2.0 GRINDING PROCESS 21, Definition: Grinding ig a metal cutting operation performed by means of a rotating abrasive tool, called “grinding wheel”. Such wheels are made of fine grains of abrasive ‘materials held together by a bonding material, called a “bond”. Each incivdual and lnregulerly shaped grain acts as a cutting elpment (a single point cutting tool). 24.1, Grindability of Materials The term grindabilty of materials tke the tétms machinabilty of forgeabilty Is difficult to define precisely. Grindabilty is a gene‘al indicator of how easy itis to grind a materia and Includes considerations such as the quality of the surface produced, surface finish, surface Integriy, wheel wear, cycle time, and overall economics of the ‘operation. As in machinabilty, grindabiity:of a material can be enhanced greatly by proper selection of process parameters stich as grinding wheels, and grinding fluids, as well as by using the appropriate mactine characteristic, fituring methods, and work-holding devices. ‘A magnified view ofa grinding wheel and its cutting operation is shown in Fig. 2.1 The projecting grains of the abrasive material are held firmly by the board. The grains during rotation of the wheel remove very thin chips whose cross-section Is similar 0 {hat obtained in milling. For this operation high wheel speeds are normally employed (up to 75 mis) AS the section of the chip removed during the process is small, high euting speeds are involved, this operation results into very good finish and high ‘accuracy. ' Projecting grains Workpieca Fig. 24, Magnified view of «grinding wheal and Its cutting operation Grinding is done on surfaces of almost all conceivable shapes and materials ofall kinds, The grinding operation can be: ()) Rough (or nof-precision) grinding and (i) Precision grinding. ("Rough grinding” is a commonly used method for removing excess material from castings, forgings and weldments ete. (i) *Prcision grinding" is the principal production method of cuting materials that are too hard to be machined by other conventional tools or for producing surfaces on parts to higher dimensional accuracy and a finer finish as compared to other manufacturing methods.2.2. Classifications of grindi accordance to the type of surface to be gfound ( External cylindrical grinding. } 4 (ii) Internal cylindrical grinding, (ii) Surface grinding. (iv) Form grinding, precision grinding 2.2.4, External Cylindrical Grinding It is also called centre-type grinding to distinguish it from centreless grinding) It produces a straight or tapered surface on a workpiece. The cylindrical workpiece is rotated between centres to provide a surface speed of 18 m/min to 30 m/min and the grinding wheel, rotating at 1200 m/min to 2000 m/min is engaged to perform the cut. There are two types of feed motion possible, traverse feed and plunge-feed. In traverse feed, the grinding wheel is fed in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the work part. The infeed is set within a rahge typically from 0.0075 mm to 0.075 mm. In plunge-feed the grinding wheel is fed radially into the work. External cylindrical grinding is used to finish parts that have been machined slightly oversized and heat-treated to desired hardness. The parts include axles, crankshafts, spindles, bearings and bushings, and rolls for rolling mills. 2.2.2. Internal cylindrical grinding. It produces internal cylindrical holes and tapers. The workpiece is usually held in a chuck and rotated to provide surface speeds of 20 m/min to 60 m/min. The grinding wheel of, in the case of small-bore holes, the cylinder wheel rotates against the sense of rotation of the workpiece. The wheel is fed in either of two ways: traverse feed, or plunge feed. Internal cylindrical grinding is used to finish the hardened inside surfaces of bearing races and bushing surfaces. 2.2.3, Surface grinding Surface grinding is normally used to grind plain flat surfaces. It is performed using either the periphery of the grinding wheel or the flat face of the wheel. It produces flat surface. The work may be ground by either the periphery or by the end face of the grinding wheel. Because the work is normally held in a horizontal orientation, peripheral grinding is performed by rotating the wheel about a horizontal axis, and face Grinding is performed by rotating the wheel about a vertical axis. The workpiece is reciprocated at a constant speed below or on the end face of the grinding wheel. There are four types of surface grinding: (a) horizontal spindle with reciprocating worktable, (b) horizontal spindle with rotating worktable, () vertical