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Introduction 4

Key topic 1: The origins of the Cold War, 1941-58

I ntrod uction 6
Chapter 1 Early tension between East a n d West 7
Chapter 2 The development of the Cold War, 1 947-49 23
Chapter 3 The Cold Wa r intensifies, 1 949-58 38

Key topic 2: Cold War crises, 1958-70

I ntrod uction 49
Chapter 4 The Berlin crisis, 1 961 50
Chapter 5 The crisis over Cuba, 1 962 59
Chapter 6 The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1 968 71

Key topic 3: The end of the Cold War, 1970-91

I ntrod uction 81
Chapter 7 Attem pts to red uce tension between East a n d West 82
Chapter 8 Flashpoi nts between East and West 97
Chapter 9 The co l l a pse of Soviet control of eastern Europe 1 07

Revise and practice 115

Glossary 117

Index 119
Intro d u ction

Introduction

About the co u rse

During this course you must study four studies:
• A thematic study and historic environment
• A period study
• A British depth study
• A modern depth study.
These studies are assessed through three examination papers:
• For Paper 1 you have one hour and 15 minutes to answer questions on your chosen
theme.
• In Paper 2 you have one hour and 45 minutes to answer questions on a period study and
a British depth study.
• In Paper 3 you have one hour and 20 minutes to answer source questions on one
modern depth study.

Period study (Pa per 2)

There are five options in the period study unit. You have to study one. The five options are:
• Spain and the 'New World', c.1490-1555
• British America, 1713-83: empire and revolution
• The American West, c.1836-c.1895
• Superpower relations and the Cold War, 1941-91
• Conflict in the Middle East, c.l945 -95.

About the book

The book is divided into three key topics.
• Key topic 1 examines the origins of the Cold War, including the conferences of
Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam, the ideological differences between the superpowers,
the importance of the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan and Soviet expansion in
eastern Europe, the causes, events and consequences of the Berlin Crisis of 1948-49, the
formation of rival alliances, including NATO and the Warsaw Pact, and the early arms
race.
• Key Topic 2 focuses on the Cold War crises of 1958-70 including the causes, events,
consequences and significance of the Berlin Crisis and the building of the Berlin Wall
(1958- 61), the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 and the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia
in 1968.
• Key Topic 3 concentrates on the period 1970-91 and the end of the Cold War, including
the attempts to reduce tension between the superpowers in the 1970s and 1980s,
flashpoints such as Afghanistan and the 'Second Cold War' and the collapse of Soviet
control of eastern Europe, especially Gorbachev's 'new thinking' and the significance of
the fall of the Berlin Wall.
Each chapter in this book:
• contains activities - some develop the historical skills you will need, others are exam­
style questions that give you the opportunity to practise exam skills
• gives step-by-step guidance, model answers and advice on how to answer particular
question types in Paper 2
• defines key terms and highlights glossary terms in red bold the first time they appear in
each key topic.
 About Pa per 2 Section A
Paper 2 Section A is a test of:
• knowledge and understanding of the key developments in the Cold War, 1941-91
• the ability to answer brief and extended essay questions.
You have to answer the following types of questions. Each requires you to demonstrate
different historical skills:
• Consequences- explain two consequences of a given development or event.
• Write an account- analyse key developments in a given period.
• Importance- explain the importance of a given development/event in the Cold War.

Below is a set of exam-style questions. You will be given step-by-step guidance in Chapters
1-9 on how best to approach and answer these types of questions.

Question 1 is a
Pa per 2
consequence question -
you have to explain two
Section A: Superpower rel ations and the Col d War, 1941-91
consequences of a given ..,_
development or event.
"1 Explain two consequences of the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961.
(Total for Question 1 � 8 marks)

Question 2 is a narrative
question. You have to write
an account which analyses
events or developments
during a given period in the
Cold War.
_ _.2 Write a narrative account analysing the main developments in US-Soviet
relations in the years 1 945-47.
Yo u may u s e t h e followi n g i n yo u r a nswer:
• T h e Ya lta C o n f e r e n c e , 1945
• T h e Tru m a n D o c t ri n e , 1947

Yo u must a l s o u s e i nf o r m a t i o n of y o u r o w n .
(Total for Question 2 � 8 marks)
Question 3 is an
Importance question.
_ _.. 3 Explain two of the following:
You are being asked • The importance of the Berlin Crisis (1948-49) for the development of
to make a judgement the Cold War.
on the importance of • The importance of the arms race of the 1950s for relations between
two different events/ the superpowers.
developments. • The importance of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) for the
development of the Cold War.
(Total for Question 3 � 16 marks)
Total for Section A � 32 marks
 LOW RES PLACEHOLDER
BAC UND IMAGE

KEY The origins of the Cold War,

TOPIC 1 1941- 5 8

This key topic examines the major developments in the Cold War from the Teheran
Conference of 1943, through the origins of and early Cold War, to the Hungarian Crisis of
1956. This was a period of great change in the relations between the two superpowers� from
being allies during the Second World War, co the build-up of rivalry and tension from as early
as 1948�49 in the Berlin Crisis. By 1956 the USA and the Soviet Union had formed two rival
alliance systems and were competing with each other in nuclear weapons development and
the space race.
Each chapter within this key topic explai11s a key issue and examines important lines of
enquiry as ourlined in the boxes below.
There will also be guidance on how co answer the following question types:
• the consequence question (page 19)
• the narrative question (page 30)

CHAPTER 1 EARLY CHAPTER 2 T H E CHAPTER 3 T H E CO LD

T E N SION B ETW E E N D EVELOPM E NT O F T H E WAR I NT E N S I F I ES,
EAST A N D WEST COLD WAR, 1947-49 1949-58
• The G r a n d A l l i a n ce. The • The i m pact on US-Soviet • The significance of the arms race
outcomes of t h e Tehran, Ya lta relations of the Tru m a n Doctri ne and the fo rmation of the Warsaw
a n d Potsdam conferences. a n d the M a rs h a l l P l a n,1 947. Pact.
! • The ideological d ifferences • The sign ificance of Cominform • Events in 1 956 leading to

!:
between the s u perpowers a n d
the attitudes of Sta lin, Tru m a n
and C h u rchi l l .
• The i m pact on U S-Soviet
relations of the development
of the atomic bomb, the Long
a n d Novikov telegrams a n d the
·,f
creation of Soviet sate l l ite states
i n eastern Europe.
(1 947), Comecon (1 949) and t h e the H u ngarian U p rising, a n d
formation o f NATO (1 949). Khrushchev's res ponse.
• Berlin: its division i nto zones. The • The internati o n a l reaction to t h e
� Berlin Crisis (blockade a n d airl ift)
a n d its im pact. The formation of
:. -
the Federal Repu b l i c of Germany
I a n d G e r m a n Democratic
Republic.
-

TIMELINE 1941-58
1 941 T h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e Gra n d A l l i a n c e 1 948 B e g i n n i n g of B e r l i n B l o c k a d e
1 943 T h e Te h r a n C o n f e re n c e 1 949 Sett i n g u p of C o m e c o n .
1 945 T h e Ya lta a n d Pots d a m C o nf e r e n c e s . E n d of B e r l i n B l o c ka d e .
T h e U S A e x p l o d e s t h e f i rst ato m i c b o m b s T h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c
1 946 C h u rc h i ll's ' I ro n C u r t a i n ' s p e e c h . of G e r m a n y a n d t h e G e r m a n D e m o c ra t i c
L o n g a n d N ovi kov tele g r a m s R e p u b l i c a n d t h e setti n g u p of N ATO
1 947 Tr u m a n D o c t r i n e a n d M a rs h a l l Pla n . 1 955 Sett i n g up of Warsaw Pact
S e tt i n g u p of C o m i nform 1 956 T h e H u n g a r i a n U p ri s i n g
I Early tension between East and West

The alliance between the USA, Britain and the Soviet Union during the Second World War
(1939-45) was very much a marriage of convenience or necessity, the necessity being to
defeat Nazi Germany. Once Germany had been defeated, differences began to emerge
between Stalin and the Soviet Union on one side, who wanted security against future
invasion by controlling eastern Europe; and the USA and Britain on the other, who feared
the spread of Soviet communism to western Europe. These differences began to emerge
at the peace conferences at Yalta and Potsdam in 1945.

1 .1 Differences between the su perpowers

The Cold War between the USA and the Soviet Union was in many ways due to ideological
differences between the superpowers as well as the differing aims and views of their
leaders, especially Harry Truman (USA) and Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union).

What was the Col d Wa r?

A hot war is a conflict in which actual fighting takes place. A cold war is a war waged
against an enemy by every means short of actually fighting. The expression was first used
to describe the frosty atmosphere that developed between the superpowers in the years
following the end of the Second World War.
The Cold War started in 1945-46 and lasted for over 40 years. At first it was confined to
Europe, but during the 1950s and 1960s it spread into Asia and then worldwide as the
superpowers competed for influence or control over newly independent states, especially in
Africa.
The Cold War had nearly all the features of a hot war:
• It had causes and consequences.
• There were two sides - East vs. West, or the USA and its supporters vs. the Soviet Union
and its supporters.
• There were two rival armed camps - NATO vs. Warsaw Pact (see page 31).
• The two sides competed for influence all over the world, often assisting rival sides in
civil wars such as the conflicts in Korea (1950 -53) and Vietnam (1960s).
However, the two superpowers did not ever directly fight each other.
Table 1 . 1 on page 8 outlines the main features of the Cold War.

ACTIVITY ")
•

Draw a diagra m to show the similarities and d ifferences

between a hot war and a cold war.
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58

T Table 1 . 1 Main features of the Cold War

Spying Both sides spied on each other. This was m a i n l y to fi nd out any m i l itary
devel o pments. They even used spy planes which cou l d fly at a g reat height
a n d ta ke photographs. One exa m p l e was the American U2 spy p l a n e which
could fly h i g h e n o u g h to avoid being shot down by Soviet fig h ters. Spying
increased the riva l ry between the two sides.

Propaganda Both sides used propaga n d a to create the worst possi ble image of the oth e r
side a n d ensure t h a t nation a l p u b l ic opinion s u p ported the government. T h e
Soviet U n i o n even u s e d su ccess i n sport, especia l l y the Olympics, t o i l l u strate
the su periority of the com m u n ist system.
Arms race There was com petition in conventional wea pons as well as nuclear weapons.
Each side wanted mo re wea pons a n d newer tech nol ogy than the oth er. By the
1 960s, both sides had e n o u g h n u c l e a r weapons to destroy each other many
times over. This was called ' M utually Assured Destruction' or MAD theory. I n
rea l ity this acted as a deterrent against war, a l t h o u g h i t d i d not stop each side
from tryi n g to d eve lop even m o re advanced nuclear wea pons.
Space race Each side com peted fo r success i n the space race. At fi rst it was to l a u n ch the
fi rst sate l l ite, then the first man i n space and fi n a l l y the first m a n on the Moon.
Success i n this fi e l d was a g a i n very effective propaga n d a for both the USA and
the Soviet U n i o n .
Loa ns and aid E a c h side com peted t o provide loans a n d aid to l ess deve l o ped a n d often
n ewly i n d e pendent states i n order to win their su pport i n the Cold War.

I d eologica l d ifferences
Superpower rivalry was not new. The differences and rivalry go back to the Bolshevik
Revolution in Russia in 1917. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized control of the
government and over the next few years established a communist government. They
believed in world revolution. So, at the heart of the rivalry were the conflicting ideas of the
two sides - communism and capitalism (see Table 1.2 below).
T Table 1 .2 The differences between communism and capitalism

Com m u nism Capitalism

Politics O n ly one p o l itical pa rty - the
C o m m u n ist Pa rty. N o choice. People
u n a b l e to change their g overn ment.
Economy No private ind ustry or businesses.
N o private profit. A l l i n d u stry and
businesses owned b y the state for the
benefit of everyone.
Beliefs Everyone e q u a l . Belief in world
revo l ution, that is, encouraging
com m u nism i n other countries.
Censors h i p of the media.
Severa l parties - voters may choose
and change their governm ent.
M ost i n d u stry and businesses private ly
owne d .
Some will be wea lthier than others.
Spread infl u e n ce to other cou ntries to
encourage trade a n d i nvestment. Very
l ittle censorship of m e d i a .

Countries such as Britain, France and the USA, who believed in capitalism, feared the
spread of communism. They intervened in the Russian Civil War, 1918-21, giving arms
and supplies to the groups in Russia who were fighting to overthrow Lenin and the
communists. Despite their victory in the civil war, Lenin and other leading Bolsheviks were
very suspicious of the West. Differences between Bolshevik Russia and the West can be seen
in the sources on page 9.
 1 Early tension betwe e n East a n d West

TI-lE CALCULATING DE/t.R

.A Source C A Bolshevik propaganda poster. The three
.ASource A A British cartoon from Punch magazine in 1939
figures represent France, the USA and Britain. The sign
showing the Soviet Union represented by the bear
says: 'Capitalists of the World Unite'.

Source B From a s p e e c h by L e n i n in 1 9 1 9 Source D From a s p e e c h by W i n s t o n C h u rc h i ll , 1 9 1 9, w h o

E n g l a n d , A m e r i c a a n d Fra nce a re wa g in g w a r a g a i nst
Russia. T h ey a re ave n g i n g t h e m s e lves o n t h e Soviet U n i o n
f o r havi n g overth rown t h e l a n d lo rd s a n d c a p i t a lists. T h ey
a re h e l p i n g t h e la n d lords with m o n ey a n d s u p p l i e s .
was a m e m b e r of t h e B r i t i s h g ove r n m e n t
Of a l l t h e tyra n n ies i n h i s t o ry, t h e B o l s h evi k tyra nny is t h e
w o r s t , t h e m ost d e stru ctive a n d t h e most d e g ra d i n g . Le n i n
a n d h i s g ove r n m e n t a re c o m m i t t i n g t h e wo rst atrocities
possible.

ACTIVITIES
•
What do you think the bear is doing in the ca rtoon (Source A)? What message is the
cartoon ist i n Source A trying to get across?
2 What messag e is the cartoonist trying to put across in Source C? H ow does the cartoon ist
get across this message?
3 Describe the key features of superpower riva l ry before 1 945.
4 Does Source D su pport the evidence of Source B about the Bolsheviks and their ai ms?
5 Odd one out:
a) Identify the odd word out i n the fol l owing: com m u nism one-party private industry
b) Explain you r choice.
c) Add a word that replaces the odd one out and l in ks with the other two.
d) Put together you r own exa m p l e of 'odd one out' based on Superpower riva l ry
before 1 945.
e) Try it out on someone in your class.
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58
1 . 2 The G ra n d Al l i a n ce
The Soviet Union allied with Britain and the USA during
the Second World War in what became known as the Grand
Alliance. Stalin was forced into this arrangement by the
German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. During
the war the Grand Alliance held two conferences. The first
meeting of the 'Big Three' - President Franklin Roosevelt
of the USA, Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Great
Britain and Stalin of the Soviet Union- was held in Tehran,
the capital of iran, in 1943. The second was in Yalta, a
Soviet resort on the Black Sea, in 1945.
Sta lin, Roosevelt a n d Church i l l
There were strains i n the Alliance during the Second World
War because of the different attitudes of the three leaders.
Stalin was annoyed that Britain and the USA delayed
opening a second front (they did so only in 1944 with the
D-Day landings). Stalin was convinced that the British and
Americans were waiting until the Soviet Union had been
seriously damaged by the German invaders.
Winston Churchill had been a staunch opponent of the
Bolshevik Revolution. As secretary of state for war, he had
supported the Bolsheviks' enemies in the Civil War of
1918-21 (see page 8). As British prime minister during the
Second World War, he was suspicious of Stalin's motives in
eastern Europe. He was convinced that Soviet troops would
remain in countries they liberated from the Germans.
Britain had gone to war in September 1 939 to maintain
the independence of Poland. However, Stalin believed that
Soviet control of Poland was essential to prevent future
invasions. Churchill became even more suspicious of
Stalin's motives in Poland when, in April 1943, German
troops discovered a mass grave in the Karyn Forest near
Smolensk. This grave contained the bodies of 10,000 Polish
officers murdered by the Soviets in 1939.
In August 1944 the Polish resistance organised an uprising
in Warsaw against the German forces occupying the city.
The Soviet army, which had reached the outskirts of the
city, halted its advance and stood by as the uprising was
brutally crushed by the Germans. This defeat left the Poles
defenceless against a Soviet occupation.
The Tehran Conference, N ovember 1943
Roosevelt was keen to improve relations between the three
Allies and agreed to hold the meeting in Tehran, Iran, near
to the Soviet Union in November 1943.
The meeting was mainly a success for Stalin who achieved
most of what he wanted. This was because Roosevelt was
not well during the Conference and, in any case, tended
to side with Stalin rather than Churchill. For example,
Churchill's idea of an Allied invasion through the Balkans,
thereby preventing the Red Army from caking over all of
eastern Europe, was rejected. The main agreements were:
• Britain and the USA agreed to open up a second front by
invading France in May 1944.
• The Soviet Union was to wage war againstJapan once
Germany was defeated.
• A U n ited Nations organisation was to be set up after
the war.
• An area of eastern Poland was added to the Soviet
Union. At the insistence of Stalin, the borders of post­
war Poland were to be along the Oder and Neisse rivers
(see Figure 1 . 1 on page 14).
The Yalta Conference, February 1945
By early 1945 Allied armies were closing in on Berlin, and
Germany was close to defeat. The three Allied leaders met
at Yalta in early 1945 to consider what to do with Germany
and Europe once victory was achieved. The Big Three were
still fearful of Hitler and, for the most part, were able to
reach agreement on key issues.
Yet this was the last meeting of the Big Three. Within
months, Roosevelt had died and Churchill had lost a
general election. Stalin wanted the Germans to pay huge
reparations, but Roosevelt and Churchill agreed that it was
not sensible to punish Germany too harshly. Stalin and
Roosevelt apparently enjoyed a warm relationship, and as a
result, Churchill felt isolated for most of the Conference.
At the Yalta Conference the Big Three agreed:
• the Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan once
Germany had surrendered
• to divide Germany into four zones: US, British, French
and Soviet
• to divide Berlin into four zones in the same way
• to hunt down and try Nazi war criminals in an
international court ofjustice
• to allow countries that had been liberated from
occupation by the German army to have free elections to
choose the government they wanted
• to join the new United Nations Organisation in order to
maintain peace once the war ended
• that eastern Europe would be a Soviet 'sphere
of influence'.
 1 Early tension betwe e n East a n d West

However, at the Yalta conference there was a clash between

Source F C h u rc h i l l w r i t i n g to Roosevelt s h o rtly after t h e
the three leaders on some issues. They could not agree
Y a l t a C o n f e re n ce
on how much Germany was to pay in reparations. Stalin
T h e Soviet U n i o n has b e c o m e a d a n g e r to t h e free world. A
wanted a much higher figure than either Roosevelt
new front m u st be created a g a i nst h e r onwa rd swee p . T h i s
or Churchill. The decision was delayed until the next
f r o n t s h o u ld b e a s far east a s p o s s i b l e . A s e t t l e m e n t m u s t
conference. b e re a c h e d o n a l l maj o r issues b e t w e e n W e s t a n d East i n
They also disagreed about Poland - Stalin wanted the E u ro p e before t h e a rm ies of d e m o c ra c i e s m e lt away.
Polish/German border to be much further to the West
than the western allies. He also wanted a 'friendly'
Polish government so that his country would have some
protection from Germany. The western powers feared
ACTIVITY ?. •
that this would be a Soviet-controlled government. They What do Sources E and F suggest about re lations between
persuaded Stalin to agree to allow free elections in Poland. the three leaders at the Ya lta Conference?

Source E M i lova n Dj i l a s , vi ce- p re s i d e n t of Y u g oslavi a ,

w r i t i n g a b o u t Yalta i n 1 94 8

I n t h e h a l lway of Ya lta we sto p p e d before a m a p of t h e world Practice q u estion

o n w h i c h t h e Soviet Union was c o lo u red i n red . Sta l i n waved
Exp l a i n t h e i m porta n ce o f t h e G ra n d A l l i a n ce fo r re lations
his h a n d over the Soviet U n i o n and excla i m e d : "Roosevelt
between Sta l i n , C h u rch i l l a n d Roosevelt i n the years
a n d C h u rc h i l l will never accept t h e i d e a that so g reat a
s p a c e s h o u ld be r e d , never, neve r ! ' 1 941 -45. {For guidance, see page 53.)

4 The 'Big Three' (from left to right, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill) at the Tehran Conference, 1943.
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58
The Potsda m Conference, July 1945
In the five months between the Yalta and Potsdam
conferences, a number of changes took place that greatly
affected relations and the outcome of the conference at
Potsdam.
• Soviet troops liberated countries in eastern Europe
but did not remove their military presence. By July
they occupied Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania (see
Figure 1 . 1 on page 14).
• Stalin had set up a communist government in Poland,
ignoring the wishes of the majority of Poles and the
agreements made at Yalta. Stalin ignored protests from
Britain and the USA. He insisted that his control of
eastern Europe was a defensive measure against possible
future attacks.
• The Red Army was the biggest in the world, but Stalin
refused to cut down his armed forces after the war.
While there was demilitarisation in the West, the Soviet
Union continued to expand its armed forces.
• In April 1945, Roosevelt died. His Vice-President, Harry
Truman, replaced him. Truman was totally different
from Roosevelt and distrusted Stalin. He was convinced
that the Soviet Union intended to take over the whole
of Europe and was determined to stand up to the Soviet
leader.
• On 16 July 1945, the Americans successfully tested an
atomic bomb at a desert site in the USA. At the start
of the Potsdam Conference, Truman informed Stalin
about this. The Soviet leader was furious that he had
not been consulted beforehand.
• Halfway through the Potsdam Conference, Churchill
was defeated in the British general election and was
replaced by Clement Attlee.
Agreements made at Potsdam
A number of agreements were made at the Potsdam
Conference:
• Germany and Berlin to be divided as previously agreed.
Each of the four zones of Germany and four sectors of
Berlin would be occupied and administered by one of
the Allies. The Soviet Zone would be in East Germany
and the French, British and US zones would be in
the West.
• Germany to be demilitarised.
• Democracy to be re-established in Germany, including
free elections, a free press and freedom of speech.
• Germany to pay reparations to the Allies in equipment
and materials. Most of this would go to the Soviet
Union, which had suffered most. The Soviet Union
would be given a quarter of the industrial goods made
in the western zones in return for food and coal from
the Soviet zone.
• The Nazi Party was banned. Nazis were removed from
important positions and leading Nazis were put on trial
for war crimes at Nuremberg in 1946.
• Full participation in the United Nations Organization.
• Poland's frontier to be moved westwards to the rivers
Oder and Neisse (see Figure 1 . 1 on page 14).
Disagreements
There were further disagreements at Potsdam:
• The leaders could not reach agreement over what
to do about Germany. Twenty million Russians
had died during the war and Stalin wanted
massive compensation that would have totally and
permanently crippled Germany. Truman refused. He
saw a revived Germany as a possible barrier to future
Soviet expansion. Stalin wanted to disable Germany
completely to protect the Soviet Union against future
threats. Truman did not want Germany to be punished
the way it had been by the Treaty of Versa illes in 1919.
The treaty was a peace settlement signed at the end of
the First World War, ending the war between Germany
and the victorious allies. Germany was unable to
negotiate the terms of the senlement and as a result the
Treaty was hated by the Germans.
• They also differed in their views about free elections.
Truman wanted free elections in the countries of
eastern Europe occupied by Soviet troops. Stalin refused
to submit to US pressure, believing it was unwelcome
interference. Truman was furious and began a 'get
tough' policy against the Soviet Union.
Source G Sta l i n s p e a k i n g a b o u t t h e t a keover of eastern
Europe, 1 94 5
T h i s wa r is not a s i n t h e past. W h o ever o c c u p i e s a territory
also i m poses on h i s own b e l i efs a n d s o c i a l syst e m .
Everyo n e i m poses h i s own syste m as f a r a s h i s a rmy has
power to d o so. I t c a n n ot be o t h e rwise.
Source H C l e m e n t A t t l e e reca l l i n g t h e Potsd a m
C o nference i n 1 960
The R u s s i a n s had s h own t h e m s e lves eve n m o re d i f f i c u lt
t h a n a nyone expecte d . After Potsd a m , o n e could n"t be very
h o p e f u l a n y L o n g e r. It was q u ite obvious t h ey were g o i n g to
be tro u b le s o m e . T h e war h a d Left t h e m h o l d i n g positions f a r
into E u ro p e , m u c h too f a r. I h a d n o d o u bt t h ey i n t e n d e d to
use t h e m .
 1 Early tension betwe e n East a n d West

.A. Attlee, Truman and Stalin (left to right) at the peace conference at Potsdam, July 1945

ACTIVITIES •
What can you learn from Source G about Sta lin's aims in eastern Europe?
2 Source H g ives Attlee's views of Potsda m . What a re his fears?
3 What do you think Tru man would have said about Potsdam and Sta l i n? Put together you r
own sou rce, consisting o f five or s i x l i nes from Tru man a b o u t Potsda m . Remember that
Tru man was determined to prevent the spread of com m u n ism and ensure free e lections.
4 Explain why relations between the USA and the Soviet U n i o n g rew worse as a result of the
peace conferences at Ya lta and Potsd a m .
5 Worki ng in pairs, make a copy o f and com p l ete the fo l l owing t a b l e a b o u t the peace
conferences in the years 1 943-45.
a) One of you should com p l ete the l ist of similarities between the conferences.
b) The other should com plete the l ist of d ifferences.

Simila rities Differences

Teh ra n and Ya lta
Teh ra n and Potsdam
Ya lta a n d Potsda m

Practice q u estion
Write a na rrative account a n a lysi ng the key events o f the peace conferences
i n the years 1 943-45.

You may use t h e fol lowing i n you r a n swer:

• The Teh r a n Conference 1945
• The Potsdam Confe rence 1945

You m ust a l so use information of you r own .

(For guidance, see page 3 0 a n d page 62.)

Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58

1 . 3 Soviet expa nsion

I n the years immediately following the end o f the Second
World War, the Soviet Union tightened its grip on those
states in eastern Europe that it had liberated. The map
below shows the areas of Soviet expansion. This increased
the rivalry with the USA who were genuinely concerned
about the spread of communism.
The Soviet Union expanded in 1945 for several reasons.
Memory of what happened 1918-39
During the interwar years most eastern European countries
had been hostile to the Soviet Union. Poland had signed a
non-aggression pact with France and, during the Second
World War, Hungary and Romania fought on the side of
Germany, against the Soviet Union.
Percentages deal
Towards the end of the war, Stalin and Churchill had
reached an understanding known as the percentages deal
(see Source I). Stalin believed that Churchill was accepting
the influence of the Soviet Union in eastern Europe.
Strategic importance of Poland
The Soviet Union's future security was dependent on a
friendly Polish government. Indeed, in 1945, Stalin wanted
to move the Polish frontier so that most of Poland became
part of the Soviet Union. He also wanted a communist
government in what would remain of Poland. As Stalin said:
For Russia it is not o n l y a question of h o n o u r, but
secu rity - not only because we a re on Poland's
frontier, but a lso because throughout history, Poland
has a lways been a corridor for attack on Russia.

