ry &. oP CAN | (upper seconary PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY G HODDERContents Our Dynamic Planet 1 COASTS — Should Coastal Environments Matter? 2 GATEWAY 1 How and why are coastal environments different and dynamic? 4 GATEWAY 2 Why are coastal areas valuable? 33 GATEWAY 3. How can we manage coastal areas in a sustainable manner? 56 2 LIVING WITH TECTONIC HAZARDS — Risk or Opportunity? 78 GATEWAY 1 Why are some areas more prone: to tectonic hazards? GATEWAY 2 What landforms and associated tectonic phenomena are found at plate boundaries? % GATEWAY 3 How do people prepare for and respond to earthquakes? 124 3 VARIABLE WEATHER AND CHANGING CLIMATE — A Continuing Challenge? 146 GATEWAY 1 Why do different places experience different weather and climate? 148 GATEWAY 2 What is happening to the earth's climate? 170 GATEWAY 3 Is the weather becoming more extreme? 192 4 GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS AND INVESTIGATIONS 218 GATEWAY 1 Topographical map reading skills 220 GATEWAY 2. Geographical data and techniques 239 GATEWAY 3. Geographical investigations 260 TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING — O-LEVEL 275 TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING — N(A)-LEVEL 280 page 1> In this Chapter, you will explore these key questions: How and why are Why are coastal How can we manage 1» coastal environments areas valuable? coastal areas ina different and dynamic? sustainable manner?Chapter 1 Every year, many people flock to the coast to enjoy a relaxing holiday by the sea. The London Bridge in Port Campbell National Park > Victoria, Australia, is one such place people flack to. One ofits famous tear attractions, the London Bridge, is located along the 257-kilometre-long Great Ocean Road at Port Campbell. The London Bridge is a natural landform and was named after the original man-made bridge in London. On a5 January 1990, Part ofthe bridge unexpectedly collapsed, leaving a couple of tourists stranded. They had to be rescued by helicopter. Natural processes caused by wave action resulted in the collapse of the bridge over time. This coastal area will continue to change due to natural processes and other portions of the bridge may collapse in time to come. The London Bridge areain Victoria is not the only place that has undergone change. Changes Nn coastal areas are taking place all over the world. These changes are caused by natural processes and also human activities, With more than one third of the world's population living within 300 kilometres of a coastline, what impacts will these changes have? Figure 1.1b) The London Bridge after the colepse,4 Chapter] | COASTS How and why e are Coosia| fae environments eam more about climate change in Chapter 3, Gatoway 2 jITLINK, Learn more about how geology plays apatin affecting to coastal ewironment. Vist: bp www sooo] coublose/ eography and type ‘coastal ‘sion features inthe Soar’ box. a8 Chapter) | yCQasis Types of ecosystems In an ecosystem, communities of plants and animals interact with each other as wel 3s the emitonment. Examples of eco coral reefs. They atfect the rate of change of coastal environments by reducing the impacts ‘ystems in coastal environments inclucle mangroves and on coasts. Coral reefs are structures comprising colonies of billions of tiny polyps. They develop on the sea bed slightly below sea level. Coral reefs provide natural barriers that help slow down the speed and impact of waves on the coastline, Mangroves, with their special aerial roots, help trap sediments and reduce coastal erosion Over time, the trapped sediments can form small islands and extend the coastline further People change coastal environments by living, trading, fishing and engaging in recreational activities in these environments. For example, people alter coastlines when they build marinas and port facilities. People also cause pollution in these environments by waste. Figure 1.7 This laneform wave eosin ITUNK Loatn mare about ‘organisations dedicated Visit ecoral ora. and saws cece rg What eal elsChapter 1 1. With reference to Figure 1.8 and using the terms you have learnt, decide which zone would be best for the following activites. Explain your decisions. a) Sitting in the sun without getting wet ') Enjoying the waves lapping at your feet ) Swimming safely naar the shore 2. a) Draw a sketch ofthe cross profile ofthe coast in Figure 18, On your sketch, abel the various coastal zones, You may refer ta Figure 1.30) to help you. 'b) Which zones are not shown on Figure 1.8? Give possible reasons to explain why, ‘3 With reference to Figure 1.8, explain how the impact of waves would differ between granite and limestone coasts. 4. Refer to Figure 1.4. What factors caused the differences in the four coastal environments? 5, Refer to Figure 17. Using what you have learnt about geology, explain how the coastline has been eroded Figure 1.8 Bandi Beach n Sydney, Australi, is a popular tours spot. | coasts 9 What are waves and how are they generated? \Weves develop when the energy from wind blowing across seas and oceans is transferred to the weter surface. The movernent of waves is affected by wind direction. Onshore winds push waves towards the coast, resulting in waves crashing onto the shore Wave terminology Figure 1.9 shows the various parts of a wave \Wave length is the horizontal distance from crest to crestor from trough to trough. Wave frequency is the number of wave crests or troughs that pass a fixed point in one second, NN Wave height is the vertical distance a beween eres and woh, The crestis the highest part of a wave. }- Water particles move in an orbit this mation decreases with depth, The trough isthe lowest part of a wave, Figure 1.8 Various pats of a wave,Factors affecting wave energy Wave energy depends on three factors: the wind speed, wind dur fetch. Fetch Figure 1.11a) explains how these factors affect the size and energy of waves. Wind speed The faster the wind blows, the greater the wave energy is Wind duration | The longer the wind blows, the larger the waves are: resulting in greater wave eneroy. Fetch ‘The oteater the fetch, the m (refer to Figure 1.11). Figure 1112} Wave energy is atected by various factors The emount of energy in waves can be seen from the wave steepness and wave period. Wave steepness is the ratio of wave height to wave length; wave period is the time waves take to travel through one wave length, The higher the wave energy is, the steeper the wave and the shorter the wave period becomes. The table shows the reported wave height and wave length for three different coastlines. With the average wave length ‘and wave height data, calculate wave steepness using the formula: Wave Scenes wave height Wave steepness (in metres) = “=¥° REIGN ai: wave length Next, present the data in a simple line graph on graph paper, using the x- and y- axis given. (Refer to Chapter 4, page 246: on how to construct a simple line graph.) Then state the Suggested relationship between wave height and wave steepness, Figure 1.10 Lage waves have high ener, jon and length of the distance the wind has travelled over seas and oceans to form waves. Figure 1.116) As Fetch Bs longer than Fetch A, wind blowing across Fetch 8 towards Zis able to generate higher energy waves than the wind blowing across Fetch A all other factors being equal nave Heige |Chapter! | COASTS 11 Waves in the open ocean Waves in the open ocean have a long wave length and a low wave height. Water particles in the ocean move in an orbit Figure 1.12), a motion that rapidly decreases with depth (refer 10 Figure 1.9), Waves close to the coastline Although water particles in the ocean move in a circular motion, this motion changes as waves approach coastlines (refer to Figure 1.13) Miter ackea | OR kcweatnee the wavesinteract wth the ‘move inthe shall water, OHOCC*E 9a bed. The waves start to. ‘the base of the wave starts steeper and topples over. change their shape ata 10 slow down du to freton, This causes the wave depth thats equivalent to This causes the weve to break onto the coast, Figure 1.12 Th wor duck about hal oftheir wave height increase andthe releasing the energy ofthe moves inan rb and almost length. wave engthto decrease. Wave. Surfers, suchasthe rs tts original position. ‘one in Figure 110, ride on Figure 1.13 Changes in motion of waves as they approach coatings. When energy within @ wave is released on the coast, it breaks down rocks along the coastline into smaller particles. These particles are then moved away to other parts of the coast. Waves are key forces of change, creating coastal environments which vary from place to place.12. Chapter! | COASTS aml How do waves affect coastal areas? Have you ever wondered why beaches do not all look the same? The key reason is because the profile of a beach is partly determined by waves. Wave energy differs from place to place, depending on various factors. Waves on the beach Swash and backwash ‘When waves break, water rushes up a beach. We call this swash. As swash moves up the beach, it carries sediments with it. Swesh loses eneray due to gravity and friction with the land, and retums to the sea as backwash. The backwash carries sediments from the shore into the sea. WOR gt i Sf SS — i " Y Figure 1.14 Swash and backwash Types of waves Constructive waves Constructive waves break far from the shore and with ttle energy. In such low energy wave environments, finer material is deposited, which in turns forms gentle slopes. Constructive waves have a strong swash but @ weak backwash. Landforms such as beaches are ‘constructed’ by strong swash accompanied by weak backwash. The strong swash deposits sediments on the coasts while the weak backwash removes oniy sorne materials. Overtime, the coasts ae built up by the deposited sediments, forming sandy beaches. : Destructive waves Destructive waves break violently on the shore with high energy. In such high energy wave environments, finer materia (such as sand) tend to be transported away by the turbulent water, leaving only coarser materials (such as pebbles) which in turn form steeper sk Destructive waves produce a weak swash but a strong backwash. Instead of donocting sediments on coasts, destructive waves erode coasts and transport 1 material awey, eSChapter! | COASTS 13 Low gradient, low energy environment oe Step grader, high energy envionment Small ow waves Step exer oh nr enromen re Low wave height ig ; High wave height Long wave length is | Short wave length a Wave frequency: 6 to 8 per minute Wave frequency: 10 t014 per minute Backwash more powerful than swash Occur on steep coastal slope and open coast Erosion process more prominent ‘Swash more powerful than backwash Occur on gentle coastal slope and sheltered coast _Deposition process more prominent wave dicecton eave direction >, ne Figure 1.15 Characteristics of constructive and destructive waves. Wave refraction Wave refraction is the process by which waves change direction as they approach a coast. This occurs as waves slow down due to interaction with the sea bed as they move towards the coast. The impact of wave retraction on the shoreline is uneven. Figure 1.16 explains the uneven impact. ‘Waves tend to converge on or bend towards headlands, giving rise to increased wave height and greater erosive energy. This occurs because waves encounter friction with the headland as they approach the coast, causing them to slow down and break onto it However, when waves approach bays, they diverge or bend away, resulting in decreased wave height and reduced erosive energy. This occurs as Parts of the wave that reach shallow water first slow down while the other parts of the wave continue at the same speed. When waves approach a relatively straight coast at an angle, they are refracted and break almost parallel to the coast. ‘Waves diverge when thoy reach the adjacent bays. Mor ‘deposition will occur in bays ‘where wave energy is spread out, ‘Figure 1.16 Wave refraction at @ headland and in bays.14° Chapter} | COASTS 4 Stu idy Figure 1.17 and suggest a hypothesis about the relationship between the types of waves and the beach gradient. ee a | Sea each Sea each Constructive waves ‘© Waves that break far from the shore and with litle energy. ‘+ Strong swash and weak backwash, Destructive waves ‘* Waves that break violently on the shore with high energy. + Weak swash and strong backwash. Figure 1.17 Coss-ecton of beaches showing beach gradient and ferent types of wees oceans ean eee b) wave length and wave height? 