to use knowledge in new situations
requires learning in which children study concepts in-depth, and over time and
learning that is founded in direct experience. Therefore, the justification for hands-
on learning is that it allows students to build understanding that is functional and to
develop the ability to inquire themselves, in other words, to become independent
learners. Karen Worth, Education Development Center, Inc. (Developers of Insights:
A 1), Newton, MA

Notes from the literature

 "Hands-on and learning by experience are powerful ideas, and we know that
engaging students actively and thoughtfully in their studies pays off in better
learning (Rutherford, 1993, p. 5).
 Recipe for a Science Lesson

Option 1: Find a puddle and photograph it. Show the photograph to a seven-year-
old child. Have her read about puddles. Later, ask her to talk about the puddle.

Option 2: Find a puddle. Add one seven-year-old child. Mix thoroughly. Stomp,
splash, and swish. Float leaves on it. Drop pebbles into it and count the ripples.
Measure the depth, width, and length of it. Test the pH. Look at a drop under a
microscope. Measure 250 mL of puddle water and boil it until the water is gone.
Examine what is left in the container. Estimate how long it will take for 250 mL of
puddle water to evaporate. Time it. Chart it. Now ask the child to talk about the
puddle.

If you were a seven-year-old child, what option would stimulate you to talk about
the puddle? That's what hands-on science is all about - allowing students to
experience science fully" (Donivan, 1993, p. 29).

 Piaget stressed the importance of learning by doing, especially in science. According

to Piaget, "a sufficient experimental training was believed to have been provided as
long as the student had been introduced to the results of past experiments or had
been allowed to watch demonstration experiments conducted by his teacher, as
though it were possible to sit in rows on a wharf and learn to swim merely by
watching grown-up swimmers in the water. It is true that this form of instruction by
lecture and demonstration has often been supplemented by laboratory work by the
students, but the repetition of past experiments is still a long way from being the
best way of exciting the spirit of invention, and even of training students in the
necessity for checking for verification" (1986, p. 705).
 "Piaget's research clearly mandates that the learning environment should be rich in
physical experiences. Involvement, he states, is the key to intellectual development,
and for the elementary school child this includes direct physical manipulation of
objects" (McAnarney, 1978, p. 33).
 Bruner also stressed learning by doing. "The school boy learning physics is a
physicist, and it is easier for him to learn physics behaving like a physicist than
doing something else" (Bruner, 1960, p. 14). Bruner states, "Of only one thing I am
convinced. I have never seen anybody improve in the art and technique of inquiry
by any means other than engaging in inquiry" (1961, p. 31). Bruner points out the
quick rate of change in our world and says, "the principal emphasis in education
should be placed on skills - skills in handling, in seeing, and imaging, and in
symbolic operations" (Bruner, 1983, p. 138).
 A hands-on approach is also advocated by some people who advocate a
constructivist approach to science teaching. "Learning is defined as the construction
of knowledge as sensory data are given meaning in terms of prior knowledge.
Learning always is an interpretive process and always involves construction of
knowledge.... Constructivism implies that students require opportunities to
experience what they are to learn in a direct way and time to think and make sense
of what they are learning. Laboratory activities appeal as a way of allowing students
to learn with understanding and, at the same time, engage in a process of
constructing knowledge by doing science" (Tobin, 1990, p. 404-405).
 Educational research has shown many advantages of using hands- on science
programs. Bredderman (1982) reports the results of a meta-analysis of 15 years of
research on activity-based science programs. This synthesis of research was based
on approximately 57 studies involving 13, 000 students in 1, 000 classrooms. All of
the studies involved comparing activity-based programs (the Elementary Science
Study, Science-A Process Approach, or the Science Curriculum Improvement
Study) with comparable classrooms using a traditional or textbook approach to
science teaching. A variety of student performance measures were analyzed. The
most dramatic differences were found in science process skills where the students in
activity-based programs performed 20 percentile units higher than the comparison
groups. The students in these programs scored higher than the control groups in the
following measures (ranked from largest to smallest differences): creativity,
attitude, perception, logic development, language development, science content, and
mathematics. Students who were disadvantaged economically or academically
gained the most from the activity- based programs.
 Hands-on learning has been shown to increase learning and achievement in science
content (Bredderman, 1982; Brooks, 1988; Mattheis & Nakayama, 1988; Saunders
& Shepardson, 1984).
 Research indicates that activity-based science can improve students' attitudes
toward science (Jaus, 1977; Kyle, Bonnstetter, Gadsden, & Shymansky, 1988; Kyle,
Bonnstetter, McCloskey, & Fults, 1985; Rowland, 1990). "There seems to be some
evidence from exemplary programs that even poorly taught hands-on science is
 more interesting to students than the typical textbook based program" (Penick &
Yager, 1993, p. 5).
 Evidence clearly indicates that hands-on activities increase skill proficiency in
processes of science, especially laboratory skills and specific science process skills,
such as graphing and interpreting data (Mattheis & Nakayama, 1988).
 Hands-on learning in science has been shown to help in the development of language
(Bredderman, 1982; Huff, 1971; Quinn & Kessler, 1976) and reading (Bredderman,
1982; Morgan, Rachelson, & Lloyd, 1977; Willman, 1978). Morgan, Rachelson, and
Lloyd (1977) concluded from their study that "sciencing activities can make a
positive contribution to the acquisition of reading skills of first grade students.
These activities can provide the concrete experiences from which many reading
skills are derived" (p. 143).
 Participation in science inquiry lessons facilitated development of both classification
and oral communication skills of bilingual Mexican-American third grade students
(Rodriguez & Bethel, 1983).
 From their analysis of educational research, Barufaldi and Swift (1977) concluded
that, "a definite trend emerges that science experience enhances reading readiness
skills and oral communication skills among children" (p. 392).
 Activity-centered classrooms encourage student creativity in problem solving,
promote student independence, and help low ability students overcome initial
handicaps (Shymansky & Penick, 1981).
 "Seen only as a laundry list of theorems in a workbook, science can be a bore. But
as a 'hands-on' adventure guided by a knowledgeable teacher, it can sweep children
up in the excitement of discovery. Taught by the regular classroom teacher, it can
illustrate the point that science is for everyone - not just scientists" (William J.
Bennett (as U.S. Secretary of Education), 1986, p. 27).