Source I C h u rc h i l l
Key
d e s c r i bes m a k i n g t h e
p e rc e n t a g e s d e a l w i t h D Land taken by Soviet U n ion in 1 945
Sta l i n i n 1 9 5 4
D Land taken by Poland in 1 945
I s a i d to Sta l i n : "Let u s
-- Poland 1 92 1 - 1 938
s e t t l e affa i rs i n eastern
Europe. For exa m p le, how -- Polish frontier after 1 945
would it d o f o r you to have ---- Border of the zones occup1ed by
90 p e r cent influence i n different All ied forces in Germany
R o m a n i a a n d for u s to have
90 per cent i n f l u e n c e in
G reece? W h i le this was
b e i n g translate d . I w rote
o n a sheet of p a p e r:
R o m a n i a - Soviet U n i o n
9 0 p e r c e n t , t h e o t h e rs
10 p e r cent
G reece - G reat B rita i n
9 0 p e r c e n t , Soviet U n i o n
1 0 p e r cent
Yugoslavia - 50 p e r British zone
ce nt-50 p e r c e n t
H u n g a ry - 50 p e r cent-
50 p e r cent
B u lg a r i a - Soviet U n i o n
7 5 p e r c e n t , others
25 p e r cent
I p u s h e d t h i s a c ross to
Sta l i n . H e m a d e a large
t i c k a n d passed it b a c k .

ROMANIA
.. Figure 1 . 1 Map showing
Soviet expansion into
eastern Europe
 1 Early tension betwe e n East a n d West

Security
The Soviet Union had been invaded from the west by
Germany on two occasions, in 1914 and 1941, and had
suffered huge casualties during the ensuing world wars.
Stalin wanted to create a zone of 'friendly' or, better still,
Soviet-controlled states in eastern Europe as a buffer
against future invasions.
As Stalin wrote in the Soviet newspaper Pravda in March 1946:
The Soviet U n ion's loss of life has been several times
greater than that of Britain and the U n ited States put
together. The Soviet Union cannot forget them. And so
why is it surprising that the Soviet Union is anxious for its
future safety and is tryi ng to ensure that governments
l oyal to the Soviet U n ion should exist in these countries?
Soviet expansionism
The USA, Britain and France believed that Stalin's motives
were political - the expansion of the Soviet empire and
communism throughout Europe.
The Lo ng a n d N ovi kov te legrams
George Kennan was the USA's Deputy Chief o f M ission at
the US Embassy in Moscow in 1946. He saw the Soviet Union
as aggressive and suspicious and recommended firm action
by the USA against what he viewed as Soviet expansion in
eastern Europe. His telegram, which became known as the
'Long Telegram', greatly influenced Truman's policies in the
Cold War, especially his policy of containment (see page 20).
The Soviet Union knew about the Long Telegram. In
September 1946 they retaliated with the 'Novikov telegram',
which was sent ro Stalin by Nikolai Novikov, the Soviet
Ambassador to the USA at the time. This telegram did
much to harden Stalin's attitude towards the USA and to
worsen relations between the two superpowers.
Source J G e o r g e Ke n n a n was a U S off i c i a l in M oscow.
In 1 946 h e wrote a tele g r a m to Tru m a n wa r n i n g t h e
A m e r i c a n p re s i d e n t a b o u t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n 's
d e te r m i n a t i o n to expa n d
It is c l e a r t h a t the U nited States cannot expect i n t h e
foreseeable future to be close to Soviet reg i m e . It must
continue to rega rd the Soviet Union as a riva l, not a partner,
in the political a rena. It must conti n u e to expect that Soviet
policies will reflect n o a bstract love of peace and sta bility, no
real faith i n the possi b i lity of a permanent h a p py coexistence
of the c o m m u n ist a n d capita list worlds. Rather, Soviet policies
will be a cautious, persistent p ressure toward the disruption
a n d wea ke n i n g of a l l riva l i nfluence a n d rival power.
Source K From N ov i kov's t e l e g r a m to Sta l i n , 1 946
Obvious i n d ications of t h e U . S . effort to esta b l i s h world
d o m i na n c e a re also to b e fou n d i n t h e i n c rease in m i litary
pote n t i a l in peacet i m e a n d in t h e esta b l i s h m e n t of a large
n u m be r of naval a n d a i r bases both i n t h e U n ited States
and beyo n d its b o rd e rs . I n the s u m m e r of 1946, for t h e f i rst
time i n history of t h e c o u n t ry, C o n g ress passed a law o n the
esta b l i s h m e n t of a peacet i m e a rmy, not o n a volunteer basis
b u t o n t h e basis of u n iversal m i l i t a ry service. T h e size of
t h e a rmy, which is s u p p os e d to a m o u nt to a b o u t o n e m i l l i o n
p e rs o n s a s of J u ly 1, 1947, was also i n creased s i g n ifica ntly.

ACTIVITIES
Study Sou rces J a n d K. What si m i la rities a n d d iffere n ce s
a re there between Ken n a n a n d Novikov i n t h e i r v i e w of
the early Cold War?
2 What message is the British cartoonist trying to put
across in Source L?
3 Did the 'perce ntages deal' (Source I) g ive the Soviet
U n i o n dominant influence throughout eastern Europe?
Explai n yo u r a nswer.
4 In what way wou ld Britain and the USA have questi o n e d
Sta l in's views a b o u t Po lan d? Source LA British cartoon showing Stalin overseeing
.._
communism throughout eastern Europe
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58

1 .4 H ow Soviet contro l was ca rried out, 1 945-47

Having freed much of eastern Europe from the Nazis, the
Red Army remained in occupation and the Soviet Union
established communist governments in countries that were
closely controlled from Moscow. These countries became
known as satel lite states. The same pattern was followed in
each country:
• Coalition governments were set up in which the
communists shared power with other political parties.
• Backed by Stalin, the communists took over the civil
service, media, security and defence.
• Opposition leaders were arrested or forced to flee.
• Elections were held, bur were fixed to ensure support for
Ro mania
As with Poland, a coalition government was set up in
early 1945. Then in January 1945 the communists,
encouraged by Stalin, took part in demonstrations to
disrupt the government. Finally, in March 1945, the Soviet
army intervened. It disarmed the Romanian army and
forced the King to appoint a government dominated by
the communists under Petru Groza. In November 1946
elections were held and the communists gained 80 per
cent of the votes. In the following year the communist
government abolished the monarchy.

•
the communists.
'People's democracies' were set up. ACTIVITIES ?,
•
What can you learn from Source M about the elections
Po land i n Romania i n 1 946?

I n June 1945 a coalition government o f several parties was 2 Draw you r own cartoon or diagra m giving a similar
set up in Poland. In January 1947 elections were rigged to message about events i n one of the other cou ntries
taken over by Soviet-controlled com m u n ists.
ensure the election of a totally communise government. The
leader of the main opposition party, Stanislaw Milokajcyk,
fled to London.

"' Source M A member of the Communist Party holding a gun threatens the Romanian opposition in Bucharest during the
elections of 1946

Practice
q u estion
Write a na rrative account
a n a lysi n g the key events
of the Soviet expansion
i n eastern Europe i n the
years 1 945-48.
You may use the
fol lowin g i n you r
a nswer:
• The Soviet U nion
re-establishes
control
• H u ngary a n d
Czechoslova kia
You m ust a lso use
i nformation of you r
own .
(For guidance, s e e page
30 and page 62.)
.. Source N A British cartoon
of 1948 showing the Kremlin
(government of the Soviet
Union) in the background
1 Early tension betwe e n East a n d West
Hu ngary
The largest party in 1945 was the Smallholders' Party, which won over 50 per cent of
the vote in the elections of August 1945. However, the country began to experience an
economic crisis, and the Communist Parry was able to seize control of the Ministry of
the Interior, which controlled the police. They used this control to great effect in 1947,
arresting Bela Kovacs, the leader of the Smallholders' Parry. The Prime Minister, Imre
Nagy, was forced to resign. In the general election of August 1947, the communists secured
a large share of the vote and rook over the government. All other parties were then banned.
B u l g a ria
In late 1944 a communist-dominated government was set up. In November 1945 the
communists won rigged elections and, in the following year, banned all other parties.
Czechoslova kia
The communists already had great support in Czechoslovakia. By 1947 they were the
largest party in the coalition government and controlled the police and the armed forces.
In 1948, supported by the Soviet Union, they used the army to seize control of the country.
Many non-communists were arrested and the foreign secretary, jan Masaryk, a non­
communist, was murdered. Rigged elections brought a communist victory. Soon after, all
other political parties were banned.
Yugoslavia
The communist resistance fought bravely against the Germans during the war. Its leader,
Marshal Tiro, was elected President. However, Tito had no intemion of taking orders from
Stalin. Yugoslavia was therefore expelled from the Communist International Bureau
(Cominform) and ocher communist countries applied economic sanctions. To challenge
Stalin further, Tiro then accepted aid from the West.
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58

1 . 5 I m pact on US-Soviet re l atio ns

Britain and the USA were alarmed b y Stalin's actions i n eastern Europe. Roosevelt
and Churchill had agreed that eastern Europe should be a 'Soviet sphere of influence'
(see page 10) and that Stalin would heavily influence the region. However, they had not
expected such complete Soviet domination. They were convinced that democratically
elected governments, which would have also remained friendly to the Soviet Union, could
have been set up in each country. This is when the major differences began to develop:
• Stalin believed that he could only ensure the support of the countries of eastern Europe
by setting up Soviet-controlled communist governments.
• US President Truman saw this as a blatant attempt by Stalin to spread communism
throughout Europe.

' I ro n Cu rtain' speech

In March 1946, Winston Churchill, who was no longer British Prime Minister, made
a speech in the small town of Fulton in the USA while on a visit to the country (see
Source 0). This became known as the Iron Curtain speech, with the Iron Curtain being
an imaginary line that divided the communist East from the capitalist West in Europe.
Churchill suggested an alliance between the USA and Britain to prevent further Soviet
expansion. The speech further worsened relations between the two sides in the Cold War
with Stalin seeing it as deliberately provocative.

Source 0 Part of a speech made by Winston Churchill at Fulton, Missouri, USA, March 1 946
From Stettin i n the Baltic to Trieste i n the Adriatic, a n iron c u rta i n has d e s c e n d e d a c ross t h e
c o n t i n e n t of E u ro p e . B e h i n d that l i n e lie a l l t h e c a p itals of t h e a n cient states of c e n t r a l a n d
eastern E u ro p e . A l l t h e s e f a m o u s c i t i e s a n d t h e p o p u la t i o n s a ro u n d t h e m l i e i n t h e Soviet
s p h e re and all are s u bject not o nly to Soviet i n f l u e n ce but to a very high m e a s u re of control
from M oscow.

ACTIVITIES �
•
1 What can you learn from Source 0 about Europe in 1 946?
2 What do you think the Soviet Union wou l d have objected to in Church i l l 's speech?
3 Worki ng in pairs, write a Soviet response to C h u rch i l l 's speech i n Source 0 for a Soviet
newspaper.

Practice q u estion
Exp l a i n t h e i m p o rtance o f Soviet expa nsion i n eastern Europe for the development o f the
Cold War. (For guidance, see page 53.)
 1 Early tension betwe e n East a n d West

1 .6 Exa m i n ation practice

This section provides guidance on how to answer the consequence question. Look at the
following question:
. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .

� Exp l a i n two consequ e n ces of the Potsdam Conference of J u ly 1 945. �

. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

H ow to answer
Underline key points in t h e q u es t i o n . T h i s w i l l e n s u re t h a t you focus s h a r p ly on w h a t t h e
exa m i n e r w a n t s you to write a b o u t .
2 B e g i n e a c h p a r a g r a p h by stating the consequence a n d t h e n g ive a f u l ly d e v e l o p e d
state m e n t a b o u t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e . O n e d e v e l o p e d c o n s e q u e n c e i s worth two m a rks.
3 Aim to write two d evelo p e d c o n s e q u e n ce s .

Example
OVLe- e-o.cs."i """"" of the- Po<sci£L"' C.o.cfue-.c""
State t h e conseq uence. wtl.S t\rla); 1-t t£.d., -tc d.. it'f'e.r£Vle.es ove-r fre.&
e-1'-"ho.cs �e-+we-e-.c ··rr�"'a.VL o.Niv S+oA 1 .c.

Example
--rn.... l-'r\().,ltl �OA'l-teti fre-e.. e..\ e.c,havts ivt -t-he­
e.w.ctn&S iVL uts+u.c E. �mp& oM&.fi&clc �'!)
Exp l a i n the conseq uence. Sovi&t hoof's . Sta.liVL r&{'�su( to s��i'>1t +a li S
pr&SSl<.r&, be.lie.' < >l� 1t wa.s "-1'\.>J&Ic,o"'&
i.ckrfue->te& fro�'> Ho& li S A .

Example
A s&e.o>lcic c,o.cs&fbu.&>l<'.& wa.s tha.+ tl&r�'>a..c'i)
a.vtclc i?e.rl1>t wue. clciviclcd U.f' a.s pr&VIOU.SI 'i)
�&&clc a.t Vcci+a.

Example
E..!U',h cf th& fc�;.r zort&S of tJe.r"'a."'i) cc.cclc t he-
fo�r sretors of f)e.rli.c "'a.s oe.c.u.p , e.clc cc.cclc
M"'l>l!St&r&clc ��0 oM of th& All1&s, w1th th&
'\ovi&t zo.c& ' " E.. ccs+ he.r•'a.>t'i) a..cclc +he. h-e-.cc�· �' l
i?Yihsh a.>lc!c A"'e.nc.a..c zo.c&s i.c th& We-s+.
Now try the fo l l ow i n g questio n :
Exp l a i n two consequ e n ces
of the Ya lta Conference of
February 1 945.

;;----"'�

I--'
2 --Tiie·development·of'tlie"Cold-War,
1 947-4 9

There were numerous developments between 1947 and 1949 that intensified the Cold War.
The USA retaliated to Soviet expansion in eastern Europe with a policy of containment
championed by President Truman, known as the Truman Doctrine, together with a
programme of economic aid to Europe, called the Marshall Plan. The Soviet Union
retaliated with the setting up of Comecon and Cominform. This build-up of rivalry
between East and West, in the years after 1945, culminated in the first major crisis of the
Cold War, the Berlin Crisis of 1948-49. This event confirmed the differences between the
two sides, especially over the future of Germany.

2.1 US conta i n m ent

The rivalry between the superpowers intensified in 1947 due to the US policy of
containment, especially the Tru man Doctri n e and the Marsha l l Plan .

The Tru m a n Doctrine, 1947

In 1947 Truman began a US policy of containment. This meant using US influence and
military resources to prevent the expansion of communism into non-communist countries.
Truman introduced this policy because:
• the USA, and especially Truman, believed that the Soviet Union was trying to spread
communism - first through eastern Europe and then to the West and beyond
• the USA had the atomic bomb and wanted to use this, together with its superior
economic strength, to put pressure on the Soviet Union and prevent further expansion
• events were occurring in Greece.

G reece
At Yalta (see page 10) it was agreed that Britain would have influence in Greece. Since 1944
there had been a civil war in Greece, with Britain helping the royalist government to fight
communist forces. In the Greek election of 1946, the communists were heavily defeated by
royalists but the communists refused to give up. They continued to fight a g uerri l l a war
against the Greek government and were helped by neighbouring communist countries.
Britain had 40,000 troops stationed in the country and gave money to the Greek
government, as well as to Turkey, which was also under threat from communist rebels.
By early 1947, Britain told the USA they could no longer afford to support the Greek and
Turkish governments. The USA stepped in with the necessary financial aid, fearing that
these two countries would come under Soviet influence.
Truman announced US support for Greece in an important speech in March 1947. The
speech marked a turning point in US foreign policy. In the interwar years and the two
years since Potsdam, the USA had played little part in the affairs of Europe. Now Truman
was committing the USA to a policy of containment that became known as the Truman
Doctrine. In the first part of his speech, Truman argued that the world was becoming
divided into two armed camps - the capitalist camp, which he claimed was the free camp,
and the communist, which was not. The USA would use its economic and military strength
to protect the world.
 2 The deve l o p m e nt of the Cold War, 1 947-49

ACTIVITIES �
•
Source A P a rt of a Letter from Tru m a n to J a m e s B y r n e , S e c reta ry of State, J a n u a ry 1 946

T h e re isn't a ny d o u bt i n my m i n d that Russia i n t e n d s an i n va s i o n of Tu rkey. U n less Russia is

What does Source A
faced with a n i ro n fist a n d stro n g Language, a n o t h e r wa r is i n t h e making. I ' m t i re d of b a byi n g
reveal about Tru ma n's
t h e Soviets.
attitude towards the
Soviet U n ion?
2 What was meant by the Source B T h e Tru m a n D o c t r i n e , 1 2 M a rc h 1 947
'Tru man Doctrine'?
I b e l i eve that it must b e the p o l i cy of the U n ited States to s u p p o rt peo ples who resist b e i n g
3 Which cou ntry do e n s laved b y a r m e d m i n orities o r by o u t s i d e pressure. I b e l i eve that we must h e l p f r e e p e o p les
you think Tru man is to work o u t their own d esti ny i n their own way.
referring to in the first
sentence in Source B?
4 What is the message of CO N S EQU E N CES O F THE TRUMAN DOCTRI N E
Source C?
• The Greek government was a b l e t o defeat the com m u n ists.
• The riv a l ry between the U SA and the Soviet U n i o n in creased. Tru m a n had publicly
stated that the world was d ivided between two ways of l ife: the free, n o n - com m u n ist
and the u nfree, com m u nist. Within a year the first serious crisis of the Cold War would
begin over Berlin.
• The USA beca m e comm itted to the policy of conta i n m e nt a n d fa r more involved in
Eu ropean affa i rs.
• The USA decided to provide economic aid to Eu rope, known as the M a r s h a l l Plan
(see page 22). Altho u g h a n extremely g enerous act by the American people, it was
m otivated by U S self interest: the Americans wanted to create new m a rkets for U S
goods.
• I n 1 947 Sta l i n set up the C o m m u n ist I nfo rmation B u reau, Comi nform, to link com m u n ist
parties in eastern Eu rope and worldwide, i n com m o n action.

<Ill Source C A cartoon

published in the British
satirical magazine, Punch, in
June 1947. The passengers,
who represent the countries
of Europe, are being given
a choice of two buses. One
is driven by Stalin and the
other by Truman.

Practice
q u estion
Exp l a i n two
conseq uences of the
Tru m a n Doctri ne.
(For guidance, see page
19 and page 45.)

THE RJVAL BUSES

Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58

The M a rsha l l Plan, 1947

Truman backed up his policy of containment with
economic aid to Europe. The plan, officially called the
European Recovery Plan bur nicknamed the 'Marshall
Plan', was announced by the US Secretary of State, General
George Marshall, in June 1947.

Why was it introduced?

Truman did not want to commit the US military to
the defence of western Europe against the spread of
communism. He believed that communism generally won
support in countries where there were economic problems,
unemployment and poverty. Many European countries
had suffered badly as a result of the Second World War and
were struggling to deal with the damage caused. There
were shortages of nearly everything, which led countries to
implement rationing. If the USA could help these countries
to recover economically and provide employment and
reasonable prosperity, then there would be no need to turn to
communism.
A. Source F Berliners using money from the Marshall Plan t o
help rebuild buildings destroyed during the war
CO N S EQU E N CES OF T H E
MARS HALL PLAN
• M a r s h a l l i nvited cou ntries to meet together and
decide how to use U S aid. Sixteen of these set up the
Organ isation fo r European Economic Recovery (O EEC)
to put the P l a n i nto action.

Source D M a rs h a l l a n n o u nces t h e p l a n , J u n e 1 947

• By 1 953 t h e USA had provided $1 7 billion to help
E u ropean countries reb u i l d their economies a n d
E u rope's req u i re m e nts for the next t h ree o r f o u r yea rs of
r a i s e t h e i r stan d a rd of living. U S machinery he lped
f o re i g n foods and other essential products - m a i n ly from
E u ropean factories to recover from the effects of the
t h e USA - a re so much g reater t h a n its p resent a b i lity to
Second World War. U S advisers helped to reb u i l d
pay that it must have s u bsta n t i a l a d d i t i o n a l help o r face
transport systems.
e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l d isaster. I t is log i c a l that the USA
s h o u ld d o whatever it c a n to restore normal e c o n o m i c • Eu rope became more fi rmly divided between East
h e a lth to t h e w o r l d , w i t h o u t w h i c h there c a n b e n o p o l i t i c a l a n d West. Sta l i n was initially involved but withd rew
s t a b i lity a n d p e a c e . O u r policy is d i rected not a g a i nst a ny the Soviet U n ion from d iscussions because he did not
o t h e r cou ntry or p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e , b u t a g a i nst h u n g e r, trust the USA and did not want to show how wea k the
pove rty, d e s p e r a t i o n a n d c h a o s . Its p u rpose s h o u ld b e Soviet U n ion rea l l y was economical ly. H e prevented
t h e reviva l of a w o r k i n g e c o n o my so a s to p ro d u ce t h e eastern E u ropean cou ntries, such as Czechoslovakia
c o n d i t i o n s i n w h i c h f r e e i n st i t u t i o n s c a n exist. a n d Poland, from beco m i n g involved.
• Sta l i n accused the USA of using the Plan fo r its own
selfish interests - to d o m i nate Eu rope and boost the
What aid was given? U S econo my.
The programme of aid was offered to all war-torn European
countries to help them re-equip their factories and revive
agriculture and trade. The USA offered money, equipment
and goods to states willing to work together towards
their economic recovery. This aid was in the form of cash,
machinery, food and technological assistance. In return,
they would agree to buy US goods and allow US companies
to invest capital in their industries.

Source E D e a n Acheso n , a U S a d v i s e r, s p e a k i n g in 1 94 5
a b o u t U S a i m s i n E u ro p e

I n t h e f i rst place, o u r own i nterest is to maintain full

e m p loyment a n d e x p a n d it suffi c i e ntly to a b s o r b t h e twelve
m i l l i o n o r m o re m e n a n d wo m e n who w i l l c o m e b a c k from
t h e services. T h e g reat thing which creates p u rc h a s i n g
p o w e r is p e o p l e . I f t h e p e o p le c a n deve l o p t h e i r o w n
cou ntries i n E u r o p e , t h ey w i l l b e c o m e a n i n creas i n g m a rket
for US g o o d s .
Cou ntries

A. Figure 2 . 1 Graph showing the distribution of Marshall Aid

 2 The deve l o p m e nt of the Cold War, 1 947-49

Soviet reactions
Sources G-I show some reactions t o the Marshall Plan. A M II
Tension between the former allies continued to grow and
both the Soviet Union and the USA were intent on being
perceived as the more powerful in Europe. Neither could go
to open war and so there had to be a victor in a war of words
and deeds. Each of the two superpowers wanted to be seen
to be resisting the other and doing more for the ordinary
people of Europe who had suffered so much during the
Second World War.

Source G A s p e e c h by A. Vys h i n s ky, t h e d e p u t y Soviet

Foreign S e c reta ry, S e p te m b e r 1 947, to t h e U n ited N a t i o n s
G e n e r a l Ass e m b ly

It is b e co m i n g m o re a n d m o re evident to eve ryo n e that t h e

M a rs h a l l Plan w i l l m e a n p l a c i n g E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s u n d e r
t h e e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l of t h e USA. I t w i l l m e a n
d i rect i nterfere n c e by t h e USA i n t h e i n t e r n a l affa i rs of t h o s e
cou ntries. T h e P l a n i s an a t t e m p t to s p l i t E u ro p e into two
c a m p s and to c o m p lete the formation of a bloc of cou ntries
h o s t i le to t h e Soviet U n i o n .

"' Source I A view of the Marshall Plan by Soviet cartoonist

Krokodil, 1947. European countries are on their knees
before the USA, their paymaster

ACTIVITIES ?.
•
Explain one way in which the M a rshall Plan h e l ped the
cou ntries of western Europe.
2 Church i l l claimed that the M a rsh a l l Plan was 'the most
unselfish act i n history'. Was the USA u nselfishly tryi ng to
h e l p Europe or were their m otives less genui ne?

To answer this q u estion:

• M a ke a copy of the grid below.
• Exa m i n e Sou rces D-1 and Figu re 2.1 and complete
the g rid using evidence from the sou rces (an
example has been done for you).
• Use your grid to write a 200-word a nswer to the
"' Source H A Soviet cartoon o f 1949 commenting o n the question. Refer to the sources i n you r answer.
Marshall Plan
Selfish U nselfish
Practice q u estions Source F shows that US
motives were selfish because
Exp l a i n two conseq uences o f the M a rsh a l l P l a n .
it suggests that the Marsha ll
(For guidance, s e e page 1 9 and page 45.)
Plan was being used to create
2 Exp l a i n the im portance of the M a rs h a l l P l a n i n the
markets for US goods.
development of the Cold War. (For guidance, see
page 53.)
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58
2 . 2 Soviet reta l iation
The Soviet Union set up two organisations i n the later 1940s - Comi nform and Comecon
- in order to extend Soviet political and economic control over eastern Europe and to
retaliate against the US policy of containment. Details of the two organisations are
outlined in Table 2 . 1 below.
,. Table 2 . I Cominform and Comecon
Comi nform, 1 947
The C o m m u n ist I nformation B u reau was set up in 1 947 to
e n a b l e the Soviet U n i o n to coord i n ate com m u n ist pa rties
throu g hout Europe. It was the Soviet U n ion's response to
the Tru man Doctrine (see pages 20-2 1 ) . It was i ntroduced to
ensure that the states in eastern Europe:
• fol lowed Soviet a i m s i n foreign pol icy
• i ntroduced Soviet-style eco n o m i c pol icies, such as
col lectivisation of agriculture and state control of
i n d ustry.
The Soviet U n i o n used the org a n isation to purge any
m e m b e rs who disagreed with M oscow. One nota b l e
exa m p l e w a s lito, whose refusal t o fol l ow the Soviet l i n e l e d
t o the expu lsion of Yugoslavia from Cominfo rm i n 1 948 (see
page 1 7).
Source J A 1 947 r e p o r t by A n d r e i Z h d a n ov, t h e Le n i n g ra d
Pa rty b o s s , to C o m i n f o r m
T h e p r i n c i p a l driving force of t h e i m p e rialist camp is
t h e USA. Allied with it a re G reat Brita i n a n d Fra n ce . T h e
c a rd i n a l p u rpose of t h e i m peria list c a m p is to stre n g t h e n
i m p e r i a l i s m , to h a t c h a new i m pe r i a list wa r, to c o m b a t
s o c i a l i s m a n d d e m o c ra cy, a n d to s u p port reac t i o n a ry
a n d a n t i d e m o c ra t i c p ro-fascist reg i m e s a n d move m e nts
everywhere.
Source K A view of C o m e c o n f r o m a n issue of t h e U S
m a g a z i n e Time p u b l i s h e d i n 1 960
C O M E C O N . F o u n d e d eleven yea rs ago i n M oscow as a
c r u d e Sta l i n ist device for m i l k i n g t h e satellites for Soviet
b e n efit. Soviet Russia, as t h e a ll-powerful s u p p l i e r of t h e
s a t e l l i t e s · r a w materials, calls a l l t h e C O M E C O N t u n e s . All
d e a l s a re b i lateral, for there is n o free exc h a n g e of g o o d s in
C o m m u n is m 's u n c o m m o n ma rket.
Comecon, 1 949
The Council fo r M utual Assistance (Comecon), fo unded
i n 1 949, was the Soviet response to the M a rsh a l l P l a n (see
page 22).
It was supposed to be a means by which the Soviet U n i o n
co u l d fi n a n cia l l y support cou ntries i n eastern Europe. I n
rea lity, it w a s u s e d by the Soviet Union to:
• control the econom ies of t h ese states
• give the Soviet U n i o n access to their resou rces
• encourage eco n o m i c specialisation within the Soviet bloc.
For exa mple, Czechoslovakia and East Germany were
encouraged to concentrate on heavy ind ustry. Romania,
H u n gary a n d B u l g a ria special ised i n the prod uction of
food and raw m aterials.
ACTIVITIES
•
1 What, according to Source J, a re the aims of the West?
2 Why wou l d this report (Source J) have been given to the
first Cominform meeting?
3 What does Source K suggest is the pu rpose of
Comecon? Is this is a n accu rate view of Comecon?
4 Working in pairs m a ke a copy of and co m p l ete the
fol l owing table, h i g h l ighting the simila rities and
d ifferences between the Tru man Doctri ne and M a rsha l l
P l a n and Comi nform and Comecon.
0 One person should complete the similarities co l u m n .
0 T h e other s h o u l d co m p l ete t h e differences co l u m n .
Simila rities Differences
Tru m a n Doctrine a n d
M a rsh a l l P l a n
Cominform a n d
Comecon
Practice q u estion
Exp l a i n two conseq uences o f t h e setting u p of
Comi nform and Comeco n . (For guidance, see page 1 9
a n d page 45.)

