2022-10-05

OBJECTIVES
C A R B O H Y D R AT E S • Explain the role and significance of carbohydrates
• Explain the chemical composition of carbohydrate
• Classify various carbohydrates on the basis of their chemical structures
• Discuss how chemical structure influences the characteristics of different
carbohydrates
• Discuss, and compare the classification, structure and function of carbohydrates and
its derivatives.
LECTURE 2 • Analyze functional properties of carbohydrates

ROLE & SIGNIFICANCE CARBOHYDRATES WHAT ARE CARBOHYDRATES

• Make up more than 90% of the dry matter of plants, are abundant, available, and
inexpensive
– abundant biomolecules in nature, having a direct link between solar energy and the
chemical bond energy in living organisms
• As a major energy source for living organisms (D-glucose is a principal energy
source in animal and plants) together with starch, lactose, sucrose and D-fructose
• Existent in different molecular structures, sizes, and shapes; exhibit a variety of
chemical and physical properties
• As a structural material (cellulose in plants)
• Carbohydrates -refers to its elemental composition, namely Cx (H2O)y, similar
ratio as in water
• Are not as this simple empirical formula
• Most natural carbohydrate is in the form of oligomers (oligosaccharides) or
polymers (polysaccharides) made up of simple and modified sugars, with low-
molecular-weight carbohydrates
• Consist of sugar (saccharum)Sugars : compound that contains alcohol &
carbonyl functional group (C=O); Adehyde  aldose; Ketone  ketose
• They all contain chiral carbons
• The are classified into three main groups ? What are these groups

WHAT IS A CHIRAL CARBON CLASSES OF CARBOHYDRATES

• Has four different, chemically distinct atoms or chemical groups attached to it,
forming two different spatial arrangements of atoms around a given chiral center. Carbohydrate
• The two different arrangements of the four atoms or groups in space are mirror
images of each other (non-superimposable)

Mono Oligo Poly Glycono

saccharide saccharide saccharide conjugates

• A, B, D, and E represent different atoms, functional groups, or other groups of atoms

attached to carbon atom C.

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MONOSACCHARIDES

STRUCTURE OF MONOSACCHARIDES
PENTOSES HEXOSES

Fisher projections/structure (acyclic) Fisher projections/structure

Haworth /Cyclic structure Haworth-ring /Cyclic

structure

FURANOSE AND PYRANOSE

Furanose and pyranose is that furanose compounds have a chemical structure that includes a five-
membered ring system containing four carbon atoms and one oxygen atom whereas pyranose
compounds have a chemical structure that includes a six-membered ring structure consisting of
five carbon

The structure of pyranose is

an isomer of Glucose and
Furanose if that of fructose.
But as the furanose has a five-
membered ring, it is unstable
as compared to the six-
membered ring structure of
pyranose

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Glucose
Also known as dextrose
is the most widely distributed sugar in the plant and animal kingdom
Present as blood sugar
Also found in refined sugars
Exists in two forms
chain form
ring form
Ring form is made by bonding O on C5 with C1 and donating H on C5 to O on
C1 to form an OH functional group

 All but 1C-atom caries –OH group with exception of –C=O group which gives
sugars reducing property

 Location of functional group affects functional properties such as sweetness &

solubility α-D- Glucose ring form β- D-Glucose ring form

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STRUCTURE OF MONOSACCHARIDES Galactose

• It is similar to glucose in chemical composition but different in orientation
Monosaccharides exist in more than one structural form
Straight chain or fisher projections (acyclic) of OH and H functional groups on Carbon 4.
galactose
Ring or cyclic Haworth projections • Least sweetest among monosaccharides

Fructose
• Found in fruits, honey and some vegetables
• Also present in plants as a component of sucrose
• Commercially derived from sugarcane, beetroot and corn
• Added to fruits and juices for palatability and taste fructose
• Pure dry fructose is a very sweet, white, odourless, crystalline solid and is the
most water soluble and sweet of all sugars