Summary

There are a plethora of benefits that teachers and curriculum developers adduce to hands-
on learning to justify the approach in science. Benefits for students are believed to include
increased learning; increased motivation to learn; increased enjoyment of learning;
increased skill proficiency, including communication skills; increased independent thinking
and decision making based on direct evidence and experiences; and increased perception
and creativity. Research supports many of these claims by providing evidence that the
learning of various skills, science content, and mathematics are enhanced through hands-
on science programs. Students in activity-based programs have exhibited increases in
creativity, positive attitudes toward science, perception, logic development, communication
skills, and reading readiness. These benefits seem more than sufficient justification for
promoting hands-on learning. However, Jeff Brodie provided an important addition - it
makes science fun for both the student and teacher. Given the recent concerns about
science anxiety and avoidance, enjoyment of science learning seems a worthy goal to be
considered in choosing instructional approaches in science.
 http://www.jeffstanger.net/Science%20Teaching/
http://www.jeffstanger.net/Science%20Teaching/classroommanagement.html

To use

An exploration into the classroom

management of science teachers.
Jeffrey J. Stanger

Undergraduate student in BSc (Chemistry with Physics) and DipEd concurrently,

Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia.

To use

Jeffrey J. Stanger

Undergraduate student in BSc (Chemistry with Physics) and DipEd concurrently,

Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia.

 
Introduction

             One of the most important skills possessed by effective teachers is that of classroom
management. These skills are considered by Lang et al. (1994) as by far the most important aspect of a
teacher’s training and they state that effective classroom management starts with effective lesson
preparation. Classroom management is largely concerned with discipline strategies, but other aspects are
also of vital importance. The definition developed by Conrath (1986) for classroom management includes
the organization and planning of students’ space, time and materials so that instruction and learning
activities can take place effectively. Alternatively, effective classroom management was divided into four
main categories in the studies of Evertson & Emmer (1982) and Sanford (1984). These four categories
are: classroom procedures and rules, student work procedures, managing student behaviour and
organizing instruction. It is clear from these examples that classroom management is much more than a
collection of strategies for discipline and involves many aspects of a teacher’s professional expertise.

            Teachers’ varying approaches to classroom management are reflected in differing levels of
effectiveness. For example, a well-prepared teacher has a much greater chance of achieving effective
lesson management. In the discussion of Lang et al. (1994), different approaches to discipline are said to
range from intimidation to total permissiveness. They advise that such extremes should be avoided and in
forming these individual approaches, teachers should include monitoring and enforcing reasonable
classroom rules, procedures and routines. Effective teaching is more than discipline alone and classroom
management has been closely linked to the achievement and engagement of high school science students
(McGarity & Butts, 1984). Both this study and the discussion of Lang et al. indicate that teachers should
strive to develop effective classroom management techniques and that this will have a significant impact
on their educational effectiveness.