2.3 The Berl i n Crisis, 1 948-49
The Berl i n Bl ockade
The first major crisis o f the Cold War was over differences
in Germany which led to the Berlin Crisis of 1948-49,
when Stalin blockaded all routes by land and rail into
West Berlin. The effect of this crisis not only worsened
relations between the USA and the Soviet Union but led to
the setting up of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO). A series of disagreements in the first half of 1948
brought about the crisis, as shown in Figure 2.3 on page 26.
However, there were also longer term causes.
Lo ng-term ca uses of the crisis
During the peace conferences of 1945 (pages 10-12), the
Allies had agreed to divide both Germany and Berlin
into four zones of occupation (see Figure 2.2). Germany,
however, was supposed to be kept as one country and
to hold free elections. Almost immediately there were
differences between the Soviet and western zones.
A Figure
2 . 2 Map showing the division of
Germany and Berlin in 1948
2 The deve l o p m e nt of the Cold War, 1 947-49
• The Soviet Union ensured that the minority communist
group took control of their eastern zone. They tried,
unsuccessfully, to secure communist control of the
Berlin city council but the socialist majority, supported
by the western powers, resisted successfully.
• The West wanted to speed up the economic recovery
of Germany, which had been devastated by war and
was now facing serious shortages of food and fuel. The
Soviet Union wanted quite the opposite to secure itself
from a future attack. It wanted to keep Germany weak
and refused to allow its own zone to trade with the
other three zones.
• Berlin was in the heart of Soviet-controlled East
Germany. The western Allies were allowed access to their
sectors by road, rail, canal and air. However, Stalin did
not want the Allies inside Berlin, which was well within
the Soviet zone. He also realised that the affluent,
capitalist way oflife would be on show to people in the
East. Western countries were determined to remain in
Berlin where they could observe Soviet activities on the
other side of the Iron Curtain.
GERMAN
DEMOC RATIC
REPUBLIC
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58
Short-term ca uses
The western Allies forged ahead by encouraging the
economic recovery of their zones, especially in providing
a much-needed currency. The western zones received large
quantities of Marshall Aid (see pages 22-23). In addition
they set up free elections to establish democracy.
This was in sharp contrast with Soviet policies. Stalin feared
a strong, democratic and reunited Germany on the borders
of the Soviet Union. He feared that 'western' currency and
democratic ideas would spread to the Soviet zone and
undermine control of East Berlin.
By the end of 1947 tensions were beginning to rise over
how the different zones were being administered, and the
creation of Bizonia in January increased these tensions
further, starring a series of events that led to the crisis that
year (see Figure 2.3).
Source L A Letter from a U S c i t i z e n to Pres i d e n t Tru m a n i n
t h e ea rly stages of t h e B e r l i n C ri s i s
D e a r Sir
T h e s o - c a lled ' B e r l i n C risis' is e n t i rely due to yo u r own
i n c re d i b le s t u p i d ity w h e n you a llowed t h e Pots d a m
C o nference to a rra n g e f i n a l d e t a i l s for t h e o c c u p a t i o n
of G e r m a ny. I t was yo u r duty to look o u t f o r A m e r i c a n
i n t e rests a n d i n sist u p o n t h e esta b l i s h m e n t of a corri d o r t o
t h e A m e r i c a n z o n e i n t h e c i ty. T h i s you f a i led to d o . Poss i b ly
t h i s was b e c a u s e you b e l i eved J o e Sta l i n to be a 'g o o d old
chap', a s you said some time ago. B u t I a m i n c l i n e d to t h i n k
t h a t y o u were too d u m b to k n ow t h a t s u c h a c o r r i d o r was
n e cessa ry. I n t h e m e a n t i m e , you s e e m w i l l i n g and even
e a g e r to force this cou ntry i nto a war with Russia m e re ly for
the pu rpose of 'saving face·.
ACTIVITIES
What can you learn from Source L about the reasons for
the Berl i n Crisis?
2 Write a brief reply to the Source L l etter, as if written by
Tru man.
3 You a re a n adviser to the western powers a n d have been
asked to weig h u p the options facing them to deal with
the b lockade by Sta l i n .
J a n u a ry
The US a n d B ritish zones in Berl i n a n d G e r m a n y merged
i nto one econ o m i c u n it known as Bizon i a .
M a rch
t
Soviet representatives wal ked out of the A l l ied C ontrol
C o m m ission (a body i n iti a l l y set u p by the Soviet U n i o n ,
the USA a n d the U K t o r u n H u n g a ry, a n d w h i c h now
a d m i n istered Germa ny), co m p l a i n i n g that Weste rn
attitudes m a d e it u nworka b l e . The C o m m ission had
been set u p i n 1 945 to a d m i n ister all the zones.
April
t
The A l l ied z o n e s were i n c l uded i n the M a rsha l l P l a n .
Soviet troops b e g a n t o h o l d u p a n d search road a n d ra i l
traffic ente r i n g West Berl i n .
June
t
T h e weste rn powers a n n o u nced p l a n s t o create a West
German State a n d i ntroduced a new cu rren cy, the
western Deutsc h m a rk, for the i r zones a n d West Berl i n .
T h e Soviet U n i on reta l i ated b y i ntrod u c i n g its own
cu rrency, the Ostma rk, in the Soviet zone a n d East Berl i n .
t
24 J u n e
Sta l i n accused t h e West o f i n terfe r i n g i n t h e Soviet
zon e . H e cut off roa d , ra i l and ca n a l traffic in an
attem pt to starve West B e rl i n . Sta l i n was try i n g to force
the A l l ies to p u l l out of t h e i r sectors and a b a n d o n p l a n s
f o r sepa rate d evelopment of t h e i r G e r m a n zones .
A Figure 2 . 3 The stages of the Berlin Crisis in 1948
•
a) Which option wou l d you advise on?
b) What a re the advantages and d isadvantages of each
option? Use the g rid below to help you:
c) Write a memo to the western powers giving you r
recommended action. Give reasons for you r choice.
 2 The deve l o p m e nt of the Cold War, 1 947-49

The Berl i n airl ift

Truman was determined to stand up to the Soviet Union and show that he was serious
about containment (see page 20). He saw Berlin as a test case. If the western Allies gave in to
Stalin on this issue, the western zones of Germany might be next. Truman wanted Berlin
to be a symbol of freedom behind the Iron Curtain.
The only way into Berlin was by air, so the Allies decided to airlift supplies from their bases
in West Germany. Would the Soviet Union shoot down these planes? There were anxious
moments as the first planes flew over Berlin but no shots were fired.
The airlift began on 28 June 1948 and lasted for 10 months.
The British codenamed it 'Operation Plainfare'. It was the
start of the biggest airlift in history. Soon planes were flying
day and night along the air corridors. Each was given an
exact time to land at 90 -second intervals. The pilots had a
dangerous job as Soviet planes flew across the air corridors
and weather balloons were placed in awkward positions.
As a warning to the Soviet Union, Truman ordered B-29
bombers, capable of carrying atomic bombs, to be sent to
Britain. The Soviet Union was now within US bombing
range.
By September the planes were flying 4,600 tons of supplies a
day - although this was still not enough. The Soviet Union
even tried to persuade people to move from West to East
Berlin. Only three per cent took up the offer. Stalin hoped
that severe winter conditions would paralyse the airlift.
However, it was a relatively mild winter that did not disrupt
the flights.
The airlift continued into the spring and reached its peak
on 16-17 April 1949 when 1,398 flights landed nearly
13,000 tons of supplies in 24 hours.
During the airlift West Berliners were supplied with
everything from food and clothing to oil and building
materials, although there were still great shortages in the
city and many decided to leave. During this period there was
a total of275,000 flights with an average of 4,000 tonnes of
supplies each day.
TKE. 81RD WATCHU
On 12 May 1 949 Stalin called off the blockade. He had
Source M A British cartoon of July 1948. The man holding
..t.
failed to starve the Allies out of Berlin. That evening
the gun is Stalin and the storks represent the planes
carrying supplies Berliners put on evening dress and danced in the streets.

Source N R e p o rt by A rt h u r H e n d e rs o n , the B r i t i s h S e c reta ry for A i r, May 1 949

In t h e 3 18 d ays s i n c e t h e Ai rlift b e g a n , British a n d A m e r i c a n a i rcraft have m a d e 195 , 350

f l i g hts to B e r l i n , ca rryi n g 1,583 ,686 tonnes of s u p p li e s . British a i rc raft have made 63 ,612
f l i g hts ca rryi n g 369,347 t o n n e s - m a d e up of 185 ,000 t o n n e s of f o o d , 97,000 t o n n e s coal,
50,000 t o n n e s of f u e l , 2 1,000 t o n n e s of m iscella n e o u s g o o d s a n d 15 ,000 t o n n e s of s u p p lies for
t h e British s e rvices i n B e r l i n .

ACTIVITIES ?.•
What can you learn from Source N about the Berlin airl ift?
2 What message is the cartoonist in Source M trying to get across?
3 Why do you think Sta lin decided not to shoot down the storks (Source M)?
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58

East-West rivalry
Truman saw the crisis as a great victory (see Source P).
West Berlin had survived and stood up to the Soviet Union.
For Stalin it was a defeat and a humiliation, although
this was not what the Soviet people were led to believe (see
Source Q).

Source P Tru m a n s p ea k i n g in 1 949

We refused to b e forced out of t h e city of B e r l i n . We

d e m o nstrated to t h e people of E u ro p e that we would act
a n d act reso l u t e ly, w h e n their freed o m was t h reaten e d .
Politica lly it b r o u g h t t h e p e o p le of western E u ro p e c l o s e r t o
u s . T h e B e r l i n blockade w a s a m ove to t e s t o u r a b i lity a n d
o u r w i l l to resist.

Source Q T h e Soviet vers i o n of t h e r r i s i s w r i t t e n i n 1 9 7 7

T h e c r i s i s was p l a n n e d i n Wa s h i n gton b e h i n d a
s m o kescreen of a nti -Soviet prop a g a n d a . In 1948 t h e re was
danger of w a r. T h e conduct of t h e western powers risked
bloody i n c i d e nts. T h e self- blockade of t h e weste rn p owers
hit the West B e r l i n p o p u l a t i o n with h a rsh n ess. The people
we re f re e z i n g a n d sta rvi n g . I n t h e Spring of 1949 t h e USA
was forced to yield. T h e i r war p l a n s h a d come to n ot h i n g ,
b e c a u s e of t h e c o n d u c t of t h e Soviet U n i o n .

ACTIVITIES
Source 0 Lieutenant Gail Halvorsen fitting sweets to
.a.
parachutes made of handkerchiefs. These were dropped to
hundreds of thousands of children in Berlin.
Resu lts of the Crisis
The crisis had three major effects:
• It confirmed the divisions of Germany and Berlin.
• It greatly increased East-West rivalry.
• It led ro the creation of NATO (see page 29).
Source 0 is a photograph which was shown in Allied
newspa pers. Devise a propaganda caption to go with
the photogra p h .
2 D o e s Source Q support the evidence o f Source P about
the Berlin Crisis? Explain you r answer.
3 What changes wou l d you m a ke to Source 0 to make it a
more accu rate version of the events of the crisis?
4 Put together contrasting newspaper head l i n es
a n n o u ncing the end of the airl ift (one from a Soviet
perspective and one from a US perspective).

A divided G ermany
Practice q u estion
Germany was now clearly divided. Within a few days of
the end of the Berlin crisis, in May 1949, the western Allies Exp l a i n two conseq uences o f t h e Berlin Crisis o f 1 948-49.
announced that their former occupation zones, including (For guidance, see page 19 and page 45.)
west Berlin, would join together to form the Federal
Republic of Germany (FRG) (see Figure 2.2, page 25).
Stalin's response was rapid and in October 1949 the Soviet
zone became the German Democratic Republic (GDR).
 2 The deve l o p m e nt o f the Cold War, 1 947-49

N o rth Atla ntic Treaty Org a n ization
(NATO), 1949
The Berlin Crisis had confirmed Truman's commitment to
western Europe. However, western European states, even
joined together, were no match for the Soviet Union and
needed the formal support of the USA. In April 1949 the
North Atlantic Treacy Organization was signed. Although a
defensive alliance (see Source R), NATO's main purpose was
to prevent Soviet expansion.
Stalin saw NATO as an 'aggressive alliance' aimed against
the Soviet Union. Developments in West Germany and the
decision by the USA and the other members of NATO (on
9 May 1955) to make West Germany a member of NATO
and allow the nation to remilitarise were seen by Stalin as a
direct threat to the Eastern Bloc countries (see Source S).
CO N S EQU E N CES O F S ETTI N G UP NATO
• The USA was now com m itted to the defence of
western Europe.
• Sta l i n did not believe it was a defensive a l l i a nce. He
believed it was aimed agai nst the Soviet U n io n .
• It intensified the arms r a c e between the t w o s i d e s a n d
the deve l opment of ever more powerfu l weapons o f
destruction (see p a g e 32).
• Within six years the Soviet U n i o n set up the Warsaw
Pact which was a m i l itary treaty and association,
fo rmed i n 1 955, of the Soviet Union a n d its European
sate l l ite states (see page 31).
• Eventua l l y the USA set up its own missile bases i n
western Eu rope, i n c l u d i n g the U K .
Source R Extracts from the NATO c h a rt e r
Article 3 : To a c h i eve t h e aims of t h e Treaty, t h e Parties w i l l
keep u p t h e i r i n d iv i d u a l a n d collective capacity to resist
armed atta c k .
Article 5 : T h e P a r t i e s a g re e that a n a rm e d a t t a c k a g a i nst
o n e o r m o re of them i n Europe o r N o rth America shall b e
c o n s i d e re d a n a t t a c k a g a i nst t h e m a l l .
ACTIVITIES ..•�
Draw a m i n d map prioritising the l ist of consequences
of setti ng up NATO, from m ost to least im portant by
co m p l eting the fo l l owing steps:
a) Draw a centra l box and write inside it:
'Consequences of NATO'
b) Place the consequen ces of NATO around the centra l
box in a cl ockwise d i rection, starti ng with the most
important consequence at the 12 o'clock point, and
working towards the least im portant
c) Briefly explain you r choices.
2 What message is the cartoonist tryi ng to get across in
Source 5?
3 What can you learn from Source R about the aims of
NATO?
Practice q u estion
Exp l a i n t h e i m porta nce o f NATO for t h e deve l opment of
the Cold War. (For guidance, see page 53.)

-4 Source S A Soviet
cartoon showing the NATO
generals goose-stepping.
This had been the Nazi
method of marching. The
overall commander in the
foreground is carrying a
nuclear bomb and a portrait
of Hitler
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58
2.4 Exa m i nation practice
This section provides guidance on how to answer the
narrative question. Look at the following question:
Write a narrative account analysi ng the main developments in
US-Soviet relations in the years 1 947-49.
You may use t h e following in your a nswer:
• Tru m a n Doctrin e, 1947
• Cominform, 1947
You must also use information of you r own.
J o t down the m a 1 n developments i n
US-Sov1et relations i n t h e years 1 947-49.
l
Try to place the events in chronological
order. You will get h i g her marks for
more precise explanations (for example
mentioning key dates).
Begin the answer with the actual words
used i n the q uestion - this will ensure
that the focus is sharp a n d clear.
Try to l i n k each development to the next
using terms such as ·furthermore·,
'moreover', 'however', 'in addition to', 'as
a result of', 'this led to' . Now outl ine the
next development from your list i n Step 1 .
Now fully expla 1 n the Marshall P la n .
H ow to answer
Start by underlining key points in rhe question. This
will ensure that you focus sharply on what the question
wanrs you to write about. Try to write about ac lease chree
events, and support each wich derail. You can choose che
cwo events given in che question and an event of your own,
or decide co choose your own events co write about. If you
write about the events given in the question, including
three events in your answer is important because you muse
bring in an event of your own.
• Ensure char you give detail abouc each of the evenrs you
choose.
• Ensure char your events are in che correct chronological
sequence.
• Use linking words between each event and the next.
Example
l • "fr�otO."- Dodnvte. 1 q 4 7
• M(Crsh(Cil i'!(CV1. 1 q 4 7
• C.o"'i"-tOr"'- 1 q 4 7
• "ffoe. Buli"- C.nsis 1 q 4 3- 4 q
Example
"ffoe. ttrSt d.e.ve.lop"'-&"-t '"- U S- Sovi&< re.1i!.tiC"-S ivt the. Cff&il.rs 1 q 4 7- 4 q wLLs the.
V S polie.'t of e,ovttLL' "-"'""-t
Example
"fh 1 S polie. "J of e.oV1.tLL1 "-"'-""-t ovLLS i'.V1.0WV1. LLS the. "fr"-"'-Ll"- Do<'.triV1.& "fr�O\LLV1.
iHU'tO"-"-"'"d. this pol'"' "J ivt LLrt l l<port/J.V1.t spe.reh ' " MLLmh 1 q 4 7 iV1. wh1e.h he.
M"'-"'-iH&d. the. U S A to 0\�e.h 'jT&IJ.t&r iV1.volve.l>t&V1.t iV1. E.�>.rope. /J.AA world.
a,-ffa,irs to pre-v&v\J the- sprw,ti of (',0\Vl�!.d'lis � .
Example
As 0. re.s�lt of the. pollt i('.LCI S "-pport prO"'-IS&d. k!\J th€- "fr"-"'i!.V1. Dce.h 1 V1.e.,
"fr(<.O\OA iV1.troAAe.d e.('.OV\()"''"' a;d. klhie.h lc(Ls i'.M""'- a.s the. >'ia.rsha�l Ron
Example
"ffo€- 1'1/J.r Shil.ll i'!(CI't wo..s o. sprei(Cl s a0see.O\ of la(CV1.S fro"' the. USA to
E.�>.rop€oil.l't M1>-V1.tr1&S ' "'P'"'"'"-"-te.d. M the. e.V1.d. of the. SreoAA Wcrld. Wo.r
IVh ie, � O.llo.ve.d. for r&MV1.Sh�>.e-fiOV1. /J.AA reOM"'-1<0 re.<r&"-M/J.ttOV1..
You then need to expla i n one or two other developments
in us-soviet relations in this period using steps 4 a n d 5 .
Aim f o r good length paragra phs.
3 --Tiie·Cold �War·intensifies ;- 1 94 9-58

The Cold War and East-West rivalry increased even more in the years after the Berlin
Crisis. This was due to the formation of rival alliance systems, more especially NATO and
the Warsaw Pact, as well as the arms race. Relations deteriorated even further due to the
Soviet reaction to an uprising in Hungary in 1956. The Soviets feared that the uprising in
Hungary would threaten Soviet influence in eastern Europe as well as the Warsaw Pact,
and their brutal repression of the uprising shocked the Western world.

3 .1 Reasons fo r USA a n d Soviet riva l ry

There were a number of developments during this period that
intensified rivalry between the USA and the Soviet Union.
The Wa rsaw Pact, 1955
Within six years of NATO being formed the Soviet Union
had set up the Warsaw Pact. It was a military alliance of
eight nations headed by the Soviet Union and was designed
ro counter the threat of NATO. The members were the
Soviet Union, Albania, Poland, Romania, Hungary, East
Germany, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria and they were to
support each other if attacked. A joint command structure
was set up under the Soviet Supreme Commander. Figure
3.1 shows which countries were a member of NATO and
which were part of the Warsaw Pact.
The Warsaw Pact had important consequences. It was ro
play an important role in the Czechoslovakian Crisis of
1968 (see pages 56-57). Moreover, the existence of two rival
alliance systems in the Cold War - NATO in the west and
the Warsaw Pact in the east - increased rivalry between the
USA and the Soviet Union and intensified the arms race.

Key
Practice q u estio n
D NATO
Explain two conseq uences o f the Warsaw
Pact. (For guidance, see page 19 and
page 45.)

4 Figure 3 . 1 American and Soviet 'spheres of influence' across Europe

Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58

The a rms race

Now that both the USA and the Soviet Union had the atomic bomb, they both began to
pour money into projects to build more and bigger bombs and new delivery systems. Each
side suspected that the other aimed to build up enough weapons to be able to make a 'first
strike' which would prevent the other side firing back.

The atomic bomb

Stalin had been shocked in 1945 by the news that the USA had tested its first atomic
bomb (see page 12}. The Soviet atomic research programme was transformed over the next
few years, and scientists' pay trebled. In 1949, news of the first Soviet atomic bomb also
shocked the US public. Truman ordered a new powerful weapon to be built - the H - b o m b
(hydrogen bomb} and defence spending was massively increased.
The Soviet Union retaliated by increasing its own spending (see Figure 3.2}. The race
was on. In 1953 the Soviet Union tested an H-bomb only a few months after the first
American test. By 1953 both the USA and the Soviet Union possessed hydrogen bombs.
Both countries continued to develop more powerful nuclear wea pons. On 1 March 1954,
the USA tested its biggest ever hydrogen bomb. Its explosive power was the equivalent of
15 million tons ofTNT.
It was not just that the superpowers were developing new bombs. They were also building
bigger and more powerful bombs. A single hydrogen bomb could destroy an entire city. By
the mid-1950s, American B52 bombers, based in Europe, could have wiped out Moscow.
The Soviet Union was behind the USA in nuclear development bur it could still have
destroyed its rival. Winston Churchill described the global situation as a 'balance of terror'.

ACTIVITIES ?,
•
What did C h u rch i l l
m e a n b y t h e p h rase
'balance of terror'?
2 Study Figure 3.2.
Which su perpower
wou l d consider itself
the weaker of the two?

Practice
q u estion
Explain t h e im porta nce
of the a rms race for the
development of the Cold
War. For further guidance
see page 53.

47.8 49.6

2 1 .9 25.5

1 952 1 953

A Figure 3 . 2 Superpower arms spending ($bn)

 3 Th e Cold Wa r i ntensifies, 1949-58

The arms race further increased rivalry and tension between the superpowers. Each side
felt threatened and, as a result, each side made more alliances and built more weapons
and felt even more threatened. By 1961, relations between the superpowers were rather
strained. The U-2 crisis in 1960 (see page 40) and events in Berlin during 1961 (see page 42)
had quashed any hopes of improvements, but it was events close to the USA which almost
brought the world to nuclear war, when the Cuban Missile Crisis erupted in 1962 (see page 50).
Nevertheless, because of the technological developments in weaponry, both the
superpowers were able to reduce their conventional (non-nuclear) forces during the 1950s.
Each superpower expected the next war to be based on nuclear weapons. Table 3.1 shows
how the armed forces of the USA and the Soviet Union had developed by 1961.
� Table 3 . 1 US and Soviet weaponry b y 1 9 6 1

Weapon USA Soviet Union

I nter-continental b a l l istic missiles (I CBM) 63 50+
Submarine-launched b a l l istic missiles (S LBM) 96 0
M e d i u m/intermed iate-ra n g e b a l l istic m issiles (M RBM/ 90 200
I R BM)
Long-range bombers 600 1 90
Ai rcraft ca rriers 24 0
N u clear s u b m a rines 21 2
Conventi o n a l s u b m a rines 1 74 428
Active m i l itary m a n power 2,606,000 3,800,000

The impact of Sputn ik

There was some hope that the two superpowers would slow
down their arms development, but in 1957 the situation
changed completely when a Soviet rocket launched Sputnik,
a satellite which could orbit the earth in one and a half
hours (Figure 3.3). The USA saw this launch as a military
threat.
During the years 1957-59, the USA increased its spending
on missiles by 20 per cent, and President Dwight
Eisenhower founded the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). The Americans were concerned
chat the Soviet Union was overtaking the USA in arms
development. Therefore, the USA expanded its training
programme for engineers and scientists. In addition, the
US Air Force increased the number ofB-52 bombers and
the US navy equipped some of its submarines with nuclear
weapons. The USA also placed missile bases in some
European countries, especially West Germany.

Figure 3 . 3 An artist 's impression of Sputnik 1 orbiting �

the earth, 1957. The US were concerned that the Soviet
Union were more technologically advanced and were
winning the arms race
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58

3 . 2 The H u n g a rian u prisi ng, 1 956

Stalin died i n 1 953 but there was n o real change i n Soviet policy. Georgy Malenkov, who
had been deputy leader since 1946, took over as leader of the Soviet Union. After a two-year
period, Nikita Khrushchev established himself as the new Soviet leader and within a year
he had denounced Stalin's policies in a 'secret speech' and referred to as 'de-Stalinisation'.
Khrushchev believed in peaceful co-existence, which was the belief that the two
superpowers could exist peacefully together. For a time there seemed to be a thaw in the
Cold War. However, this period proved to be a false dawn when the Soviet Union brutally
put down an uprising in Hungary in 1956.

H ungary after the Second World War

The Soviet Union invaded Hungary, one of Hitler's allies, in September 1944 as it drove
Nazi forces back towards Germany. Soviet troops occupied Hungary and continued to do
so after the end of the war, even though an Allied Control Commission for Hungary was set
up to run the country. The Control Commission comprised the Soviet Union, the USA and
the UK. However, the Soviet Union was the most influential of the powers and was able to
determine events in Hungary in the immediate post-war years.
A new provisional government was set up in Hungary near the end of the war and it agreed
to pay the Soviet Union reparations of$300 million. Elections were held in November
1945, in which the independent Smallholders' Party won 57 per cent of the vote, while
the Hungarian Communist Party secured only 17 per cent. The head of rhe occupying
Soviet forces, Marshal Voroshilov, refused to allow the Smallholders' Party to establish
a government and he established a coalition government that contained members of the
Hungarian Communist Parry. Laszlo Rajk, a member of the Communist Party, was in
charge of the security police.

I mpact of Soviet control

In February 1947, some leaders of the Smallholders' Party and National Peasant Party were
arrested and others fled Hungary as a result of Soviet pressure and control. In the ensuing
elections, the Communist Party became the largest single party but, because it did nor have
a majority, it served in coalition government. A new constitution based on the Soviet Union
system was drawn up, making Hungary a 'republic of workers and working peasants'.
Matyas Rakosi emerged from the Communist Party to lead Hungary, and he began to
impose a dictatorial rule, calling himself a follower of Stalin. Hungary became a member
of Cominform (see page 24) and the Hungarian Communist Pany rook its orders from
Moscow.