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OLIGOSACCHARIDES DISACCHARIDES
• Oligosaccharides are composed of between 2- 10 or 3-20 monosaccharide units, • Formed by combing any of the two monosaccharides, glucose, fructose and galactose
each joined to the next by the elimination of a molecule of water. • Bond is called glyosidic bond.
• Formed during the transition of complex carbohydrates, such as starch, into • Common ones in foods – maltose, sucrose and lactose
simpler di- and monosaccharides-hydrolysis (water, acidic pH, heat & specific
+
glycosidase enzyme

H2O
+

Maltose (glucose α1→4 glucose)

LACTOSE LACTOSE INTOLERANCE

• Condition in Children after 6 months and most adult mammals
• Low levels of beta-galactosidase. Hence, much of the lactose they ingest moves to
the colon, where bacterial fermentation generates large quantities of CO2, H2 and
irritating organic acids.
• Undigested lactose- abdominal fluids- cramps & abdominal distention
• Pdt of lactic acid- lower pH and irritate the lining of intestines-increase bowel
movement- diarrhoea
• Bloating and cramping from fermented products
• These products cause painful digestive upset known as lactose intolerance and is
common in the African and Asian decent.

Due to hydrophilic and solubility- forms RAFFINOSE AND STACHYOSE

concentrated solutions of high osmolality – act
as preservatives and humectants • Also found in beans

Water in CHO solution is non-freezable. • Not completely digested into monosaccharides – colon acted upon by
One that freezes forms crystals –increasing the
concentration of solutes and viscosity decrease freezing microorganisms- lactate and gas – diarrhoea, bloating and flatulence
point- forming a glass ( solidified) decrease mobility of all
molecules- protecting texture damage

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• Like oligosaccharides they are either in a linear chain or branched, but

generally the term polysaccharides indicates much larger molecules, >20
units
• Some of the most important polysaccharides in food are composed only of
glucose units linked together by α or β-glucosidic linkages. The simplest of
these substances are the dextrins

DEXTRIN AND DEXTRAN

Dextrin
• Are distinctly shorter in chain length than starch, the related substance.
• Dextrin molecules are composed entirely of glucose, and these units are linked together by
1,4-a-glucosidic linkages
• Dextrin is slightly soluble, barely sweet and has limited thickening ability
• They are formed when flour is being browned using dry heat
Non-starch
polysaccharides
-hydrocolloids/
Food gums
Dextran
• Found in bacteria and yeast
• Like dextrin but differ in the glycosidic –linkage- has 1,6-a-glucosidic, making it branched

Sources of starch
Cereals: Wheat, rice, corn (wet milling used to derive starch from
corn)
Roots: Cassava, potato, tapioca
Legumes: dried beans, peas,
STARCH (CONT’D)
• It occurs in nature as discrete, partly crystalline particles known as GRANULES
• Starch granules are insoluble, hydrates to some extent in room-temperature
water
– are dispersed in water, making a low-viscosity suspensions/slurries
– Its viscosity increases when a slurry of granules is cooked –thickening power of
starch
• When heated (for example a 5% slurry of most native starch granules to about
80°C (175°F) stirring produces - very high viscosity dispersion PASTE.
• Another unique character-starch granules are composed of a mixture of two
Starches and modified starches - food uses,
polymers
adhesive, binding, clouding, dusting, film-forming,
foam-strengthening, gelling, glazing, – linear polysaccharide called amylose, and a highly branched polysaccharide
moisture-retaining, stabilizing, texturizing, called amylopectin.
and thickening
applications.

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amylose STARCH AMYLOSE

200-300 Glcp

1 4

• linear polymer of α-D-glucose linked by 1,4-α- bonds it’s molecular weight

varies
amylopectin • 25–55% of the molecules have secondary chains attached through occasional
106 Glcp, 1,6-α- link branch points
1
branches • The branches on amylose are few that, in many ways, the molecule acts as an
every 20 – 30 Glcp unbranched entity
6 • In excess water, amylose is leached from starch by being heated slightly above
the starch's gelatinization temperature
• As the leaching temperature is increased, amylose of higher molecular weight
and more branching is extracted

AMYLOPECTIN

• Amylopectin is composed of α-D-glucose linked primarily by 1,4-α-bonds.

