Engineering Physics Material__prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao | VNRVJIET Hyd UNIT-V Semiconductors Introduction: A solid that has electrical conductivity lies between that of an insulator and metals is called semiconductor. The valence and conduetion bands are separated with a small energy band gap E; < 1 eV in the semiconductor. At room temperatures, free electrons are not available at conduction band. Hence, these solids behave like electrical insulators at low temperatures. The electrical conductivity increases at high temperatures by transition of free electrons fiom valance band to conduction band. Thus, these solids behave like electrical conductors at high temperatures. Devices made of semiconductors (particularly silicon) are essential components of most electronic circuits. 1. Types of Semiconductors Briefly, exp! classification of semiconductors’ Semiconductors are of two types. Atoms commonly used as semiconductors include Silicon, Germanium ete. These in their pure form are known as Intrinsic Semiconductors, After the addition of impurities their resistance and electrical properties change and they are known as, extrinsic semiconductors 1 Intrinsic semiconductors ~ (pure form of semiconductors:- Si, Ge) 2. Extrinsic semiconductors ~ (impure form of Semiconductors) a)_n- type semiconductor (Si or Ge doped with pentayalent elements like As, P, Sb) ) p-type semiconductor (Si or Ge doped with trivalent elements like Ga, In, Al, B) a) n- type semiconductor: If a silicon or germaninnyatom in its pure form is doped with an element of group five in a small amount, such as antimony (Sb), arsenic (As) or phosphorus (P), these elements having 5 electrons in their otttermost shell react such that they form a covalent bonds with the four electrons of silicon, and one electron is left free as a mobile charge carrier. The negative charge (electron) is responsible to improve the electrical conductivity. Thus, this type of semiconductor is called n- type semiconductor b) p- type semiconductor: Ifa silicon or germanium atom in its pure form is doped with an element of group three in a'small amount, such as aluminum (AD), indium (in), gallium (Ga) or boron (B), these elements having 3 electrons in their outermost shell react such that they form a covalent bonds with the three electrons of silicon, and one hole is left free as a mobile charge carrier. The positive charge (hole) is responsible to improve the electrical conductivity. Thus, this type of semiconductor is called p- type semiconductor. Teaert meurty Atom (a) Intinsie SC (b) n-type SC (© prype SC 1[PageEngineering Physics Material__prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao | VNRVJIET Hyd 2. Doner and accepter levels of extrinsic semiconductors Briefly, explain doner and accepter levels of extrinsic semiconductors? a) doner level in n- type semiconductor: If a silicon or germanium atom in its pure form is doped with an element of group five in a small amount, stich as antimony (Sb), arsenic (As) or phosphorus (P), then u- type semiconductor can be produced. The impurities occupy a separate energy level called doner level (F,) at T = 0 k. However, at room temperatures the free electrons of the impurities jump into the conduction band and they conduct the electron current (i) Fermi level Ep= (G45) (1) ) accepter level in p- type semiconductor: If silicon or germanium atom in its pure form is doped with an element of group three in a small amount, such as aluminum (A), indium (Ia), gallium (Ga) or boron (B), then p- type semiconductor can be produced. The imputities occupy a separate energy level called accepter level (E,)iat, T = 0k. However, at room temperatures the free holes of the impurities jump into the valence band and they conduet the hole current (is) By Ba 2 Fermi level Er= ( Accepter level Fig (A) doner and accepter levels at T= 0k N- Type semiconductor P- Type semiconductor Fig (B) doner and accepter levels at T> 0k 2IPageEngineering Physics Material__prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao | VNRVJIET Hyd 3. Intrinsic carrier concentration in a pure semiconductor Derive expression for density of electrons (holes) in an intrinsic semiconductor? The number of electrons in the conduction band (and also the number of holes in the valence band) per unit volume in a semiconductor is known as intrinsic carrier concentration. a= fp f(E).g(EdE ~ where g(E) = density of states a fora semiconduetor, a(E) = #5 (2m3)*"(E— E,)'? f(E) = Fermi-Dirac distribution function IE) = 1/{ eCF-PY/T + 1} ) For all possible temperatures in a semiconductor (G-E)> KT, we can neglect ‘1’ in denominator) A{E)~ eft-AAT 3) Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), 1-5 (2m})3/2e8r/KP LE —E,)MZe-B/KT gE a Consider the integral part, f&° (E = E,)“/2eP/* dz Put (E—E,) =x E=E,.