2. Explain why waves increase in height Smeyaqecccedens | eeceasae 9 | ‘fetch’? | b) Explain why surfing is carried out nor ae Geet conse raerten | _eidan Cen tom anna tae | Give a reason for: 6) Whatwing consonant do 5 asa etn ow ee does it affect headlands and bays? 4 With the ai ofthe world map at the back ofthe Textbook, explain Which ofthe following is ikelyto generate larger waves: a) Winds blowing southwest across the Indian Ocean fram Madagascar to Sri Lanks; or b) Winds blowing northeast across 1. Describe the characteristics of “= Imagine you are standing atthe edge of a sandy beach. Your feet: becoming wet from the incoming waves and you feel the sand shiftin Under your feet. Which event do: thinkis the swash? Which event You think is the backwash? constructive waves, ‘Suggest what will happen to the ‘shape of the coastline shown in Figure 1.16 after along period Why do coastal landforms and features vary from place to place? Waves, tides and currents erode coastal rocks, and transport and deposit sedim coasts. The coastal processes of coastal erosion, transport and deposition rents along operate at varying degrees to produce @ veriety of coastal landforms and features. n addition, coastal processes cause changes to the landforms and features over time.1 COASTS 15 Coastal processes Coastal erosion ci rosion takes place in four n ways. One or more Of these erosional processes may take place at the same time at any one coastal locatio ‘oncoming waves, exerting pressure on ‘the joints. As the siris repeatedly compressed, the joints weaken and the rocks shatter. Abrasion e ‘+ As waves break, sediments carried by waves such as sand and rocks are hurled against the coast. The loosened Seciments knock and scrape against the coastal cits, This weakens the surface and breaks dow the coos + Overtime, the impact ram abrasion is powerful enough to undercut clit ‘ub or hit against one another, they break down into smaller pisces and become smoother and mare rounded over time, @ Solution Soa water rects chemical with watersoubiem and dissolves th limestone rocks are easy aroded by carbonic acid Figure 1.18 Erosional processes affecting coast.16 = Chapter! 1 COASTS Sediment transport Sediments are transported along coasts through two related processes: beach drift and longshore dif. These processes are the result of waves approaching the coast atan angle. As waves approaching the coast at an angle break on the beach, sediments move up the beach at an angle as swash and move perpendicularly down the beach as backwash, The resultant zigzag movement along the beach is known as beach drift ‘When waves approach the coast at an angle, they generate longshore currents in the nearshore zone and move sediments along the shore, Longshore currents are ocean rents that flow parallel to a coast. The combined effect of sediment movement by longshore currents and beach drift is known as longshore drift Longshore drift is most rapid when waves approach 2 straight coast at an angle of about 30°, Figure 1.20 The processes of sediment transport. @ Sediments retuned by Sediments carried by swash vupthe beach. backwash down the beach.JS vEsmoaTE TSI ‘A. Hypothesis After learning about sediment transport, conduct a fieldwork investigation to test the hypothesis: The direction of sediment movement is influenced by wind direction. B, Collecting d To investigate the hypothesis, you need to: + Identity wind direction; and *+ Identity the direction of sediment movement. Equipment: *+ Wind vane (refer to Chapter 3, page 160) + Stopwatch + Five small oranges + Two ranging poles (2meach) + Meesuring tape + Recording sheet (Resource sheet 1.2) w& Resource shee! Procedure: 1. Find 8 safe spot where your view of the open sea is not blocked. 2. Use a wind vane to find the direction of the wind. Record the direction of the wind. 3, Near the water's edge, stick the first pole into the sand. ‘At this spot, throw the oranges a metre away from the water's edge. 4, Observe the patterns of the travelling path of the oranges, for at least 10 minutes. Then, stick the second pole into the sand where the oranges finally land after being moved by a series of swash and backwash. 5, Use a measuring tape to measure the distance between the two poles. Record the distance. Identify the direction of sediment movement by noting the position of the second pole in relation to the first pole. Chapter! | COASTS 17 G. Analysing data 1. Draw a sketch showing the travelling path of the oranges. Indicate the wind direction in your sketch. Suggest and explain the relationship between wind direction and sediment movement. 2. Note if there are any anomalies and suggest reasons for them. Consider whether there were any conditions that could have affected your results. 3. Observe if your findings agree with what you have learnt about sediment transport. Suggest reasons for the differences, if any. D. Presenting data Besides presenting your sketch, provide enough information for your audience to understand your findings. This can be done by including the following: ‘+ Map of the area showing where data was collected; and + Photographs showing features ofthe beach and the methods of data collection E, Forming a conclusion 1. State whether the hypothesis ‘the direction of sediment movementis influenced by wind direction’ has been proven or disproven. If proven, accept the hypothesis. Otherwise, reject it. 2. Reflect on the reliability of data collected by taking into account conditions which may have resulted in inaccuracies, Think of ways to minimise or prevent these inaccuracies. 3, Evaluate the data collection methods used by assessing if they were the most appropriate. If they were not, suggest ways to improve the methods. TIP. Furor your nasi by predting i changes in weather and wave conditions over an extended per af time oul change +18 Chapter! | COASTS Sediment deposition Sediments eroded from the coast are transported away ‘and deposited elsewhere. When wave energy decreasos, the waves are unable to ce sedime sediments, Deposited sediments vary in type and siz, resulting ina variety of beaches. Figure 1.21 shows different types of sediments and their sizes. ry these sediments. Large are deposited first, followed by smaller The loction of coasts influences the deposition of sediments. In areas where coasts are shel ‘ong winds, destructive waves are less comn sediments are deposited along sheltered coast with calm deep bays sheltered by ds, as in Figure 1.22, sandy beac s are common, "arser sediments are likely to settle in ere is higher wave energy to posed bays w ‘ove the finer sediment 1. Explain how beach materials are transported along a coast Figure 1.22A beach forms in this seltred bay as dapostion takes pace less than 0,0039 mm sit (0.0039 men to 0.0626 mm Fine sand (0.126 mm to 0.25 mm Medium sand 0.25 rim to 0.5 rom Coarse sand (0.5 men to 1 mn Very coarse sand 4 mm to 2 earn Pebble abble 2 mmr to 64 rom 64 mm to 256 mm Boulder more than 256 rm Figure 1.21 Ditferent sediment types and ther sie. 2. With reference to Figure 1.21, dacide which sediment types are likely to be deposited in: ‘) Sheltered coasts; and b) Small bays._D INVESTIGATES A. Hypothesis After learning about sediment deposition and gradient of beach slope, conduct a fieldwork investigation to test the hypothesis: The steeper the wave, the steeper the beach aradient. Test this hypothesis at two different beaches. B. Collecting data To investigate the hypothesis, you need to: ‘+ Measure beach gradient; and * Calculate wave steepness. Equipment: + Protractor clinometer (refer to Chapter 4, page 268) + Ranging poles + Measuring tape + Metre ruler * Calculator + Stopwatch + Recording sheet (Resource sheet 13) revouce sheet 1,3, cri mea abe Procedure 1. Before you set out to the beach, practise using the protractor clinometer by measuring the gradient ofthe slopes in your school compound. identity the steepest and gentlest slope in your school 2. Ateach fieldwork site, identify a line of transect on the beach from the edge ofthe water heading inland. Note that each group should identity different lines of transect, along the beach. The lines of transect (a,b and c) are to be perpendicular to the shoreline Chapter! | COASTS 19 3, Place the ranging poles along the line of transect, 4, Atthe seaward end ofthe transect, measure the beach gradient using the protractor clinometer and record this value. Repeat this along the transect either i} where there is a change in beach gradient ori) at regular intervals of 2 metres ifthe beach has a constant gradient. Record the beach gradient values and associated distance along the line of transect. (Refer to Chapter 4, page 266 on how to measure beach gradient) 5, Atthe seaward end of the transect, calculate the weve steepness using the steps in ‘Investigate ths 1 ©. Analysing da 1, Plot the beach profile for each beach, with the x-axis being the distance from the shoreline and the y-axis being the slope angle. (Refer to Chapter 4, page 266 on how to construct a beach profile). Compare the beach profiles drawn and associated wave steepness readings gathered by all groups. 2, Observe if your findings agree with what you have learnt about wave steepness and beach gradient. Suggest reasons for the differences, if any. D. Presenting data Besides presenting your beach profile and wave steepness values, provide enough information for your audience to understand your findings. This can be done by including the following + Map ofthe area showing where data was collected; and Photographs showing features ofthe beach and the methods of data collection, E. Forming a conclusion 1, State whether the hypothesis the steeper the wave, the steeper the beach gradient’ has been proven or disproven. If proven, accept the hypothesis. Otherwise, rejactit, 2, Reflect on the reliability of data collected by taking into account conditions which may have resulted in inaccuracies, Think of ways to minimise or prevent these inaccuracies. 3. Evaluate the data collection methods used by assessing if they were the most appropriate. If they were not, suggest Ways to improve the methods.20 Chapter} | COASTS In what ways do coastal landforms and features vary from place to place? Clitfed coasts or depositional coasts may form depending on the geology of different locations and the action of waves, tides and currents. Cliffed coasts These coasts have some of the most dramatic landforms of all coastal environments. The landforms of ciitfed coasts include cliffs, shore platforms, headlands, bays, caves, arches and stacks. Cliffs and shore platforms A Gliff refers to a steep and nearvertical rock face found along coasts. It is produced by the action of waves undercutting a steep, rocky coast. Hydraulic action and abrasion may erode @ crock or joint on the rock surface, gradually enlarging the crack or joint to form a notch. ) This notch may be further deepened to produce a bigger hollow space called a cave. ¢) Further erosion by the waves eventually causes the roof of the cave to collapse form a steep clit, apse and, ‘the process of erosion continues, an overhanging cliff is formed, Eventually, this cit will collapse and the materials will be deposited atthe foot oft ais thse materials mr vaves and thrown against the base of the causing fur ciff will retreat inland and a gentlying question After learning about clffed coasts, conduct a fieldwork investigation using the guiding question: What are the coastal processes operating on a cliff? B. Collecting data To answer the guiding question, you need to: + Sketch the cliff profile; * Observe and annotate coastal landforms; and * Calculate wave frequency, Equipment: Clipboard ‘Ad-sized drawing paper Sketching frame (refer to Chapter 4, pages 262-263) Pencil Eraser Stopwatch Resource sheet 1,4, Procedure: 1. Look for a spot where you have a clear view of the coastal clit. Chapter 1 COASTS 21 2. Hold up your sketching frame and position ito focus on that area 3. Using the lines on the border ofthe frame, imagine nine sections within the frame to help you position your landscape details. Sketch the coast including the clif on the paper. Keep your sketching simple and neat. 4, Observe the types of sediments you find atthe base of the cliff and the materials of the rocks of the cif, 5. Count the number of waves that break in a minute for 5 minutes. Calculate the average number of waves per minute to got the wave frequency. . Analysing data 1. Analyse your cliff profile and the features of the cif 2. Examine the wave frequency and suggestif they are constructive (6 to 8 per minute) or destructive (10 to 14 per minute). 