The rule of Rakosi

Rakosi used terror and brutality to keep control, killing an estimated 2,000 people in the
purges and imprisoning 200,000 political opponents. The secret police (AVH) became a
hated and dreaded part of Hungarian life. To further Rakosi's control, religious teaching
in schools was attacked and removed from the education system. Cardinal Mindszenty, the
leader of the Hungarian Catholic Church, was imprisoned for life in 1949.
The Hungarian economy was controlled by the Soviet Union through Comecon (see
page 24). This body prevented Hungary trading with western Europe and receiving any
Marshall Aid (see pages 22-23). As a result, like the other satellite states of eastern Europe,
Hungary was forced to trade on uneven terms with the Soviet Union. This meant that
Hungary did not always receive a fair price for its exports there. Rakosi put forward a
Five-Year Plan to transform the economy of Hungary, but it failed to bring real progress.
The plan was devoted to heavy industry and the production of steel, but Hungary had no
iron ore or coking coal with which to produce steel. Living standards began to fall, and in
1952 Hungary experienced irs lowest agricultural output ever. Rakosi became increasingly
unpopular.
 3 T h e C o l d Wa r i ntensifies, 1949-58

When Stalin died, the new leader of the Soviet Union,

Malenkov, did not favour Rakosi, who was replaced by Source C Written by Laszlo, who was one of the lea d e rs of
t h e H u n g a ri a n u p r i s i n g
Imre Nagy. This shows the control that the Soviet Union
had in Hungary. During the next three years there was We h a d l i t t l e freed o m . Western c l o t h e s w e r e c o n s i d e re d
d a n g e r o u s . F o r exa m p le , my collea g u e J o h n sh owed u p
much change in Hungary. The timeline below indicates
f o r lectu res o n e d a y we a r i n g a n e w s u i t , striped s h i rt a n d
key events.
nec k tie f r o m t h e U S A . After classes h e w a s s u m m o n e d to a
C o m m u n ist Pa rty officer. He received a to n g u e - la s h i n g a n d
Key events of th e H ungarian uprising
w a s expelled from t h e Pa rty.
Date Event
1m] Source D From c o m m e n t s m a d e by K h r u s h c h ev, lea d e r of
M a rch Death of Sta l i n . Rakosi replaced by l m re Nagy as the Soviet U n i o n , s p e a k i n g i n J u ly 1 9 56 a b o u t the g rowi n g
H u ngary's prime m i n ister p ro b l e m s i n H u n g a ry

If t h e s i t u a t i o n gets s t i l l worse, we h e re in M oscow have

April Nagy replaced by Ra kosi d e c i d e d to use all m e a n s at our d i s posal to b r i n g t h e crisis
May C reation of the Warsaw Pact
to a n end. T h e Soviet Union c a n n ot at any p r i ce a l low a
b re a c h in t h e front of eastern E u r o p e .
111m
February Khrushchev's 'secret speech'

J u ly Rakosi forced from power on the orders of Moscow

and succeeded by h1s close friend Emo Gero
October Victims of Rakosi's p u rges were re-buried
23 October Students demonstrated in Buda pest, the capital of
H u ngary, demanding free elections, free press and
the withdrawal of Soviet troops. Statute of Sta l i n was
p u l led down in Buda pest and dragged through the
streets (see Source B)
Source A A H u n g a ri a n s t u d e n t expla i n s the s i t u a t i o n i n
H u n g a ry i n 1 9 53
Living sta n d a rd s were d e c l i n i n g and yet t h e p a p e rs kept
say i n g that we have never h a d it so good. Why? Why these
lies? Everybody knew that t h e state was s p e n d i n g L h e m o ney
o n a r m a m e nts. Why could t h ey not a d m it that we were
worse off b e c a u s e of t h e war effort and the need to b u i ld
new factories? I realised that t h e system was wrong a n d
stu p i d .
ACTIVITIES
•
Create a spider diagram to show the ways in which
Rakosi kept control of H u ng a ry's people.
2 Why were Comecon a n d Cominform im portant for the
Soviet Union in their contro l over H u n g a ry?
3 Look at the timeline showi ng the key events of the
H u n g a rian uprisi n g . Explain which events:
0 encouraged the H u n g a rians to challenge the Soviet
Union
0 caused concern among the leaders of the Soviet
Union about their contro l of eastern Europe.
4 What can you learn from Sources A-C about the reasons
for demonstrations i n H u ng a ry in October 1 956?
S Look at Source D. What do you t h i n k Kh rushchev meant
when he stated : 'the Soviet Union cannot ... a l low a
breach in the front of eastern Europe'?

<Ill Source B Stalin's statue is toppled in

Budapest in 1956
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58

Key featu res of the u p rising
After the demonstrations began in October 1956,
Khrushchev sent troops and tanks to Budapest to try to
restore peace. On 25 October the tanks opened fire, killing
twelve and wounding more than a hundred people. On that
day, Hungary's leader, Erno Gero, was forced to resign and
Janos Kadar took over as temporary prime minister. The
following day Nagy was re-instated as prime minister.
The demands of N agy and the rebels
Nagy held talks with the Soviet Union and it was agreed that
the tanks would be withdrawn. John Foster Dulles, the US
Secretary of State, said: 'You can count on us'. The Hungarians
interpreted this as a sign that the USA would support them
against the Soviet Union if help were ever needed. However,
President Eisenhower (who succeeded Truman in 1953) was
careful about committing the USA because he had no wish
to become involved in any dispute during the forthcoming
presidential election. Nagy released some political prisoners
on 30 October, the most famous of these being Cardinal
Mindszenty. The following day Nagy's proposed reforms
were published. Figure 3.4 summarises these.
Withd rawa l from the Wa rsaw Pact
Nagy's most controversial decision was his intention to
withdraw Hungary from the Warsaw Pact. Moreover, Nagy
asked the U n ited Nations (UN) to consider Hungary's
disputes with the Soviet Union. He hoped to win support at
the UN and felt that the Soviet Union would be drawn into
negotiations. Political parties that had been banned under
Rakosi now re-appeared and Nagy announced a coalition
government on 3 November.
Kh rushchev's response to the u p risi ng
Khrushchev was anxious not t o be seen a s weak b y other
members of the Warsaw Pact. Furthermore, Mao Zedong,
the Chinese leader, was urging him to stand firm against
any deviation from communism. Khrushchev decided that
Nagy had gone too far, and on 4 November, 200,000 Soviet
troops and 6,000 tanks returned to Hungary. Figure 3.5
below summarises the reasons for the Soviet invasion.
As the crisis raged in Hungary, world attention was drawn
away to events in the Middle East with the Suez crisis.
Britain and France had landed troops at the Suez Canal
in order to regain control of the canal, which had been
nationalised by the Egyptian leader, Nasser. The USA was
anxious for Britain and France to remove their troops
from Suez and the invasion was a fortunate diversion for
Khrushchev.

Pressure from Mao a n d C h i n a to

protect C o m m u n ism from the West
Free elections

Hungarv to develop trade links US presidential elections

Krushchev needed to
sta m p h i s authority
on the Soviet U n ion
with the West

An end to the one-partv svstem Why d1d the Sov1et

U n 1on 1 nvade H u n g a ry/

Freedom of the press Set exa mple to rest Damage to the

of eastern E u rope Warsaw Pact

Freedom of speech

Freedom or worshiP
USA and U N involved Fear of loss of control
i n the Suez C risis of eastern E u rope
Hungarv to become a neutral state

Free trade unions .6. Figure 3.5 Reasons for the Soviet Union invasion of Hungary

Withdrawal from the warsaw Pact

ACTIVITY .,.•�
Look at Figure 3 . 5 which describes some of the reasons behind the Soviet
i nvasion of H u ng a ry.
.6.Figure 3.4 What the Hungarians were Put these reasons in order of im portan ce and explain your decision.
fighting for
 3 Th e Cold Wa r i n te n s ifi e s , 1949-58

Events of the i nvasion Resu lts of the u p risi ng

The Soviet army quickly captured airports, bridges and key Soviet troops were easily able t o defeat the Hungarian
road junctions but, in spite of this, the Hungarians fought rebels, but at a cost. About 7,000 of them were killed,
on using guerrilla tactics. There was bitter fighting but the though the rebels lost at least 20,000. About 200,000
rebels were no match for the occupying Soviet forces. Hungarians fled the country during the uprising, with
They were able to communicate with the West by radio and many becoming political refugees (see Source H).
broadcast impassioned pleas for help (Sources E and F).
A ceasefire was agreed for 10 November but there was
sporadic fighting until the middle of 1957.
The Soviet-backed Janos Kadar became Hungary's new
leader. Nagy had been hiding in the Yugoslav embassy
during the fighting. Kadar offered him safe passage out of
the country. However, Kadar broke his word and arrested
Nagy, who was then taken to Romania and hanged in 1958.

Source E From a ra d i o messa g e s e n t by H u n g a r i a n rebels

d u r i n g t h e f i g h t i n g , e a rly N ove m b e r 1 9 56

We have a l m ost n o wea p o n s , n o h e avy g u n s of a ny k i n d .

T h e H u n g a r i a n p e o p le a re not a f r a i d of d e a t h . Yo u can't
let people attack t a n k s with their bare hands. What is t h e
U n ited N a t i o n s d o i n g ?

Source F A ra d i o b r o a d cast m a d e by t h e rebels i n ea rly

N ove m b e r 1 9 56

Civilised people of the world I Our ship is sinking. Light is fad ing.
T h e s h a d ows g row darker over t h e s o i l of H u n g a ry. H e l p u s ! A Source H Hungarian refugees fleeing to Austria in
November 1966, after the Hungarian uprising

Source G F r o m a n a rt i c l e i n Ti m e m a g a z i n e (a U S p o l i t i c a l
pu blication) pu blished 1 4 N ove m b e r 1 9 56, d e s c r i b i n g
Soviet a c t i o n s i n H u n g a ry

T h e steel-covered Soviet boot trod on H u n g a ry t h i s week,

sta m p i n g a n d g r i n d i n g o u t t h e yo u n g d e m o c ra cy.

ACTIVITIES "j
•
Look at Sources E and F. What can you learn a bout the
rebels from these sou rces?
2 Look at Source G. What is the attitude of the USA to the
Soviet U n ion's action in H u n g a ry?
3 Imagine that the Soviet U n ion had published Source H .
Devise a caption that a Soviet writer might have used.
4 What does Source I tel l us about British attitudes to the
H u n garian u prising?

Practice q u estion
A Source I A demonstration in Britain in support of the
Exp l a i n two conseq uences o f the H u ngarian u prisi n g . Hungarian rebels. The photograph was published in the
(For guidance, s e e page 1 9 a n d page 45.) Daily Mail, an English newspaper, on 6 November 1956.
Though international assistance was not forthcoming, there
was tremendous sympathy for the plight of the Hungarians
from ordinary people across western Europe and the world.
There were demonstrations and marches and the refugees
were welcomed by the citizens of Europe
Key topic 1 The o r i g i n s of the Cold War, 1 941-58

I nternation a l reactions to the
Hu ngaria n u p rising
There was very little that the West, especially the USA
and Britain, could do to help the Hungarians, apart
from condemn the actions of the Soviet Union and stage
demonstrations in support of the Hungarian protestors (see
Source I, page 37). Hungary was too far away for military
intervention and, with the development of the arms race
there was also the threat of nuclear war. In addition, the
Suez crisis meant that it was now difficult for the West to
criticise similar actions from the Soviet Union in Hungary.
The UN convened a special inquiry into the events of
October-November 1956, but both the Hungarian and
Soviet governments refused to participate. The inquiry
resulted in a condemnation of the Kadar regime, but no
other action or significant findings. Time magazine named
the 'Hungarian freedom fighter' its 'Man of the Year' for
1956. Furthermore, many Americans sympathised with
the plight of the Hungarian people. One example was
when Ed Sullivan, a popular US television presenter, asked
viewers to send aid to Hungarian refugees who had fled
during the Soviet invasion. By 1957, this appeal had raised
$6 million.
The Soviet Union had maintained its empire and sent out a
warning to any satellite state thinking of breaking away (see
Source ]). Khrushchev's policy of de-Stalinisation would
only go as far as he wanted it to. Poland and Hungary made
only slow and gradual reforms after 1956 and remained
firmly under the yoke of the Soviet Union. The West saw
Khrushchev's recent messages of peace as a sham.
S o u rce J From Pravda, the Soviet state news p a p e r, 23
N ov e m b e r 1 956
A co m m u n ist state could not re m a i n a s i le n t o b s e rver to
t h e b loody reign of fascist react i o n i n P e o p le's D e m ocratic
H u n g a ry. W h e n everyth i n g settles down i n H u n g a ry and
life bec o m e s normal a g a i n , t h e H u n g a r i a n w o r k i n g class.
peasa ntry a n d intelligentsia w i l l u n d o u bte d ly u n d e rsta n d
o u r a c t i o n s b e t t e r a n d j u d g e t h e m r i g h t . We see o u r h e lp to
t h e H u n g a r i a n worki n g class i n its struggle a g a i nst cou nter­
revo l u t i o n a s our i nternat i o n a l d u ty.

ACTIVITIES � •
Re-read the section on the resu lts of the uprising (page 37) and internation a l reactions.
Consider what the effects of the u prising were and then copy this ta ble and fi l l i n the
boxes. An exa m p l e has been i n cluded to get you started.

Effects for H u ngary Effects for the Soviet Effects for superpower
Union relations
The Soviet Union had
reasserted its control of
Hungary.

2 Wou l d the majority of H u ngarian people a g ree with the views expressed in Source J?
Explain you r answer.

Practice q u estion
Write a n a rrative account a n a lysi n g t h e key events i n t h e C o l d Wa r i n t h e years 1 949
to 1 956.

You may use t h e fol l owing i n you r a nswer:

• The Wa rsaw Pact, 1955
• The Soviet invasion of H u ng a ry, 1956

You must also use information of you r own.

(For guidance, see page 30 and page 62.)

Cold War cris e s , 1 9 5 8 -70

I n the 1960s there were three major crises i n the Cold War. The first was i n 1961 when the
Soviet Union constructed the Berlin Wall separating East Berlin from West Berlin. This
greatly increased East-West tension. The following year the two superpowers were on the
brink of nuclear war due to the Cuban Missile Crisis. The third crisis was in 1968 when
reforms in Czechoslovakia, known as the Prague Spring, led to a Soviet invasion which
angered the West, as well as the Brezhnev Doctrine.
Each chapter within this key topic explains a key issue and examines important lines of
enquiry, as outlined in the boxes below.
There will also be guidance on how to answer the following question types:
• the importance question (page 53)
• the narrative question (page 62).

CHAPTER 4 T H E B E RLI N CHAPTER 5 TH E CRISIS CHAPTER 6 THE SOVI ET

CRISIS, 1 961
• The refugee pro b l e m in Berlin,
Khrushch ev's Berlin ultimatum
(1 958) a n d the s u m m it meeti ngs
of 1 959-61 .
• The construction of the B e r l i n
Wa l l , 1 961 .
• I m pact of the construction of
the Berlin Wa l l on US-Soviet
relations. Ken n edy's visit to
Berlin i n 1 963.
OVE R C U BA, 1 962
• Soviet relations with Cuba, the
Cuban Revo lution a n d the refusal
of the USA to recogn ise Castro's
government. The sign ifica n ce of
the Bay of Pigs i n cident.
• The events of the Cuban Missile
Crisis.
• The consequences of the Cuban
M issile Crisis: the 'hotline', the
Lim ited Test B a n Treaty 1 963; the
O uter Space Treaty 1 967; a n d the
N uclear N o n - Prol iferation Treaty
of 1 968.
I NVAS I O N O F
CZECHOS LOVAKIA, 1 968
• Opposition i n Czechoslovakia
to Soviet contro l : the Prague
Spri n g .
• The B rezh nev Doctrine a n d
the re-esta blishment of Soviet
control i n Czechoslova kia.
• I nternational reaction to Soviet
measures i n Czechoslova kia.

TIMELINE
1958 K h r u s h c h ev's B e r l i n u l t i m a t u m 1 963 Ke n n e dy's v i s i t to West B e r l i n
1960 Paris Summit Sett i n g u p of t h e ' h ot l i n e ·
1 961 C o n s t r u c t i o n of B e r l i n Wa ll T h e L i m i t e d Test B a n Treaty
Bay of P i g s i nv a s i o n 1 968 The N u c l e a r N o n - P ro l i f e r a t i o n Treaty
1962 The Cuban Missile Crisis The Pra g u e S p r i n g and the Soviet i nv a s i o n
of C z e c h o s lova k i a
1 969 J a n P a l a c h sets f i re to h i m s e lf i n P ra g u e
 After the creation in 1949 of West Germany (the Federal Republic) and East
Germany (the Democratic Republic), Berlin remained a divided and occupied
city. The Soviet Union's desire to remove the Western Allies from Berlin created
a crisis in 1961. This crisis led to the construction of the Berlin Wall, which
became a symbol of the Cold War, and led to increased tension between the
Soviet Union and the USA.
4.1 I n creased te n s i o n ove r B e r l i n , 1 95 8-61
You have already read about the division of Berlin in 1 945
(see page 10) and the Berlin airlift during 1 948-49
(see page 27). The problems of Berlin continued in the years
that followed, culminating in a crisis in 1961 that led to the
construction of the Berlin Wall.
Several issues concerning West Germany created anxieties
for Khrushchev. In 1 955 West Germany had joined NATO
(see page 29) and in 1957 it had joined the European
Economic Community. Not only was West Germany
economically strong and growing stronger, it was seen by
Khrushchev as a military threat. The Soviet Union's fear of
another German invasion would not go away.
In the years before 1961, Khrushchev attempted to persuade
the Allies to voluntarily leave West Berlin. He wanted their
removal because West Berlin was an area of capitalist
prosperity and a symbol of the success of western Europe
within communist territory. Furthermore, the Soviet Union
claimed that the USA and its Allies used West Berlin as a
base for espionage. The Soviets argued that they needed to
control movement and access into Berlin in order to combat
chis. Not least of all, Khrushchev wanted a solution to the
refugee problem in Berlin (see below).
The refu gee problem in Berlin
Between 1 949 and 1 9 6 1 , about 4 million East Germans fled
to the West through Berlin because they were dissatisfied
with economic and political conditions at home. The
forced collectivisation of agriculture and the end of
private trading were not popular among the people of East
Germany. Moreover, there were shortages of consumer
goods, which could be bought cheaply in West Berlin.
From January 1961, the number of refugees leaving East
Berlin for the West increased rapidly to more than 20,000 a
month. Large numbers of these refugees were professional
people (on one day, for example, the entire Mathematics
Department of the University of Leipzig defected), but
there were also many skilled craftsmen among them. This
drain of labour and economic output threatened to bring
about the economic collapse of East Germany.
Hence Khrushchev was determined to solve the problem of
Berlin. For him, Berlin was 'a fishbone stuck in his throat'.
Berlin was a gap in the Iron Curtain, and the Soviet Union
was keen to close this gap.
Kh rushchev's Berl i n U ltimatum
In 1 9 5 8 Khrushchev issued the Berlin Ultimatum. He
accused the Allies of breaking the Potsdam Agreement (see
page 12), telling them that they should leave Berlin within
six months and suggesting that it should become a neutral
free city. President Eisenhower of the USA seemed prepared
to negotiate (see Source A). He did not want to risk a war
over Berlin. Khrushchev's visit to the USA in 1959 seemed
co be successful, and it was hoped a summit meeting could
be held the following year.
Source A From a s p e e c h by Pres i d e n t E i s e n h ower i n
S e p te m b e r 1 959
T h e re m u s t be s o m e way to develop s o m e kind of free city
that might b e p a rt of West G e r m a ny. Perhaps t h e U n ited
Nations w o u l d g u a ra ntee t h e freed o m , safety a n d secu rity
of t h e city ... T h e time is c o m i n g , and p e r h a p s soo n , when we
would s i m p ly have to get o u r forces o u t .
Paris S u m m it, 1960
Khrushchev and Eisenhower were due to meet in Paris
on 14 May 1960. Nine days before the summit conference
was due to open, the Soviet Union announced that it had
shot down an American U-2 spy plane near the Soviet city
ofSverdlovsk. The pilot was captured and put on trial.
Khrushchev demanded that all such flights stop and
that the USA give an apology for spying. Eisenhower was
prepared to stop the flights buc would not apologise. There
 4 The B e r l i n c ri s i s , 1 961

were bitter exchanges between Khrushchev and Eisenhower

at a preliminary meeting, which ended with Khrushchev
storming out of the first session (see Source B). Eisenhower
immediately cancelled his planned visit to the Soviet Union.
The Summit did not take place.
Source B K h r u s h chev s p e a k i n g a t the P a r i s p ress
conference i n M a y 1 96 0 a f t e r t h e S u m m i t h a d c o l l a p s e d .
K h r u s h c h ev, w h o was h i ssed a n d b o o e d , t h o u g h t t h e
n o ises c a m e from t h e G e r m a n p ress
Yo u fascist basta rds a re the k i n d we did not f i n i s h off at
Sta l i n g r a d . We h i t you so h a rd that we p u t you 10 feet u n d e r
r i g h t away. I f y o u b o o u s a n d attack us a g a i n , l o o k o u t ! W e
w i l l h i t y o u so h a r d t h e re w o n ' t b e a s q u e a l o u t of yo u .
Source D From a ra d i o s p e e c h by P r e s i d e n t Ke n n e d y to
t h e U S p e o p le on 25 J u ly 1 961
We c a n not and w i l l not p e r m i t t h e co m m u n ists to d rive u s
o u t of B e r l i n , e i t h e r g r a d u a lly o r by f o r c e . T h e re is peace i n
B e r l i n today. T h e s o u rce of t r o u b l e a n d t e n s i o n is Moscow,
not B e rli n . We s e e k peace but we s h a l l not s u r re n d e r.
Source E From a convers a t i o n between K h r u s h c hev a n d a
US d i p l o m a t at t h e e n d of J u ly 1 961
If yo u r troops try to force t h e i r way to B e rli n , we w i l l o p pose
t h e m by force. War is bound to g o t h e r m o n u c l e a r, and
t h o u g h you and I may s u rvive, a l l yo u r E u ro p e a n allies will
b e c o m p letely destroye d .

Vien n a S u m m it, 1961

Continuing to seek a solution, Khrushchev fixed another
summit conference with the new president of the USA
- John F. Kennedy. Khrushchev felt that he would be
able to use his experience to push the young Kennedy
around. However, he had failed to note that Kennedy
had re-asserted the Tru man Doctrine (see page 20) in his
inauguration speech (a formal acceptance speech of the US
president on taking office) on 20 January 1961. Sources D
and E clearly indicate the gulf that existed between the USA
and the Soviet Union over Berlin.
At the Vienna Summit of]une 1961, Khrushchev again
demanded that western forces leave West Berlin. He said he
would make a treaty with East Germany which would end
all occupation rights, including Western access to Berlin.
Kennedy refused to withdraw western forces and increased US
defence spending by $3.5 billion the following monrh. In July,
Khrushchev announced that the Soviet defence budget would
be increased by more than 30 per cent. Sources D and E show
how tensions increased duringJuly.
ACTIVITIES
Re-read these pages and pages 25-28 about the Berl i n
Crisis o f 1 948-49. Write a newspaper a rticle from t h e
Soviet point o f view, explaining w h y western Allies
should l eave Be rl i n .
2 Wha t c a n you le a rn from Source A a bout Eisenhower's
attitude to the problem of Berlin?
3 What can you learn about Khrush chev as a leader from
Sources B and C?
4 Look at Sources D and E. What c a n you learn about how
tensions were i ncreasing by 1 961 from these s o u rces?
S Explain why Khrushchev thought his case for ejecting
the West from Berlin was g rowing stronger by 1 961 .
Practice q u estion
Exp l a i n t h e i m p o rta n ce o f t h e summit conferences for the
problem of Berl i n . (For guidance, see page 53.)

.,. Source C Khrushchev

at the press conference
which revealed the Paris
Summit would not go ahead.
Khrushchev was aggressive
to the German reporters.
On Khrushchev's left is the
Defence Minister, Marshal
Malinovsky
Key topic 2 Cold Wa r crises, 1 958-70

4 . 2 Co nstruction of the Berl i n Wa l l, 1 961

The differences over Berlin worsened in 1961. On 13 August,
Khrushchev closed the border between East and West G E RMAN D E M O C R AT I C
N

t
Berlin. Streets near to the border between East and West R E P U B LI C

Berlin were torn up by East German troops so that they

could erect a barbed wire entanglement around the 43 km
(27 miles) which separated the two Berlins.

or
1 0 km

�
The USA and its Allies did nothing to stop the building Sovret
che<kp
of the Wall, especially as the new barrier was erected
Tegel Airport Brandenburg
within the boundary of East Berlin. Within a few days, � Gate

construction began on the Wall itself as well as chain fences � British Ched<.point
and minefields. An area was cleared so that East German � sector Charlie

guards would be able to shoot at any Ease Germans who Gatow

';( Airport
tried to cross to West Berlin.
� American
Eventually, East German officials replaced the temporary c\l � sector
wall with one that was much stronger. The new wall was Sovtet .�
3.6 m high and 1.2 m wide, making it very difficult to climb checkpoint �
Soviet
over. The area beyond the wall was almost impossible to get ched::point

across because it included patrolling soldiers and dogs as

well as floodlights and trip-wire machine guns.

?,
G E RMAN D E M O C R AT I C REPUBLIC

ACTIVITIES
• A Figure 4 . 1 Map showing the Berlin Wall encircling
Look at Source E (page 41), Source F and Figure 4.1 . Can West Berlin
you suggest two reasons why the USA did not oppose
the building of the Wa l l ?
2 Working in pairs p u t together two newspaper headlines for
the construction of the Wa l l - one from the viewpoint of
the Soviet Union and one from the viewpoint of the USA.