spindle with reciprocating worktable, and (@) vertical spindle with rotating worktable.2.0 GRINDING PROCESS ‘24. Definition: Grinding is @ metal cutting operation performed by means of 9 rotating 2a ave Ton, called “griding wheel" Such wheels are made offre al 8 asive aoraas ald together by 8 bonding material, called a “bond” Each individual and regularly shaped grain acts asa cuttng element (a single elnt cutting too) 2A. Grindability of Materials «rhe term arindabilty of materials, tke the terms machinablily 7 forgeabilt is dificult Te getine precisely. Grindabiiy is a general indicator of haw e28 itis to grind a +0 Merial and ineludes considerations such as the qualty of the surface produced, roa inish surface inegity, whee! wear, cycle time, and vera ‘economics of the Storation As in machinabity, gndabiity ofa material can be ‘enhanced greatly by proper selection of process parameters sich a8 grind nd. ‘wheels, and grinding fluids Propet seo using the appropriate machine characteris, Extund methods, and wwotk-holding devices. sanctified vw of grinding wheel arditscuting operation i shown in Fig. 2.1 The Projecting grains of the abrasive material ae held ely by the board. The grains ing rotation of the wheel remove very thin chips whe cross-section is siiiar ear Tgined in ling For ths operation righ wheel speeds Fe ‘normally employed {up to 75 mis}, AB the section of the chip removed Aurne the process is small, and igh euting speeds are involved, this operation resus inio Very ‘good finish and high accuracy : Grinding vane! Projecting ‘workpiece Fig. 2A: Magnified view ofa grinding whee! and is cutting operation Grinding is dane on surfaces of almost al conesivable Shapes ‘and materials of all Kings. The grinding operation can be: () Rough (or nof-precision) grinding and (ji) Precision grinding, {) Rough grinding” Is @ commonly used method for removing excess ‘rateial from castings, forgings and weldments ote, {iy "Precision grinding” is the principal posucto ‘method of eutting materials thctare tog tard to be machined by ther conventional ool of for producing trates on parts to higher dimensional accuracy and @ finer finish a8 Compared to other manufacturing methods,22.4.Form grinding, | | “Tris operation is dane wih specialy shaped grinding wheets Wat rind the formed Poe eoere in grinding gear teath, threads, splined shafts, hoes et. Fa 2.2 shows three basic kinds of precision grinding, ( Emtemaleyindtical rinding {ip internal evince grinding Ks neta — | iy_Surface ringing Fig. 22. Basie kines of precision grinding 2.3, Advantages of Grinding Process Over Other Outing Processes Bore advantages of grinding process over One” ‘citing processes are: Seis possible to achieve very accurate cnensions ard ‘smoother surface finish in @ very short time, xe ip only method of removing material om Matera after hardening. 2 sang to forge number of cuting edges on fhe grinding wheel I fs possible to Produce extremely smooth surface desirable at ‘contact and bearing surfaces by atinding operation. Tr profes can be produced accurately wih relatively Inexpensive turing templates tempinding unike conventonel machining need Pot ‘out through the hard skin of forgings ete. \ Pei te grinding whee! has considerable wet? therefore no marks as a result of feeding are there. rep his process Kile’ pressure is required, hes permitng its use on very ight work ‘hatwould otherwise tond to spring away trom the tool. This characteristic permis the tise of magnetic cuck for holding the workin mary ‘rinding operations. | 2.3.1. Applications of Grinding Process: 2 towing are the fve applications of grinding rosess: 4. To sharpen the cuting tools2. To obtain better finish on the surface. 3, To grind threads in order to have close tolerances and better finish. + Tovemove a very small amount of metal from the workpiece to bring ts dimensions within very close tolerances. 5. To machine hard surfaces which are otherwise difficult to be machined by the high= speed steel tools or carbide cutters. 2.4, Special Features of Grinding Process ‘The following are the special features of grinding process: 4 The grinding operation is intermittent in nature, and produces, discontinuous chips. 2. The grinding wheel has a self-sharpening character (ie, he dull or worn-out grains of the grinding wheel during the operation are removed either by fracture or tearing of the bond, thus exposing fresh new grains), 3. The load acting on individual cutting grains is non-uniform, “4, The geometry of the grain is highly random and the time of contact between the chip and an abrasive grain is very small. 