 Classroom management can take up a considerable amount of a teacher’s time. This time is
generally focused on keeping the students on task and ensuring that the task is effective. One reason why
these things do not happen naturally is because students’ motivations do not match those of the teacher. A
study by Allen (1986, as cited by Lang et al., 1994) indicated that students tend to have two major
classroom goals, to “socialize” and “pass the course”. From this it is evident that a student’s desire to
socialize may lead to disruptive and off task behaviour. The findings of Lang et al. indicate that students
will learn best from teachers that combine positive reinforcement with preventative discipline, effective
management, and interesting instruction. In light of this information, effective management and
instruction must allow students to socialize whilst learning interesting content. The amount of time spent
on discipline may therefore be minimized with an appropriate form of classroom management.

 The use of effective classroom management will be most effective when applied
consistently throughout a pupil’s schooling and should therefore be implemented school wide, if
not system wide. At Balmain High School there has been a school wide approach to classroom
management for some time. This approach was implemented through the adoption of the Glasser
system. As discussed by Lang et al. (1994), this system is based on the ideas of Dr William
Glasser’s "reality therapy". This approach focuses on the present behaviour and changing it for
the better. Misbehaviour is viewed as result of a bad choice on the part of the student, the teacher
provides consequences (positive and negative) to help promote good decision making on the
student's part and over time, the student comes to accept responsibility for his/her own
behaviour. The ten step approach outlined in appendix B is a sequentially implemented system.
This system has been studied by Englehardt (1983) and proved effective over previous and
competing models when implemented school wide. Not only does it address the behavioural
aspects of classroom management, it also provides a general framework for the classroom
environment and instructional techniques.

 Since classroom management is clearly such a pivotal component of effective instruction it was
chosen as the subject of this study. Due to the practical activities undertaken by the science teacher, more
skill is required in some aspects of classroom management and therefore it is of greater importance. I
have found the issue of discipline and class management to be the most challenging aspect of teaching
and have endeavoured to learn as much as possible in order to improve. This paper is intended to explore
the role of classroom management in the teaching practice of the science teacher and incorporates
investigation through observation, interviews and prior research.

Method

             The investigation into classroom management used in this study was carried out over a
period of approximately four months. It involved observation of many lessons over that time, in
which notes were taken. At the end of this period a post-lesson interview was conducted and a
transcript of this interview is included in appendix A. The questions used in this interview were
formulated from observations, practical experience and some initial research into classroom
management. The interview questions were designed to uncover the thoughts and classroom
management practices of the teacher in question.

    The main subject of the lesson observations and that of the post-lesson interview was a
female science teacher at Balmain High School in her first year of teaching. The lesson
observations were of her and her year seven science classes. This teacher was chosen for
observation because my master teacher rarely taught any lessons on the days I was there. This
choice was also made since there are only four periods in the school day at Balmain High leaving
less chance for observation of my master teacher. The results that follow are based upon the
post-lesson interview, review of past research and lesson observations. These lesson observations
include those of the subject, observations made while teaching and observations of other teachers
at Balmain High School.

Results

             Through the responses to the post-lesson interview the teacher indicated that she learned
the most about classroom management “in the school placements”. She elaborated further in
saying “classroom management skills definitely develop through experience”. This is comforting
information for a student teacher and agrees with my current experience. It is clear that she views
classroom management as a vital part of her teaching practice. This is most evident from her
response regarding the impact of classroom management on her teaching that “it is the first and
foremost thing on your mind as you walk into a class”. The teacher interviewed identified
classroom management to be “mainly about discipline” but also acknowledged a component
related to the “management or organization to facilitate learning”. This indicates that she has a
concept of classroom management that is supported by research and reflects its broad
implications. She also indicated that “the number of students on task and how easy it is to gain a
whole classes attention after a student centered activity” is a good measure of your classroom
management effectiveness. This view is consistent with that of Marsh (2000) who also indicates
that effective instruction is not possible without effective management. In observations of her
lessons it was evident, through the significant number of children “on task” that her classes were
well planned and therefore effective.