Amylopectin is branched to a much greater extent than is amylose, with 4–5% of
the glycosidic bonds being 1,6-α- bonds
• This level of branching means that the average unit chain in amylopectin is only 20–
25 glucose units long
• The amylopectin molecule has three types of chains
The well-known blue color given by a mixture of iodine and starch is thought to be due to
polyiodide ions in the central core of the amylose helix
– A chains are composed of glucose linked 1,4-α-
Nuclear magnetic resonance studies have revealed that amylose-lipid complexes also occur in – B chains are composed of glucose linked 1,4-α-and 1,6-α-
native cereal starches
Free lipids occurring in the cereal starch may form additional amylose-lipid complexes during
– C chains are made up of glucose with 1,4-α-and 1,6-α-linkages plus the
starch gelatinization reducing group

AMYLOPECTIN

Cluster structure of amylopectin, with indication of A, B, and C chains and illustration of crystalline and
amorphous lamellae.The solid lines represent α-1,4-linked glucose units; arrows indicate α-1,6 linkages.The only
chain carrying a reducing end (ø) is the C chain

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MINOR CONSTITUENTS IN STARCH GRANULE ORGANIZATION OF THE STARCH GRANULE

Present only in low concentrations in the starch can and do affect the starch properties
• BIREFRINGENCE
Lipids
– Under polarized light, starch granules show birefringence in the form of the typical Maltese
the level of lipids in cereal starch is between 0.5 and 1.0%. The lipids associated with cross
Light photomicrograph of
starch are generally polar
wheat starch granules
Lysophospholipids and free fatty acids and are present in proportions positively
correlated with amylose content
Phosphorus is the most abundant mineral in starch.
Normal starch contains lysophospholipids & variable levels of esterified phosphate
The monoesterified phosphate groups are found exclusively on amylopectin
Potato amylopectin contains 200–1,000 ppm of monoesterified phosphorus, compared
to 40–150 ppm for root starches and 0–20 ppm for cereal starches – Indicates that the starch granule has a high degree of molecular order but not necessarily
All starches also contain low levels of nitrogen (<0.05%) that the granules are crystalline; things can be very ordered and yet not be crystalline
Part of this is from the lipids & the remainder is mostly proteinaceous

GLYCOGEN
• Comparable structure with that of amylopectin but differ in the number of linear glucose units
( 8-10 glc units) before it forms 1,6-α- linkange.
– Have a more spatial arrangement making it bulky
• Storage form of Carbohydrates in animal tissue

HEMICELLULOSE & PENTOSANS NON-GLUCOSIDIC POLYSACCHARIDES

• Hemicellulose- occur in plant tissue GUMS
– are water insoluble, non-starch polysaccharides • Complex polysaccharides based on other saccharides other than glucose
– Composed of sugars D-xylose and L-arabinose • Are found in seeds, plant exudates, and seaweed
– Obtained through alkaline extractions • Depending on the source, these gums may contain a variety of sugars in their structures,
although most have galactose as a common component
• Pentosans
• The seed gums also contain mannose. Plant exudates contain various other sugars including
– are water soluble, highly branched, viscous and gel forming
two pentoses (arabinose and xylose) and two unusual hexoses (rhamnose and fucose
– Composed of sugars D-xylose and L-arabinose
– Occur in wheat flour

• the terminal carbon is a methyl group rather than an alcohol

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGARS

• Sweet, one of the five basic tastes, occurs in foods through a variety of compounds.
• Common sweeteners are mono- and disaccharides but non-carbohydrate
compounds such as saccharin and aspartame are also incorporated into
manufactured foods to enhance sweetness
• The characteristics of each type of sweetener are unique to the specific sugar or
sugar substitute
• Physical properties are
• Gums used as gelling, stabilizing, suspending gents by the food industry
– Sweetness
• They have hydrophilic molecules that combine with water to form viscous – Hygroscopicity
solutions or gels
• Other sources include red seaweed ( see handout – solubility