Source F East German �

workers building the
Berlin Wall, 1961

I m pact of the Berl i n Wa l l fo r
US-Soviet relations
The construction of the Berlin Wall led to a serious stand­
off between the two superpowers in October 1961. The USA
disputed the right of Soviet troops to patrol and guard the
checkpoints to the Wall as well as to check the passports of
American officials who passed through these checkpoints.
The Americans stationed their own troops and tanks on the
Western side of the checkpoints which, in turn, provoked
the Soviets to place tanks on the East German side. One
wrong move and there was a real possibility of armed
conflict. The US President, Kennedy, worked behind the
scenes to avoid any such conflict, promising Khrushchev
that if the Soviet Union removed its troops, the USA would
do the same. This ended the stand-off.
Source G From a convers a t i o n between K e n n e d y a n d a n
a i d e after t h e V i e n n a S u m m i t i n 1 961
It seems p a r t i c u l a rly s t u p i d to risk k i l l i n g a m i ll i o n
Americans over a n argument about access rights on a n
a u t o b a h n [ G e r m a n moto rway] o r b e c a u s e G e r m a n s want
G e r m a ny re - u n if i e d . If I ' m going to t h reaten t h e Soviet U n i o n
w i t h n u c l e a r w a r, it w i l l have to b e f o r b i g g e r a n d m o re
i m portant rea s o n s t h a n that.
A Source H US tanks (foreground) facing Soviet tanks
(top of photograph) at Checkpoint Charlie, Berlin 196 1 .
Checkpoint Charlie was one o f the crossing-points between
West and East Berlin. It was staffed by US, Soviet and East
German forces
4 The B e r l i n c ri s i s , 1 961
I m pact of the Berl i n Wa l l fo r Germans
After the building o f the Berlin Wall, escape from East
to West Germany became very difficult. Some people
managed to defect by tunnelling, some by swimming where
the border ran along Berlin's Teltow Canal and others by
jumping our ofwindows near to the Wall. Some managed
to climb the Wall, hoping that East German guards would
deliberately rake poor aim when ordered to fire at them,
but many people lost their lives trying to cross from East to
West in the years of the Berlin Wall (see Source J, page 44).
The building of the Berlin Wall meant that peace was
maintained, but at a high price for the German people.
Families were split as some lived in the East and some in
the West and travel restrictions made it very difficult for
relatives to see one another. Germans also felt let down
because the Soviet Union had broken the 1 949 agreement
about the running of Berlin (see page 28), and for all his
bluster, Kennedy had not gone to war.
A Source I Citizens of West Berlin lifting their children so
that relatives in the East may see them. The photograph was
taken in late 1961
Key topic 2 Cold Wa r crises, 1 958-70
A Source J An unarmed Berlin teenager was shot and killed
by East German guards as he tried to escape to West Berlin
over the wall, August 1962
The end of the Berl i n Crisis
Khrushchev interpreted the construction of the Wall in two
ways. He felt that he had beaten Kennedy and was prepared
for the next chance to out-manoeuvre his rival. The flow of
refugees was stopped and the economic crisis East Germany
was facing slowly evaporated. Khrushchev said that the Wall
was 'guarding the gates of socialist paradise'. Although
Khrushchev had failed to remove western forces from Berlin,
the crisis ended and tension in Europe was eased.
Ke n n edy's visit to Berlin, 1963
The Wall became the symbol of the division in the world
and, for Berliners, it was a constant reminder that their
country was still a tool of the superpowers. President
Kennedy visited West Germany in 1963. He made several
speeches in some of its major cities, where he was met by
huge, cheering crowds. When he moved on to West Berlin,
he embarked on a thirty-mile tour of the main streets,
which were lined with an estimated 1.5 million people (out
of a population of about 2 . 5 million). He spoke to a crowd
of about 200,000 in the centre of the city, near the Wall
(see Source K). Some East Berliners listening to him on the
other side of the Wall applauded him, too.
S o u rce K From Presi d e n t K e n n e dy's s p e e c h in West
B e r l i n , 28 J u n e 1 963
W h i le t h e wall is t h e m ost obvi o u s a n d vivid d e m o nstrat i o n
of t h e f a i l u res of t h e c o m m u nist syste m , for a l l t h e world
to s e e , we t a ke n o satisfac t i o n i n it. For it i s , a s yo u r Mayor
has said, a n offe nce not o n ly a g a i nst h istory b u t a n offe nce
a g a i nst h u m a n ity, s e p a r a t i n g families, dividing h u s b a n d s
a n d w i v e s a n d b rot h e rs a n d sisters, a n d d i v i d i n g a p e o p l e
w h o wish to b e J O i n e d t o g e t h e r . . . Fre e d o m h a s m a ny
d i f f i c u lt i e s a n d d e m o c racy is not p e rfect, b u t we have never
h a d to p u t a wall u p to keep our p e o p le in, to p reve nt t h e m
f r o m leavi n g u s . T h e re a re m a ny p e o p l e i n t h e w o r l d w h o
really d o n 't u n d e rsta n d , o r say t h ey d o n't, what is t h e g reat
issue betwe e n t h e free world and t h e co m m u n ist world . Let
them come to B e r l i n . Today, i n the world of freed o m , the
p ro u d est boast is 'fch bin ein Berliner·.
(Alt h o u g h Ke n n edy m e a n t t h i s to m e a n : 'I am a B e r l i n e r',
h e s h o u ld have said i n G e r m a n : 'lch bin Berliner'. O u t s i d e
B e rli n , a B e r l i n e r - ein Berliner - is a G e r m a n pastry; s o m e
p e o p le joke that h e actua lly s a i d : ' I a m a j a m d o u g h n u t ' . !
ACTIVITIES ?, •
Kennedy was accused of being soft on Berl i n . Explain
what was meant by this.
2 Imagine you a re a West Berliner. Write a l etter to
President Kennedy explaining why you think that the
USA should intervene to reu nite Berl i n .
3 U s i n g Sources H-K and the text on pages 42-44,
copy and complete the table below documenting the
consequences of the Berlin Wa l l .
Conseq u e n ces Consequences Conseq uences
for Germany for the Soviet for Superpower
Union relations
Source D was
bad publicity for
the Soviet U nion
- it showed its
inhumanity to
the world.
4 Draw a flow chart that shows the main developments in
Berlin i n the yea rs 1 958-61 .
Practice q u estion
Write a na rrative account a n a lysing t h e m a i n events i n
East-West riva lry over Berlin, 1 958-61 .
You may use t h e followin g in you r a nswer:
• The S u m mit meetings
• The b u i l d i n g of the Berlin Wa l l
You m ust a lso u s e information o f you r own .
(For guidance, see page 3 0 a n d page 62.)

4.3 Exa m i n ation practice
This section provides further guidance on how to answer the consequence question.
Specific advice on how to answer the consequence question is given at the end of Chapter 1
(see page 19). This section looks at three different answers to this type of question. The
question is to the right, and the answers are below.
This does mention two conseq uences
but only makes simple statements
about each and lacks precise dates a n d
explanation .
This is getting better, with more precise
deta i l s of the two conseq uences and a
more explicit focus on conseq uences.
However, there needs to be more
explanation of each conseq uence for
h i g h e r marks.
Now we have two good length
paragraphs, each fully focused on
consequence a n d expla i n i n g each with
precise deta ils .
4 The B e r l i n crisis, 1 961
Explain two conseq uences
of the b u i l d i n g of the
Berl i n Wa l l in 1 961 .
Answer 1
1 "fhe b�illiiVVO of the Wt.tll led- to t.t stt.tNt-aff
f ;:_:,� G&h.i&eVI. the. V S A O.V\.d- the Sov1et Uvtw.c a. t£-10
"'- O V\.ths lt.tte.r . :r; V\. 1 % 3 , Presiliert-1: Kum&li")
V l ', lt&li Bul"t a.nd. SOA�i ·:r:e.h b i VI. &IV\. B&riiV\.&r '
Answer 2
OM e.ovtSe!fp·"-"'·" of +o& b1td.'"-'' of -l: h e
/?e.d i Vl W a . H wa.s t-o tn.c..r e.ctse. -te.vts ioVl �e.·b·ve.e-n..
th& U S A t.tAA th& Sc't&t IJV\. iOV\.1 wh 1r.h wt.ts
t sho10V\. G\r t.t stt.tV\.Ii·of{' b"'hvem th& tiOO
s �pe.rpc10e.rs 1 ft Oc.tc b&r 1 % 1 . A SMCAA
C.OV\.S"-!fJ�""-M wt.ts Ke.V\.Mii\r' s visit to We.si:
Be.r i 1 V1. ' "- 1 % ? , 10l>&>t h& "'l.tlie. c.le.t.tr Ai".e.ric.I.CV\.
s�ppor+ for the e.d: "l w1th his shtt&II\&VI.t '::Ce.h
km-t £.iV\. Be.divt.£.r1
Answer 3
OM C.O"-'>eflt"""" of -l:h& b�illilvvo Ot to&
Bul1t'l Wt.tll wt.ts -l:c i>ee.re.t.ts& -i:&VI.S iat'l b&-i:>J&eft
th& U S A Mli the Sovie-t UV\.icl'l, 10 ith K&V\.Mii lr
t&&li"-'0 thO.t h& hO.d. l?u.c o�t-"'-O.vl.o�vr&d. l? '!)·
Kor�she. h&V Mli &-V\.I I t&l lr tc f>t.te.t d.ow.c t.tq(l.t '"·
1'h 1 s '"-"-r&t.ts&d- t&VI.S 10>t 100.s soo10V1. wo&VI. +ou&
>J/.tS t.t stt.tAA·atf troops of the. twa
s u.ye..rp owers ovt s 1 dv£ of Ol'l& of the.
e.�&e. V.pciVI.tS OVI. -l:h& B&rliVI. Wt.tl l , whie.� proved. +o
� l?& to o.ce- of t�& �>�.os+ te.VI.se. '"oi>I&VI.ts of the. Now try the fo l lowi n g
C.otd. Wo.r 1 V1. E."rcpe. 1 V1. October 1 % 1 q uestion:
A se-e.orut e.oV\.S&'t;�"-VI.C.& 10/.ts K""-"-",£\r ' s
Exp l a i n two
d.&t&r�>�in.o.boVI. to s�ppcr+ W&s+ B&riiVI. lL'i(O-iVI.St
conse q u e n ces of the
l.t"-\r f�i:&-re. �ovi&-1: +or&t.tt s . "fh is wt.ts s�o>JVI.
H u n garian crisis of 1 956.
b\) his visit to W&st B&riiVI. il'l 1 % ? "�"" f,&
"'-O.d.& SeverO,\ Sp&Mo&S l VI. SO"'-& Ct ItS i". 0,0or
e.ihe-s t.t•'l.d. ,;t.ts "'-&t Glr ""'0"• e.hurivvo
cro.cd-s . He "'-l.tli& cl&t.tr A�>�uic.t.t.c s �pport
for <h& e,,-1: 0) >Jith his s-l:t.t-1:&"'-&V\.t ·:r:e.�o b 1 V\.
e. in. Berlin.er'
 The climax of the Cold War came in October 1962, when the Soviet Union placed nuclear
missiles on the island of Cuba. The USA saw Cuba as an American sphere of influence due
to its proximity to their mainland and President Kennedy was determined to get the Soviet
missiles removed from the island. This led to a stand-off between Kennedy and the Soviet
leader, Khrushchev. The superpowers were on the brink of nuclear war, and for almost two
weeks the world held its breath. Fortunately, the USA and Soviet Union were able to find a
solution to the crisis. The following years saw closer relations between them and eventually
a period of calm known as detente.

5 .1 I n creased tension over Cu ba

Essentially the crisis was caused b y increasing rivalry
between the USA and Soviet Union for influence in Cuba.
There had been strong American influence in Cuba
since the beginning of the twentieth century. American
presidents believed that Cuba's friendship was important
because it was only 145 km from the US mainland (see
Figure 5.1), part of the American sphere of influence. The
USA had strong economic interests in the island. Indeed,
by the 1950s, the USA controlled most of Cuba's industry,
railways and electricity production. Cuba was also a
popular holiday destination for many Americans. However,
by the 1950s Cuba was ruled by a very unpopular and
repressive dictator, Fulgencio Batista, who was unpopular
the unfortunate, exploited peoples of Latin America'. In
September 1960, Khrushchev openly promised to send
Castro military assistance and this pushed Cuba's leader
more closely to the Soviet camp.
Having been unable to re-unite Berlin, Khrushchev was
keen to challenge the USA over Cuba. Khrushchev was
sure that he could out-manoeuvre John F. Kennedy,
the inexperienced new American president. Moreover,
Khrushchev needed some successes to deflect criticisms of
his failures within the Soviet Union.
U N ITED STATES •
M(ami

with most Cubans, but was supported by the USA.

The Cuba n Revo l ution

The Cuban Revolution o f 1 9 5 9 saw the overthrow o f Batista
by Fidel Castro. Castro, who wanted greater independence
from America, took control of all American property that
was located in Cuba. Castro's removal of US capitalise
companies and his desire co help the ordinary citizens of
Cuba seemed to be the USA's worst nightmare - a socialist N

t
G uantclnamo
leader on their doorstep. In response, the USA banned Bay
the import of Cuban sugar which threatened to bankrupt
the Cuban economy. Moreover, the USA, aware that the
new Cuban leader had some connections to communism,
refused to acknowledge Castro's government. Therefore
A. Figure 5 . 1 Map of Cuba
Castro turned to the Soviet Union for help.

Soviet re lations with Cuba

Khrushchev, delighted to have an ally very close to the
American mainland, offered to buy the Cuban sugar.
He also sent weapons to Cuba at the end of 1959 and,
in 1960, senior Soviet diplomats visited Fidel Castro.
Castro was seen as 'a beacon, a hopeful lighthouse for all
Practice q u estion
Exp l a i n two conseq uences of the Cuban Revo l ution of
1 959. (For guidance, see page 19 and page 45.)
 5 The crisis over C u ba , 1 962

Bay of Pigs, April 1961

As a result of Soviet involvement with Castro, the USA broke off diplomatic relations
with Cuba in January 1961. Before the end of his presidency, Eisenhower authorised a
scheme under which Cuban exiles living in the USA would be trained in preparation for
an invasion of Cuba. When Kennedy succeeded Eisenhower in January 1961, he accepted
this scheme.
The exiles were men who had left Cuba in 1959 when Castro had seized control from
Batista. The aim of the planned invasion was to remove Castro. The fully equipped exiles
would land in Cuba and would create a national uprising against Castro. The exiles were
trained by the US Central I ntel ligence Agency (CIA) in Florida and Guatemala. The whole
operation had a budget of about $45m. The exiles called themselves La Brigada 2506, and
by the time they had completed their training, they numbered about 1500. The timeline
below outlines the events of the invasion.

Date Event

1 5 April US pla nes bombed part of the Cub a n a i rforce

1 6 April Planned second wave of bombings called off. The remnants of the C u ban a i rforce were able to reg ro u p a n d fight the next day
17 April La Brigada 2506 landed at Bahia de Cochi nos (Bay of Pigs) a n d encou ntered forces of about 20,000 men from Castro's army
19 April Fighting ended. About 1 00 of La Brig ada were k i l led and 1 1 00 i m prisoned

December La Brigada prisoners released after $ 5 3 m i l l ion worth of food and medicines g iven to C u ba by orga n isations a n d ord i n a ry people in
the USA

ACTIVITIES
•
1 What can you learn about La Brigada 2506 from Source A?
2 Divide i nto g roups, some representing the g overn ment of the USA and some the
government of Cuba. Prepa re speeches which either defend or attack the actions of the
USA over the Bay of Pigs invasion.

... Source A Members of La

Brigada 2506, after their
capture at the Bay of Pigs,
Cuba, in April 1961
Key topic 2 Cold Wa r crises, 1 958-70

Reasons the invasion fail ed
The CIA had been convinced that when the exiles landed,
the Cuban people would rise up and remove Castro. They
were wrong. They had failed to understand that Castro was
very popular. Most importantly, Castro was aware that an
invasion was imminent because some of the exiles had been
overheard discussing plans in Miami.
Air support was crucial in the initial stages, and the US
decision not to attack the Cuban airforce on 16 April was
critical to the failed outcome. La Brigada's supply of ships
were sunk by Cuban planes. Furthermore, the Cuban
ground forces, numbering 20,000, were superior in all
respects - leadership, arms and organisation. La Brigada
was no match for them.
Significance of the invasion
Castro had been losing support before the invasion
because of the increasingly severe economic situation in
Cuba. Many Cubans had fled the country because of these
problems, seeking more prosperous countries in which to
settle, including the USA. However, Castro's position in
Cuba became stronger due to the failure of the invasion, as
the threat from the USA united the Cuban people. The USA
also lost support in the rest of Latin America because of
events at the Bay of Pigs (see Source B).
The failure was also a great embarrassment to Kennedy and
made him more determined than ever to remove Castro. He
set up Operation Mongoose, secret operations organised
by the American CIA, to remove Castro. Moreover, US
involvement in the Bay of Pigs pushed Castro much closer to
the Soviet Union. At the end of 1961, in a move which greatly
concerned Kennedy and his advisors, the Cuban leader felt
confident enough to declare his conversion to communism,
and began to draw closer to the Soviet Union.
By the end of 1961, there were Soviet military advisers and
combat units stationed on the island of Cuba. Khrushchev
saw the move into Cuba as the beginnings of the spread of
communism into Latin America. He was concerned by US
missile bases in Italy and Turkey, and thus thought Soviet
bases in Cuba would restore the balance of power. In addition,
following the Bay of Pigs, he could claim to be defending Cuba
from future attacks from the USA and disgruntled Cuban
exiles. Figure 5.2 summarises the results of the Bay of Pigs
invasion.

Source B A d a p t e d from ACTIVITIES ?.

•
Cold War a n d Counter­
Revo l u tion: The Foreign What can you learn from Source B about President Ken nedy's l i kely reaction to any future
Policy of J o h n F. K e n n e d y, problem in Latin America?
by R i c h a rd J. Walton 2 Using Figure 5 . 2 , write an a rticle of around 1 00 words for a Cuban newspaper about the
Ke n n edy d i d not a pologize consequences of the Bay of Pigs i nvasion . Remember to g ive you r a rticle a title.
a b o u t t h e B ay of P ig s ,
rather h e issued t h reats.
A n d h e repeated his
a m e n d m e n t to t h e M o n ro e Kennedy determined to
D o c t r i n e of 182 3 : t h a t resist growth of com m u n i s m
i n the Americas
Latin American nations
w e r e f r e e to c h o o s e t h e i r
o w n gove r n m e n t s , but
o n ly a s long as they were
not c o m m u nist.

Practice
q u estion
Exp l a i n t h e i m p o rtance of
the Bay of Pigs invasion i n
the development o f t h e
Cold War. (For guidance,
see page 53.)

.. Figure 5 . 2 Results
of the invasion
 5 The crisis over C u b a , 1 962

M i l ita ry b u i l d - u p in Cuba '"..y .

Khrushchev continued to send military supplies to Cuba ·� 'P
throughout 1962, and in September Soviet technicians began CANADA

to install ballistic missiles. Khrushchev was able to say that

any weapons were being sent in order to defend Cuba and
were not offensive, unlike the missiles the USA had placed in
Turkey. The situation suddenly changed on 14 October when
a U-2 spy plane took photographs of Cuba which showed
that Soviet intermediate range missile bases were being
constructed. It was estimated that the missiles would be
operational by November. The Intermediate Range Ballistic
Missiles (IRBM) could hit almost all US cities and therefore
posed a serious threat to the country's security (Figure 5.3).

Source C Ste p h e n A m b rose, a U S h i s t o ri a n , w r i t i n g in

1 98 5 , a b o u t the m otives b e h i n d K h r u s h c h ev's d e c i s i o n to
place n u c l e a r wea p o n s o n C u b a

K h r u s h c h ev was f r u s t r a t e d i n t h e n u c le a r f i e l d , u n a ble
to p u s h t h e West o u t of B e r l i n , i n ca p a ble of matc h i n g t h e
U S i n I nt e r - C o n t i n e n t a l Ballistic M issi les [ I C B M s l . a n d
i n c reasi n g ly i rritated by M a o Z e d o n g c r i t i c i s i n g Soviet
weakness, began to l o o k e lsewhere for a n o p p o r t u n ity to
& Figure 5 . 3 Map showing the Soviet Union's military build­
a lt e r the strate g i c b a l a n c e . H e f o u n d it i n C u b a .
up in Cuba in 1962 and its range of nuclear missiles

ACTIVITIES
Look at Source C and
Figure 5.3. Why do
you th i n k that Cuba
was attractive to the
Soviet U n ion?
2 Rate each of the
three leaders ­
Castro, Ken n edy and
Khrush chev - out of
five for the extent of
their responsibi lity
for the Cuban
Missile Crisis, with
one being l ittle or
no responsi b i l ity
and five being g reat
responsib i l ity. G ive
reasons for you r
rati ngs. Who do you
think was the most
responsible for the
crisis?

<Ill Source D A missile site in

Cuba taken from a U-2 spy
plane
Key topic 2 Cold Wa r crises, 1 958-70
5 . 2 The events of the Cuban M issi le Crisis
The period from when President Kennedy first saw the
photographs of the missile bases (Source D, page 49) to the
Soviet decision to dismantle them lasted 13 days. To the
world it seemed much longer, and for the participants it
must have seemed endless (see Source E).
Source E From an i n t e rview w i t h a B r i t i s h h i story t e a c h e r
in 2 0 0 5 a b o u t t h e C u b a n M is s i l e C r i s i s . T h e t e a c h e r w a s
13 yea rs old a t t h e t i m e of t h e c r i s i s .
We k n ew t h e re was going to b e w a r. T h e telev i s i o n n ews told
us w h e n t h e exact time t h e U S a n d Soviet fleets w o u l d m e e t .
As s o o n as t h ey met t h e n we knew t h ey would fire at e a c h
o t h e r a n d t h e n t h e rea l war - n u c le a r war - wo u l d start. I
was so convinced that t h e re would be a war. I d i d n"t do my
Fre n c h h o m ework. What was t h e p o i n t ? l " d be d e a d by t h e
t i m e of t h e t e s t . O f c o u r s e . t h e S o v i e t f l e e t t u r n e d ro u n d a n d
I h a d to d o t h e test a n d w a s g i v e n a detention f o r gett i n g a
poor mark.
Ke n nedy's reactio n
When President Kennedy learned o f the missiles, h e set up
a committee of 12 advisers, including his brother, Robert.
The various options open to the USA were discussed:
• bomb Cuba and the Soviet Union using nuclear missiles
• invade Cuba
• use an air-strike to destroy the missile bases
• blockade Cuba
• do nothing.
DallY
• Source G British newspapers' reactions to Kennedy's television broadcast about the
naval blockade (Source F), October 1962
As the crisis mounted, certain military decisions were
taken. It was decided to place a naval blockade (quarantine)
around Cuba to prevent any Soviet ship delivering military
materials. The blockade was to stretch 3,300 kilometres
around Cuba. A fleet of Polaris submarines was made ready
for action and 156 ICBMs (see page 33) were made ready
for combat. Furthermore, airforce bombers were in the
air on patrol and hundreds of thousands of soldiers were
placed on combat alert. On 22 October President Kennedy
addressed the people of the USA about the blockade in a
television broadcast (Source F).
Source F From Pres i d e n t K e n n e dy"s telev i s i o n a d d ress t o
t h e p e o p l e of t h e USA. 22 O c t o b e r 1 962
T h e transformation of Cuba i n t o a n i m portant strateg i c
base by t h e p r e s e n c e of l o n g - r a n g e offensive we a p o n s of
mass d e s t r u c t i o n c reates a n explicit t h reat to t h e peace a n d
secu rity of a l l t h e A m e r i c a s . . .
T h i s s u d d e n a n d s e c ret d e c i s i o n to p l a c e strate g i c wea p o n s
o u t s i d e of S o v i e t s o i l is a d e l i b e rately p rovo cative a n d
u nj u s t i f i e d c h a n g e i n t h e exist i n g state of affa i rs . O u r
objective m u st b e to p revent t h e u s e o f t h e s e m i s s i les
a g a i nst t h e USA o r any other cou ntry, and to s e c u re t h e i r
wit h d rawal o r e l i m i n a t i o n f r o m t h e western h e m i s p h e re .
We w i l l not risk t h e costs of worldwide n u c lear war in w h i c h
t h e f r u i t s of v i ctory w o u l d b e a s h e s i n o u r m o u t h - b u t
n e i t h e r will we s h r i n k from t h e risk at any t i m e .
 5 The crisis over C u ba , 1 962

The October crisis

As Kennedy spoke on television, US armed forces prepared themselves for action. He
informed Khrushchev that the Soviet convoy approaching Cuba would be stopped, and if
any ship was found to be carrying offensive military equipment it would not be permitted
to pass the blockade and would have to return to the Soviet Union.
At the height of the crisis, issues had to be dealt with not only on a daily basis, but
sometimes on an hourly one. The timeline below shows events over five days.

Date Event
22 October Kennedy's television address

24 October E 1 g hteen Soviet ships a pproach ing C u b a turned around to avoid confrontation with the US blockade (quarantine). Kennedy
demanded the removal of all m i ssiles; fa i l u re to do so would lead to the i nvasion of C u b a .

2 6 October Kh rushchev s e n t Kennedy a letter, offering t o remove the m i ssiles if the blockade w a s removed and there w a s a promise not
to 1 nvade C u ba.
2 7 October Kh rushchev sent a tougher letter. He promised to remove the m i ssiles if the USA removed its m i ssiles from Turkey. U-2 spy
plane shot down over C uba by Soviet missile. The crisis deepened .

28 October President Kennedy, at the suggestion of his brother, Robert, decided to ig nore the second letter and accepted the terms of
the fi rst. He added that if there was no positive Soviet response by 29 October, the US forces would i nvade C u ba . Khrushchev
accepted the offer. The USA agreed to remove missiles from Turkey, but this wou l d take place wel l after the remova l of the
m issiles on C u b a .

Source H An e x t r a c t from K h r u s h c h ev's f i rst l e t t e r to ACTIVITIES ?.

K e n n e d y, 27 October 1 962
Yo u r rockets a re situated in B rita i n a n d I t a ly a n d a re a i m e d
at u s . Yo u r rockets a re situated i n Turkey. Yo u a re worried b y
C u b a . Yo u s a y that it worries y o u b e c a u s e it is a d istance o f
9 0 m i les f r o m y o u , b u t Tu rkey is o n o u r b o r d e r.
•
What can you learn from Source E about the im pact of
the Cuban Missile Crisis?
2 I nterview you r grandparents and other people you know
who lived through the Cuban M issi l e Crisis. What do
they remember of the crisis?
3 Study Source F. How was President Ken nedy able to
justify his reaction to the activities of the Soviet U n ion?
4 Can you sugg est reasons why President Ken n edy took
the unusual step of using the television to ta l k about the
crisis?
5 Look at Source H. Do you think that Khrushchev had a
va l i d argument for his decision to place the wea pons on
Cu ba?
6 Look at Source G. What can you learn about the crisis
from the sou rce?
7 Did the Cuban M issi l e Crisis prove anything to the
superpowers? Explain you r answer.
8 Study Source I. What is its view of relations between the
superpowers?
9 Devise two captions for the cartoon - one from the
viewpoint of Ken n edy and one from that of Khrushchev.

<4 Source I This cartoon was published in the English

satirical magazine Punch on 17 October 1962
Key topic 2 Cold Wa r crises, 1 958-70

The conseq uences of the crisis
The Cuban Missile Crisis did, at first, intensify rivalry and
tension between the USA and the Soviet Union. However,
in other respects, it reduced tension between the two
superpowers.
I ncreased rival ry
Kennedy seemed to have won the war of words and the
perception was that Khrushchev had backed down. Many
people saw Kennedy as a great statesman who had stood
up to the communists. The deal over missiles in Turkey
was not made public at the time. There were many leading
politicians in the Soviet Union who thought Khrushchev
had been humiliated and looked to remove him. Mao
Zedong, the leader of China, criticised Khrushchev for
placing the missiles in Cuba and then for backing down.
Khrushchev saw the crisis as a victory for himself because
he had saved Cuba from invasion and knew that the
missiles in Turkey would be removed. However, within the
Soviet Union, Khrushchev was seen to have failed over Cuba
and this contributed to his removal as leader in 1964.
The 'hotline'
The superpowers had almost gone to war - a war that
would have destroyed much of the world. There was relief
that the crisis was over and there was a great reduction
of tension. To ensure that the two leaders did not have
to communicate by letter in the case of a crisis, a hotline
telephone link was established between the White House in
Washington DC and the Kremlin in Moscow.
Treaties
Further improvements came when the Limited Test Ban
Treaty was signed in August 1963, whereby both the USA
and Soviet Union agreed to stop testing nuclear weapons
in the atmosphere. In 1968, the two superpowers, together
with Britain and several other countries, signed the Outer
Space Treaty, by which they promised to use outer space
for peaceful purposes and not place nuclear weapons in
orbit. This was followed by the N uclear N o n - prol iferation
Treaty signed in 1968, which was designed to stop the
spread of nuclear weapons. Those countries signing agreed
not to develop nuclear weapons. The idea that the arms
race had almost brought about nuclear war helped to push
the superpowers to consider limitations to their a rsenals,
and talks began in 1969. These became known as Strategic
Arms Limitation Talks (see page 66), which became part of
the policy of detente, a reduction in tension between the
USA and Soviet Union.
Observers could see that relations had improved between
the superpowers in 1963 because the USA sold grain to the
Soviet Union following poor harvests there. However, there
were some in Europe who had taken exception to Kennedy
acting on his own during the crisis. There had been little
consultation with other countries and, in 1966, France
withdrew from the military side ofNATO (see page 29).

ACTIVITIES ?.
•
Working in g roups - one representing the government of the USA and one the
government of the Soviet U n ion - prepare a speech which clearly supports you r action
d u ring the crisis.
2 Write a letter addressed to Kennedy and Khrushchev explaining your feelings about their
actions in the crisis.
3 Re-read the section on the Cuban Missile Crisis (pages 50-52). Consider the effects of the
crisis and then copy and complete the ta ble below.