 Considering the broad definition of classroom management established previously, it

was observed over many lessons that variation in the quality of lesson planning and content lead
to a variation in effectiveness of classroom management. One example of this variation in quality
was observed in a lesson by a teacher other than the main subject of this paper. In this lesson a
significant amount of copying from the textbook was expected of the students. Their behaviour
became gradually worse as time progressed since they obviously did not enjoy the task and
found it boring. This is a situation where more appropriate lesson preparation and planning
would have facilitated improved student behaviour and therefore highlights the connection
between lesson preparation and classroom management.

 As identified previously, classroom procedures and behaviour management constitute a

large portion of classroom management. In line with this the teacher interviewed indicated that
“establishing a routine at the start of the lesson to settle and focus the students”, “warning
students who are being disruptive of the consequences if their behaviour continues” and
“carrying out the Glasser system” were typical of her classroom management. Within the
classroom, consistent routines were observed such as a consistent opening of lessons and
associated procedures. Behaviour management techniques such as a good use of voice, pupils’
names, pauses and movement within the classroom were all observed. From observations of her
classes, her interview responses and study of research it appears that her classroom management
is of a high standard. This must certainly be, in part, a product of the Glasser system in place at
Balmain High School since it addresses many factors impeding on classroom management.

            The Glasser system was indicated by the interviewee as an effective tool but identified
both its strong and weak points. The negative aspects identified was that “in the majority of the
classes you would need more than one ‘castle’” and “at times it is difficult to decide when or
who should be moved to the ‘castle’”. The ‘castle’ is the name given to the classroom
withdrawal area used in step seven of Glasser’s ten step plan (Appendix B). These aspects were
evident in the classes of several different teachers where an inconsistent application of the
‘castle’ was applied. The positive aspect identified was that “it takes the teacher out of the
position of having to punish students for their actions”. This aspect was observed on several
occasions in several teachers’ classrooms, where the head science teacher removed a highly
disruptive child from the classroom and contacted their parents. This involvement of the parents
appeared to remove some of the difficulties imposed on the teacher in enforcing discipline by
removing the pupil’s associations of punishment from their teacher. This may help to maintain a
positive student teacher relationship, provide more effective behaviour modification and inflict
less stress on the teachers involved. Despite some inconsistencies, a school wide approach
appeared to facilitate more consistent behaviour between classes.

 The role of the science teacher is unique in comparison with that of teachers in other
subjects. Science teachers are required to perform many additional management tasks due to the
large laboratory component of science lessons. Osborne and Freyberg (1985) indicate that this is
due to considerations such as safety, which can come into direct conflict with the instinctive
desires of an excited pupil. Doyle (1979, as cited by Conrath, 1986) suggests that laboratory
activities are more difficult than traditional classroom activities for securing cooperation from a
large number of students. It is further suggested by Conrath (1986) that ineffective classroom
managers will be reluctant to undertake laboratory activities. These unique demands on the
science teacher were acknowledged by the interviewed teacher in saying “there are different
degrees of classroom management within the theory part of a lesson and the practical part”. This
was most definitely noticed in classroom observations where some students used to extra
freedom of a practical exercise to stray off-task, and in some cases exhibit inappropriate
behaviour.

            When asked to identify the most interesting and challenging aspects of classroom
management the interviewed teacher responded that “classroom management depends on a
number of factors such as the time of the day, the age of the students and their motivation levels”
and “it is something that you continually work at to get it right’. The lesson previous to the
interview took place in the last period on a Friday and was therefore identified by the teacher as
non-typical in terms of classroom management. When asked why this lesson was non-typical the
response was that “students will be more unsettled and tired so you may not get a lot of work
from them”. This statement was found to be the same as those of Zuckerman (2000) and
observations of the teacher’s lessons at varying times of the day and week. This variation in
students’ behaviour was also personally experienced in the classroom and is now taken into
consideration when planning lessons.

Discussion

Initially, the fact that the main teacher in this study was only in her first year may seem a
limitation. It is not clear if this may or may not have affected the outcome of this study. Although
she is relatively inexperienced compared to the master teacher, her classroom practices are not as
internalised as a master teacher. This most likely means that she is able to articulate her methods
and ideas better. The fact that she had less than one year more of practical experience than
myself may also mean that she was able to relate better to the experience of the trainee teacher.

            Classroom management has been shown to be an extremely important part of a teacher’s
professional expertise. It involves a large range of teacher skills and considerations that can be
grouped in to four categories. These categories are classroom procedures and rules, student work
procedures, managing student behaviour and organizing instruction. Through my practical
experience I can relate well with these concepts forming a part of classroom management. This is
because I can appreciate the effects that each category has on my class, but this appreciation
could only come with experience. Since classroom management is so closely associated to
effective teaching it is therefore important that student teachers develop these skills in order to
become competent professionals.