3. Suggest and explain the coastal processes operating on the cli D. Presenting data Write a report on the coastal processes operating on the clif. Include your sketch and photographs. TIP Conduct an internet researc to fnd out more about the coastal processes operating at the cli you have inestigated ‘What cid the ci lok ike 5 years, 10 years and 20 years ago? ‘Are there any newspaper atcies on how tha cli has chenged 4422 Chapter! | COASTS ;ITLINK Headlands and bays oe Te Jus cCeastin ‘Some coastlines have alternate bands of more resistant and less resistant rock arranged | Enland ios a a Fight angles to the coast, as shown in Figure 1.24. The less resistant rocks will be ere headunit 1 rocks are eroded away, bat faster than the more resistant rocks. When the loss resistant rocks are eroded away, Baye tant rocks which ‘am to lear more about are formed. These are wide indented coasts. The remaining more 1@ | nog tne extend into the sea are known as headlands. The south coast of the United Kingdorn ar tesa In the east coast of Johor, Malaysia, aro good places to see impressive headlands and bays coo « Ja ! - b) a ——» | sa oe | Figure 124Forsation of headlanés nd bay. Move vein roa, (1) Less vesant vor. Figure 1.25 An regulary shaped coastline in Phuket, Thailand, with headlands and bays.Chapter} | COASTS > Landforms are represented on topographical maps in specif map below shows the landforms of a clifed coast. ways. The topographical 23 | Seale 1: 25000 | sespetpaate sate ses Sota * Ligon crbsion Bus | os: Seo Te endamasatge Rey zo | O—— Meeiet imagiers tne ie 98S Aeon. es Se eines Cer Omerrsitionaie tone | = cee Mm Setteseseree= ty ed ek nh vc me Set Py toalner sna on Four dive vack Gate fertecenen clined papa Tatohore change, Poor tog a fee eo amon pr combat Lagecemeruse ee ee Figure 1.26 Topographical map showing acid nas in South West Rocks, Ausala, Produced with permission fram: NSW Department of Finance and Services, Panorama Avenue, Bathust 2795; wiv .nsw.govau. Refer to Figure 126. 2} entity the following rd references: i) 072828 i) 064842 b) Whats the dzection of South West Rocks (grid square 0483) rom Monument Hil (rid square 0783)? } Whatis the distance along the mejor road of Philp rive between the caravan parkin arid square 0682 andthe pumping sttion at grid reference 051825? ch of the a OD} o Which typeof land use is the most widespread along the western edge ofthe map? (Refer to Chapter 4, pages 282-234 ‘on how to interpret map evidence.) ‘Why are there very few roads along astern coast of the map? (Refer to ‘and communication.) What loisue facilities are available inthe ‘rea shown on this map? Connect {> Learn more about ‘topographical map reading skills Chapter 4, Gateway 1.24 Chapter! | COASTS Caves, arches and 5 ack he base of « headiand and iA cave i formed. b) a oacing wives beak teach the back wal OF cases ad jin them tte. ba arch 1 forme Sea E) Sack 4 4 enve aac continues. brch weakens aah calapees,easng behind. 8 ace, Figure 1.27 Formation ofa cave an arch anda stack @) Within headlands, some rocks may be less resistant to erosion than other rocks. These parts of the headlands wil be eroded more quickly, especially by hydraulic action and abrasion. Waves attack lines of weakness (eg. joints and faults) at the base of the headland and undercut it. The continuous action of waves forms ‘eave at the area that is hollowed by wave action. b) Caves may develop on each side of the headland. Erosion may eventually join caves together, leaving & bridge of rock known as an arch above the opening Figure 1.30 stack in ‘James Bond lle. Thailand, ° After a period of time, the roof of the arch may colla {0 form a stack. A stack isa pilar of rockin the see behind after an arch collapses, Caves, arches and stacks are usually not sh topographical maps as they cannot be seen at which most maps are drawn.a Chapter] | COASTS 25 Depositional coasts Along depositional coasts, sediments are deposited more quickly than they are eroded. Landforms such as beaches, spits and tombolos are found along depositional coasts, Beaches beach is a zone of sediment deposition, usually formed from loose sand, gravel, pebbles, broken shells and corals, or a mixture of these materials, Figure 1.31 shows a beach formed from pebbles. Beach materials may come from eroded cliffs, river deposits and sediments carried by waves. The composition and size of the materials on the beach vary greatly. The composition of materials depends on the source of materials. The size of materials may change over time. due to changes in wave energy or changes in the source of materials, ‘The slope of the beach is determined by grain size. Finer grain sizes tend toresultin beaches with a gentle gredient. On the other hand, materials of coarser grains form beaches with a steeper gradient. Beaches are constantly changing as their shapes are affected daily by waves, tides and currents. For example, during calm weather, constructive waves can help deposit materials on the beach and build it up further, On the other hand, during coastal storms, strong waves will erode and remove materials from the beach, Figure 1.31 pebbled beach26 = Chapter! | COASTS ‘The table shows the mean sediment size and beach gradient along a beach. Present the data in a scatter graph on graph paper and draw the line of best fit, using the x- and y- axis given. (Refer to Chapter 4, pages 253 and 254 on how to construct a scatter graph and the line of best fit) Then state the suggested relationship between sediment size and beach gradient. Suggest reasons for the relationship between the sediment size and beach gradient fo ee —|;-——— ; —_—|s —_— fs ere oane eee ts 5 A. Hypothesis ‘+ Recording sheet (Resource sheet 1.5) After learning about sediment size and beach slope, conduct 2 fieldwork investigation fo test the hypothesis: The bigger Resource sheet 1.5, the sediment size, the gentler the beach slope. B. Collecting data To investigate the hypothesis, you need to: * Collect and analyse beach sediments; and © Measure beach gradient. Equipment: © Vernier caliper (refer to Chapter 4, page 268) ‘+ Measuring tape or ruler + Magnifying glass + Sieves (refer to Chapter 4, page 267) Procedur 1. Along a selected section of the coast, identity a line of transect. 2. Atthe seaward end of the transect, measure the beach ‘gradient and collect a sample of sediments. Repeat this at regular intervals along the transect (e.g. every ‘2metres) or where there is a change in beach gradient. (Refer to Chapter 4, page 267-268 on how to conduct, ‘sampling to collect sediments.) 3. Number the sediment sampl i mies te sediment samples and bring them back a} 4. Ifthe sediments are fine, sont them according to size using sieves, 5. Ifthe sediments are coarse, measure their axes (widest part) using vernier calipers. Record your findings in the recording sheet. 6. Refer to Figure 1.21 and match the size of the sediments with the sediment type. ©. Analysing data 1. Using the data collected, plot a scatter graph in your Tecording sheet. Draw the line of best ft, where an equal number of variables are above and below the line Suggest and explain the relationship. 2. Note any anomalies and suggest reasons for them, Consider whether there were any conditions that could have affected your results. 3. Observe if your findings agree with what you have learnt about sediment size and beach gradient. Suggest reasons for the differences, if any. sersisare is Study Figure 1.32. Suggest a hypothesis about the size and distribution ofthe materials along the beach and propose a method to test the hypothesis. Figure 132A beach at Charmouth Beach, United Kingdom. Chapter! | COASTS 27 D. Presenting dat Besides presenting your scatter graph, provide enough information for your audience to understand your findings. This can be done by including the following: ‘+ Map of the area showing where data was collected; and *+ Photographs showing features ofthe cif and the ‘methods of data collection, E, Forming a conclusion 1. State whether the hypothesis the bigger the sediment size, the gentler the beach slope’ has been proven or \isproven. I proven, accept the hypothesis, Otherwise, reject. 2, Reflect on the reliability of data collected by taking into account conditions which may have resulted in inaccuracies of the data, Think of ways to minimise or prevent these inaccuracies, 3, Evaluate the data collection methods used by assessing if they were the most appropriate. If they were not, suggest ‘ways to improve the methods,28 © Chapter] | COASTS Spits and tombolos A spit is a long, narrow ridge of sediments with one end attached to the land. A spit is formed by longshore drit. Where there is an abrupt bend in the coastline, longshore drift ‘may continue to transport materials in the original direction for some distance. The materials are deposited in the sea after the bend where they accumulate over time along the original direction of the coastline. Ths forms a ridge of sediments from the point where the coastline changes direction. A hook or curve may develop at one end of the spit, most likely due to ‘wave refraction concentrating at that point. e Sgt end Cred oy wae ‘ete \ Ty Tagore dk : x oon ie drcn a) coast serait sot xX NE See agi ~ Sea wwe direction between constructive ive waves? 4. Explain how waves can both erode and build up a beach at different times. Refer to Figure 1.23. Explain how the cliff and shore platform are formed by wave action. 6. Explain with the aid of a well-labelled diagram, how headlands and bays are formed. 7. With reference to Figure 137, draw an annotated sketch to show the processes responsible for the formation of the coastal landform in the foreground, B. Refer to Figure 1.38. a) What is the grid reference of the bridge where Hermin Grenier Road crosses over the river? b) In which direction does the Public Be Le Gris Gris lie from the Government Vocational Centre (983644)? ©) What is the average gradient of Main A Road between grid references 993645 and 010655? near 4) Describe the coast between eastings 99 and 01 Suggest how the angle of slope at the Public Beach near Le Gris Gris at grid reference 9864 can be determined. f) Suggest the type of waves operating on this, coast and describe their characteristics. Explain why swimming near grid reference 987641 is risky and not recommended. 9)Sg 31 Figure 1.38 Topographical map extract of Sulla, Mouitis.$2 Chapter! | COASTS 9. Study the feature in grid reference 982641 in Figure 1.38, a) Suggest a possible resultant landform that may emerge over time due to coastal processes. b) Draw a well-labelled diagram to show the formation of the resultant landform. 