SWEETNESS
• All sugars are sweet to the tongue, but some are sweeter than others ( 4kilocalories
per gram)
• The temperature of the solution containing the sugar influences the relative sweetness
values for sugars.
– Fructose is about 1.4 times sweeter than sucrose at 5°C (41°F), comparable in sweetness
when the solution is at 40°C (104°F), but only 0.8 times as sweet at 60°C (140°F)
• However, maltose sweetness ratings are essentially independent of temperature
• Non-sugar sweeteners provide far more sweetening than a comparable weight of any
of the sugars can contribute
– Even though these intense sweetening agents are of merit from the perspectives of taste
and calories, sweetness is not the only important property in using sugars in foods its
functional properties are also critical

HYGROSCOPICITY SOLUBILITY
• The amount of sugar that will go into solution in water varies with the type of sugar and also with the
Hygroscopicity temperature of the water.
• Sugars are able to attract and hold water to varying degrees.
• Useful in maintaining the freshness of some baked products,
• Source of potential problems in texture when the relative humidity is high, because elevation in
temperature also increases the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere

• Solubility influences food texture.

– Candies containing fructose are softer than those containing other sugars because of the greater solubility
of fructose.
– The very low solubility of lactose, the sugar in milk, is a particular textural problem in the manufacture of ice
cream.
– The low temperature required in ice cream storage promotes the formation of lactose crystals (detected by
the tongue as a somewhat gritty texture), due to the low solubility of this particular sugar.

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CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF SUGARS HYDROLYSIS AND DEGRADATION

Hydrolysis
• Disaccharides undergo hydrolysis when heated, this degradative reaction, is favoured in acidic medium
• Hydrolysis just as it does the presence of water.
• Degradation • Even when dry sugars are heated alone, a molecule of water splits into the two component
• Caramelization monosaccharides.

• Maillard reaction
• Oxidation and reduction

DEGRADATION
• The first step in the actual heat degradation of sugars in cookery is the opening of
the ring structure to form an aldehyde or ketone, depending on whether the original
sugar was a pyranose or furanose ring
• In the presence of acid, dehydration of the molecule occurs as three molecules of
water are eliminated. Organic acids and aldehydes are the result.
CARAMELIZATION
• This reaction occurs in the presence of heat, requires temperatures higher than
160°C to 200°C
• The reaction provides browning colour and flavor for foods such as caramels, other
sugar containing foods. Color change ranging from a pale golden brown to a gradually
deepening brown before burning can occur

• These reactions can occur in an acidic medium, but they take place even more
readily in an alkaline medium.

CARAMELIZATION BROWNING
• Maillard Reaction
• The overall process involves a number of steps – It involves a condensation reaction of the free amino group of an amino acid, protein or
peptides with a carbonyl group of a reducing sugar e.g glucose, lactose, fructose,
– beginning with the inversion of sucrose (conversion to invert sugar), condensation of the followed by two major reactions in a complex process
compounds occurs, which creates some polymers ranging in size from trisaccharides to
oligosaccharides
– Severe chemical changes at the very high temperatures involved also lead to dehydration
reactions and the formation of organic acids and some cyclic compounds
• It can be stopped by adding boiling water. Use of cold water is discouraged due to
splattering that it can cause
• Evidence of the creation of acids during caramelization can be seen by stirring some
baking soda into the caramelizing sugar, as is done in preparing peanut brittle.
• Maillard reaction binds up amino acids rendering them unavailable
– The carbon dioxide that forms when the soda neutralizes the acids creates a porous
• The reaction provides browning and flavor/aroma to foods such as cakes and meats
product as the gas expands in the hot, viscous candy solution
• It is undesirable during storage of high protein foods-dried egg whites, baked products,
instant mashed potatoes

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FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF SUGARS