 One reason for classroom management being such a concern of the school teacher is
because children’s motivations lead to behaviour that is not conducive to an effective learning
environment. A good example is their desire to socialize, which in some children will lead to
disruptive behaviour. This was observed, to some degree, in the lessons of all teachers and
especially lessons that involved an experiment. With an understanding of the underlying
motivations of students a teacher can use these to their advantage, as motivations in classroom
activities.
  It is surely a goal of all educational institutions to provide an effective and quality
education for all students. Effective instruction cannot be achieved without the appropriate
learning environment and classroom management is the key to this environment. The school
wide application of the Glasser system and its’ ten step approach to behaviour modification at
Balmain High School is obviously effective in addressing major classroom management issues.
This structured and student centered approach to discipline allows more effective resolution of
behavioural problems and therefore gives valuable class time back to instruction. As teachers we
must develop and adopt such approaches in order to be competent educators and collaborators in
our pupils learning.

 The science classroom presents unique challenges in terms of classroom management

that are not seen in other subject areas. Although the same general management issues exist in
science teaching it is the emphasis that must be placed on individual issues that varies. When
conducting and observing practical lessons a heightened sense of awareness is observed. This is
because you know that there is danger in the laboratory and that students, in the relative freedom
of a practical class, may display inappropriate behaviour. In classroom observations this was
observed as a greater emphasis of clear instructions and physical involvement of the teacher.

 Practical experience is considered the main way which teachers learn classroom
management skills. Practicing teachers and educational researchers alike holds this view.
Measures of effective classroom management that can be applied in teaching were identified as
the students’ time on task and their performance. Although classroom management was
identified as something that requires constant work and is affected by many variables, practical
measures of effectiveness can be used to optimise technique. This flexible approach is essential
because of variations in the demands of classroom management. These variations are caused by
factors such as the time of the day or week, age of the pupil or individual motivation. During
lessons involving different classes and at different times of the week these factors can be
observed to affect the lesson outcomes. These factors considered, a teachers classroom
management must vary from lesson to lesson and class to class to be most effective.

 Through interview responses, observed techniques and in comparison with the relevant
literature the teacher who was the primary subject of this study appeared to have an excellent
perspective of this aspect of their classroom teaching. Not only did she acknowledge the main
aspects of classroom management but she also demonstrated a high level of effectiveness as a
consequence.

Implications

            The potential impact of this research on my classroom teaching is significant. Classroom
management is shown to be effective in enhancing learning and therefore it should be a major
focus of my teacher training. Although the planning aspects of classroom management have been
covered so far in my teacher training I feel that there is not enough instruction in behaviour
management. This view is also shared by some of my fellow students. I feel that I have been
lucky to be placed in a school that has provided me with experiences that other students may not
have had. The Glasser system has allowed me to establish a routine discipline strategy relatively
quickly. This has allowed me to concentrate more on improving my instruction since less time is
spent on discipline.

The improvement of my classroom management skills would be greatly assisted by

incorporating the findings of this research into my considerations when teaching. As a result of
this research I intend to explore and implement management strategies that are appropriate for
each classroom situation. For example, these strategies include appropriate instruction
accounting for the needs of class, more focus on activities that are meaningful to the students and
group activities that facilitate some socialization, hence being enjoyable.

Classroom management forms such a large part of my teaching practice that I could never
hope to explore it all in this report. Spending the time to research and write this report has
enabled me to come to a clearer understanding of what classroom management is and some of
the issues involved. I have no doubt the major implication of this research is that I will be able to
form more informed opinions on classroom management in the future. Although these skills are
ultimately learnt through experience, it is through conscious acknowledgement and application
that I will become a more effective teacher.
  

References

  

Balmain High School (1996). Balmain High Discipline Document. Available at:

alex.edfac.usyd.edu.au/LocalResource/ schooldocs/balmain.html [2002, June 1].

Conrath, M.M. (1986). Comparison of Selected Instructional and Classroom Management Practices

of Graduates From Two Science Teacher Education Programs.

(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 274522).

Englehardt, L. (1983). School Discipline Programs That Work. Paper presented at the National School

Boards convention (San Francisco, CA, April 23-26, 1983).

(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 241993).

Evertson, C.M., & Emmer, E.T. (1982). Effective management at the beginning of the school

year in junior high classes. Journal of Psychology. 74 (4), 485-498.