10. Refer to Figure 1.39. ) What appears to be the main factors causing ‘some of California's beaches to disappear? ) In what way could these beaches ‘replenish themselves’ naturally? Figure 1.39 An article on beach erosion in southern California, United States of America, Adgpted from: Las Angeles Times (2 April 2010).GATEWAY AWhy are coastal areas valuable? Chapter! | COASTS 33 Figure 1.40 The Jurassic Coast spans over 180 klomettes fram East Devon to Dorset, Enaiand, This coast has a mix of How do people use coastal areas? _# STEN Figure 1.4 This coastal area i being developed into apie People use coasts in many ways. The use of the cosst affects its appearance, function and ecosystems. Human activities in coastal areas include: + Fisheries and * Ports, harbours and + Sand mining, salt aquaculture piers extraction Housing and + Wind farming + Waste disposal trensportation «Desalination operations ‘© Tourism and recreation © Oilrefining We will examine three of the above activities at specific locations in more detailFisheries and aquaculture The worldwide demand for fish has grown so much that large areas of the world's oceans are overished. This has led to people rearing fish in fisheries. Fisheries are areas where fish are bred and raised to meet the growing demand for fish. One-third of the worlds fish supply now comes from fisheries. These include farming fish in cages or ponds close to coasts, in rivers or converted wetlands This form of farming is known as aquaculture. Aquaculture is now widely practised around the world, including China, India, Vietnam, Indonesia and Thailand Figure 147 shows the top ten aquaculture producers in 2008, The Marine Aquaculture Centre in Saint Johns Istand was setup in Singapore tadevelop technology and facilitate the growth of large-scale fish farming in Singapore and the region. jITLINK Lea more about aquaculture | inSingepre, Vs a7 wiwuldsngapore ‘com/wiglatsonceots/ aquaculture im —_———_—@ Figure 1.46 Fish being prepared for sle in Sv Lanka,38 = = Chapter! | COASTS a 32,736,944 Bangladesh 3,478,690, Vietnam | 2,461,700 1,005,542 suture Organisation ofthe United Nations Top ten aquaculture produces of fish, crustaceans and molluscs in 2008, Adapted fe: Food ad Figure (2ove) Ca May, Vietnam The province of Ca Mau in the southem part of Vietnam is the nation's shrimp production centre. In the 1980s, more than 60,000 hectares of coastal mangroves were cleared for building materials firewood, charcoal and medicinal herbs, and converted into shrimp farms, Areas cleared from mangrove forest are tavourable for shrimp production as they are already ‘waterlogged. The remaining mangroves protect the area from storms and coastal flooding. Ponds are constructed from mud or concrete to hold water and shrimps. Production from shrimp farms rapidly accelerated in the 1990s and the early years of the 2ist century, reaching @ record high of US$800 milion in 2010. This was largely at the cost ‘of mangrove foresis and wetland rice fields. ‘The clearing of mangroves has left Vietnam's coastline more vulnerable to erosion from storms and pollution from pond waste. However, there is now an altemative method of ‘shrimp ferming that would not require the clearance of mangroves. Figure 1.49 is an article. (on this alternative method of shrimp farming, Figure 1.48 Shrimp farming in Ca Mau, Vietnam,Chapter! | COASTS 39 Organic shrimp farming sets new horizon ‘Ca Mau Province is the sole place in the country that produces organi shrimp and whose quality is certified by the German-based Association for Organic Agriculture and the Swiss-based Institute for Market Ecology. Every year, local farmers export hundreds of tonnes ‘of organic shrimp to hard-to-please European markets, but demand still outstrips supply. ‘Neuyen Van Liem’s breeding farm lies under the vast shade of a green mangrove forest, which is required to cover half the total area of shrimp farm. Shrimps living and growing in the shade of mangrove forests and a balanced ecosystem is one of many standards 1, Whats aquaculture? 2. With reference to examples, suggest how ‘the expansion of aquaculture practices could have a negative impact on coastal areas, set for organtie shrimp farming. This practice will not only help protect the forests, but also restore the ecosystem in the region. Liem said, “Families in the region and neighbouring areas must observe strict regulations on management of waste and waste water discharged from their daily activites, to ensure that they ‘ill not affect the quality of fresh water to be used for breeding. Thanks to such farming practice, we have so far never had a poor crop. The shrimps eat the decay of mangrove leaves soaked in the water, which is a good nutrient for various agua species.” ntl. ‘on arganic shrimp farming in Ca Mau Province, Vieam. Adapted fram: Saigon GP Daly (19 June 2009) 3, Refer to Figure 1.48, how mangrove forests are used se shrimp production, 1b) Inwhat ways would the organic shrimp farming method benefit the ‘coastal ecosystem?40 = Chapter! | COASTS Housing and transportation Many people live near the coast, but there are some who live right on it Housing, which refers to shelter provided for people, is seen in the form of stilt houses in Figure 1.50. These houses are built on stits above water and are often connected by walkways. The walkways allow people to move within the community. Boats also facilitate movement, and are a common. mode of transportation, or ways of moving around, for these communities. The coast is used by stilt house communities for day-today activities. For example, the communities rely on Figure 1.50 Stilt houses in Sabah, east Malaysia daily tides 10 remove household waste from the area, Kukup, Malaysia Kukup, 2 town in Malaysia located about 25 Kilometres west of Singapore (refer to Figure 151), is @ place with stilt house communities. Air Masin is ‘one village in Kukup with a stilt house community of about 180 stilt houses. Along with stit houses, floating fish farms are @ common sight. Fresh fish ‘and other marine products such as salted fish and dried prawns ere sold at these ferms. Two modes of transportation are available in Air Masin. Boats are used by local fishermen to facilitate their fishing activities. There are also frequent and scheduled ferry services which visitors can use to go to Kukup Island, a mengtove island west of Kukup town. Over the years, Kukup has become an @ Stilt house community attractive tourist destination, with its ee economy largely driven by the incorne Figure 1.51 Locations of tit house communities in Southeast Asi, eamed from local and foreign tourists Tourism and recreation People usually associate coasts with tourism and recreation. Tourism involves the temporary movernent of people (tourists), primarily for leisure oF recreational purposes Recreation involves activities done for enjoyment when one is not working. Coasts ary therefore popular for tourism and recreation. Sentosa is one example of a coastal area useu for tourism and recreation.Chapter! | COASTS 41 Sentosa, Singapore Sentosa, a former military island transformed into a resort island, is located about 500 metres south of the main island of Singapore. Sentosa is occupied by a chain of sheltered artificial beaches on its southern coast; two golf courses; a marina; an exclusive residential area on its west end; and an integrated resort, Resorts World Sentosa, on the north of the island, Many recent developments in Sentosa have capitalised on the coast, One such development is ONE*15 Marina Club which has world-class marina facilities. Its marina is in a harbour with \Wwharfs offering maintenance services for boats and yachts. It also has recreational boating facilities. Resorts World Sentosa has also maximised the use ofits waterfront by building its hotel, museum and marine life park on the coast. With these attractions, itis not surprising that the island had 19 milion visitors in 2011, a 600 per cent increase from 2003. The increased numbers of tourists in turn fuelled further developments to meet demand, such as the upgrading of transport and parking facilities, enhancement of beaches, the creation of a massive lagoon, and the development of more attractions such as 8 boardwalk connecting Sentosa to Singapore. Figure 1.52 ONE*TS Marna Clb is a 270-berth marina in Sentosa, Singapore ‘What impact coulda large st house community, such as the one show in Figure 1.50, ave on the surrounding 3, Name one advantage and one coastal environment? disadvantage of living in ast house 2. Which countries shown in Figure 1.51 have stilt house communities?42 Chapter! | COASTS y Why are coral reef ecosystems | distinctive and valuable? lly pleasing and hence a resource Sods of millions of people. These reefs provide food, bul for recreation, coral reefs are ilding Coral reef ecosystems Coral reefs are structures that develop at, or slightly below, a level on the seabed. They are built by and made up of jousands of tiny animals known as coral polyps, which ike deposits ate to protect delicate body of the polyp. As colonies of coral ew polyps continue living on the reef, while Donate sh te as limestone Distribution of coral reefs di ion of the world's coral reefs can be seen in © 154. Coral reefs are widely distributed but are d between the Tropic of Cancer in the northern ‘and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern ~ pote Gree Figure 1.54 World Alston of coral ets. ~ ‘Adapted tom: National Aeronautics and Space “Adiminstravion (2008) eam more about dot maps in Chaptor 4, page 242, With about 70,000 square kilomettes of coral reefs, the region of Southeast A largest area and the highest biodiversity of coral reefs in the World, Figure teen tn you with a more detailed distribution of Southeast Asia's reels and tho ex threat to them, : ure 1.55 provides timated potentialCoasis 43 Chapter 1 9 an estimated 54 square kiometes of coal rots that grow around both the main island and is. However, tof the coral rets have been fost duet land reclamation, Estimated potential threstta coral e's EB High "© Major urban area 0 300 | 800km ee Figure 185 Southeast Asia's coral reefs are under pressure. Adapted fram: Word Resouces Institute (2011), Environmental conditions for growth Coral reefs are only located at certain places as they are fragile environments. They are atfected by a unique combination of environmental conditions, This refers to natural © artificial congitions which affect life forms. These conditions include the sea surface temperature, the amount of sunlight received (dependent on turbidity and water depth) and the level of salinity and oxygen content of the water. Because they require a minimum sea temperature for growth, corals are concentrated in the tropics. ee of stinty and ongen concent WI tera seater sly of 94931 pts per x * aro ees of me ag ne oF ongen. Sesivencaion + Sedivents way suffocate ling corals. hie : want of slr aualase Sea Stace Tenperatwe * Clear saline water besneen 1 and 60 wesees deep + Sea surface temperature nit lower thon EES lows sutfiient sunlife to penetrate, wiggering 1 86, i algae prays The tidy of the water, which voters to 5 evel of purines, ow enough 2 alow Favcwable condition tnfavcoraie condizion Figure 1.56 Conitions affecting the growth of coral ets.44 = Chapter! | COASTS Value of coral reefs The value of coral reefs is their crucial role in supporting natural ecosystems, allowing Wide range of marine creatures to breed and grow. In fact, coral reefs support more than 25 per cent of the earth's marine fish species. Hence, coral reefs are habitats, which are Natural environments where plants and animals live. Marine creatures that live around reefs provide food for larger creatures. Parrot fish, for example, graze on the living coral polyps. Larger fish and mammals also prey on the smaller creatures. Coral reefs absorb wave energy, thus protecting the adjacent land mass from erosion. However, during severe storms such as those generated by a tropical cyclone, coral reefs be severely damaged. Recovery is likely to be slow and coasts then become more prone to erosion. Pressures that threaten coral reefs Across the worid, coral reefs are under pressure either from natural processes or human activities. Pressures are events or conditions that cause changes. Natural processes such 8s floods may damage coral reefs. Figure 1.57 shows one such example.