5, The grinding action depends strongly upon the characteristics of the grinding wheel. 8. High temperatures to the tune of 1000°C to 1400°C are ‘usually encountered in grinding resulting into rapid grain wear and high induced surface in the workpiece. sieve effective rake angle of abrasive grains is highly negative. 8. Grinding is associated with high specific cutting eneray 45 compared to that encountered in conventional cutting operations. 2.8. GRINDING MACHINES ‘The grinding machines are classified as follows: 1. According to the quality of surface finish: ‘Roughing or nén-precision grinders: () Bench, pedestal of ‘oor grinders. (ji) Swing frame grinders. (ji) Portable anc flexible shaft grinders. (v) Belt grinders. 2, Precision grinders. II, According to the type of the surface generated or work done: 4. Cylindrical grinders: () Plain cylindrical grinders, (ji) Universal cylindrical grinders. (ii) Centreless internal grinders. 2. Internal grinders: (i) Plain internal grinders. (I) Universal intemal grinders. (il) Giucking intemal grinders. (iv) Planetary internal grinders. (v) Centreless internal grinders. a Surface grinders: (i) Reciprocating table: (2) Horizontal spincle. (b) Vertical spindle (i) Rotating table: (2) Horizontal spindle (b) Vertical spindle. 4. Tool and cutter grinders: (a) Universal (b) Special. Some types of grinders are described below: 4, Plain Cylindrical Grinder Fig. 2.3 shows a plain cylindrical grinder. In this ype of grinder, the workpiece is Usually held between two centres. One of these centres Is in the headstock and theserene tics operant ning ets ey cen is anaes fa rig gina wea te mg wore Te, an aout as ot dated ae Headstock Talstock Upper table Lower table |,-Base Fig, 23. Block diagram of a plain cylindrical grinder. itis the tallstock centre which is moved i and out, manually or hydraulically, to insert we potd the work. The table is usualy TOG TS two parts pone upper table caries the headstock, Tetork and the workpiece and c3n DS ree ET in horizontal plane, to @ maximum ‘of 10° on either side, along the seller ways provided on the lower table «eThe wheal head is usually mounted om ne horizontal cross ways on the Ded The wravels along these to feed the wheel the work. The movement is known as infeed 2. Cantrotess grinder Centerless anndng fan atemative process for grinding 2 senna and internal cylindrical suriaces, iS ame suggests, the workpiece fs not Px between centres. This results © & “eduction in work handling time; ences nek ease grinding ts often used for NOH production work erg g shows conieless gindngt/6 10 eat of grinding metalic pats in which {ho piece to be ground is supported OF 0 srcest, and passed between 2 grinding the pifanning ata high speed and 2 contd ‘sneel (regulating wheel) running at 2 nee raed, The controling wheel causes Ne roe which must be cylinder, to TevONe sto SPrpposita erection 10 that ofthe gFngr ‘wheel. The grinding wheel does the i ing, rotting a surface speeds of 1200 mg tp 1800 mimin, The reguatng whee! rotates at much lower speeds ‘ha workrest includes a number of des that feed the work to te revolving wheats, 7h remove it as goon as the operation is Ve, “The pressure exerted by the grinding aa er grives the work into contact wih contouing ‘wheel and the workcrest. ante’i Grinding _, Work Control wheel Fig. 2.4. Centreless grinding- JE wil be realised from this that a point on the surface of he work where it comes into aaa ait the grinding wheel evolvesin the same drecion bbutata slower speed Horaae corresponding point on the rinding wheal, This hi ‘the effect of producing @ more accurately cylindrical surface. ‘The controling wheel or regulating wheel is of the same composition as the grinding rae rnd its apeed can be regulated to suit the roqurernens vane as grinding is sed in grinding piston valves, Piston, taper valves, parallel rods, cylindrical valves, cylinders ete. rds wing. are the three standard methods of feeding the work in centreless crinding are! (). The through-feed grinding: (i). The infeed grinding: (ip The end-feed grinding (0, The through-food grinding: Fig. 2.5 shows We through-feed grinding process. In (hee of grnsing the part to be ground s straight 2n¢ cylindrical, and is given an ts Pe by the controling wheel, passing trom side 1 sds Beta this and the Brnting wheel. Feed rate depends on controling whee) diameter, and speed and its ingle of presentation to the work, which can be ‘controlled. The number of times the ae passes from one side 10 the next depends on the WHEAT of material to be (ground off and onthe degree of