Practice q u estion
Write a na rrative account a n a lysing the m a i n events i n superpower riva l ry i n C u b a in t h e
yea rs 1 959 t o 1 962.

You may use t h e following i n you r a nswer:

• The Bay of Pigs i nvasion, 1 961
• The Cuban M issile Crisis, 1 962

You m ust also use information of you r own.

(For guidance, s e e page 30 and p a g e 62.)

 5 The crisis over C u ba , 1 962

5 . 3 Exa m i n ation practice

This section provides guidance on how to answer the 'importance' question. First look at
the question in the box on the left and the guidance on how to answer. Then look at the
steps in the diagram below.
...............................
. .
Exp l a i n two of the Example
fo l l ow i n g : fh£. il'lport!A-t'I.C,£. of th£. c��!A-t'l. M I S S I I€. C.nsis
• The i m porta n ce of the for r£\CLt i O ilS beA:IV&£t'l. th£ U(',A CLt'l.cl the-
Potsdam Conference - Sov ieA: Vt'l.iOil
(1 945) for the • A t•tost l£cl to t'I.�CI£llx .vo.-r
development of the • 1-lothn..e-
Cold War. • 1\i�c.twx �<-&i'l&t'l.h .
• The i m porta n ce of
the b u i l d i n g of the
Berlin Wa l l (1 961) for
re lations between the
Beg i n the answer with the actual words
USA and the Soviet
used in the q uestion - this w i l l ensure
Union. that the focus is sharp and clear.
• The i m porta n ce of the Start by i ntrod ucing one example of
its sign ificance.
Cuban Missile Crisis
(1 962) fo r relations
between the USA and
the Soviet U n i o n .
Example
'JV> is IV!A-S �ec�se 1t O--li'lost td to o. ll�C.l�r
�VO..r 1 wi-t� Ke-1'lvt.&ti � , mt J... ,)... OrA;ok;e..r l q b J.. ,
H ow to answer k:Jloc.i'.CLcll"-';j C.�bcc It'\. orcLex to prev&l\.t CL Scv1d
You must first choose two (',Gt'\.vO �J trOf'l cl&IIV£.rt t1.'i" MC,l�r W&CLpot1.S tC
of these three developments. Cccsho. Khwshc. hev '-'CLS f�rio�s wiih Ke.t'l.nect w
Your choice should be based k:Je.c.�s.:. he. cL1d. e.v&nt�0-11 '!) ha-ve. to �ccc.t cLo"'n
on the two you feel provides cct'l.cl orcLe.re.cL th& c.onvo w to l:�rn ccrc�VI.ct ct'l.
greater opportunity for you J.4 Oc.<obu.
to focus on importance.
For the two you have chosen

-t
underline key points in the Example
question. This will ensure 'fhe. C�>.bccn MISSII£. Crisis wccs <Llso 1 i'lport1LV1.t
that you focus sharply on it'l. rt.l<LtiOVI..S �e.hce.e.t'l. t�& U S A Mel the. Sovi&t
what the question wants you UnioVI. \oe.c,�s& 1t l&it i:a the. se.H 1 "-';j "-P of Hoe.
to write about. Remember ��vHine..'
for each development that L___________________________J
you choose the focus of the
question is its importance
for a further factor and/or Example
event. fhe- \,of:titte-' wo.s .

Now fully exp l a i n the i m portance of thiS

second example using accu rate and
precise evidence.
J
6 The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia ,
1968

The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 was the closest the superpowers had come to nuclear
war. However, this crisis was followed by a period of detente, a thawing in relations
between the two sides in the Cold War. A hotline was set up between Washington and
Moscow, and in 1963 the superpowers signed a Partial Test Ban Treaty. The Soviet
invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 occurred as a result of a series of reforms in
Czechoslovakia known as the Prague Spring and it led to the Brezhnev Doctrine . This
invasion severely tested detente and showed that the Soviet Union would not tolerate
reforms which threatened their control of the buffer states of eastern Europe.

6.1 I ncreased tension over Czechoslova kia

Since 1948, Czechoslovakia had, in many ways, been a 'model satellite'. The standard
ofliving there was generally better than in other satel l ite states. Moreover, the
Czechoslovakian government was obedient to the Soviet Union. However, in the 1960s
opposition to Soviet control grew for several reasons.

N ovotny's fa l l from powe r

Antonin Novotny had been the Czech leader since 1957. He was unpopular because he was
a hard-line communist who slavishly followed the Soviet line and refused to introduce
reform. In addition Novotny was slow to follow Khrushchev's policy of de-Sta linisation (see
page 34). He was especially slow to release political prisoners jailed under Stalin.

Declining economy
The Czechoslovakian economy was in serious decline in the 1960s, and this decline led
to a fall in the standard ofliving. The Soviet Union forced Czechoslovakian industry to
produce materials, such as steel, for the Soviet economy, yet the Czechoslovakian economy
needed those raw materials. The Soviet Union also stopped Czechoslovakian factories from
producing consumer goods. In 1962-63 national income fell. Novotny's attempts at reform
after 1965, known as the New Economic Model, were unsuccessful, since they produced a
surplus of consumer goods that few people could afford (see Source A).

S o u rce A From an i n t e rview w i t h a worker in a l o c o m o t ive factory in P r a g u e in 1 96 8

T h e D i rector told t h e m t h ey would produc e 4 0 0 l o c o m otives a year. T h ey a re m a k i n g 70. And
g o look at t h e scra pya rd, at a l l t h e work that has b e e n th rown o u t . T h ey b u i lt a r a i lway and
t h e n t o o k it d own again. Who's responsible for t h is? T h e C o m m u n ist Party set u p t h e syst e m .
We w e r e ro b b e d of o u r o u t p u t , o u r wages.

The failure of economic reform encouraged many Czechoslovakians to demand greater

democracy. In October 1967, a number of reformers, including Alexander Dubcek and the
economist Ota Sik, challenged Novotny's leadership at a meeting of the Central Committee
of the Communist Party. In December, Dubcek invited Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet leader,
to Prague. Brezhnev was surprised at the extent of opposition to Novotny. He withheld
support for the Czechoslovakian leader.
 6 The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1 968

N ovotny's repl acement

On 5 January 1968, Novotny was replaced as First Secretary of the Communist Party (the
top position in the party) by Dubcek, a move supported by Brezhnev. In March, Novotny
resigned as President of Czechoslovakia and was replaced by General Ludvik Svoboda.
Svoboda, a war hero whose name means 'freedom' in the Czech language, supported
Dubcek's reform programme. Novotny had been removed from the two most powerful
positions in the country.

ALEXA N D E R DU BCEK, 1 92 1 -92

Alexa nder D u bcek was born i n the S l ovakian part of

Czechoslovakia on 27 N ovember 1 92 1 . D u r i n g the Second
World War, Du bcek was active as a com m u n ist g u e rrilla i n
o p position to the N azi occupati o n . After the war he worked
i n a factory and served as secretary of local com m u n ist
co m m ittees. I n t h e early 1 950s h e was a p poi nted to the centra l
comm ittee a n d by 1 964 he had risen to the chairmanship of the
S l ovak Com m u n ist Pa rty. H e became more liberal i n his views
and began to s u p port the idea of private enterprise.

Alt h o u g h h e was a senior com m u nist official, after 1 964 D u bcek

i n creasingly supported capital ist economic views that favou red
a g reater ro l e for private enterprises. H e a lso began to openly
associ ate with inte l l ectu a l s and a rtists. I n 1 967, h e was supported by several g ro u ps in
Czechoslovakia i n securing the dismissal of the Czechoslovak com m u n ist leader N ovotny.
The resu l t was that Du bcek h i mself was appoi nted as First Secretary of the Czechoslovak
C o m m u n ist Pa rty early in 1 968. I n 1 989, after the col l a pse of the Soviet U n ion, Du bcek
was i nvited to become leader of the Social Dem ocratic Pa rty, and he se rved fo r a time as
speaker of the Czechoslovak parliament. Du bce k's influence on d evelopments was cut
short by his death in a car accident on 7 N ove m b e r 1 992.

ACTIVITY �
•

What does Source B

sugg est about attitudes
to the two leaders at that
time?

_,.. Source B
Czechoslovakian
participants in a Youth and
Student Festival in July 1968
carry posters of Svoboda
and Dubcek
Key topic 2 Cold Wa r crises, 1 958-70

6 . 2 The Pra g u e S p ri n g Reforms

The 'Pra g u e Spring' refers to a series o f reforms introduced by Dubcek i n the spring of
1968. These are shown in the boxes around the photograph below. The Czechs called it
'socialism with a human face'. Dubcek remained a devoted communist, but he wanted
to win support for the communist regime by removing irs worst features (such as those
described by a reformer in Source C).

G reater p o l itical freedom, i n c l u d i n g free speech a n d

the a b o l ition o f press censorship. By M a rch 1 968 t h e A 1 0-yea r programme for political change
n ewspapers were printing u n censored discussions of which wou l d bring about d e mocratic
p o l itical and social problems. The coverage of news by e l ections, a m u lti-party state and create a
Czech radio a n d te l evision became fu l l e r. Corru ption new fo rm of democratic soci a l is m . The a i m
a n d b u reaucratic d e l ays were exposed by the media. o f t h i s progra m m e w a s t o give the p e o p l e of
Com m u n ist pa rty leaders were 'g rilled' on l ive Czechoslovakia a g reater say in the r u n n i n g
television. o f the country.

A red uction in the

powers of the secret
pol ice to i m prison
without tri a l .

• Dubcek meeting ordinary Czech people during a

walkabout in the Prague Spring
The creation of works
cou ncils representing
the workforce to
The remova l of travel
improve worki ng
restricti ons and fresh contact
conditions i n fa ctories
with the West, such as trade
and a n i n crease in
with West Germany.
rig hts fo r mem bers of
trade u n ions.

ACTIVITY ?.• Source C From a s p e e c h g iven by L u d v i k Va c u l i k , a lea d i n g f i g u re in t h e C z e c h o s lova k i a n

What can you learn from
Sources A (page 54) and
C about the g rowth of
opposition to com m u n ism
in Czechoslovakia?
reform move m e n t , i n M a rc h 1 968
I n 20 years not o n e human problem has b e e n s o lved i n our c o u n t ry, from p r i m a ry needs
l i ke flats, schools, to t h e m o re s u btle n e e d s s u c h a s fulfilling o n e s e lf, t h e n e e d for p e o p le to
trust o n e a n o t h e r, and t h e develo p m e nt of e d u c a t i o n . I feel that our R e p u b l i c has lost its g o o d
re putatio n .
 6 The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1 968

Source D From a letter

s e n t by t h e Soviet
lea d e rs h i p to t h e Czech
C o m m u n ist Pa rty
Develo p m e nts i n yo u r
cou ntry a re c a u s i n g d e e p
a nxiety a m o n g u s . We
c a n not a g ree to have
h o s t i le forces push yo u r
cou ntry away from t h e
road of c o m m u n i s m .
T h i s is s o m e t h i n g m o re
t h a n yo u r own c o n c e r n .
It i s t h e c o m m o n c o n c e r n
of o u r c o u n t r i e s , w h i c h
have j o i n e d i n t h e
Warsaw Treaty .
ACTIVITIES
What was meant by the
'Prague Spring'?
2 What reasons a re
suggested in Source
D for S oviet co nce r ns
ove r Czech o sl ova kia?
3 Write a brief reply from
Du bcek to Source D.
Remember, he will
be trying to defend
his reforms and yet
remove Soviet fea rs.
4 Do you think the actions
of Vasil Bilak justify the
S oviet invasi o n? Expla i n
your answer.
Reactions to the refo rms
Dubcek's reforms, however, encouraged opponents of communism and led to demands for
even more radical reforms. For example, in June 1968 the Social Democrats began to form
a separate party as a rival to the Communist Party. Around the same time Ludvik Vaculik,
a leading journalist, published a manifesto entitled The Two Thousand Words. In it he called
on the Czechoslovakian people to take the initiative and force even more extreme reform.
The Soviet Union was suspicious of the changes taking place in Czechoslovakia for several
reasons. Czechoslovakia was one of the most important countries in the Wa rsaw Pact.
It was centrally placed (see Figure 3.1, page 31) and had the strongest industry. Brezhnev
was worried that Czechoslovakia might leave the Warsaw Pact, allowing NATO to move in.
This outcome would split the Eastern bloc into two and advance NATO's frontier 700 km
further to the east so that it bordered the Soviet Union itself.
Other reasons fo r the i nvasion
The Soviets were worried that the new ideas in Czechoslovakia might spread t o other
countries in eastern Europe. Brezhnev came under pressure from the East German leader,
Walter Ulbricht, and the Polish leader, Gomulka, to stop reform in Czechoslovakia.
?.
•
Vasil Bilak was leader of the Slovakian Communist Party and a staunch communist
who opposed the Prague Spring reforms. He was one of five leading opponents of the
Prague Spring Reforms who signed a letter which was sent to Brezhnev suggesting that
communism itself was under threat in Czechoslovakia and asking that the Soviet leader
use 'all the means at your disposal' to end these reforms - effectively encouraging the
Soviet Union to invade his country.
Furthermore, the Soviet Union was afraid that Czechoslovakia was becoming closer to
West Germany. It seemed to them that industrial relations between the Czechs and West
Germans were being strengthened day by day. Eventually West Germany might come to
dominate the economy of Czechoslovakia and other countries in eastern Europe.
The Soviet invasion followed the build-up of tension between the Warsaw Pact countries,
which was led by the Soviet Union, and the Czechoslovakian government ofDubcek. Its
events are shown in the timeline below.

Date Event
· . :

June Soviet ta n ks remained i n Czechoslova kia after Warsaw Pact m i l itary exercises

July B rezh nev met with leaders of the Warsaw Pact countries i n Warsaw. They shared his concerns over events i n Prague. A few days
later Brezhnev met with D u bcek. D u bcek agreed not to a l low a new Social Democratic Party and to rem a i n i n the Warsaw Pact.
However, he insisted on going ahead with his reform progra m m e. The Soviet U n ion seemed reassured and tension eased

3 August B rezh nev and representatives from Warsaw Pact countries met with Du bcek i n B ratislava and signed the Bratislava Declaration
declari n g their faith i n com m u n i s m . Once again, B rezh nev seemed reassured

9 August The leader of Yugoslavia, Tito, who was distrusted by the Soviet U n ion, was g iven a n enthusiastic reception d u r i n g a visit to
Czechoslova kia. It seemed yet again that D u bcek was movi n g towards i ndependence from the Soviet U n ion

1 5-1 8 Aug ust Three-day meeting session of the Soviet Politburo (the supreme policy-making body of the Soviet C o m m u n 1st Party) to decide
what action to take . Brezhnev spoke to Du bcek on the phone, shouting at him that h 1 s actions i n Prague would bring down the
Warsaw Pact

20 Aug ust The Soviet U n ion I nvaded Czechoslova kia

Practice q u estion
Exp l a i n two conseq uences of the Prague Spring on relations between t h e Soviet U n ion
and Czechosl ova kia. (For guidance, see page 1 9 and page 45.)
Key topic 2 Cold Wa r crises, 1 958-70

6.3 Re-esta b l is h i n g Soviet co ntro l

On 20-21 August 1968, thousands of Soviet troops, backed by units from Bulgaria,
East Germany, Hungary and Poland, entered Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakians threw
petrol bombs at the Soviet tanks as they moved through Prague. Buildings were set on
fire, and protestors assembled in Wenceslas Square (see Source G). Barricades were set up
in the streets. Students tore down street names to confuse the invaders. Some students
even climbed onto the tanks and tried to argue with the Soviet soldiers. Anti-Soviet
broadcasters stayed on the air by moving from one hiding place to another. However, there
was no armed resistance by the Czechoslovakian army, and fewer than a hundred people
were killed. Sources E and F clearly show the points of view of the two different sides
concerning the invasion. Both reports are quite measured and show no open emotion.
Dubcek and the other leaders were arrested and taken to Moscow, where they were forced
to accept the end of Czechoslovakian moves towards democracy. Over the next few years,
hard-line Czechoslovakian officials replaced the reforming Czechoslovakian leaders.

Source E A P r a g u e ra d i o r e p o r t , 21 A u g ust 1 968

Yesterday troops from t h e Soviet Union crossed t h e fro n t i e rs of t h e Czechoslova k i a n S o c i a list
R e p u b l i c . T h i s h a p p e n e d without t h e k n owle d g e of t h e President of t h e R e p u b l i c o r t h e F i rst
S e c reta ry of t h e Czech oslova k C o m m u n ist Pa rty Central C o m m ittee. T h e Czech oslova k
C o m m u n ist Pa rty rega rd t h i s act as contrary to b a s i c p r i n c i ples of g o o d rela t i o n s between
com m u n ist states.

T Source G Prague
residents surround a Soviet Source F A Soviet n ews a g e n cy r e p o r t , 2 1 A u g u s t 1 968
tank on Wenceslas Square
T h e pa rty and gove r n m e n t of t h e Czechoslova k S o c i a list R e p u b l i c have asked t h e Soviet U n i o n
during confrontations
a n d o t h e r a l l i e s to g ive t h e Czech oslova k p e o p le u rg e nt assistance i n c l u d i n g assistance with
between demonstrators and
a r m e d forces. T h i s request was b r o u g h t a b o u t by t h e t h reat from c o u n t e r- revo l u t i o n a ry
the Warsaw Pact troops
forces w o r k i n g with fore i g n forces hostile to c o m m u n i s m .
and tanks

.t. Source H Defiant young Czechoslovakians carry their nation's flag past a burning Soviet tank on 2 1 August 1968
The Brez h n ev Doctri ne
The Soviets used propaganda t o show that events i n
Czechoslovakia were a serious threat t o the Soviet Union.
In August 1968, Leonid Brezhnev, who had taken over
as leader of the Soviet Union from Khrushchev in 1964,
introduced the Brezh nev Doctri n e (see Source I) in order
to justify the Soviet Union invasion. According to this
doctrine, the Soviet Union had the right to invade any
country in eastern Europe whose actions appeared to
threaten the security of the whole Eastern Bloc. Brezhnev
insisted that the Soviet Union had no choice but to invade
because the actions taken by Dubcek threatened the
Warsaw Pact and Soviet control of eastern Europe.
Moreover, this doctrine redefined communism as a one­
party system and declared that all member countries had
to remain part of the Warsaw Pact. The invasion also sent
out a message to the members of the Warsaw Pact that
the Soviet Union would suppress any attempt to relax
communist control. In addition, Brezhnev stated that if a
capitalist country threatened any communist country then
other communist states had the right to intervene by using
force.
6 The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1 968
Source I The B re z h n ev D o c t r i n e , 1 968
W h e n internal a n d exte r n a l forces hostile to s o c i a l i s m
attempt to t u r n t h e d evelo p m e n t of a ny co m m u n ist c o u n t ry
in t h e d i re c t i o n of t h e c a p i t a list syst e m , w h e n a t h reat
a rises to t h e c a u s e of c o m m u n i s m i n that cou ntry, a t h reat
to t h e c o m m u nist c o m m o nwealth a s a whole - it b e c o m e s
not o n ly a problem for t h e p e o p le of that cou ntry b u t a l s o a
g e n e r a l p r o b l e m , t h e concern of a l l c o m m u nist c o u n t r i e s .
ACTIVITIES ?. •
What differences a re there between Sources E and F i n
t h e i r views a b o u t the invasion o f Czechoslovakia? Why
do they g ive different views?
2 Produce two sets of headlines for the day after the
invasion for:
D a Soviet newspaper
D a Czechoslova kian newspaper.
3 Devise two captions for Sources G and H for:
D a Soviet newspaper
D a Czechoslova kian newspaper.
4 Study Source I. What i m p l ications does the Brezh nev
Doctri ne have for a l l countries in the Warsaw Pact?
Key topic 2 Cold Wa r crises, 1 958-70

6.4 Conseq u e n ces of Soviet i nvasion

The Soviet invasion had important consequences for Czechoslovakia, Soviet and US
relations, western Europe and communist countries.

Czechoslova kia
Demonstrations against the Soviet invasion went on until April 1969. In January 1969
Jan Palach, a student, set fire to himself in Wenceslas Square in protest against the Soviet
invasion. Nevertheless, the Czech Communist Party was purged. Dubcek was forced to
resign. Under his replacement, Gustav Husak, Czechoslovakia reverted to strict communist
rule. Dubcek was not executed but was sent as ambassador to Turkey and then forced to
resign from the Czech Communist Party.

Soviet a n d USA relations

The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia temporarily worsened relations between East and
West. Western countries, especially Britain and the USA, protested about Soviet actions.
However, ultimately the invasion did not endanger Soviet-American relations, and detente
continued after a slight break. The USA was in the middle of a presidential election
during 1968 and was also pre-occupied with the Vietnam Wa r. Moreover, Brezhnev and
the American President, Lyndon B Johnson, had an unspoken deal that the USA would
not intervene in Czechoslovakia as long as the Soviet Union did not intervene in Vietnam.
Therefore, while America publicly condemned the invasion, they offered no military
support to Czechoslovakia .

.6.Source J The funeral in Prague of the student Jan Palach, who became a symbol of anti­
Soviet resistance in Europe
 6 The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1 968

The events in Czechoslovakia reduced international criticism of the USA's involvement in

Vietnam as the Soviet Union's invasion of an ally was seen as far worse.

Western E u rope
Western European countries followed America's lead - they condemned the invasion
but provided no military help. Moreover, western European communist parties in Italy
and France were outraged by the Soviet invasion and formally declared themselves
independent of the Soviet Communist Party. The Soviet Union increasingly lost influence
in these western European countries, which began to develop their own form of European
communism known as Eurocommunism.

Com m u n ist cou ntries

The invasion of Czechoslovakia increased the rivalry between China and the Soviet Union.
China criticised the use of force against a fellow communist nation. The Chinese feared
thar rhe Soviet Union might take the same action against them.
Furthermore some other Communist countries began to move away from Moscow. President
Ceausescu of Romania refused to send troops to join the forces invading Czechoslovakia
and took an increasingly independent line against the Soviet Union. Albania did the same
and left the Warsaw Pact for good in 1968. Moreover, the Yugoslavian and Romanian
governments both condemned the invasion and distanced themselves from rhe Soviet Union.
Following 1968, Yugoslavian and Romanian communists formed alliances with China. The
Soviet Union did not react because it was preoccupied with events in Czechoslovakia.

ACTIVITIES
•
1 Source J shows the funeral of Jan Palach. Devise a suitable newspaper caption for the photo.
2 Prioritise the conseq uences of the Soviet invasion for the Soviet U n ion, beg i n n i n g with the
most im porta nt. G ive a reason for you r decision.
3 a M a ke a copy of the table below and use it to compare the H u n garian U prisi ng of 1 956
(pages 34-38) with the events i n Czechoslovakia i n 1 968. One example has been
added for you .

Causes Events
S i m i l a rities Developments in both countries threatened
Soviet control of eastern Europe
Differences

b What is the g reatest d ifference between the two events?

Practice q u estions
Exp l a i n two conseq uences fo r i nternati o n a l relations o f the Soviet i nvasion of
Czechoslova kia. (For guidance, see page 19 and page 45.)
2 Write a n a rrative account a n a lysi n g the key events of the Soviet invasion of
Czechoslovakia in 1 968.

You may use t h e followi ng in you r a n swer:

• The Prague Spring
• The Soviet U n i o n re-esta blishes control

You m ust a lso use i nformation of you r own .

(For guida n ce, s e e page 3 0 a nd page 62.)

Key topic 2 Cold Wa r crises, 1 958-70
6 . 5 Exa m i n ation practice
This section provides further guidance on how to answer the narrative question. Look at
the question and the guidance on how to answer it below:
Write a na rrative account a n a lysi ng the
key events of the Soviet i nvasion of
Czechoslovakia i n 1 968.
You may use the fo l l owing i n y ou r
a nswer:
• The Prague Spring
• The Soviet U n ion re-esta b l ishes
control
You m ust a l s o use info r mat i o n of
yo u r own.
H ow to answer
• Look for the key points in the
question and underline them. In this
case it is the key events of the Soviet
invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.
• Try to write about at least three
events, and support each with detail.
You can choose the two events given
in the question and an event of your
own, or decide to choose your own
events to write about. If you write
about the events given in the question,
including three events in your answer
is important because you must bring
in an event of your own.
• Ensure that your events are in the
correct chronological sequence.
• Use linking words between each event
and the next.
The diagram shows you the steps you
should take to write a good answer to
this kind of question. Use the steps and
examples to complete the answer to the
question by writing each paragraph and
linking them where possible.
Exp l a i n the fi rst event
ensuring you g ive
precise deta i ls. You
will need to add more
deta ils about the
reforms themselves.
"
Example
'11-•e. Sov ie-t lr\.vi.LS iO.C of Cze.c.f•os\ov0-� 1 0- I<J(.LS 0-
re.�L<>ho.c to the. Pr�e- Spri"-'0 ot' \ % 8 whie.h
re.t'e.rs +o 0- se.ne.s of' re+'orl'<.s i .Ctrodv/).c>e.dv b\Y
DvJJ e..e.t. i11.. th£- sprif'LCJ of j q t;, g _ 'f¥1£ Gze�J1s
C>(.L\\e.tL It 'scC>ii.L\iSI'<. i'J ith (.L h!).I'<.(.L.C ti.LC>e.'
D�.<b<Oe.IC. re.o\0-lr\.e.Ov 0- Ov£votd MI'<.I'<.!)..CI St, bot
h£ i<JI.L.Ct£Ov to •! I .C :0/).ppor+ t'or th£ MI"'-1"'-!)..Cist
r"'r'l>\£ b 'ff r£.1>\0Viri.'J"" its wOrSt f'e.O-tl.<fi'-S.
Example
As 0- re.s!).\.f; cf H•£ r£1-"orl>tS ' "- Cze.cJ•oslovM I0-1
th£ Sov>d Vn.io.c 0-r\.Ov its le.c.LtL&r, Bre.zh.ce.v,
wu£ I Mr£0-S i.C<ri\Y t'e.c.LrtvJ 0-bo/)..f; Sov1£t
i.cfiv.£M£ i.e I.LAA e.o.chol of C.z'-"hcslavc.Lieic.L.
Example
"11> £ Scv1dS i'J&r£ tLiso wonid thO-t th£ "-""'
idvMs '" C.ze.<\hoslav(.LIC I (.L "'-''J'et spr£0-clv to
o+hu e.c�>..ctn£S '" £0-Stu.c E..i.<rop£. Br£zh.c£v
<OIL"'-'- L<.COv£r pr£SS!).r£ frol'<. th£ £..0-st tluo'I.L"-
1£0-civu, Wc.Litu Ulbri<Oht, I.LAA the. Poi 1 S h le.c.Ldvu,
bol'<.i.<\i'.O-, to Stop r£torl" ir�. CzMhoslovi.Li'. ii.L
Example
"1''' " pr£SS�Ar£ 0£-i.cco £xu+d 0\Y H•£ Wc.LrstL"'
PO-e.t e.c�.ctn£s fi.c0-11 \Y 0ro/).�+ tLbO!).t th£
Sovtd dve.� i s 1 C .C +o n-£stc.Lblish �o.chol of
C.zMhoslovc.Ltic.L.
Example
"1'e i S 0v£C. I S I C " tO r£-£StiLbltsh CCG.CtrOI r£S!).\t£tL
i.e th£ Sov1d I .Cvc.Lsio.c whie.h b"'OIL" o.c . M- .J. I
A v.erus+ 1 % 8 . �/).flcivr£1is c.LAA +ho�Asi.L>Cdvs o f
Sovid +roof'S , 00-e. t£-dv 0\Y v-.ci+s fro"' B�>-I'OlLric.L,
£..0-st tlu"' I.L "'ff• �""'O"iLr\Y c.LAA Poic.Lvcdv,
1'-.Ct&re.dv C.ze.<\hoslovi.LICilL Cze.<\hoslovtLlilL.CS
thr£�<J p£hol 0o"'- b s i.Lt th£ Sovi£t ti.Lr\.Ls 0-s
+he.v0 "'"v"dv +hro"'col' i'r�e. B�>-i ldvi� "'"'"
sd o.c fir£, 0-.cti prote.stors c.Lsse.l\\ b i£dv '"
VV£M£SIM Sf6"0-r"
The end of the Cold War, 19 70-9 1

There was some hope ac che end of che 1960s chat relations between che USA and che
Soviet Union would substantially improve. In the 1970s, the Strategic Arms Limitation
Treaty (SALT) and the Helsinki Agreements brought about distinct changes, but the Soviet
Union's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 plunged the world into what became known
as the Second Cold War. Relations between the superpowers in the early 1980s were as
cold as they had ever been - yet by 1989 the leaders of the USA and the Soviet Union had
announced that the Cold War was over.
Each chapter within chis key topic explains a key issue and examines important lines of
enquiry, as oudined in the boxes below.