“= The development of coastal areas on a large scale is putting pressure on coral reef ecosystems. An estimated 75 per cent of the world’s reefs are rated as threatened. The pressure on coral reefs is the highest in Southeast Asia, where almost 95 per cent of the reefs are threatened. Predictions from marine biologists and conservationists for the remaining reefs at both regional and global scales are not favourable. Figure 1.59 provides additional detail on pressures that threaten coral reef ecosystems. Chapter] | COASTS 45 Figure 1.58 Coastal development onthe Maldives pus pressure on coral eet ecosystems, Overcollection | Overcollection of corals for personal or | The overcollection of corals weakens them | Philippines of coral commercial use. and disrupts the coral ecosystem, making = : them more wuinerable to threats Fishing | Dynamite blasting and the use of Coral reef habitat is destroyed. Philippines. methods cyanide to stun fish Indonesia | Spearfishing. Selective depletion of fish populations, Belize disrupts food chains in the ecosystem e.g. | Bonaire, the spearfishing of parrotfish, which feed on _| Netherlands algae, leads to increased algae growth that ] affects corals. Recreational | Tourism activities such as the ‘Sewage waste discharged into water and | Sri Lanka use of coast | sometimes unplanned expansion of | oil spills from boats pollute the water and | coastal resorts, and the anchoring of | stress corals; boat anchors may damage | boats. corals Coastal Reclamation and extension of land | Coral reefs are suffocated by sediments and | Japan development | areas by dumping rock and sand onto | are destroyed reefs, Expansion of coastal resorts and urban | Coral reefs are suffocated by sediments and | Flonda housing increases likelihood of more | are destroyed waste being deposited into the sea Climate Rapid changes in sea temperatures | Coral bleaching occurs when higher sea__| Seychalies change ‘and sea levels may be faster than the | temperatures result in the loss of algae; this ‘bility of the reefs and their associated | causes the coral to tun completely white or | life forms to adjust. be bleached = Figure 1.9 Pressures on coral eet ecosystems.46 = Chapter! | COASTS PITsTSP AY 8 [Bre | wen toe sot Footpath a pee culvert Secondary Ross 4 = Builing-Namad, Other aay {— we RB tok Figure 1.60 topogrepical map extract 1. Refer to Figure 1.60. 2. Refer to Figure 1.59, ©) Suggest how any coastal Name the coastal landform or 8} Which threat o coral reefs is the feature found atthe folowing most lobalin ts scala? sonoma sid references: 1b) What is meant by the terms Cena Gres oaaons i) 248841; andi) 2454. ‘turbidity’ and ‘salinity’? How do deanna b) Identity the coastal feature to they pose a threat otha lopment shouldbe Biota the north ofthe island of Petite continued existence of coral te braceed, Explain your answer Rea oti ean 3. Discuss the value af coal refs to €) Using map evidence, describe the People and the environment. ‘lief of the area around | 4) Sketch the profile trom point Ato point B. |oe Chapter! 1 COASTS 47 4. Refer to Figure 154, 6. With reference to Figure 1.85, identify) Explain why floodwater emptying 4) Describe the distribution of coral the country which faces the greatest ‘onto the Great Barrer Ret is reefs in the world. threat of coral reef destruction Ukaly to endanger its marine ite. b) Suggest reasons for the % distribution of the coral reefs a) Why is the Great Barrier Re shown, considered ‘one of the ecological 5. Inwhat way can coral reefs protect wonders ofthe world’? the coastal environment? Why are mangrove ecosystems distinctive and valuable? |f you read a story like the one in Figure 1.61, you might never want to visit a mangrove forest! You might think of such areas as simply dangerous and unpleasant. Yet mangroves are 2 unique ecosystem found in coastal environments that have great value to people and to the environment. IN AG The largest fragment of mangrove fest in Singapore is found at Sungei Buloh Welland Reserve covers ‘an aga of 1.17 square kilometres. ¥ Figure 1.61 An aticie on 2 man wo clung to mangroves in Queensland, Australi, when a crocodile attacked him, Adapted from: ABC ‘News (10 March 2081) IT LINK Mangrove ecosystems Loam more about the Mangrove species are salt-tolerant tropical or subtropical plants which grow in conditions | iferet types of mangrove that most plants are unable to. They grow in tidal mud on sheltered coasts. They are home Sean to their own unique communities of plants and animals, and are one of the most productive | yn yen se and biologically complex ecosystems. mangroves. What ae some places where hase ‘mangroves can be found?48 © Chapter] | COASTS Distribution of mangroves Mangroves are found on the coasts of counties. These countries are mostly located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tiopc of Capricorn. However, there are also patches ‘of mangroves further north and south of these tropics. Mangroves are most abundant on tropical coastlines such as the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, New Guinea, northern Australia and the Sundarbans in Inda and Bangladesh “Arctic Ocean Indonesia Indian Ocean Figure 1.62 Distribution ofthe worlds mengroves. ‘Adented from: National Aeronautics | gay areas in which mangroves are found ‘and Space Adminstration 2010) 3400 km Environmental conditions affecting growth Mangroves are @ type of helophyte, which is @ plant that grows naturally in a saline environment. They ate typically found along sheltered coasts and river estuaries with muddy ‘and waterlogged land such as those in Figure 1.63. Sheltered coasts experience low energy waves that allow sediments to accumulate. These include mud and plant litter which provide nutrients for mangroves to thrive. Such environments are subjected to strong effects of tides and sediment changes. Mangroves have various characteristics which allow them to adapt to the saline environment. Adaptation refers to the abilty of lfe forms to adjust to changing conditions. Since many plants cannot adept to the saline water and oxyger-deficient soil of a tidal environment, mangrove ecosystems have few species of plants, Figures 1.630 1.66 show the different types of mangrove roots. To cope with the waterlogged environment, some species of mangroves such as Avicennia and Sonneratia have aerial breathing roots that take in oxygen during the parts of the day when they are not submerged (Figure 1.63). These roots have pencihike shape, Some species such 2s Rhizophora, have prop roots to anchor the trees firmly in the soft ‘muddy ground. The roots ensure that the trees will not be uprooted or swept away by the strong waves (Figure 1.64). Other species such as Bruguiera, have kneed roots which help {0 trap soil between their roots, which is essential for plant growth (Figure 1.65).Figure 1.63 Aerial roots to help tras brea Singapore are thin and penci-ike Figure 1.54 Prop roots to anchor trees fy Figure 1.65 Knood roots to help tap sol. Mangroves also adapt to their environment in other ways. Some mangrove fruits are jevelin-shaped so they can pierce the soft mud to germinate and grow into a sapling immediately, Some fruits are buoyant, allowing them to float away and germinate in other coastal areas. These characteristics of the mangrove fruit increase their chances of survival. Mangroves are also salttolerant and have developed ways to secrete ‘exc288 salt. Some species do this through the underside of their leaves.80 Chapter! =| COASTS 19 question After learning about the different adaptation features ‘of mangroves, conduct a fieldwork investigation using the guiding question: What are the mangrove species found in Singapore and how do they adapt to the coastal environment? B. Collecting data To answer the guiding question, you need to: + Identify mangrove species; + Sketch the profile of the coast and mangrove species; ‘+ Sketch or take photographs of the coast and mangrove species; and *+ Take photographs of adaptation features of mangroves, Equipment: + Camera * Recording sheet (Resource sheet 1.6] * Stationery: paper, pencil, eraser Resource sheet 1.6 rangrove plants along @ line of transect onthe coast, ‘Sketch the profile of the coast and the mangroves, When selecting an area of mangroves to sketch along a line of transect, select an area that resombles the fest of the mangrove forest. Label the mangrove species in your sketch. Jal range by looking for 2. Work out the approximate tid visual cues such as the extent of mangroves and wet Sand, In other words, find out where the waves break tn the shore during high tide and low tide. Indicate the tidal range on your sketch, the coast and Take photographs of the profile oft i 3 TMamroves along the line of transect. Stand ata right langle tothe shoreline, or the area where the sea meats the land. Take photographs from at least two locations, ‘such as the backshore and the foreshore. Ensure that at least one third of the areas in the photographs overlap. 4. Merge the photographs after you leave the site. 5. Sketch the different mangrove spacies close up. Annotate your sketch. Teke photographs of the mangrove species as well, 8. Observe any other adaptation features in the mangrove forest such as their fruits. Take photographs of the adaptation features, 7. Note down and take photographs of any living creatures that you see in the mangrove forest. ©. Analysing dat 1. Analyse your sketch and photographs of the mangrove spaces and their adaptation features. Note down the types of mangrove species and their adaptation features. Explain how the adaptation features allow the mangroves to thrive in the tidal environment. . Observe it your findings agree with what you have learnt sbout mangroves and their adaptation features. ‘Suggest reasons for the differences, if any. D. Presenting data Write a report on the mangrove species found at the fieldwork site and their adaptation features. Include your ‘sketch and photographs. You may also include a map of the site and mark out the location of your transect.Value of mangroves Mangroves play a crucial role in a rangi and also serve as a valuable resour of natural process for people. Mangroves can play a key role in stabilising shorelines. Their dense network of roots, such as those shown in Figure 1.64, can absorb the energy of waves, thus slowing the flow of water, This network of roots allows the sediments that are washed down by rivers and washed up on coasts to build up amongst mangrove roots ‘The dense network of mangrove roots and the build-up of sediments can help protect coastal areas from erosion by tides, storm waves and tsunamis. Mangroves absorb the force of storms due to their dense root system. As storm waves approach the coast, their speed is reduced due to friction, hence reducing the impacts of storms on coasts. A number of coastal sites in the Indian Ocean region affected by the devastating tsunami in 2004 have been replanted with mangroves to protect the coast from future tsunamis. The mangrove environment is also a breeding ground and habitat for a range of marine creatures. Bamacles, oysters ‘and sponges anchor on the hard surfaces of the aerial roots (refer to Figures 1.66 and 1.87); shrimps, crabs and lobsters forage for food in the muddy sediments between mangrove roots; and 2 variety of fish breed in the nearby waters. A United Nations Environment Programme report in 2006 estimated that the annual value of mangroves to an economy was between US$200,000 and US$900,000 per square kilometre. These figures include the value of mangroves that protect beaches and fish, provide building materials, improve water quality and even contribute to tourism and recreational activities. Pressures on mangroves Despite mangroves being valuable to natural environments and human activities, they are under pressure due to humans’ use of resources from these ecosystems. Since 1980, the world has lost around 3.6 millon hectares of mangroves, equivalent to a 20 per cent loss of total mangrove area. Figure 169 shows some of the pressures that threaten mangroves. Chapter! | COASTS 51 Figure 1.66 Sponges grow on the plant Figure 1.67 Banacles lve in shalow and tidal waters, and attach themselves permanently to hard surfaces such asthe aerial rants of mangroves, Figure 1.58 Mangroves suppl fel wood to thausands of coastal households in developing counties52 Clearing of mangroves for fuel wood and charcoal Conversion to other land uses Coastal development Rising sea level Figure 1.69 Pressures on ma Chapter 1 + | COASTS Mangroves are cleared for fuel and charcoal, particularly in regions with low technology and low income Thousands of hectares of the flat, well- watered mangroves are converted into paddy fields and shrimp farms. Land is reclaimed for housing, industry ‘and recreational uses. Rising sea levels, together with extreme storm activity, are likely to occur in future if climate change accelerates. ngrove ecosystems. are reduced. Also, ish breeding rounds ae oa pen to storm waves. coasts become more of Mangroves are cleared and coasts becom more vulnerable. Mangroves largely disappear from the environment, Moreover, coastal waters are polluted as a result of human activities. Mangroves will have trouble colonising areas further inland despite sea level rise as they will be in competition with human activities such as farming and the construction of sea defences, Figure 1.70 Mangrove areas such as thos in Indonesia are cleared for fuel and charcoal Indonesia Vietnam | Thailand Caribbean Islands Guif of | ThailandChopier)— COASTS 53 Figur 1.71 Marroves cated log consi aes such this nin Monastery, aie tbe by rising sea level 1. Refer to Figure 1.62 a) Describe the global distribution of mangroves. b) Suggest reasons for the distribution of the mangroves shown. 