Gilbert, J.K. et al. (1981). Eliciting students views using an Interview-About-Instances Technique.

Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association (65 th,

Los Angeles, CA, April 13-17, 1981). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 206651).

Lang, H., McBeath, A., & Hebert, J. (1994). Teaching Strategies and Methods for Student-Centred

Instruction. Toronto. Harcourt Brace & Co.

  

Marsh, C. (2000) Handbook for Beginning Teachers. (2nd Ed.) Sydney: Longman Publishing.

McGarity, J.R., & Butts. D.P. (1984). The Relationship Among Teacher Classroom Management

Behaviour, Student Engagement and Student Achievement of Middle and High School Science

students of Varying Aptitude. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 21 (1), 55-61.

Osborne, R., & Freyberg, P. (1985). Learning in Science. The implications of Children’s Science.
London.

Heinmann Education.

Sanford, J.P. (1984). Classroom Management in Junior High and Middle Schools: Findings from Two

Studies. R&D Report No. 6156. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 271473).

Zuckerman, J.T. (2000). Student Science Teachers’ Accounts of a Well-Remembered Event about

Classroom Management. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational

Research Association (New Orleans, LA, April 24-28, 2000).

(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 438283).

Appendix A:

This transcript is based on the specific style suggested in Gilbert et al. (1981), where full stops
are used to indicate pauses and each full stop equates to approximately one second.
I: Good afternoon . the questions I am about to ask you are based on the lesson I watched on
Friday and previous lessons I observed throughout the year . I am trying to come to a clearer
understanding of classroom management through research, observation and questioning . I will
combine your responses with my observations and research to write an essay and I will give you
a copy . Your responses will be kept anonymous in my assignment and will only be seen by my
lecturer and myself.

T: Ok.

I: Was the lesson I observed on Friday a fairly typical lesson in terms of classroom management?

T: No.

I: Given that you are more experienced than I am at classroom management and that Friday’s lesson was
not typical, what do you think I can learn from the lesson on Friday?

T: Last period on a Friday afternoon will mean that students will be more unsettled and tired so you may
not get a lot of work from them.

I: Ok . what would you say were the typical aspects of your classroom management?

T: Um … establishing a routine at the start of the lesson to settle and focus the students .. warning
students who are being disruptive of the consequences if their behaviour continues … and .. carrying out
the Glasser system.

I: Ok .. what is your opinion of the Glasser system used at Balmain high?

T: ..The Glasser system if followed works well.

I: Ok … could you please identify the most effective and most ineffective aspects of the Glasser system at
Balmain high?

T: . The most effective aspect is that it takes the teacher out of the position of having to punish students
for their actions … the ineffective aspects of the Glasser system are that in the majority of the classes you
would need more than one castle and .. at times it is difficult to decide when or who should be moved to
the castle.

I: …. How does the Glasser system enhance or detract from your classroom management?

T: Um ... I find it a hard system to follow for every disruptive student and until you have carried out all
the steps . like giving a warning followed by another warning and moving them to the castle you cannot
seek assistance from those members of staff with more authority like the head of department . the deputy
etc.

I: .Ok ..What proportion of your classroom management do you think is discipline?

T: Um … I think that classroom management is mostly about discipline.

I: . Ok .. What other things apart from discipline do you think classroom management
involves?

T: .. Well I think classroom management is mainly about discipline and then about management or
organization to facilitate learning.

I: .. How do you think classroom management in science lessons differs from other subject areas?

T: There are different degrees of classroom management within the theory part of a lesson and the
practical part.

I: Ok .. What aspect of your teacher training was responsible for your classroom management skills?

T: I think I learned most of my classroom management skills in the school placements.

I: Ok ..  How do you think your classroom management skills develop and what, if any, steps have you
taken to improve them?

T: Classroom management skills definitely develop through experience .. to improve my classroom

management skills I have asked other members of staff about how and what and what they do .. I have
also observed classes of other science teachers teaching the same year.

I: . Ok .. what improvements, if any, would you like to make to classroom management?

T: Um ……. I don’t know right now . I’d need to think about it more.

I: Ok ..what indicators do you use to judge if your classroom management is effective or not?

T: The number of students on task and . how easy it is to gain a whole classes attention after a student
centered activity.

I: Do different lessons in science require different classroom management?

T: . Practical tasks need to be carried out with a high level of classroom management but allowing for
investigating . and .. theory lessons need a level of classroom management that is higher in some aspects
like not moving around the room than in a practical lesson.