CHAPTER 7 ATTE M PTS TO CHAPTE R 8 FLAS H PO I NTS CHAPTE R 9 T H E

REDUCE T E N S I O N B ETWE E N EAST A N D CO LLAPSE O F SOVI ET
B ETWE E N EAST A N D WEST CO NTRO L OF EASTE R N
WEST E U RO P E
• The s i g n ificance of the Soviet
• Detente i n the 1 970s, SALT I, i nvasion of Afg h a n istan i n 1 979, • The i m pact o f G o rbachev's 'new
H e l s i n ki, a n d SALT II the Ca rter Doctri ne a n d the t h i n ki n g ' on eastern Europe: the
Olympic boycotts loose n i n g Soviet grip on eastern
• The s i g n ificance of Regan and
G o rbachev's changing attitudes • Reagan and the 'Second Cold E u rope
War', the Strategic Defense • The s i g n ificance of the fa l l of t h e
• G o rbachev's 'new t h i n k i n g ' a n d
I n itiative Berlin Wa l l
the I ntermediate- Range N uclear
Forces ( I N F) Treaty of 1 987 • T h e col l apse o f t h e Soviet U n i o n
a n d i t s sign ificance i n bringing
about the end of the Warsaw
Pact

TIMELINE
1972 SALT I s i g n e d 1 984 Soviet U n i o n boycotts the Los A n g e les
1 9 74 N i x o n v i s i t s M oscow O ly m p i c s
1 9 75 H e l s i n k i Ag re e m e nts 1 985 R e a g a n a n d G o r b a c h ev m e et for t h e f i rst
1 9 79 Soviet i nv a s i o n of Afg h a n i s t a n t i m e at the G e n eva S u m m i t
1980 USA boycotts M oscow O lym p i c s 1 987 I nt e r m e d i a t e N u c l e a r Forces Treaty
1 983 R e a g a n a n n o u n c e s t h e Strateg i c D e f e n c e 1 989 P u l l i n g down of t h e Berlin Wa ll
I n i t i a t ive 1 990 C o l l a pse of t h e Soviet U n i o n
1991 G o r b a c h ev res i g n s
7 .Attempts to reduce tension between
East and West

After the Cuban Missile Crisis (see pages 50-52), there was a move to improve relations
and relax tension between the USA and Soviet Union which became known as detente
- a French word that refers to a reduction in the tension between the superpowers. The
lack of real threats to world peace during the Vietnam War and the Soviet invasion of
Czechoslovakia (see pages 56-59) were evidence of this easing of tension. Attempts at
arms limitation, summit talks and personal visits all seemed to indicate that there was
good reason for optimism.

7.1 Detente i n the 1 970s

Detente emerged due to developments in the later 1960s The Vietnam War
and early 1970s, such as the Cuban Missile Crisis and the
In its quest to halt the spread of communism, the USA had
Vietnam Wa r.
sent military advisers to South Vietnam in the 1950s and
had then sent troops in 1965. However, the war in Vietnam
Reasons for detente had not gone well for the USA. Despite a huge military
Attempts to maintain sound relations between the presence, it could not defeat the North Vietnamese and the
superpowers was always evident in the 1960s in spite of Viet Cong (a derogatory term used to describe Vietnamese
new and emerging crises. However, the threat of nuclear communists) and high US casualties (see Table 7.1) were
war during the Cuban Missile Crisis had had a sobering making the war unpopular at home.
effect on all concerned and there was an improvement in
"' Table 7 . 1 Table of US casualties in the Vietnam War
relations, known as detente. Initially the hotline between during the years 1 966-70. By 1968 the USA had more than
Washington and the Kremlin improved the speed of 500,000 troops in South Vietnam. President Nixon began to
communications and the Test Ban Treaty of 1963 (see page reduce numbers the following year.
52) showed a willingness to look at the issue of developing
nuclear weapons. Year Ki lled in Wounded in M issi ng in
action action action
Nevertheless, the Cold War continued, especially in the
1 966 5,008 29,992 61
Middle East. After the Israeli victory in the Six Day Wa r
of 1 967, Arab states were drawn more closely towards 1 967 9,378 56,01 3 113
the Soviet Union because the USA had supplied so much 1 968 1 4,594 87,388 1 76
military hardware to Israel. Each of the superpowers
1 969 9,414 53,390 112
supplied arms to the warring sides in the Middle East but
actual relations between the USA and the Soviet Union 1 970 4,221 24,835 1 01
did not ever match those at the time of Cuba. Nor did the
Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 (see pages By 1968 the USA was seeking to end the war, and peace
57-58) endanger Soviet-American relations. Furthermore, talks began in the spring of that year. After Nixon became
continuing US involvement in the Vietnam War did not president in 1969, it was hoped that if the USA improved
bring increased hostility between the superpowers, despite trade and technology links and made an offer of arms
the USA's open antagonism to the spread of communism. reduction, then Brezhnev might persuade his North
Vietnamese ally to negotiate an end to the war. The idea of
offering concessions was called 'linkage' by Nixon's advisers.

A Source A Protests against the Vietnam War, such as this in Washington in November 1969, put pressure on Nixon to end the war
N ixon's visit to Moscow
Nixon visited Moscow in 1972, where he made it clear that
he did not see Vietnam as an obstacle to the process of
detente, even though the Soviet Union was supplying arms
to North Vietnam. Nixon had visited China three months
earlier, and Brezhnev did not want to see a Chinese-US
alliance develop. The Soviet leader was keen to gain
access to US technology and further grain sales, as well as
reducing spending on arms, so both the superpower leaders
had their own motives for seeking improved relations.
At the Moscow meeting, Nixon agreed to take part in a
European Security Conference, from which emerged the
Helsinki Agreements (see page 70). Nixon was keen to show
his commitment to detente and was able to do this by making
a public declaration with the Soviet Union (see Source B).
Brezhnev played the part of intermediary between
Washington and Hanoi (capital of North Vietnam) and
peace between the USA and North Vietnam was eventually
signed in 1973. This was remarkable because, only 11 years
before, the superpowers had almost been at war themselves.
Practice q u estion
Exp l a i n two conseq u e n ces o f N ixon a n d Brez h n ev's
M oscow meeting i n 1 972. (For guidance, see page 19 and
page 45.)
7 Attem pts to reduce tension betwe e n East a n d West
Source B From ' B a s i c p r i n c i p les of rela t i o n s between t h e
U S S R a n d t h e U SA', s i g n e d i n M oscow, 29 M a y 1 972
T h e U S S R a n d t h e USA have a g reed that d ifferences in
i d e o logy a re not obstacles to t h e b i lateral d evelo p m e n t of
normal relati o n s based on t h e p r i n c i p les of sove re i g n ty,
e q u a lity, n o n - i nterference in internal affa i rs a n d m u t u a l
advan ta g e. T h e U S S R a n d USA will d o t h e i r u t m o s t t o
avo id m i litary confrontations a n d to p revent t h e o u t b r e a k
of nuclear w a r. T h e U S S R a n d USA have a s p e c i a l
res p o n s i b i l ity to d o everyt h i n g in t h e i r p o w e r so that
conflicts w i l l not a rise which would increase internat i o n a l
tensions.
ACTIVITIES
•
Look at Ta ble 7.1 and Source A. Explain why President
N ixon wanted to end US involvement i n Vietnam.
2 What was meant by the term ' l i n kage'?
3 Explain why l i n kage was im portant to the USA and
Soviet Union.
4 In what ways does Source B show that re lations between
the USA and the Soviet Union (USSR) had improved after
the Cuban Missile Crisis?
Key topic 3 The e n d of the C o l d War, 1 970-91

SALT I, 1972
Early in Nixon's presidency, a decision was made to talk about nuclear wea pons. The
move to detente and the idea of 'linkage', together with economic problems in the Soviet
Union, made the idea of some attempt to limit the arms race quite attractive. Talks held in
Helsinki and Vienna over a period of almost three years between the Soviet Union and the
USA produced the first agreements known as the Strategic Arms Limitation Ta l ks I (SALT I)
in May 1972.
SALT I was seen as the first step in a long journey to reaching very positive goals, but the
fact that strategic bombers were not limited and there were no restrictions on developing
new weapons disappointed those campaigning for a safer world. However, the treaty was
seen by many as a key piece in nuclear arms control because it was a clear recognition of
the need to protect the nuclear balance by ensuring neither side could ever consider itself
immune from retaliation.

AG RE E M E NTS OF SALT 1

• Anti - B a l l istic M issile Treaty (AB M ) systems a l l owed at o n l y two sites, each site
contai n i n g 1 00 missiles. ABM syste ms were designed to detect, track, i ntercept a n d
destroy attacki n g intercontinental b a l l istic missiles ( I C B M s).
• I nterim Agreement on Offe nsive Arms - this i m posed a five-year freeze on the tot a l
n u m ber of I C B M a n d su b mar in e-lau nched b a l l istic m i s s i l e s (S L B M ) l a u n chers.

L I M ITATIONS O F SALT 1

• The a g reement, however, did not l i m i t t h e n u m ber of strategic bombers ( p l anes

designed to bomb distant enemy ta rgets a n d degrade the capability to wage war) and
the b o m bs that each side could have.
• N o restriction on M I RVs (multiple i n d e pe n dently targeta ble re-entry vehicles).
• Each side was a l l owed to use sate l l ites to check that the other was n ot breaking the
arms l i m its.

A Source C Nixon (left) and Brezhnev (right) at SALT ! , 1972

 7 Attem pts to reduce tension betwe e n East a n d West

Source D Photograph showing the testing of an MIRV. Each line represents the path of a warhead that, if it were live,
.a.
would detonate with the explosive power of 25 of the bombs dropped on Hiroshima

ACTIVITIES
•
Practice q u estion
What can you say about the nature of the SALT I Exp l a i n t h e i m porta n ce o f SALT I for t h e d eve l opment of
agreement by looking at Source C? the Cold War. (For guidance, see page 53.)
2 Briefly explain the key features of the SALT I Treaty.
3 Study Source D. Why was the development of M I RVs
im portant in the a rms race? S o u rce E From The Rise to Globa lism, 4th e d i t i o n , by
4 What can you learn about the SALT I agreement from 5 . A m b rose, a U S h i s t o ri a n , p u b l i s h e d in 1 985
the i nterpretation in Source E? SALT I i n 1972 froze I C B M d e p loym e n t b u t not M I RV,
5 Draw a table l i ke the one below to show why the USA w h i c h was a b o u t a s m e a n i n g f u l as freez i n g the cavalry of
and the Soviet U n i o n wanted SALT and detente. Below E u r o p e a n c o u ntries in 193 8 but not the t a n k s . T h r o u g h o u t
a re two reasons to start you off. t h e N ixon a d m i n istra t i o n t h e USA a d d e d t h re e w a r h e a d s
e a c h day to t h e M I RV a rs e n a l . It was a stra n g e w a y to control
USA's reasons Soviet Union's Good for both t h e a r m s race.
reasons reasons
Reduce a rms Conti n u e
spending peacefu l
co-existence
Key topic 3 The e n d of the C o l d War, 1 970-91

The M i d d l e East: Yom Ki p p u r War, 1973

The optimism of 1972 was put to the test in October 1973 during the Arab-Israeli War
(Yom Kippur War). Syria and Egypt (armed and supplied by the Soviet Union} made
surprise attacks on Israel (armed and supplied by the USA}. After the Israelis had recovered
from the surprise attacks, they regained the initiative and were sent replacement military
equipment on the orders of President Nixon.
Brezhnev put forward a plan: a joint USA-Soviet Union force would be on hand to save
the Egyptian army from the Israelis. If the USA refused, then Soviet forces would go
separately. Nixon did not want to accept the offer and was angry at Brezhnev's suggestion
of independent action. Nixon put all US forces, including nuclear strike groups, on alert.
As an alternative, the USA suggested that a UN peacekeeping force of non-nuclear
countries intervene in the conflict. Brezhnev accepted this proposal, and the Yom Kippur
War ended with a ceasefire on 24 October 1973.

N ixon's visit to M oscow, 1974

Though relations were not warm, Nixon visited Brezhnev in Moscow in July 1974.
After the meeting, the two leaders agreed:
• they would continue to remove the danger ofwar, particularly war involving nuclear
and other weapons of mass destruction
• to limit and eventually end the arms race, especially in strategic warheads. The two
leaders said their ultimate objective was complete disarmament, which would be
monitored by appropriate international control
• they would contribute to the elimination of sources of international tension and
military conflict
• to relax tensions throughout the world
• to develop broad, mutually beneficial co-operation in commercial, economic, scientific,
technical and cultural fields. The aim was to promote increased understanding and
confidence between the peoples of both countries.

ACTIVITY ..•�
What can you learn from Source F about the meeting between N ixon and Brezh nev?

Source F President ..
Richard Nixon meeting with
Communist Party Leader
Leonid Brezhnev in Moscow
in ]une 1974
 7 Attem pts to reduce tension betwe e n East a n d West

Space l i n k- u p
There were some encouraging consequences of the Moscow meeting. O n 1 7 July 1975, i n the
Apollo-Soyuz mission, three US astronauts and two Soviet cosmonauts met up in space, as
a US Apollo spacecraft docked with a Soviet Soyuz one. There was a symbolic handshake in
space between the two sides and, along with sporting and cultural alliances, relations did
seem to be improving.

� Source G Photograph
of the Apollo-Soyuz crew
space mission, 1975. A
model of the two spacecraft
is in front of the astronauts

Source H From a s p e e c h by S e c reta ry B re z h n ev in 1 9 7 5 , i n

w h i c h h e d i s c u s s e d t h e i m p o rt a n c e o f t h e s p a ce l i n k - u p

T h e f l i g h t was of h i s t o r i c s i g n ificance b e c a u s e it was a

sym b o l of t h e process of e a s i n g t h e internatio n a l t e n s i o n
a n d also of t h e i m p rove m e n t of U S -Soviet r e l a t i o n s o n
t h e b a s i s of peacef u l c o - existence. It w a s a practical
c o n t r i b u t i o n between t h e USA a n d t h e Soviet Union i n t h e
i nterests of w o r l d peace.

ACTIVITY ?.
•
Study Sources G, H and I. Explain why the Apo l l o-Soyuz
space m ission was im portant for detente.

J
..
..
� Source I The badge worn by the US crew who took part in
the Apollo-Soyuz space link-up in July 1975. The text around
the badge shows the names of the US astronauts and Soviet
Cosmonauts
Key topic 3 The e n d of the C o l d War, 1 970-91

The Helsi n ki Ag ree ments

After Nixon and Brezhnev's meeting in July 1974, there were continuing attempts to keep
detente developing. The Helsinki Agreements of 1975 were a product of this. The USA and
the Soviet Union, along with 33 other nations, made declarations about three distinct
international issues (called 'baskets' by the signatories - see Figure 7. 1).

A Figure 7. 1 Declarations made at Helsinki

Sourte J From a s p e e c h by Brez h n ev in H e l s i n k i , ACTIVITIES "j

3 1 J u ly 1 9 7 5
No o n e s h o u ld t ry . . . to d i ctate to o t h e r p e o ples how t h ey
s h o u ld m a n a g e t h e i r i n t e r n a l affa i rs . It is o n ly t h e people
of e a c h g iven state, a n d n o o n e else, w h o have t h e r i g h t to
d e c i d e t h e i r own i nternal affa i rs .
•
Look at the content of the first basket in Figure 7.1 . Why
co u l d this be seen as a high point of detente?
2 Look at the content of the second basket in Fig u re 7.1 . I n
what ways wou l d closer l i n ks bring pol itical agreement?
3 Why do you think Brezh nev was prepared to agree to
'basket three' in Figure 7.1 ?

Source K The signing o f ...

the Helsinki Agreements,
I August 1975. Front row,
from left to right: Kissinger
(Secretary of State, USA),
Brezhnev, President Ford
and Gromyko (Foreign
Secretary, Soviet Union)

Practice
q u estion
Exp l a i n t h e i m p o rtance of
the H e lsinki Ag reement
fo r relations between
the USA and the Soviet
U n i o n . (For guidance,
see page 53.)
 7 Attem pts to reduce tension betwe e n East and West

Supe rpowe r relations after He lsinki SALT I I , 1974

After 1977, the new US President,Jimmy Carter, was keen to SALT II began in 1974 and the treaty was signed in June
link the issue of human rights to arms limitation as a way 1979. The terms are outlined in the box below.
to put pressure on the Soviet Union. Following the human
rights agreement at Helsinki in 1975, he sent a letter to the TERMS OF SALT I I
Soviet dissident, Andrei Sakharov, supporting the stand he
and others were taking against Soviet authorities. • A limit o f 2400 strategic nuclear del ivery ve h i cles
(ICB Ms, SLBMs a n d heavy bombers) for each side.
Carter's actions were seen as a gross interference in Soviet • A 1 320 l i m it on M I RV systems for each side.
internal affairs, and Brezhnev made this clear in a speech
• A ban on construction of new l a n d - based ICBM
during the Helsinki talks. In response, various groups were
l a u n chers.
set up in eastern Europe, known as the Helsinki Groups, to
• Limits o n deployment of new types of strategic
monitor the Soviet Union's adherence to the Agreements.
offe nsive arms.
They, along with President Carter and other human rights
• SALT I I to last until 1 985.
organisations, complained about Soviet violations of che
1975 Agreements. The violations chat were highlighted
covered lack of free speech, religious restrictions and lack
of freedom of movement. The human rights issue was Worsening relations
becoming an embarrassment for Brezhnev. Despite the Ratification of the treaty did not take place. The US
Helsinki Agreements, the Soviet Union sent huge amounts Congress did not believe that the limits put forward in
of weapons to Angola and Ethiopia, and by 1980, 21 other SALT II could be verified, and there was renewed concern
African states had received Soviet weapons. over the 2,000 Soviet troops stationed in Cuba. In late 1979,
NATO decided to place long-range missiles in Europe.
President Career asked for an increase in che US defence
Detente was under pressure, buc its end came unexpectedly
budget in late 1978. Figure 7.2 gives an indication of
when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan on
superpower weaponry in the 1970s and how little SALT I had
25 December 1979. The US Senate refused to ratify SALT II
affected their approach to arms limitation.
and many said that a second Cold War was starting.
1 0, 000 1 = No_ of missiles

0 J I M MY CARTER, 1 924-PRES E NT
9, 000 = No. of warheads

James (Jimmy) Carter became president of the USA in 1 977

8. 000
and served until 1 981 . He helped bring President Sadat
of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel
7, 000
" together and agree to the Camp David Accords i n 1 978-79
;1i
(which led to a peace treaty in 1 979). I n 1 979, he was able
� 6, 000
to establish diplomatic relations with Com m u n ist China
� and signed the SALT I I Treaty between those two countries
-�
5, 000
though the Senate withheld ratification.
4, 000
g_ I n N ove m b e r 1 979, the seizure of the US em bassy i n
� 3, 000
Teh ra n a n d su bseq uent h o l d i n g of US citizens as hostages
b l i g hted his presiden cy. The hostages were re leased on h i s
2, 000 l a s t day as presi dent. H e put forwa rd the Carter Doctri ne
(see page 78) fo l lowi n g the Soviet invasion of Afg h a n istan
and advocated the US boycott of the 1 980 M oscow
Olympic Games (see page 79).

1 972 1 974 1 976 1 978 1 980

Year

Figure 7.2 The increase in missiles and warheads owned

.A. ACTIVITIES
•
by the superpowers in the 1970s
Study Fig u re 7. 2. What can you learn about the i ncrease
i n weapons owned by the superpowers i n the 1 970s?
2 Look back at this chapter and reflect on the successes
and fa i l u res of detente. Draw a set of scales and l ist the
successes on one side and the fa i l u res on the other.
Which side outweighs the other?
Key topic 3 The e n d of the C o l d War, 1 970-91
7. 2 M i kh a i l G o rbachev: ch a n g i n g attitudes
The Soviet Union had four different leaders in the years
1982-85. Brezhnev died in 1982 and was replaced by Yuri
Andropov who was leader for less than two years, dying
in February 1984. The rule of his successor, Konstantin
Chernenko, was also short-lived, as he died in March 1985.
The turning point occurred after the death of Chernenko
with the appointment ofMikhail Gorbachev as the new
Soviet leader in March 1985. Gorbachev was much younger
than his predecessors and he was prepared to adopt drastic
policies to improve superpower relations. He had to attempt
to improve the relationship, as he knew that, without
change, the Soviet Union would collapse.
Gorbachev had no foreign policy experience prior ro
becoming the leader of the Soviet Union. At first, he viewed
the relationship with the US President Ronald Reagan
in rather simplistic terms. For example, following his
first meeting with Reagan in 1985, he described him as
retarded. However, his 'new thinking' led to major changes
in relations with the West. He realised that communism in
the Soviet Union faced many problems. The Soviet economy
was not nearly as efficient as the American economy. While
Americans in the 1980s enjoyed an excellent standard of
living, everyday life in the Soviet Union was dominated
by shortages. For example, it was not uncommon for
housewives in Moscow to queue for up to five hours simply
to buy bread. This, in turn, meant that many people in the
Soviet Union had lost faith in communism.
S o u rce L Extract from an i n te rview with G o r b a c hev i n
1 9 9 2 . H e w a s t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e i s s u e s t h a t h e faced a s
lea d e r i n 1 98 5 .
I k n ew that a n i m m e n s e task a w a i t e d m e . B e c a u s e we were
e n g a g e d i n the e x h a u s t i n g arms race the cou ntry h a d c o m e
to t h e e n d of its stre n g t h . T h e e c o n o my w a s i n a p o o r state
and p r o d u c t i o n f i g u res were f a l li n g . People's sta n d a rd of
l i v i n g was clea rly d e c l i n i n g . C o r r u p t i o n was o n the i n c re a s e .
' N ew t h i n ki n g '
The Cold War was draining so much o fthe Soviet Union's
wealth that it could not continue to develop economically
and the falling standard ofliving was creating unrest in
the country. Gorbachev wanted to address these problems
through reforming the Communist Party in the Soviet
Union and modernising Soviet-style socialism. He did not
intend to abandon the Communist Party or communism,
but inrroduced a radical programme of reform known as
'new thinking' in order to revive communism. This involved
three main strategies which effectively ended the Cold War:
• Initiating sweeping reforms in the Communist Party
and Soviet system in the Soviet Union - perestroika
(restructuring) and glasnost (openness).
• Ending the arms race with the USA and signing various
arms reduction agreements. (see Source M)
• Abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine (see page 59) and
stopping Soviet interference in eastern European
satel l ite states like Poland, Czechoslovakia and other
Warsaw Pact countries.
S o u rce M From G o r b a c h ev's Perestroika: New Thinking
for Our Coun try and the World, p u b li s h e d in 1 9 8 7
T h e f u n d a m e nt a l p r i n c i p le of t h e new p o l i t i c a l o u t l o o k is
very simple: n u c l e a r wa r c a n not b e a m e a n s of achieving
p o l i t i c a l , economic, ideological o r a n y o t h e r g o a l s . . . N u clea r
war is s e n s e less; it is i rrat i o n a l .
Attem pts to a c h i eve m i l i t a ry s u p e r i o rity a re p reposterous
. . . T h e o n ly way to secu rity is t h ro u g h political decisions a n d
disarmament.
Gorbachev wanted to maintain the Soviet Union's role
of superpower. He knew that he had to win over the
Soviet people and show the world that he would not
threaten world peace. He had to be all things to all people.
Gorbachev had been in power only a month when he
roamed around an industrial district of Moscow, visiting
supermarkets, chatting with workers at a truck factory (see
Source N), discussing computer training with teachers at a
school and nurses' pay with the staff at a hospital. He even
dropped into a young couple's apartment for tea. That was
the first of the walkabouts that took him all over the Soviet
Union, from Murmansk in the North to Kamchatka on the
shores of the Pacific.
When he visited the Baltic Shipyards in Leningrad, a
spokesman for the workers began a monotone welcoming
speech expressing a wish that perestroika would develop
even faster. Gorbachev interrupted with playful cries of
'Davai! Davai!' ('Let's go to it! '), drawing a big laugh from
the crowd.
ACTIVITIES
•
Read Source L. What can you learn about the problems
facing Gorbachev i n 1 985?
2 Read Source M and the i nformation on pages 72-73.
What do you think G orbachev's im pact might be on
su perpower relations?
 7 Attem pts to reduce tension betwe e n East a n d West

Source N Gorbachev visiting a truck factory in Apri1 1986. This visit was seen as the
J;.
beginning of his restructuring and economic acceleration programme

Other d evelopments
ACTIVITIES
Dissidents were released from jail, banned books were •

published and the Soviet people learned of the atrocities Look at Source 0. What can you learn about the i m pact
committed when Stalin was in power. However, glasnost of the c h anges Gorbac h ev was introducing?
was a two-edged sword for Gorbachev. The more freedom 2 Working i n pairs, copy and co mplete the table below.
people gained, the more they wanted and the more they Two exam p l es have been incl uded to get you started.
began to criticise Gorbachev - making it increasingly
Why were Gorbachev's Can you suggest any
difficult to maintain the Communist Party in power.
changes necessary? dangers that Gorbachev
The economy had been damaged by the arms race, the space might have faced when
race, the war in Afghanistan (see pages 76-78) and above introd ucing such major
all by a system that did not encourage incentive. Perestroika chan ges?
and uskoreniye (a Russian word meaning 'acceleration' The Cold Wa r was draining Reforms could lead
of economic development) did bring some considerable the economy of the Soviet to criticisms of the
changes (see Source 0) and certain aspects of a free Union. government and the
economy were introduced. Reforms in the political system, Communist Party.
such as elections for local government, did win support
for Gorbachev and enabled him to be equally radical in his
dealings with the USA.