2. Inwhat ways have mangrove plants adapted toa tidal environment? 3, Why are coastal areas with mangroves viewed as potential fish farming or wet-rice growing areas?54 = Chapter] | COASTS Figure 1.72 Mangroves inthe intertidal zone of Vilanculos coastal sanctuary, Mozambique 1. Draw en annotsted sketch of Figure 1.72. 4) In your sketch, identify and label the mangrove species, and how the mangrove has ‘adapted to its environmental conditions. b) Describe how mangroves can protect a coast. 2. How could warmer sea temperatures associated with climate change affect the growth of coral reefs in the long term? 3. What are the different types of threats facing coastal ar in Singapore?COASTS Chapter 1 Use the following questions to check your understanding and apply 1. Define 2 coastal ecosystem. 6 2. List three products that can be obtained from coastal ecosystems and used by people. 3. What are the environmental conditions needed for coral reefs to develop? 4. Why are more countries adopting aquaculture instead of catching fish in the open seas? 5. Refer to Figure 1.73. a 2) Measure the length of the Captain Cook Highway from easting 29 to easting 32 8 b) Whats the grid bearing of the wharf in grid square 3577 from the lookout in grid square 3676? ©) Identity the fourfigure grid reference of the range in the southwestern part of the map. : d) Calculate the gradient of the Captain Cook Highway from grid reference 313759 to the peak | 10. of the range. fe) Describe the land use of the area shown, ‘what you have learnt Refer to Figure 1.54. a) Which one of the following countries does not have coral reefs adjoining its coast: Malaysia, Philippines, New Zealand or Sri Lanka? Use the ‘world map atthe back of the Textbook to help you. ) Suggest a reason why the identified country does not have coral reefs, Explain what could happen to a coastline if its ‘mangroves were removed. In southern Vietnam, new and environmentally-friendly ‘coastal fish farms have become increasingly common What advantages do they have over the ones that were constructed previously? Explain why the expansion of human activities might be a possible threat to the mangrove ecosystem. ‘A growing human population is the main threat to coastal areas! To what extent is this true? Support your answer with specific examples. Scale 1: 50,000 buip rv igh Mavopolan ae marker feces serve wit ow Divein tae, Unepass Mongo veges ibjectomadaton emir Wore Figure 1.73 Topographical map extract of Mossman, northeast ves. Satin costal a ttl at Pramnet sumege el rock56 = Chapter! | STS 3 How can we manage » coastal areas in a sustainable manner? GATEWAY The £20,000 clifftop bungalow with stunning sea views now valued at just £1 Iisa pleasant three-bedroom bungalow in a secluded setting with spectacular views over the North Sea. In 1987, Jane Archer and her partner Chris Cutting paid £20,000 forthe property. Today, its worth rather less...£19,999 less, to be precise. The reason for the dramatic depreciation is simple. 20 years ago the house ‘was about 450 metres fom the sea. Now itis only bout 60 metres from the approximately 24 metre-high cliffs at Happisburgh, Norfolk in England. Miss Archer was among dozens of villagers who ‘met Environment Minister Phil Woolas during a visit to the county yesterday to plead for compensation or more spending on sea defences. “Itis shocking that our family home is now worth Jess than a loaf of bread,’ she said. Figure 1.74 An article onthe depreciating valve ofa house due to costa erosion mn 2006 Figure 1.75 Jane Archos house is one of the houses located along the slowly ering coast of Happisburgh 1. Explain why Jane Archer's he 4 You ae a geographer studying the impacts of coastal erasion 2. What do you think will happen to the houses along the coast in on the area in the photograph, Think of two questions to help five years’ time? you in your study 3. Suggest some things that could have been done to prevent what you described in Question 2 from happeningChapter! | COASTS 57 How can coastal areas be managed? | 11.76 An eroded coast at Chang Booch, Singapore Figure 1.77 Sand dunes, beach and marina at Sanctinghar, Australi igures 1.76 and 1.7 show two very different coastal areas. Although one looks like it might need to be menaged more than the other, both in fact need managing. To find out why and how they need to be managed, you need to understand the two terms ‘management’ and ‘sustainability Management of a coastal area means controling the development and change in the coastal zone according to agreed principles and criteria. This involves implementing policies such as restoring sandy beaches at certain places. To enforce this policy, @ strategy or series of strategies are needed. For example, truckloads of sand may be brought in to restore the sandy beach Coastal areas should be managed in a sustainable manner, which means development that should not compromise the quality of the environment for present and future generations. For exemple, for the restoration of a sandy beach to be managed sustainably, measures should be put in place so that litle or no deterioration should occur after restoration. In the previous two Gateways, you have seen that coastal environments are dynamic and fragile. They are affected by natural processes or human activities. These aspects of coastal environments make managing them a challenge. To manage coastal areas, we can put in place the following © Laws and regulations limit damaging activities, protect coastal resource, restrict development in areas prone to natural hazards); and * Coastal protection measures (soft and hard engineering)open | COASTS Laws and regulations Limit damaging activities Damaging activities are activities that interrupt the functioning of natural systems. Some of these activites include blasting coral ees fo create a channel for boas, clearing mangroves to develop fish farms, dumping waste into coastal areas or into seas, and constructing facities suchas docks and marinas that replace the natural features ofthe coast {As banning these damaging activities might be costly and inefficient, many national and local government bodies instead try to limit these activites. This is done through management that aligns the needs and demands of people together with the nature of the Coa: environment stal One example of how damaging activities can be limited is shown in Figure 1.78. Sand dunes, which are deposits ‘of windblown sand from the foreshore zone stabilised by plants, were often trampled on by people visiting the beach in Port Philip. Dune vegetation was being destroyed and the sand dunes were left exposed to wind erosion. Houses behind the dunes were in danger of being partly buried by the large volume of sand blown by the wind. To allow the dunes to recover, authorities fenced off the dunes and built access paths to the beach. This decision alowed the coastal environment to recover, However, these fences make the beach look less attractive and do not allow visitors and residents access to all parts of the beach. Protect coastal resources Protecting coastal resources is @ management strategy thet aims to prevent resources from being exploited or depleted, An example of a coastal resource that needs to be protected is fish. Areas close to the coastline where around 80 per cent ofall marine fish are caught are vulnerable to overfishing. This occurs especially in the coral reef areas of Southeast Asia where destructive fishing methods of blasting and poison fishing are used. Figure 1.78 Marageent ot sand dunes on Pr Pip. Melboure. Figures 1.79 and 180 show examples of management strategies taken to protect fish populations. In both Wakatobi National Park in Indonesia (refer to Figure 179) and Goat Island Marine Reserve in New Zealand (refer to Figure 1.80), zones have been marked off to prevent commercial fishing, This is done through local management or establishment of a marine reserve. Marine reserves protect marine ecosystems which allows fish and [IT LINK. endangered species to breed and thrive, Learn more about the tistbuton of marine “The Goat Island Marine Reserve is now a tourist atraction because ofits plentfulfish; there | protected aeas. Vist has! fate up 10 14 times more snappers within the reserve than outside it. This demonstrates the | swuationalgcogranhizoxy positive menagement impact of protecting coastal resources. ‘roects/oistin-seas. Which ‘counties havea high number (On the ether hand, protecting coastal resources is not without problems. For example, |_ourtetares? ag the establishment of marine reserves is often strongly opposed by local fishermen. This is because the fishermen see their access to a valuable resource, and possibly a major source of f00d, being denied. The potential long-term benefits of a marine reserve may not be significant to locals who can no longer fish in an area that has supported them for a long time.Chapter! | COASTS Ne Pee ce 4 . Bey a _ People protect li I ihfods and meteth | Wakatobi National _ _ Park, Indonesia . © | Many larger reef fish such as groupers and snappers travel long distances to spawn in dense groups, | Fishermen often target such gatherings, rapidly destroying the population and simultaneously reducing | the naira restocking othe reefs wit ne fh larva “Preventing fishing on these spawning groups is a ‘considerable challenge. However, a growing awareness - | of declining fish populations in Wakatobi National | (=) Stat sland Marne Reserve | Park has helped fuel community-ted initiatives, in t Hy i collaboration with park authorities, to close fishing ‘on what some locals have termed ‘fish banks’. These | measures have reversed the decreasing number of __ spawning groupers and snappers, and recovery of entire populations is expected to fol Z ~ niga 80 Goat sand Marin Reson. |) New Zeon. coped rom: Seatiends Figure 1.78 An aricle on preventing the decine of sh populations in ne 2002) Wakatobi Neon Pak near Sule! Indonesia Restrict development in areas prone to natural hazards Natural hazerds such as tsunamis can be disastrous to ratural environments and human activities. The powerful earthquake in Tohoku in March 2011 resulted in a tsunami of powerful sea waves (refer to Figure 1.81) that swamped large areas of coastal Japan. The tsunami caused the death of over 20,000 people, the destruction of coastal towns and the failure of nuclear power stations. The cost of rebuilding has been conservatively estimated at US$300 billion Despite the occurrence and unpredictability of natural hazerds, people are stil attracted to coasts. This is because ‘many of the coasts provide natural sources such as food 4nd building materials. Coasts also provide a substantial range of buit services such as docks, ports, housing and recreational faciities. However, residents. and. investors Of these areas may have to spend more in construction and maintenance, and will also need to be prepared for emergencies Figure 1.81 A porrl nani he east const of nate Japan ia ‘March 2011. - Auckland NEW ZEALA 5960 = Chapter! | COASTS > Many national governments and local authorities have developed management policies to deal with the threat of natural hazards in coastal areas. They research on how severe or widespread the problem is, plan for it, then make and enforce laws. The laws and policies Usually involve a combination ofthe folowing strategies. ine ‘© Retreat, or relocation of built structures away from areas prone to natural hazards. i For exemple, in the United States of America, the Federal Emergency Management View the ‘before’ and ‘after photos of some places Ageney (FEMA) steers development away from areas prone to flooding or coastal ee erosion. Tohoku in 2011. Visit * Avoidance, which includes regulating development. For example, Indonesian laws restrict vwwow.nytimgs.com and rnew farms and residences from being established on lowsying coastal areas. soos he Sai of Japan before and after + Defence, such as nourishing beaches, building seawalls and replanting coastal | faicgmi. ick onthe fist ‘vegetation. For example, beaches in the Netherlands are closely monitored and undergo fink forthe interactive. beach nourishment when long-term erosion is identified, — Refer to Figures 1.76 and 1.77. a] Using evidence from Figure 1.76 and 1.77, explain which coastal area isin greater need of coastal management. ) Draw a sketch and annotate itto show areas of concern. 