+Xx dE=dx Jf EB) 2e FAT AB=e PINT JP Pe NIT dy But, f(x)e-* dx Therefore, On — B)t/2@-E/KT qpae-Be/KT (1 3/2 JE E)e dE: GD kT) Substituting (5) in (4), we obtain 3[ Page1g Physics Material —_ prepared by D nee, CRED 9/2 ele Hose ~ 2am, eS Similarly, p= ')3/2¢(Ev—Ee)/KT Equations (6) and (7) show the expression for density of electrons and holes in an intrinsic semiconduetor respectively. Intrinsic carrier concentration nj = n= p n=(np)? Substituting (6) and (7) in (9), we obtain 2nk mt) 3/4e-(Ee 1.2 D3 ¢mpm) ere Bo /eer = 2 CEP)9/2 (mem y?/4e-Fe/247 20) Eq. (10) is the expression for intrinsic carrier concentration in a pure semiconductor. In the above derivation m; and mj, = Effective mass of electron and hole: E,, Ey, E= Energies of Conduction band, Valance band and Fermi level K= Boltzman constant h=Plank’s constant ‘T= Temperature of the semiconductorat T= 0K. 4. Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor Derive expression for Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor? The number of electrons in the conduction band (and also the number of holes in the valence band) per unit volume in a semiconductor is known as intrinsic carrier concentration, ~ (1) a CBE 9/2 Be ft 7 pa Camakty 3/2 (Eye /KT Similarly, a Intrinsic carrier concentration n= p Substituting (1) and (2) in (3), we obtain 8) 2 BM s/2eC6r tose 7 CEBU 3/2gCHy HMM ay 4lPace1g Physics Material —_ prepared by D 3/2 g(Ev—Eny/KT = Feeltrtoret _ 20 ay , et! > Ee ni) + @) Eq. (4) is the expression for Fermi level in an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor. Case (1): When T= 0k Then first term in eq, (4) vanishes. More ever (m; = m}), its logarithmic value zero. > Be @& 6) Hence the Fermi level lies exactly at center of valance band and conduction band at T = 0 k. Fig. (A) Fenn level at T= Case (2): When T > 0k Then first term in eq. (4) is added with the central value of the Fermi level. More ever (inj, > m), its logarithmic value is non-zero. Then we have to follow equation (4) only. Hence the Fermi level gradually moves towards the conduction band at T > 0 k. Fig. (B) Femi level at T> 0k S| PageEngineering Physics Material —_ prepared by D 5. HALL EFFECT AND HALL EXPERIMENT What is Hall Effect_and Hall experiment? Derive expression for Hall coefficient? Explain applications of Hall Effect? Hall Effect: When piece of current carrying semiconductor be placed in a transverse magnetic field then there induces electric field mutually perpendicular to both the current flow and the applied magnetic field. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. The induced electric field is known as Hall field (Ex) and the induced voltage is called Hall voltage (Vi) The directions follow the Fleming’s right hand rule Fig (A) Hall effect in p-type semiconductor Fig (B) Hall Effect in n-type semiconductor GI PageEngineering Physics Material —_ prepared by D Expression for Hall coefficient (Ru): Let us consider an n-type semiconductor carrying current (I) in presence of the applied transverse magnetic field induction (B). Then magnetic force acting on electrons is given by Fa=4qVB > Fa=neViB ~ (1) [charge q=ne; Drift velocity V= Va} The electric force acting on electrons is F.=qE © Fy=neE~ - (2) [charge q=ne; Hall field E= Ex] At steady state, magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Thus equating (1) and (2); Fm=Fe 2 VB-En & Va=p— @) Current passing per unit area is called current density (1) and given by Tene Ve~ @® Substituting (3) in (4) nett © Janel 1 Bex o> Life = Constant: This constant is called Hall coefficient (Ry). En Therefore, Rx= == © - 1 Thus, we can write Hall coefficient Ray = — => electrons are being accelerated opposite the field direction, -— (7) for n-type semiconductor, as 1 And, we can write Hall coefficient Ruy = +> - (8) for p-type semiconductor, as, holes are being accelerated opposite the field direction. T[PageEngineering Physics Material —_ prepared by D Hall Experiment: Let us cousider a current (J) carrying semiconductor of width (b) and thickness (1) be placed a transverse magnetic field (B), then the Hall electric field (Ex) is induced. Thus the induced Hall voltage (Vx) can be measured using a voltmeter. “: VY Fig (C) Hall Experiment using p-type semiconductor From figure, we can follow relations Curent density J = — (9) And Hall Electric field Ex =“! ——--—- (10) Rewtiting (6), Ru= SH © Substituting (9) and (10) in (6), Thus, we can determine the Hall coefficient (Ry) value experimentally by measuring the parameters cwrent (1), Hall voltage (Vx), thickness ({) of the semiconductor and applied magnetic field (B) BI PageEngineering Physics Material —_ prepared by D Applications of Hall Effect/ Hall experiment: 1. Determine the Type of Semiconductor: By knowing the direction of the Hall Voltage, oue can determine that the given sample is whether n-type semiconductor or p-type semiconductor. This is because Hall coefficient is negative for n-type semiconduetor while the same is positive in the case of p-type semiconductor. 