precision required, also the extent to which the part js truly cylindrical a the stat of operations. Workpece tt ng ~ wee(i), The in-feed grinding: Fig. 2.6 shows the in-feed grinding process. Some parts change in cross-section forming shoulders or heads. These are centreless ground by the in-feed method, which resembles the method of form grinding on centre grinder by taking a plunge cut. The wheel width govems the length of the portions capable of being ground in a single operation. No axial feed is given, but the controling wheel is set so that its axis is roughly parallel to that of the grinding wheel. The part is held firmly against the end stop by means of a small amount of inclination given to the controlling wheel. End stop "4 Fig. 2.6. The in-feed grinding (iil). The end-te id that centr having a degre 1d grinding: Fig. 2.7 show the end-feed grinding. While it has been 8 ground parts must be cylindrical, it should be noted that work of taper can be centreless ground by the end-feed process. In thi the grinding wheel, the controlling wheel and work rest are located in an unchanging felation to one another. The part to be ground is then automatically or by hand, fed in from the front towards a fixed end stop. Both the grinding and controlling wheels are tapered to suit the form of the work Grinding wheel End stop Controling wheel Fig. 2.7. The end-feed grinding.ee. tages and limitations of centreless grinding The following are the advantages and limitations of centreless grinding process Advantages: 1 There is no need for centring and use of fixtures etc. Since during the grinding process a true floating condition exists, therefore less metal needs to be removed. |tcan be applied equally to both external and internal grinding, Since the workpiece is supported throughout the entire length as grinding takes place, therefore, small fragile or slénder workpieces may be ground easily. The process is continuous and adapted for production work. The size of the work is easily controlled. The requirement of wheel adjustment is minimum. For operating centreless grinders, a low order of skill is needed. Avery little maintenance is needed for the machine. 0.A large variety of components can be ground. 1. The set-up time for a centreless grinding operation is usually large. 2. The process Is useful only for large volume production. It may be necessary to have special equipment and additional set-up time for special profiles. 3. This process is not suitable for large workpiece sizes. 3. Internal grinders Internal grinding is the mechanical grinding of the internal bores of gears, bushes and a wide variety of machine parts. Fig. 2.8 shows the principle of internal grinding, Fig. 2.8. Principle of internal grinding. Internal grinding is designed to complete the surfaces of holes, whether these have parallel sides, tapered bores or a combination of the two. It can also be adapted to holes of special form. It produces accurate results, is not expensive and gives a high degree of surface finish. It is often necessary, for instance, to remedy the slight distortion in long and slender hollow tools or parts resulting from heat treatment, andown ag Wer og holes in these can be ground to an accuracy of 0.00835 mim, or even to 0.00254 mm For this work choice of the right wheel is vital. i e 3.4, Internal grinding machines: The machines are classified in accordance method of holding the Work, that is, between centres or centreless; the trave non-traversing of the work; and the method of operation whether normal or automatic. In centreless grinding internally (Fig. 2.9) it is always the work that is traversed, the wheel being longitudinally fixed The type of grinding wheel employed for internal grinding is softer than that used for other types of grinding.operations, the reason being that the area of.contact between wheel and work is relatively great. Pressure roll ‘ Werk Grinding wheel Regulating roll Fig. 2.9. Centreless internal grinding: 4, Surface grinders Surface grinding is the method of grinding designed to carry out the removal of metal from a part or parts less expensively and with greater precision than could be achieved by machining processes with cutting tools of steel, or by hand or machine fling. “Surface grinding” is particularly effective for parts having hard spots that would seriously blunt or impede a cutting tool, or where a hard superficial scale causes similar trouble in-machining proper. The type of grinding finish resulting is often so {good that a later polishing operation can be dispensed with, but for this to be so a well- designed