2. Refer to Figure 1.78. What are the strengths and limitations of this coastal management measure? 3, With reference to Figures 1.79 and 1.80, state two ways by which fish resources are conserved, Measures to protect the coast from erosion A range of soft and hard coastal engineering measures can be used to protect coastal areas, Locations with different sets of conditions require different measures. Soft engineering involves protecting the coast using natural processes. It does not involve the construction of any physical structures. Soft engineering measures include beach nourishment or other ecosystem-based measures such as replanting coastal vegetation and encouraging coral reef growth. Hard engineering involves the construction of physical structures to protect coasts against the erosive power of waves. Such structures include seawalls, gabions, breakwaters, ‘groynes and tetrapods : Soft engineering measures Beach nourishment Beach nourishment slows down the erosion of beaches. It involves using sand from an external source to replenish the sand on a depleted beach. This sand may come from another beach or be dredged from the sea floor. This measure can successfully change a Coast into a wide, sandy beach that offers protection to the immediate inland areaChapter! | COASTS 61 For example, beach nourishment restored the depleted beach at the coast of Cape May Point in New Jersey, United States of America (refer to Figure 1.82). Another example is Sentosa, Singapore, where beach material of fine sand was brought in to replenish Siloso, Palawan and Tanjong beaches, As a result, the beaches became aesthetically pleasing, However, beach nourishment also has _ its disadvantages. Firstly, trucking or piping in sand can be expensive and time-consuming. Secondly, many beach nourishment projects around the world have developed problems. Coral reefs at Waikiki Beach, for example, have been destroyed as sand used for beach Nourishment was washed out to sea and suffocated the corals. Thirdly, re-nourished beaches can also be eroded again unless other management strategies are Put in place. Planting vegetation and stabilising dunes Figure 1.82 Before and afte: beach nourishment at he coast of Cape May Pein in Planting vegetation such as mangroves can help NeW Jersey, United States of America stabilise coastlines. As mangroves absorb wave energy through their dense root system, the value of maintaining and replanting mangroves is now widely recognised However, vegetation may take a number of years to be established before it can resist ratural elements such as storms and human elements such as trampling or even vandalism. Sand dunes can be stabilised by planting grasses (refer to Figure 1.83. The roots of grasses anchor the sand and prevent erosion. Matting is often put over the dunes, and young {grasses are then planted into the sand through the matting. Over time, the grassos become established and the dunes become more stable. The matting then rots away, adding nutrients to the sand To prevent the vegetated dunes from being disturbed by human traffic, fences and access paths need to be built. One disadvantage of this is the costs incurred trom maintaining the fences and paths, with fences needing to be replaced with taller ones over time as sand accumulates. Signboards such as the one in Figure 1.84 inform the public of what is happening and help develop positive attitudes towards these strategies. Figure 1.83 The coast along Triton Paco, Westen Australia has vegotated sand dunes and an access fence62 Chapter 1 COASTS SUNSET BEACH RESTOR ote a A JOINT PROJECT BETWEEN THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE & THE CITY OF GERALDTON THE PROJECT HAS BEEN UNDERTAKEN TO MINIMISE EROSION OF THE SCASTRINE, THE WORK HAS INVOLVED REBUILDING THE FOREDUNE. WINS NS cI ANITH NATIVE COASTAL SPECIES AND BRUSHING TO PREVENT YOUR CO-OPER, TQ THE’ VEGETATION. PI ACCESS TO BEACH. eee ‘ATION IS, NEEDED TO era DAMAGE HWAYS FOR Figure 1.84 signboard at Sunset Beach, Australia, Encouraging coral reef growth Measures can be taken to encourage coral reef growth. Coral reefs help weaken wave energy and serve as a breeding ground and nursery for fish. Artificial reefs can be created by placing lasting materials such as steel or concrete onto the sea floor. Corals, together with other marine creatures and vegetation, colonise these materials and start to function as a Natural reef. In the waters of Palau in the northern Pacific Ocean, sunken shios from World War Il have been naturally colonised by corals. Since 1996, the Maldives, which is a lovelying archipelago in the Indian Ocean, has been operating a coral-growing programme to help curb severe beach erosion on its many islands, A structure of welded construction steel rods (45 metres long, 4 to 8 metres wide and 16 "metres high) nas been placed off the coast of one of its resort islands of Ihuru. The structure ‘ charged with lovevoltage solargenerated electricity to speed up coral growth. Corals are reportedly growing three to five times faster than normal, and the island now sustaine large variety of corals, marine animals and organisms. The project has received international recognition, However, it is not easy to encourage the growth of corals. Sites need to ensure maximurn opportunity for growth. Coral growth may be slow, taking 10:30 years before results appear. Even then, be surveyed to Perhaps over 20 coral growth may not be significant.Chapter! | COASTS 63 Hard engineering measures Seawalls Seawalls are constructed to protect coastines against wave attack by absorbing wave gnergy. Most seawalls are made of concrete or stone and are built parallel to the const, They have been constructed in thousands of locations throughout the wert However, seawallis are costly to build to prevent their collapse. Seawalls ab: and maintain as constant repairs have to be made sorb only some wave energy and reflect incoming initial success. The powerful backwash of reflected ials at the foot of and beneath the seawall. This erosion by waves eventually undermines the base of the seawall, leading to their colapse lrefer to Faure 1.85b) For example, a seawall along the coast of Drakes Isiand in England collapsed due to erosion occurring at its base. loaves fcc senwall and. are ebected. Centaurs vide actin erodes wSserias athe nse oF he aval. Figure 1.85a) Seavalls inte Ise of Wight, United Kingdom, Figure 1.856) Erosion cccurs atthe base ofa seawall ‘question After learning about seawalls, conduct a fieldwork investigation using the guiding question: Are the seawalls along the coast of Singapore effective protection measures ‘against coastal erosion? B. Collecting data ‘To answer the guiding question, you need to: * Identify wave direction; and * Sketch or take photographs of evidence at or around the seawall where waves have made an impact. Equipment: + Camera + Sketching frame (refer to Chapter 4, page 262) + Compass ‘+ Recording sheet (Resource sheet 1.7) Resource sheet 1,7,64 = Chapter! | COASTS Procedure: 1. Identify and locate a seawall along the coast of Singapore. You may use the Internet to help you in your search 2, atthe site, sketch the seawall. n your sketch, a) label the direction of the waves; and b) annotate the impact of waves breaking on the seawall 3. Take a photograph ofthe seawall from various angles: the front, the back and the sides. Make sure to capture any signs ofthe impact of waves on the seawall 4, Identify coastal activities present and any possible problems the seawalls may be causing for visitors tothe beach ©. Analysing data 1. Analyse the effectiveness of the seawall through your sketch and photographs Gabions e with what you have learnt serve it your findings 29" 2 rte 3s of seawalls. Suggest reasons for about the effectiveness of Se the differences, if any D. Presenting data Write 2 report onthe effectiveness of the seawall 25 2 qaastal protection measure, Include your sketch and somotated photographs, as well as a map of the area Showing te lation of the soawall and the direction ofthe waves. a aa rat athe coast rat research to find out what the aea along the coast TP ioe + ted, This will help oe tke berore the seawall was Const you analyse the effectiveness ofthe seawall 44 Gabions are wire cages usually filled with crushed rocks. These cages are built along a shore or behind a beach to prevent or reduce coastal erosion by weakening wave energy. Gabions ‘absorb wave energy better than seawalls. This is because the gaps between the rocks allow water 10 filter through. In this way, gabions prove to be successful defences against high energy waves: However, the wire cages are unsightly. They are also costly as they need to be maintained ‘equaty, Gobions are easly corroded by seawater and damaged by excessive trampling or reauslom, For example, gabions were installed when the East Coast Park in Singapore was Vretreciaimed, The gabions were subsequently removed as they were vandalised. £86) Gabions along the Andaman Coast, Thailand, successfully ast fom erosion, Figure 1.865) How gabions protect the coast} Breakwaters Chapter 1 | Breakwaters help break the force of oncoming waves, They can be built either parallel to ‘the coast or with one end attached to the coast. When constructed offshore, breakwaters «can create a zone of calm water behind them, Materials are then deposited and build up in this zone of calm water to form beaches (refer to Figure 1.87b). The calm water zone is often used as a sheltered harbour for boats, Breakwaters have their cisadvantages. They are aesthetically unappealing and are costly to build, Breakwaters also protect the coast unevenly, Materials deposited in the zone behind the breakwater are protected while those in the zones located away from the breakwater are subjected to weve action and possible erosion. For example, breakwaters builtin Portland Harbour, England, resulted in erosion and flooding problems, which affected properties, beaches and communication infrastructure, Figure 1.87a) A broakwator at Almeria, Spain, successfully protects the cast fram ersion Groynes Groynes are low walls constructed at right angles to the shore to retain sediments that might otherwise be removed due to longshore drift. hese structures absorb or reduce the energy of the waves and cause materials to be deposited Con the updrift side of the groyne facing the longshore drift (Figure 1.882) Groynes are unsightly and expensive to build and maintain. Moreover, no new materials are carried and deposited on the downdrit side which is not protected by the groyne, As a