• Sweetness
– Fructose>Sucrose>glucose>maltose>galactose>lactose
• Texture
– Depending on concentration can make product viscous, tender
– Competition for water by sugar and other substances-affects food texture e.g
• addition of sugar in starch gelatinization may reduce viscosity & gel strength, delay gelatinization
• In baked products sugar tenderises/gives the soft and full texture
– Mouthfeel of products: Sugar stabilizes egg white meringues and also causes the foam to have smaller cells
and a finer texture and also its crystal forming ability ( ice –cream)
• Colour in foods – caramelization and maillard browning
• Shelf-life/preservative
– As the sugar controls amount of free, adsorbed & bound water – not only food texture but also microbial
growth

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FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF STARCH

OLIGOSACCHARIDES
• Used as sweeteners, fat substitutes
• Maltodextrins-derived from starch (maltotriose & alpha-limit dextrin) 1, 4- α
and 1,6-α bonds and dP 8

AMYLOSE AND AMYLOPECTIN CONTENTS IN STARCH AMYLOSE AND AMYLOPECTIN LEVELS IN DIFFERENT
GRANULE CEREALS
• Contain the two distinct polymer fractions amylose and amylopectin, with clear
• Starch is composed of two structural components, namely amylose and amylopectin that are present the
differences in molecular weight and in structural organization
ratio of 1:3. Thus amylose accounts for 20-30% and amylopectin 70%-80%
• For regular starches, amylose typically makes up 18–33% of the carbohydrate moiety • There are some wheat cultivars with elevated levels of amylose (35-40%) (Yamamori et al., 2000) while
others with very low amylose content (<2%) are referred to as “waxy wheat”
• In maize, sorghum, rice, barley, and wheat, mutants that have starches with essentially
100% amylopectin have been discovered Starch Amylose Amylopectin
Potato 21 79
– Such starches are called “waxy starches,” are called waxy maize, waxy barley
Tapioca (Cassava) 17 83
• Mutants that have starches with unusually high levels of amylose are also known. Corn 28 72
Waxy maize 0 100
– Certain lines of maize have starch containing 70% amylose, are known as
Wheat 28 72
“amylotypes.”/ amylomaize (Benion, 2004)

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF STARCH

• Gelatinization and pasting
• Gelation
• Retrogradation
• Dextrinization

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GELATINIZATION
• Is a physical process that is unique to starches and occurs in the presence of heat
• The heat energy causes hydrogen bonds in the starch granules to break,
which facilitates the entry of water into the granule and the shifting of some amylose
molecules into the water surrounding the granules.
• Water continues to migrate into the granules, causing considerable swelling when
the starch mixture is heated to the temperature range required for gelatinization.
• Temperature for gelatinisation tends to differ among the differ starches
GELATINIZATION
• Water is not compressible in the starch granule, the volume of the granule increases
as more and more water enters and forms hydrogen bonds with the
amylopectin and amylose molecules.
• This bound water not only affects the viscosity of the starch mixture by increasing
the physical size of the starch granules, but also reduces the amount of free water
external to the granules.
• The tight organization of the starch granule is disrupted during the gelatinization
process.
– The granules lose birefringence,
– the paste becomes more translucent as amylose leaches out of the granule into
the surrounding liquid

PASTING
• The changes taking place in starch as it heats
in the presence of water.

• Gelatinizing starch mixtures do begin to take

on the qualities of a paste - becomes more
viscous and less opaque, but still flows.

• These changes include:

– loss of molecules of starch from the

granule (amylose)

– complete loss of the granular

organization (its crystallinity)

GELATINIZATION PROCESS VISUALISED FACTORS THAT AFFECT GELATINIZATION

Temperature
• Starch gelatinize at different temperatures
• most starches can be heated to 100°C (212°F) with
little rupture of starch granules despite their vast
increase in size as they bind increasing amounts of
water.
• The shorter amylose molecules are the most likely to
leave the granule.
• At temperatures near 100°C (212°F), some of the
granules begin to implode (compress inward) and
fragment, a change that reduces viscosity. This is
offsetting by other granules still swelling
• When a starch paste is held at 95°C (203°F) or higher
for several minutes, most of the starch granules reach
their maximum volume and begin to implode-decrease
viscosity