machine is esse *Surface-grinding machines" differ according fo the shape of the grinding wheel employed and the motion given to the worktable during operations. Same machines have reciprocating worktables and some have revolving worktables. They range in ‘igidity, size and weight from the relatively small, ight machine used in the tool-room to the heavy and powerful machines which are used inthe mass production of duplicate components. Fig. 9.132 shows various types of surface grinding machines. grinding machines; These machines use the d are able to deal with a wide range of xy. They yield a greater (i). Horizontal-spindle surfa circumference of straight grinding wheels, an work needing superfinish and extremely fine limits of accurac)ff output and takeoff metal faster than similar machines using cup-shaped, segmental opanular whee!s a rotating worktable is used, finish comprising concentric circles tan be obtained and is often popular. {iy Vortical-spindle flat grinding machines: These grinders remove metal faster ci cn using a cup, cylindrical or segmental wheel than when using a straight wheel ‘They have @ great precision, and if strong and rigidly bult can grind to extremely fine limits S Dise gtinding is a form of surface grinding, In it one disc (or more) of abrasive type Is mounted on a vertical spindle so that the plane of the disc is horizontal, the work resting on the surface of a fat, rotating carrier or worktable. % Disc grinding machines are employed where rough and semi-precision grinding is desired and where material must be ground off rapidly and effectively to tolerances somewhat greater than the most severe type. Their use in such cases is highly economical. Typical examples of work done by disc grinding are the sharpening of tools, forming the square ends of disc blanks, gear and crankcase covers etc. The abrasive discs are fairly thick and are usually reinforced with steel. Fig, 2.10. Dise grinding machine > Gy oyeresne igus te gat Fig. 2.10. Surface grinding machiné \0OTHER GRINDING OPERATIONS At Jig grinders: They are grinding machines traditionally used to grind holes in hardened steel parts to high accuracies. The original applications included Pressworking dies and tools. Although these applications are still important, jg grinders are used today in a broader range of applications in which high accuracy and good finish are reauired on hardened components. Numerical control Is available on modem jig grinding machines to achieve automated operation, q snag grinder: This is similar in configuration to a disc grinder. The difference is that the grinding is done on the outside periphery of the wheel rather than on the side flat surface: The grinding wheels are therefore different in design than those in disc grinding. Snag grinding is generally 2 manual operation, used for rough grinding operations such as removing the flash from castings and forgings, and smoothing weld joints Abrasive belt grinding: This uses abrasive particles bonded to a flexible (cloth) belt. A typical setup is illustrated in Figure 2.11. Support of the belt is Tequired when the work is pressed against it, and this support is provided by a Toll or platen located behind the belt. A flat platen is used for work that will have a flat surface. A soft platen can be used if itis desirable for the abrasive belt to Conform to the general contour of the part during grinding. Belt speed depends on the material being ground; a range of 750 m/min to 1700 mimin in typical. poms race — Ld LR — Figure 2.11. Abrasive belt grinding Creep feed grinding: It is a new form of grinding operation different from the Conventional grinding process. In creep feed grinding the entire depth of cut is completed in one pass only using very small in feed rates, As shown in Fig. 2.12, this process is characterised by high depth of cut of the order of 1 to 30 mm with low work speeds of the order of 1 to 0.25 mimin, The Cutting forces and consequently the power required increases in case of creep feed grinding but has a favourable G-ratio.ey) ADVANCES IN GRINDING Machine tool builders that specialize in grinding are stil technology and its application. They include (1) multitasking machines that combine grinding with machining operations such as milling and turning; (2) five-axis CNC tool and cutter grinders; (S) machines that allow the user to specify how often the grinding wheel should be Gressed and then automatically performing the dressing procedure and compensating for changes in wheel diameter, @) grinders capable of automatically measuring and making advances in the