2. Calculate the Carrier Concentration: The expressions for the carrier concentrations of electrons (n) and holes (p) in terms of Hall coefficient are given by 1 ag ~ aay nd P= + (12) 3. Determine the Mobility (Hall Mobility): Mobility expression for the electrons (11.) and the holes (}1,), expressed in terms of Hall coefficientis given by, He =-ORy and py= topRy (13) Where, 6, and 9 represent the conductivity die to the electrons and the holes, respectively (since Gg = N€ fle and Gp = pe fy) 4. Measure Magnetic Flux Density: This equation can be readily deduced from the equation of Hall voltage and is given by (14) 5, Hall sensors: Hall-effect sensors and Hall-effect probes used to determine wheel speed in Automobiles and also, they are used to generate trigger pulses in Electronics, 9|PageEngineering Physics Material —_ prepared by D 6. DRIFT CURRENT DENSITY Write short note on “drift current density”? Current passing through a semiconductor per unit cross sectional area due to acceleration (transportation) of charges in presence of extemal electric field is called “drift current density” ie. >» Jarie = Drift current density in terms of applied field for n-type semiconductor: 2) Jearitt = ne Va— eit velocity But, mobility of electron je = So we Substituting (4) in (2), we get, Jedritt = ¢ Ho E = Similarly Jp qrart =e ts E Total drift current density of the semiconductor is given by Jrotar.aritt ~ Je,aritt * Jp,aritt > Jrotal drift = Re He E+ pe ty E > Jrotatarite = (ate +p Hn) €E —— (1) [PaceEngineering Physics Material__prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao | VNRVJIET Hyd 7. DIFFUSION CURRENT DENSITY Write short note on “diffusion current density”? Current passing through a semiconductor per unit cross sectional area due to diffusion (transportation) of charges from high concentration region to low concentration region is called “diffusion current density” Testusion ie, Jaistusion = - (1) Diffusion current density of n-type semiconductor: Jediffusion = charge x diffusion electron flux Jesttfusion = © Da @) for n-type where, D, = Diffiusion coefficient for electrons 2 concentration gradient of electrons i ~ (4) for p-type , 4 Similarly, Jp,diffusion =~ © Dp 5 where, D, = Diffusion coefficient for holes 2 conéentration gradient of holes Negative sign indicates the direction of holes is opposite to the electrons. n re ax Fig. Diffusion of electrons Total diffusion current density of the semiconductor is given by Jrotal itfusion ~ Je,diffusion + Jp,ditfusion > Jeotal diffusion > Jrotal diffusion = [PageEngineering Physics Material__prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao | VNRVJIET Hyd 8. CONTINUITY EQUATION Derive expression for continuity equation of a semiconductor? Net number of charges passing through an elementary volume of a semiconductor is constant due to following four factors. i) Generation of charges ii) Dissociation (recombination) of charges iii) Charges consumed for drift current iv) Charges consumed for diffusion current, Let us consider elementary p-type semiconductor of area A and thickness dx. Therefore its volume is given by V = Adx -() T A 1 ——| 1 +d —_ dx Fig. Volume element of P-type semiconductor. Let us consider rate of generation of charges (holes) is @ and their rate of dissociation is © at temperature T. Therefore net rate of charges (holes) due to generation and dissociation processes is given by op at [PageEngineering Physics Material__prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao | VNRVJIET Hyd Ina semiconductor (p-type), we can write Net rate of Net rate of Net rate of charges charges (holes) charges (holes) (holes) ~ |due to generation} consumed across 8 for driftand and dissociation elemental volume: diffusion currents: 8 de > AL dx= cA (5) Sp ga'Ah. ot B eAG= ATH a ©) Now let us consider the current density in terms of drift and diffusion processes in the p-type semiconductor J=Jp.aritt + Jp diffusion LL 4 TPE ME + CeD, 2) & I= ApejwE-Ae Dp Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x ‘Now substituting (7) in (6), P ee oe a #y & ea eve? [ape un & - aed 2 ° > (using (4)) Similarly, Equations (8) and (9) show the expression for continuity equation for p- type and n- type semiconductors respectively. Conclusion: Thus we can say that the net number of charges passing through an elementary volume of a semiconductor is constant. In other words, the continuity equation validates the principle of conservation of charge in the semiconductor 1B Page