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CRITICAL TEMPERATURES OF GELATINIZATION

Starch source Critical temperature ºF (º Characteristics of

Roots and tubers (potato &
tapioca)
Cereal grains ( corn , sorghum,
rice & wheat)
Waxy hybrids (corn sorghum)
High amylose hybrids (corn)
C) Cooked Starch
133-158 (56-70) Forms viscous, long-bodied pastes.
Relatively clear pastes. Weak gel
upon cooling
144-165 (62-75) Form viscous, short-bodied pastes;
set to opaque gel upon cooling
145-165 (63-74) Form heavy-bodied pastes; set to
very rigid opaque gel upon cooling
212-320 (100-160) Form short-bodied pastes; set to
very rigid opaque gel upon cooling

FACTORS THAT AFFECT GELATINIZATION FACTORS THAT AFFECT GELATINIZATION

Type of starch Type of ingredients
• Potato starch is far more effective than other • Sugar
starches as a thickening agent – The hygroscopic nature of all types of sugars causes the sugar used in the recipe to compete with the starch
• Flour, which is used in the home, is even less for the water needed for gelatinization,
effective than pure wheat starch because of its – partially explains delay and increase in temperature for gelatinisation
protein content. – increased translucence and reduced paste viscosity and gel strength
• The waxy starches are more effective thickening • Acid
agents in starch pastes than are their standard – The combination of acid and heat, < pH 4, causes a hydrolytic reaction that break down molecules of starch
counterparts into slightly smaller molecules move freely and reduce thickness of paste
• Increased translucence noticeable in the root • Fats are a part of some formulations that are thickened with starch. Their presence results in a
starches. reduction in the temperature at which maximum gelatinization and viscosity occur.
• Among cereals starches, high amylopectin • Milk proteins also lower the temperature required for maximum gelatinization of starch mixtures.
>regular corn starch>rice and wheat • Sugar and acid should be added after gelatinisation has occurred.

GELATION FACTORS THAT AFFECT GELATION

• Gelatinized starch mixtures may exist as sols or gels • Type and concentration of starch
• Sol – starches low in amylose (i.e., waxy starches) do not form gels in the concentrations
– Hot starch pastes exhibit flow properties; starch is the dispersed solid phase, and water is the continuous – Unlike potato and tapioca starches, arrowroot starch is a root starch capable of forming
phase. at least a soft gel, it forms a much stronger gel than does rice starch. Cornstarch forms a
• Many starch pastes (sols) are converted to gels as they cool. This promotes the formation of hydrogen pleasingly firm gel, and wheat starch sets to a strong gel
bonds between amylose molecules, with the result that frequently a starch paste is transformed into a
• Effect of heating
gel.
– Availability of free amylose molecules for hydrogen bonding to form the continuous
• Gel (gelation)
network is critical.
– Amylose molecules establish a continuous network joined by hydrogen bonds, the swollen granules become
trapped in the amylose superstructure. – For optimal gel strength, starch pastes need to be heated until enough amylose has been
– This network of solids becomes the continuous phase and the water is now the dispersed or discontinuous released, but not so much that the granules start to split apart into fragments.
phase. This colloidal system no longer has the flow properties
– Vigorous stirring and a prolonged heating period, considerable fragmentation does occur.
This results in a pasty texture and a weakened gel structure

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SYNERESIS
• Within the starch gel, water is trapped
– A layer of water is hydrogen bonded all along the individual amylose molecules, as
well as to the surface molecules of the granules. Some water is bound within the
starch granules
– Additional free water (not actually bound to the starch) is trapped in the
interstices within the gel structure.
• Syneresis- refer to loss of liquid as the gel ages.
– some of the amylose molecules draw together, and some water is squeezed out of
the gel.
– In a similar fashion, water separates from a starch gel when the surface is cut and
the trapped liquid is released from the areas that have been exposed by the cut.