I: What do you feel is the most difficult, challenging or interesting aspect of classroom management?

T: The most challenging aspect of classroom management is that it is something that you continually
work at to get it right .. and . the most interesting aspect is that classroom management depends on a
number of factors such as the time of the day . the age of the students and their motivation levels.
I: Ok .. what is the cue that makes you decide to ask children to move seats in your classroom?

T: Um . If it looks like the least disruptive step towards obtaining an effective and productive learning
environment for other students around them.

I: What impact does classroom management have on your teaching?

T: .. It is the first and foremost thing on your mind as you walk into a class.

I: Thankyou for your time and thoughts.

Appendix B:

The following is a brief description of the Glasser system used at Balmain High.

GLASSER'S 10 STEPS TO DISCIPLINE WITH DISRUPTIVE STUDENTS

William Glasser defined a specific approach for the management of disruptive students. His ten step
approach suggests taking a new look at students who are disruptive and using a succession of steps
depending on the response obtained. It is most important that the steps are followed in order and that they
are not rushed or skipped. It is a process that will take time to implement and will mean the development
of a better relationship between teacher and student.

Step 1: What Am I Doing?

Recognise what you are doing, what the student is doing and then assess the problem.

Step 2: Is it Working?
Are the strategies you're using successful? If one is not working, stop using it. (Remember what works
with one student may not work with another.

Step 3: Make a Plan

If what you are doing is not working - do something different. Give recognition to students when they are
not being disruptive. Do something positive, e.g. make a friendly greeting, talk about things that interest
them.

Step 4: What Are You Doing?

If a student disrupts the class ask, in a normal, quiet tone of voice: "What are you doing?" - expect an
answer other than "Nothing" or "I don't known. Say it sharply, quickly - not angrily or punitively.

Step 5: Is it Working? Is it against the Rules?

Ask the student "Is it against the rules?" The student must accept that rules are necessary and are to be
obeyed. If the student does not admit the disruptive behaviour you declare: "This is what I saw. It is
against the rules". Do not enter into an argument with the student.

Step 6: We Must Work it Out

Say and mean "We have to work it out". The behaviour cannot continue, the teacher and student must
reach a solution through negotiation.

Step 7: Withdrawal
A pleasant but isolated place is designated the withdrawal area in the classroom. If the student continues
to disrupt, ask the student to move to the spot where work can be continued but where the student is not a
part of the class. Movement back to the body of the class is dependent upon agreement to "work it out"
with the teacher

Step 8: Time -out

If disruption continues to occur the student is excluded from class to a pre- arranged area. The student
must stay there until he or she decides to work out a plan to behave in an acceptable manner and give a
commitment to follow through on the plan.

Step 9: Suspension
If the student continues to disrupt in the time-out room suspension in accordance with Departmental
policy must take place. It is important to treat the student with courtesy and emphasise quietly and
politely "You have to obey the rules we're happy to have you back when you are ready to follow the
rules."

Step 10: Referral to Outside Agency

If thee are indications of serious emotional disturbance or behaviour disorders and the parents recognise
the problem, the school may suggest a referral to a support service within the Department such as
specialist counsellor or itinerant teacher for behaviour disorders or to a Community Agency such as a
Child or Adolescent Health Service.

Reference

Balmain High School (1996). Balmain High Discipline Document. Available at:
alex.edfac.usyd.edu.au/LocalResource/ schooldocs/balmain.html [2002, June 1].

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Classroom Environment and Teacher
Interpersonal Behaviour in Secondary
Science Classes in Korea 
Authors: Heui-Baik Kim ; Darrell L. Fisher ;Barry J. Fraser

DOI: 10.1080/09500790008666958

Publication Frequency: 4 issues per year

Published in: Evaluation & Research in Education, Volume 14, Issue 1 March 2000 , pages 3 - 22

Subjects: Education; Educational Research;

Formats available: PDF (English)