result, longshore drift will gradually erode away the Unprotected part of the beach. For example, large amounts of sediments were eroded on the downdrit side of a groyne built along Sandy Hook in New Jersey, United States of America. The groyne was eventually demolished. To prevent or reduce the erosion of beach materials on the downdrift side of the groyne, the tips of groynes are sometimes angled about 10 degrees, depending on the direction of the prevailing waves. If successful, groynes can help sustain and even extend beach areas, Figure 1.875) How breakwaters protect the coast. COASTS66 Chapter 1 COASTS Figure 1.88) Sediments are deposits onthe updrift side of groyes and ecded Figure 1.88) A series of groynes along the coast of Eastbourne, United Kingdom, succesfully maintains beaches along the coast onthe downed side Tetrapods Tetrapods are fourpronged concrete structures that help dissipate wave energy (refer to Figures 1.89a and b). They Seawall are stacked offshore in an interlocking position. In contrast to breakwaters or seawalls, tetrapods allow water to pass around them rather than hit against them. Hence, no powerful backwash is generated, which reduces the possibilty of tetrapods being damaged by waves. | Tetrapods are pre-casted, which means they are cast into their final shape before being positioned. They canbe placed quickly compared to other structures which may take time 10 build while coasts are still under attack from waves. Teerdpods eee, So aes gl eee potted en a ee rn ete eae Terese a, hone, sstecaly unappclng end expensive to bu They ae also | emma dangerous to swimmers, surfers and boaters. tines is. Sterna Figure,1.29b) Tetrapods along the coast in Hokkaido, Japan. § | tetas elChapter] | ASTS 67 1. Describe and assess the effectiveness of al gabions; and b) protection measure was putin place. (Refer to Chapter 4, beach nourishment, in protecting the coast page 244 to learn more about satelite images.) 2. Explain how tetrapods differ from seawall. a) Identity this measure 3. Figure 1.90 shows satelite images of Kirra Point, a coastal 4) Describe the effects ofthis measure on the coast of area in Queensland, Australia, before and after a coastal Kirra Point é I eee, Figure 1.90 Before ad after 2 coastal protection measure was putin pace at Kira Pont in Queensland, Australia, Adepted ram: Tised River Entrance Sand Bypassing Project (2010)68 Chapter 1 COASTS CASE STURY East Coast Park, Singapore What are the uses of the coastal area? ‘Spanning across more than 18 kilometres of coastline, East Coast Park lias along Singapore's southeastern coast, and covers an area of 1.85 square kilometres. The Park was reclaimed during the government's land reclamation project to alleviate the problem of land shortage in the 1970s. East Coast Park provides cultural services that have recreational and aesthetic benefits. People visit the coast to carry out a range of recreational activities such as swimming, cycling, jogging, kite-‘lying, and fishing. There are also chalets in the Park, where people stay and enjoy the coastal area. Many also come here to relax and appreciate the scenery. It is. not surprising that the Park attracts more than 75 million visitors a year. A variety of sporting facilities present at East Coast Park makes use of its coastal area. This includes the People's Association Water Venture, which offers a range of water sports activities such as kayaking, power boating and windsurfing. In 2006, Singapore's first cable skiing park opened in the Park. Another sporting facility is the National Saiing Centre, which 1 venue for sailing competitions of the first Youth Olympic Games held in Singapore. wes Figure 1.91 People enjoying eceational activities at East Coast Park Figure 1.32 International windsurfing evens atthe Park IT LINK Lea more about East st Par, Visit to ‘wn. onarks gov safe searching ‘East Coast Par Click onthe Parks and Gardens’ tink, ‘and regional siting campattions, such a the 2010 Youth Olympic Games, are held at East Coasta Chapter! | COASTS 68 What measures have been adopted to protect the coast? ‘As East Coast Park is on reclaimed land, coastal protection measures were put in place to protect the coast. This included hard engineering measures such as seawalls and breakwaters. Initially, a 4,500-metre stretch of seawall was built to protect the reclaimed land. A strip of fill made of old alluvium (consisting of materials such as pebbles, sand, clay and sit) was left in front of the seawall to allow deposition to occur, creating beaches. However, severe erosion occurred at the foot of the seawall, making it unstable and thus ineffective. In addition, the seawall was costly to construct and maintain. Hence, a series of breakwaters were built instead. ‘Two types of breakwaters were used to protect the coast and create beaches. These were the gabion breakwaters and riprap breakwaters. Gabion breakwaters were constructed at the foreshore. However, these were vandalised by people looking for oysters among the stones. The alternative was then to use riprap breakwaters. Riprap breakwaters are made out of compacted soil mounds and stones of different sizes. Both gabion and riprap breakwaters were placed at various sections along the coastline, with a distance varying from 120 metres to 490 metres between them (refer to Figure 1.93). The breakwaters acted ‘as headlands, which created an area of calm water behind them. This allowed deposition to ‘occur and beaches to form. Large drains were also built across the reclaimed land with their outfalls located on the foreshore. These drains acted 2s groynes and allowed sediment deposition on the updrift side (refer to Figure 1.93). Te kOe nC Figure 1.938) Along the coastline of East Coast Park, beaches ae formed andthe reclaimed land is protected by bi) drains acting as oroynos ane) breakwaters that were bul.70 Chapter 1 COASTS How effective are the ast Park bene! was located appro: the shoal was removed when pO" ed from At first, transported by lo of wat However reclaimed to build med land s Over the years, the re material. This exposed behind the McDon: less than a metre and could not eff breakwat m the eroded coast. The ri ively protect the o In addition, extreme high tide events worsened the erosion. During the was washed further inland such as near the Sands Resort) (refer to Figure 1.94). Other evidence and reasons for the severe coastal erosion are presented in the 1 events, sand from the beache: joldkist Resort (former Cost e 1.96. r Shoal. A shoal is a natu tely southeast This resulted in a decrease of beach material. k in certain areas from the lack of soast to erosion. The Marine Cove area estaurant was the worst affected as benches were Fs sank t00, coastal protection measures? the sediments ral sand ng) was ese, hes washed intand rea Figure 1.94 Sand from the Goldkst Resort. Reclaimed land under threat Singapore has spent billions reclaiming precious land from the sea. Now it seems some of the land is under threat. Severe erosion over the past few years has caused parts of the reclaimed shoreline along the East Coast Park and Pasir Ris to recede. ‘One possible reason for the excessive erosion is that the breakewaters have not been as effective as expected, said Prof Tan Soon Keat, a coastal engineering expert from Nanyang Technological University. When the beaches ‘were first reclaimed, the elevated breakwaters were intended to protect the shore immediately behind them, Jeaving natural erosion to occur along the unprotected parts. However, it now appears that in some parts of the beaches, including the Costa Sands area at East Coast Park, erosion may have occurred even behind the breakwaters, causing chunks of the shoreline to recede, ‘This could be because the height and force of the waves have been greater than anticipated. ‘In (some) areas, the ‘waves could have gone over or around the breakwaters, ‘causing portions of the beach directly behind these structures to erode,’ said Prof Tan. se extent of the erosion is not known, but to iar with the East Coast and Pasir Ris parks, the signs of the seas silent plunder are all 10 obvious, At both, about a tenth of the shoreline has been cordoned off with brightly coloured ropes. At East Coast Park, bold red Figure 1.9641 mn atl on coastal erosion t Est Coast Park. Adonted rom: Tho Stats Times (6 March 2006) and-black signs saying ‘Danger — Please keep away from Lnstabl coastline’ wam passers-by. Signs have also gone up near the popular Marine Cove area, which is peppered with eateries, and near the Sea Sports Club. Behind the ‘MeDonala’s restaurant in the Marine Cove area, benches are less than a metre from the gnawed-at grassy parkland. ‘A jogging track has been cordoned off, after erosion brought the sea to within 1.5 metres of the concrete path. "Near the Sea Sports Club at East Coast, as well as at Pasir Ris, weather-beaten trees are poised precariously near the edge ofthe water. The sea has washed away the soil. exposing their roots to the sun and wind, > ‘ exposed due to severe erosion Figure 1.95 Evidence of erosion along East Coast Park.aa Chapter! 1 COASTS 71 AAs such, in 2009 and 2010, restoration works were carried out to strengthen the coastal protection measures The restoration works involved bay realignment, beach Rourishment and breakwater reconstruction, Sand tetra mee nn breakwaters and seawalls were removed and replaced with ew ones. Figure 1.97 shows a beach after the restoration works, Taeeaamr anc | gill Many bays have now reached an equilibrium J-shape as shown in Figure 1.93 where beaches have formed. In these bays, the deposited sediments replace sediments eroded away, although more erosion may occur in some bays during extreme high tide events. Constant maintenance is J carried out by local authorities to ensure that the headland breakwaters remain effective. Figure 1.97 A estore beach with an equilibrium shape and 3 reconstructed rirap breakwater Should the coastal environment matter? Unlike many countries, the 193-kilometre circumference of Singapore is also its coastline As Singapore is surrounded by water, the population is vulnerable to changes in the coastal environment. Moreover, Singapore has a generally fiat coast with most of its land at a height of less than 15 metres above sea level. The extreme high tide events that flooded East Coast Park signal possibly even more severe flooding from any rise in sea levels. Singapore's, coastal areas need to be managed to ensure sustainability for the future, Appropriate coastal protection measures need to be chosen and local conditions should be taken into account. ‘The coastal areas in Singapore are an important resource and are greatly utilised. Besides recreational activities, East Coast Park is used for port facilities, coastal reservoirs and military facilities. Further development needs to be planned properly to ensure that the coastal areas are not overused. Besides coastal protection measures, other strategies to protect Singapore's coastal environment include marking off areas as nature reserves, educating the public and establishing partnerships with various organisations. Setting aside areas for nature reserves ensures that the coast is Kept unspoilt by human activities. Educating the public can be done through exhibitions or signs showing appropriate ways of using the coastal areas. Partnerships with organisations which have the expertise of managing coastal areas allow more effective protection measures to be put in place. Some of these organisations include the Singapore Nature Society and Intemational Coastal Cleanup Singapore. : b) Assess the effectiveness of the |. Suggest why people visit the coastal —_b). Predict what would happen to aren n East Coes Pork the costo te breakwaters supgectod nessiron, 2. Reler to Figure 198 nad gca eta cenaves. 4, Explain why itis important fr 1 Dessneait 2pore to protec is coast 48) Describe how you can investigate 3. Rferto Figure 1.95, Singapore to protect its coast. a) What coastal protection measures would you suggest besides those already in place? | if the breakwater or groyne has been effective in protecting the coast.