RETROGRADATION

• Staling of bread is attributed to retrogradation- the hardening of the crumb due

to association of the the branches starch fraction with bread during storage.
• This is in addition to the already retrograded linear fraction which gives bread
its elastic and tender crumb structure
• Staling is also temperature –dependent. Bread stales faster in a refrigerator than
at room temperature
Gelatinisation Retrogradations

RETROGRADATION
A step that occurs after gel formation as the starch thickened mixture continues to stand
Additional new bonds continue to form between starch- chain amylose molecules. They
closely adhere to each other

Freezing accelerates this process

Frozen food use starch with high amylopectin such as waxy corn or sorghum

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GELATINIZATION, GELATION AND RETROGRADATION DEXTRINISATION

• Occurs during dry heating of flour and starch is chemically degraded
• The amylose and amylopectin molecules split at one or more of the linkages between the
glucose units. The result is formation of shorter molecules of varying lengths called dextrins

Schematic representation of changes that occur in a starch-water mixture during heating, cooling, and storage. I, Native
starch granules; II, gelatinization (i.e., loss of birefringence associated with crystal melting): swelling (IIa) and amylose
leaching and partial granule disruption (IIb), resulting in the formation of a starch paste; III, retrogradation: formation of
an amylose network (gelation) during cooling of the starch paste (IIIa) and formation of ordered or crystalline
amylopectin molecules (amylopectin retrogradation) during storage (IIIb). (Adapted from Goesaert et al 2005

OVERVIEW OF THE STARCH CHARACTERISTICS PROPERTIES OF COOKED STARCHES

• Cereal starches form viscous, short-bodied pastes that set to opague gels on cooling ( corn, wheat,
rice and sorghum)
• Root and tubers form highly viscous , long-bodied pastes, that are clear and their gel is weak on
cooling
• Waxy starches( waxy corn, rice or sorghum)form heavy-bodied stringy pastes, that are clear and
have low tendency to g=form gel
• High amylose starch ( corn) form short-bodied paste, but require high temperatures to gelatinize, on
cooling they form very firm opaque gel

OTHER FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF NATIVE STARCH VERSUS MODIFIED STARCH

STARCH • What is the difference between native starch and modified starch
• Give examples of native and modified starches
• Describe how the different modified starches are formed
• What ae their functional properties
• What are their uses in the food industry

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MODIFIED STARCHES
• Different methods are used to modify starch- to get the desired properties
ACID TREATMENT
– Acid treatment – done on an aqueous starch slurries using hydrochloric acid or sulfuric caid at 40 to 60ºC
– Enzyme treatment – results in a thin boiling starch/low viscosity-acid penetrates intermicellar areas because the granules
– Cross-bonding are weakened and no longer swell much yet take up large amount of water
– Substitution – but retain ability to form gel.
– Oxidation – Acid treated waxy starches produce stable gels ( clear &fluid) while those with high amylose form
opaque gels on cooling
– heat
• Generally starch is used to produce viscocity, promote gel formation, and provide cohesiveness

ENZYME TREATMENT CROSS-BONDING, SUBSTITUTION

&OXIDATION
• Cross-bonding-formation of different chemical bonds between different areas in the starch
granule
– Number of cross bond can be as low as 1 per 100,000 glucose units,
– Granule is resistant to rapture and degradation, giving a firmer texture
– Examples – starch adipate
• Substituttion – hydroxyl groups in starch react with monofunctional reagents
– This lowers its ability to associate and form gels i.e the linear molecule does not form crystaliline
regions
– Examples of substituted starches –starch monophosphophates, starch acetate,
• Oxidised starch- achieved by treating starch with hypochlorite
– under alkaline conditions carboxyl groups are formed which change the linear portions hence
minimise association and retrogradations

HEAT TREATMENT- DEXTRINIZATION

• This is done on dry powdered starch, sometimes HCL or phosphoric acid is added
• This produces white dextrin due to hydrolysis or transglucosidation
• Used for coating

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