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Abstract
The What is Happening in this Class (WIHIC) questionnaire and the Questionnaire on
Teacher Interaction (QTI) were used to describe classroom learning environment and
the teachers' behaviour in Korea. The three objectives of the study were to provide
validation data for the Korean versions of the WIHIC and QTI, investigate associations
between students' attitude to science and their perceptions of the classroom
environment as assessed by the WIHIC and the QTI, and investigate gender-related
differences in the students' perceptions. The questionnaires were administered to 543
students in 12 different Korean schools. The cross-cultural validity of the WIHIC and
the QTI was supported. There were positive relationships of classroom environment
and interpersonal teacher behaviour with students' attitudinal outcome. Relative to
girls, boys perceived their learning environments and their teachers' interpersonal
behaviour more favourably and reported more favourable attitudes toward their
science classes. Generally, students' perceptions of the learning environment and the
teachers' interpersonal behaviour suggest that students should receive more teacher
support and involvement in the teaching/learning process and cooperate with other
students more than at present. Also, teachers' behaviours could be changed to be
more helping/friendly and understanding in order to cater for the students' interests.
(not to mention)
http://www.questia.com/library/book/teaching-and-learning-secondary-science-contemporary-
issues-and-practical-approaches-by-jerry-wellington.jsp

read on line
link for Lesson plans
http://www.col-ed.org/cur/math.html
TITLE: IMPROVING DEDUCTIVE REASONING SKILLS

AUTHOR: Paul Allan, Palmer High School,

Palmer, Alaska

GRADE LEVEL/SUBJECT: 7-12, Math or Science

(but may be extended)

OVERVIEW: Throughout the year in all of my math and science

classes I stress problem solving. Students develop a
strategy list for problem solving by working with different
types of problems. One unit that I have developed is based
upon developing and enhancing deductive reasoning skills. I
introduce deductive reasoning, through the use of Mind
Bender puzzles, at the beginning of the year because it
requires little traditional math knowledge and because it is
the perfect situation to teach and practice cooperative
grouping techniques.
For most of the activities in this unit students are in
heterogeneous groups of 4, usually selected by me. The unit
is generally spread out over 2-3 weeks and student produced
puzzles can be generated and used for extra credit
throughout the year.

PURPOSE: To enhance student problem solving strategies and

increase student ability to solve deductive reasoning
problems. To bring a sense of fun and accomplishment to
math and science class problem solving.

OBJECTIVES: Students will be able to:

1. Recognize problems that may be solved using deductive
reasoning.
2. Develop aids to help them in solving deductive
reasoning problems.
3. Successfully solve deductive reasoning types of
problems.
4. Produce their own deductive reasoning puzzles for other
students to solve.

RESOURCES/MATERIALS: At the beginning of the unit I use

materials from Mind Benders (Midwest Publications Co.)
copied onto overheads and "help charts" copied on paper for
each group.

ACTIVITIES AND PROCEDURES:

1. Students are reminded of the deductive reasoning skills

 used by Sherlock Holmes to solve his mysteries. The
teacher should read some exerts from Sherlock Holmes
stories.
2. Students are divided into small groups and asked to
solve a deductive reasoning type of puzzle. They are
given no help as to how to solve the puzzle. After the
groups have worked for a while, the class should be
brought back together to discuss the strategies
employed to solve the puzzle.
3. Once the better strategies have been determined, give
the students another puzzle in their groups and allow
them to work.
4. Over a time period of one or two weeks, give the
students puzzles of varying degrees of difficulty.
Allow them to use help charts (as provided in the Mind
Benders materials) sometimes but have them develop the
ability to produce their own charts to facilitate their
problem solving.
TYING IT ALL TOGETHER:
The real fun in this unit starts when the students
produce their own puzzles. They have by now experienced 8 -
12 deductive reasoning puzzles and have seen how the charts
can be used as an aid. Ask each student to produce a simple
puzzle of his or her own making. The results are really
remarkable. Some students start very simply, but then they
discover that it is not too hard to make the puzzle special
by adding things that are important to them.
Have the students share their puzzles with other
students, copying them on overheads for class work or onto
paper for individual work. An example of a puzzle produce
by a student that is autobiographical follows: (The student
fits the characteristics of Frank, before he moved to
Alaska.)

Frank's Puzzle
Don, Frank, Jenny, and Ken each come from one state,
either Alaska, Maine, Montana, or Oklahoma. They each speak
one primary language, either English, French, Russian, or
Spanish. And they each have one of four pets, a chinchilla,
a dog, a hamster, or a turtle.

1. Frank needed a language book to write to the Alaskan.

2. The kid from Oklahoma has a mammal for her pet.
3. The Alaskan found his pet outside his door in a snow
bank.
4. The French speaking boy lives east of Oklahoma.
5. The Russian speaking boy wants to write to the kid
from Montana, but he doesn't speak his language.
6. Don bought his pet in Peru.
7. Ken does not own a hamster.
8. The dog's owner wrote a letter in Russian to the kid
in Oklahoma, but she couldn't understand it.
9. Don had to travel west to meet Jenny.

10. Frank is learning Spanish at school