S o u rce 0 Extract from an a rt i c l e in The Sunday Times, 27

D e c e m b e r 1 987. T h e a rt i c l e d i scussed G o r b a c h ev's i m pa c t
o n t h e Soviet U n i o n a n d t h e world Practice q u estion
T h e Soviet U n i o n i s d ifferent thanks to G o r b a c h ev. In the Exp l a i n two conseq uences of G orba c h ev co m i ng to
world beyo n d t h e Soviet U n i o n h e has b e e n t h e p r i m e
power in the Soviet U n i o n . (For guidance, see page 1 9
i n s t i g a t o r of c h a n g e . A t h o m e t h e c h a n g e s a re m ost
a n d page 45.)
re m a rkable. C o m p a re d with j u st one year ago, Soviet
citizens c a n now t h i n k m o re freely a l m ost without fea r of
re p r i s a l . T h ey can e m i g rate i n i n creas i n g - t h o u g h s t i l l
s m a l l - n u m bers. S e e i n g a n d rea d i n g certa i n p l a y s , f i l m s
a n d n ovels w h i c h w e r e o n c e b a n n e d is now n o l o n g e r
c o n s i d e re d d a n g e ro u s . N evertheless, s o m e fore i g n ra d i o
stat i o n s a re s t i l l j a m m e d a n d t h e re a re s t i l l p o l i t i c a l
p r i s o n e rs .
Key topic 3 The e n d of the C o l d War, 1 970-91
The S u m mit Conferences 1985-86
Arms limitation talks were renewed after it was clear that
Gorbachev was keen to change relations with the West
(see Source P). A summit meeting between Gorbachev and
US President Ronald Reagan was held in Geneva over two
days in November 1985. At the meeting Reagan would not
give up his commitment to the Strategic Defence Initiative
(SDI), often referred to as the 'Star Wars' defence system,
but at the end of discussions both Reagan and Gorbachev
spoke of the world being a 'safer place'. (For a more detailed
explanation of Reagan's attitudes see pages 80-81.)
The two leaders broke with convention and met together
without advisers to discuss issues on their own. Though
nothing concrete was decided, the Geneva Accord was set
out. This committed the two countries to:
• speed up arms calks
• work towards the abolition of chemical weapons
• be more active on issues of human rights.
Both leaders promised to meet again in the near future.
It was clear to many observers chat the two men had been
able to be amicable despite the poor relations between their
two countries in the early 1980s. A second meeting was
eventually set for October 1986 in Reykjavik, Iceland.
S o u rce P From G o r b a c h ev's m e m o i rs , w r i t t e n in 1 9 9 5 .
H e re h e was d is c u s s i n g why t h e Soviet U n i o n w a n t e d to
i m p rove rela t i o n s w i t h t h e USA
I realised that it was vitally i m p o rt a n t to correct t h e
d istorted i d eas t h e S o v i e t U n i o n h a d a bo u t o t h e r n a t i o n s .
T h e s e m i s c o n c e p t i o n s h a d m a d e u s o p pose t h e r e s t of t h e
w o r l d f o r m a ny d e c a d e s . W e u n d e rstood that i n a world
of mutual i n t e rd e p e n d e nce. prog ress was u n th i n ka b le
for any s o c i ety w h i c h was fenced off from the world by
i m pe n et ra b le state fro n t i e rs a n d i d e o l o g i c a l barriers. We
knew that i n a n u clear age we c o u l d not b u i ld a safe secu rity
syste m based just o n m i l i t a ry m e a n s . This p ro m pted u s to
propose a n e n t i re ly new idea of global secu rity, which wo u l d
i n c l u d e a l l a s p e c t s of i nternat i o n a l relat i o n s .
ACTIVITIES
•
Wo rki n g in p a i rs, exp l a i n exactly what Gorbachev meant
i n Source P.
2 Why did some p e o p le t h i n k that his message in Source P
was rev o l uti o n a ry for a Soviet l e a d e r?
The 1986 summit meeting in Reykjavik
The summit meeting between President Reagan and Soviet
leader Mikhail Gorbachev collapsed after the two leaders
had tentatively agreed to sweeping reductions in nuclear
a rsenals, but became deadlocked again on the crucial
issue of restricting the US space-based missile defence
programme (SDI). In a news conference after the Summit
had collapsed, Gorbachev painted a bleak picture of US­
Soviet relations leading up to the summit and said that the
talks had broken down over the fundamental differences
between the superpowers on the SDI and the ABM Treaty
(see page 66). He said Reagan's insistence on deploying
SDI had 'frustrated and scuttled' the opportunity for an
agreement.
I ntermediate-Ra n g e N u clear Fo rces
Treaty (I N F), 1987
A third summit was held in December 1987, and a
breakthrough was achieved with the agreement of
the I ntermediate-Ra n g e N uclear Forces Treaty (IN F).
Gorbachev had refused to sign an arms treaty with Reagan
ar Reykjavik because Reagan refused co drop his plans
for SOL Reagan was still committed to SOl in 1987, but
Gorbachev changed his mind for several reasons:
• Gorbachev was convinced that nuclear weapons would
not guarantee Soviet security and were far too expensive.
• Reagan convinced Gorbachev char the USA did not
intend to invade the Soviet Union.
• Gorbachev realised char rhe Soviet economy would never
recover as long as it was spending so much money on
nuclear weapons.
• He also believed that disarmament would win him
popularity in the West and that, in turn, would encourage
trade deals between the Soviet Union and the West.
The treaty eliminated nuclear and conventional ground­
launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500
to 5,500 kilometres (300 to 3,400 miles). By the treaty's
deadline, 1 June 1991, a total of2,692 such weapons had
been destroyed, 846 by the USA and 1,846 by the Soviet
Union (see Source S on page 75). Also under the treaty,
both nations were allowed to inspect each other's military
installations.
Under the INF, there were to be stringent verification
procedures to check char nuclear weapons were destroyed.
Reagan described INF as the realisation of'an impossible
vision' and Gorbachev stated it had 'universal significance for
mankind'. Both leaders stressed char INF was only the first
step towards an even more radical agreement to halve long­
range nuclear weapons. It was hoped that this treaty would be
signed in Moscow in 1988.
 7 Attem pts to reduce tension betwe e n East a n d West

Further agreements
The INF Treaty was followed by several further agreements
that built up to the end of the Cold War, including the
Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty of
1989 and the Treaty for the Reduction and Lim itation of
Strategic Arms (START I) signed in 1991.

'GORBYMAN IA'

After the I N F Treaty, the fi n a l s u m m it meeti n g was

Source 0 President Reagan (right) and General
..t.
Secretary Gorbachev (left) signing the INF Treaty at the
White House on 8 December 1987
held i n M oscow i n M ay 1 988. By this time, much of the
West seemed to be overtaken by what became known
as 'Gorbym a n i a '. It was as if G orbachev had become a
pop star. Furthermore, it was evident that the wives of
Reagan a n d G o rbachev had played a role in pushing the
two leaders together. Crowds were h a p py to watch them
wherever they went. This was all very d iffe rent from the
d a r k d ays of the Cold Wa r of the 1 950s a n d early 1 980s.

Practice q u estions
Exp l a i n the im portance o f t h e I N F Treaty fo r relations
between the USA a n d the Soviet U n i o n .
(For guidance, s e e page 53.)
2 Write a n a rrative account a n a lysing the key events in
attem pts to red u ce tension between East a n d West i n
t h e 1 970s a n d 1 980s.

You may u s e t h e fo l l ow i n g i n you r a n swer:

• The Helsinki Agreem e nts
• G o rbac h ev 's 'new thinking'.

You m ust a l s o use information of you r ow n .

(For guidance, see page 30 and page 62.)

..t. Source R Photograph of Source S Destruction

..t.
Nancy Reagan (right) and of nuclear weapons in the
Raisa Gorbacheva (left) at Soviet Union in 1988 after
the INF Summit the INF Treaty

ACTIVITIES
•
1 Look at Source S. What can you learn about the I N F Treaty from this sou rce?
2 How im portant were each of the fo l l owing in changing relations between the Soviet Union
and the USA i n the later 1 980s? Copy the table and make a decision on each development,
giving a brief explanation for each decision. One example has been added for you.

Development Quite im portant I m portant Decisive

Gorbachev's 'new This new approach l>roug ht al>out
thinking' l>etter relations with Reagan.

Reagan's attitude
S u m m it
Confere n ces
The I N F treaty
 The attempts at detente in the 1970s had been quite earnest, but there were a number of
flashpoints in the world where the superpowers were at loggerheads. The invasion of
Afghanistan in 1979 was the last straw for the USA, and President Carter viewed Soviet
actions as an extremely serious threat to peace. During the five years after this Soviet
invasion, relations between the two superpowers deteriorated considerably. The newly
elected US president, Ronald Reagan, was keen to challenge the Soviet Union and
re-establish the USA as the leading superpower. This chapter looks at the invasion of
Afghanistan, Reagan's policies and the Soviet Union's eventual acceptance that there had
to be radical changes in its relations with the USA.

8 .1 Soviet i nvasion of Afg h a n ista n, 1 979

The Soviet invasion o fAfghanistan was t o drastically
change relations between East and West. The USA saw that
a Soviet-occupied Afghanistan would threaten India and
Pakistan and would be a stepping-stone to possible Soviet
control of much of the West's oil supplies. Apart from
religious reasons, the Soviet Union invaded because it did Tension with I r a n i n
not wish to see the collapse of a neighbouring socialist state 1 979

nor did it wish to see the growth of US influence on its

borders. The intent of the Soviet Union can be seen by the
huge military contingent (see Source B, page 77).
1� I RA N

�\\
�
Source A Extract from a n a rt i c l e by the Soviet j o u r n a l i s t K U WA I T

Alexa n d e r B e v i n i n t h e Soviet news p a p e r Izvestia,

A p r i l 1 9 8 0 . B e v i n was e x p la i n i n g the rea s o n for Soviet U S A fear 1 ncrease 1n Sov1e
power in the Middle Eas
i n t e rve n t i o n i n Afg h a n i s t a n
- a threat to oil suppl ies
We h a d to m a ke a choice: we either h a d to bring i n troops or
let t h e Afg h a n c o m m u n ist revo l u t i o n b e defeated ... l t was SAU D I
not a s i m ple d e c i s i o n to take. We knew that if the revo lution ARABIA
f a i le d it would pave t h e way f o r m a ssive U S presence i n a
cou ntry that b o r d e rs on t h e Soviet U n i o n a n d that t h i s was
a c h a l l e n g e to our cou ntry's secu rity . . . We knew that we
would have ceased to be a g reat power if we refra i n e d from
ca rryi n g t h e b u rd e n of taking u n po p u l a r b u t n e c essary Key
d e c i s i o n s . T h e re a re s i t u a t i o n s w h e n n o n - i nte rve n t i o n is
a d i s g race a n d a betraya l. S u c h a s i t u a t i o n deve l o p e d i n f) Oi lfields
Afg h a n ista n .
.._ Figure 8 . 1 Map showing the geographical importance
of Afghanistan

ACTIVITIES
•
Study Figure 8.1 . M a ke a l ist of the reasons why
Afg h a n istan was im portant to each superpower.
2 Study Sou rce A. What can you learn about the reasons
for the Soviet invasion of Afg h a n istan in 1 979?
 8 Flash poi nts betwe e n East a n d West

Backg ro u n d to Soviet i nvolvement in Afg hanista n Source C From t h e hotline

On 27 April 1978, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), a communist tele p h o n e conversa t i o n
party, overthrew the government of Afghanistan. Nur Muhammad Taraki, Secretary between B rezh nev a n d
General of the PDPA, became President of the Revolutionary Council and Prime Minister C a rter o n 28 D e ce m b e r

of the newly established Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. During its first 18 months 1 9 79. B r e z h n ev was
t e l l i n g C a r t e r why Soviet
of rule, the PDPA imposed a communist-style reform programme. In addition, thousands
fo rces h a d e n tered
of members of the traditional elite - the Muslim religious establishment and intellectuals ­
Afg h a n is t a n
were imprisoned, tortured or murdered.
We have b e e n i nvited
The issue of I sl amic fundamentalism i n by t h e Afg h a n istan
gove r n m e n t to p rotect it
In September 1979, Hafizullah Amin, the Deputy Prime Minister, seized power from from s o m e o u t s i d e t h reat
Taraki, but there was continued instability in the country because of the anti-Muslim ... we shall rem ove o u r
policies. Thousands of Afghan Muslims joined the mujahideen - a g uerri l l a movement forces as s o o n a s t h e
which proclaimed to be on a holy mission for Allah. They wanted to overthrow the Amin situation stabilises.
government. The mujahideen declared a jihad - a holy war - on the supporters of A min.
The Soviet military assistance programme, which had begun in 1978, was increased, and
Amin's regime became dependent on Soviet military equipment and advisers. However, Source D E x t r a c t f r o m
Amin did not wish to become too reliant on the Soviet Union and wanted to improve links a news p a p e r a rt i c l e i n
with the USA. Unrest and chaos continued to grow in Afghanistan. t h e C h i n ese news p a p e r,
Beijing Peop l e 's Daily,
Brezhnev was concerned abom the growing power and spread of lsl a m i c fu ndamentalism o n 1 J a n u a ry 1 98 0 ,
and wanted to show the 30 million Muslims in the Soviet Union chat there would be no d iscussi n g t h e Soviet
changes to the way the Soviet Union was run. The Soviet Union saw fundamentalism as a i nv a s i o n o f Afg h a n is t a n
great threat to the Soviet system. T h e i n va s i o n is a ste p p i n g ­
s t o n e for a s o uthward
The i nvasion t h rust towa rds Pakistan
a n d I n d i a . T h e re w i l l be
Between 25 December 1 9 7 9 and 1 January 1 9 8 0 , more than 50,000 Soviet troops were sent
n o peace i n Southern Asia
to Afghanistan to restore order and protect the PDPA from the mujahideen. Brezhnev said
with Soviet sold i e rs in
the Soviet Union was only complying with the 1978 Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and strateg i c Afg h a n ista n .
Good Neighbourliness that former President Taraki had signed.
On 27 December 1979, Amin was shot and replaced by Babrak Kamal, who had been in
exile in Moscow. His position as head of the Afghan government depended entirely on
Soviet military support. Many Afghan soldiers deserted to join the mujahideen and the
Kamal government then required 85,000 Soviet soldiers to keep it in power.

ACTIVITIES �
•
Exp l a i n why some
Afg h a n people
opposed the
governments of Ta raki
and Amin.
2 Draw a spider diagra m
t o s h o w the reasons
why the Soviet Union
invaded Afg h a n ista n .
Place the reasons
clockwise in order of
im portance.

,.. Source B Soviet troops and tanks in Afghanistan in 1 9 8 0

Key topic 3 The e n d of the C o l d War, 1 970-91

8 . 2 Sig n ifica n ce of the i nvasion

.. Source F Protestors hold

up a burning American
flag during anti-American
demonstration in Tehran.
The protestors took to the
streets of the Iranian capital,
after the US Embassy had
been stormed by students
and the staff held hostage.
Most of the hostages were
held for 444 days

Source E From Presi d e n t
C a rter's S t a t e of t h e
Union speech !annual
a d d ress by t h e p re s i d e n t
to t h e cou ntry I o n
23 J a n u a ry 1 98 0
Let o u r p o s i t i o n b e
a bsolutely clear: a n
a t t e m p t by a n y o u t s i d e
f o r c e to g a i n control of t h e
P e r s i a n G u lf reg i o n w i l l b e
r e g a r d e d a s a n a s s a u lt o n
t h e v i t a l i n t e rests of t h e
U n ited States of A m e r i c a ,
a n d s u c h a n assa u lt w i l l
b e r e p e l l e d by a ny m e a n s
n e cessa ry, i n c l u d i n g
m i l i t a ry force.
US President Carter was already under pressure in November 1979 following the seizure of
US embassy staff as hostages in Iran by militant Islamic students. They wanted their former
leader, the Shah, to be returned from exile in the USA to stand trial for crimes against the
people ofiran (see Source F). Carter had failed to solve the hostages problem by the end of the
year, and some in the USA were accusing him ofbeing a weak leader. He therefore began to
take a firm approach with the Soviet Union over the invasion of Afghanistan (see Source E).
The Carter Doctri ne
Carter's tough approach t o the Soviet Union became known a s the Carter Doctri ne. It
was a policy which stated that the USA would use military force if necessary to defend its
national interests in the Persian Gulf region (see Figure 8.1 on page 76).
The Carter Doctrine also promised US military aid to all ofthe countries bordering
Afghanistan. To carry out this policy Carter proposed the creation of a quick-strike military
force that could intervene anywhere in the world at short notice (Rapid Deployment Force).
He also called for a draft registration of 18-20-year-old men and for Congress to allow the
CIA to increase its intelligence gathering activities.
The rough line was continued when President Carrer asked the Senate to delay passing the
SALT II treaty (see page 71). The USA then cancelled all shipments of grain to the Soviet
Union and US companies were forbidden to sell high technology there, such as computers
and oil drilling equipment. It was also decided that assistance would be given to the
guerrillas mujahideen who fought against the Soviet invaders.
- -

ACTIVITIES ?,
•
Study Source E. What can you learn about the Ca rter Doctri ne?
2 In what ways is the Ca rter Doctri ne similar to the Tru man Doctrine (page 20)?
3 What was the reaction of President Ca rter to the invasion of Afg h a n istan? Construct a
ta ble like the one below and com plete it. An example has been given.
 8 Flash poi nts betwe e n East a n d West

M OSCOW O LYM P I CS, 1 980

President Ca rter's most controversi a l decision

after the Soviet i nvasion was to pressure the
U n ited States Olympic Com m ittee (USOC) to
boycott the M oscow Olympic G a mes (J u ly-Aug ust
1 980). Carter t h reatened to with h o l d funding
a n d remove tax benefits. USOC a g reed, a n d 61
other cou ntries fo l l owed the USA's exa m p l e . Thus
i nternation a l superpower pol itics intruded i nto the
Olym pics. The sour relations which existed at the
b e g i n n i n g of 1 98 0 worsened at t h ese Olym pics.
Some of those w h o boycotted t h e g a mes held an
a l ternative event called the 'Liberty Bell Classic'.
At the official g a m es, the Soviet U n i o n won
1 95 medals, i n c l u d i n g 80 golds. The American
press ridiculed the official Olympic Games and
nicknamed M isha Bear, Russia's Olympic m ascot,
G u lag Bear - a reference to Soviet prison camps
which were known as g u lags.

Opening ceremony of the Moscow Olympics, 1980 .,

E n d of detente
Carter's actions did not force Soviet troops to leave Afghanistan. However, they did bring
an end to detente, which by 1980 was dead. The invasion of Afghanistan and the American
response meant that relations between the superpowers were at their lowest point since
the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 (see pages 50 -52). Sources G and H demonstrate how far
relations had become strained.

Source G From an a r t i c l e in Pravda, the offi c i a l newsp a p e r of the Soviet C o m m u n ist Pa rty,
Practice
J a n u a ry 1 98 0

S ecret a ry B re z h n ev has s a i d that a m o u n ta i n of lies has b u i lt u p a ro u n d t h e eve nts of t h e

q u estions
i n v a s i o n of Afg h a n ista n . It is clear that a n a nt i - S oviet c a m p a i g n is b e i n g m o u nt e d . T h e USA is Exp l a i n two
a n a bso lutely u n re l i a b le p a r t n e r, whose lea d e rs h i p is c a p a b le - at any m o m e n t - of c a n c e l l i n g conseq uences of the
t r e a t i e s a n d a g re e m e nts.
Soviet i nvasion of
Afg h a n ista n .
Source H P a r t of a n a rt i c l e from Pravda, 23 D e c e m b e r 1 9 79
(For guidance, see
page 19 and page 45.)
Soviet-Afg h a n rela t i o n s a re based o n a f i r m f o u n d a t i o n of fri e n d s h i p and n o n - i nterference i n
2 Exp l a i n the
e a c h o t h e r's i n t e r n a l affa irs. These r e l a t i o n s h a v e stre n g t h e n e d s i n c e A p r i l 1978, w h e n power
i n Afg h a n istan s h ifted to t h e hands of t h e people. H owever, t h e CIA has b e e n d i rectly i nvolved i m portance of the
i n t ra i n i n g Afg h a n rebels i n P a k i sta n , and m a i n t a i n s contacts with them i n Afg h a n ista n . Soviet i nvasion of
C I A a g e nts a re o p e ra t i n g i n t h e Afg h a n - Pa kista n i border, s o m e o f t h e m u s i n g t h e D r u g Afg h a n istan i n 1 979
Enfo rce m e n t Ad m i n istra t i o n as cover. T h e s u bversive a n t i -Afg h a n activities of U S a n d o t h e r for re lations between
i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d s a b ot a g e services a re a f l a g r a n t i nterve n t i o n i n t h e i nt e r n a l affa i rs o f the USA and the
Afg h a n ista n . U S a n d C h i nese p r o p a g a n d a c a n not c a m o u f l a g e t h e s e d a n g e ro u s i n t r i g u e s . Soviet U n i o n .
(For guidance, see

ACTIVITIES ?.•
page 53.)

Study Sou rces G and H. What picture of US-Soviet relations do these sou rces give?
2 Read Source H. Can you sugg est reasons why the CIA was i nvolved in Afg h a n istan?
3 What can you learn from Source H about the intentions of the Soviet U n ion towards
Afghanistan?
Key topic 3 The e n d of the C o l d War, 1 970-91

8 . 3 Rea g a n a n d the 'Second Co l d Wa r'

Ronald Reagan defeated Carter i n the 1980 presidential election. Reagan believed i n taking
a far tougher line with the Soviet Union than Carter.

Reagan's attitude to fo reig n pol icy

Fighting communism became the major emphasis of Reagan's policy and he made it clear
that he intended to confront the Soviet Union whenever possible. This change of policy has
been called the 'Second Cold War'. Reagan was aware of the a rs e n a l that the Soviet Union
had built-up but he was determined not to be intimidated by it.
Reagan placed less emphasis on human rights and was keen to increase US defence
spending. He wanted to raise the USA to the position it had held in world affairs after the
Second World War. Moreover, he wanted to eradicate the humiliation of the loss of the
Vietnam War, the hostage crisis in Iran and the increasing influence of the Soviet Union in
both Africa and Central America.

Source I From P resi d e n t R e a g a n's f i rst p ress conference a t the W h i t e H o u s e , 31 J a n u a ry

1 98 1
S o far, detente h a s b e e n a o n e -way s t r e e t w h i c h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n has used to p u rs u e its
own aims. I k n ow of n o l e a d e r of t h e Soviet Union w h o has not m o re t h a n o n c e repeated i n
com m u n ist c o n g resses t h a t t h e i r g o a l m u st b e t h e p r o m o t i o n of world revo l u t i o n a n d a o n e ­
w o r l d co m m u n ist state. T h ey h a v e o p e n ly a n d p u b l i c ly declared that t h e o n ly m o rality t h ey
reco g n i s e is that w h i c h w i l l f u r t h e r t h e i r c a u s e - m e a n i n g t h e r i g h t to l i e a n d cheat in o r d e r to
o b t a i n it even in detente - you m u st keep that in m i n d .

Source J Two c o m m e n ts a b o u t t h e C o l d Wa r a n d co m m u n is m Presi d e n t Rea g a n m a d e

d u r i n g h i s f i rst p r e s i d e n c y

H e re's my strategy o n t h e Cold War: We win, t h ey lose.

C o m m u n ism works o n ly i n heave n , w h e re t h ey don't n e e d it, and i n h e l l , w h e re t h ey've
a lready got it.

ACTIVITY -;,
•
Use Sou rces I and J and you r own knowledge to explain President Reagan's attitude towards
com m u nism and the Soviet U n ion.

President Reagan at a ...

press conference in the
early 1980s
 8 Flash poi nts betwe e n East and West

Reaga n's d efe nce pol icy

Reagan announced that the US defence programme
between 1981 and 1987 would cost more than a trillion
dollars. The defence programme included:
• 100 MX missiles
• 100 B-1 long-range and supersonic bombers
• the construction of a new stealth bomber that would be
invisible to radar
• the construction of six Trident nuclear submarines
• the strengthening of military communications systems
• the development of the neutron bomb (this weapon
killed people but did little damage to property).
As a result of the deployment of Soviet SS20 missiles in
the western Soviet Union, the USA decided to place cruise
missiles (which could not be detected by radar) in western
Europe (see Figure 8.2). The result of this defence strategy
was a worsening of superpower relations.

I m pact of Reaga n's pol icy

There was a view that Reagan and his advisers felt that
they could win a limited nuclear war against the Soviet
Union using a strategy known as N UTS (Nuclear Utilization
Target Selection). NUTS involved directing weapons at the
opponent's warheads, rather than their cities, to destroy
their nuclear weapons capabilities. Tension began to rise
because up to this point, both superpowers had accepted
the MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction) theory, which
was the belief that nuclear weapons made each side more
secure and less likely to attack. The enemy would not dare Source K The US ground-launched cruise missile.
.t..
These were deployed in Europe to counter Soviet SS20
to attack first, because if it did, the other would strike back
intermediate-range missiles
before its bombs had landed and it too would be destroyed.
Key
96 N u mber of missiles ..
deployed ACTIVITIES �
•

(it 'Cruise' missiles Study Figure 8 . 2 . Can you suggest

reasons why the USA was prepared
� Pers h i n g missiles to consider the idea of N UTS ?
8 Soviet SS20 bases 2 What is the tactical advantage of
having weapons such as those in
C.. The I ron Curtain Source K?

SOV I ET
U N ION

<II Figure 8 . 2 Map showing the

0 deployment of nuclear missiles in
L-------------�----------��--------------�_L______L_______J Europe in the early l980s
Key topic 3 The e n d of the C o l d War, 1 970-91
The 'Zero' option
Reagan was prepared to discuss arms limitation, but
he knew he was approaching talks from a position of
strength because of the economic problems that the Soviet
Union was experiencing. In November 1981, President
Reagan proposed his controversial 'zero option' - to
cancel deployment of new US intermediate-range missiles
in Western Europe in return for Soviet dismantling of
comparable forces (600 SS20 intermediate-range missiles).
Brezhnev rejected the offer. Some historians think that
Reagan knew Brezhnev would refuse the 'zero option' and
this would mean that the USA could then place even greater
numbers of missiles in Europe.
Source L A cartoon about President Reagan (left)
.a.
published in the USA in 1982
In a speech to the British House of Commons on 8 June
1982, Reagan called the Soviet Union 'an evil empire'.
Later in the year, the new leader of the Soviet Union, Yuri
Andropov, responded by calling the US President 'insane'
and a 'liar'. Andropov let loose a barrage of harsh verbal
assaults on the USA reminiscent of the early years of the
Cold War. Moscow repeatedly accused President Reagan of
fanning the flames of war and compared him to Hider.
Polish Sol idarity
Despite Reagan's 'evil empire' speech, his attitude and the
arms build-up, negotiations to reduce arms continued.
Reagan gave the name Strategic Arms Reduction Talks
(START) to the meetings. However, these talks were made
more complicated by events in Poland.
The USA decided to give secret assistance to the Polish
workers' trade union movement Solidarnosc (solidarity), which
was banned and saw its leaders imprisoned in 1982. The
USA criticised Brezhnev and the Polish government for their
heavy-handed approach and reacted by banning all hi-tech
trade with the Soviet Union. Relations grew worse when the
Soviet delegation walked out of the START talks in 1983 and
Reagan announced the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI).
ACTIVITIES ?. •
Look at Source L. What message is the cartoonist tryin g
t o p u t across a b o u t relations between the U S A and t h e
Soviet U n ion? Can y o u sug gest w h a t the cartoon ist's
attitude towards each leader is?
2 What was the intention of Reagan's defence programme
of 1 981 -87?
3 Why do you think that Brezhnev rejected the 'zero option'?
5 I n pairs ca rry out research of your own about Solidarnosc
and fi nd out three points about the fo l l owing:
0 its leader
0 its basic ideas
0 why it was disliked by the Polish government and the
Soviet U n i o n .
6 Can y o u sugg est reasons w h y Reagan w a s prepared to
give assistance to Sofidarnosc?
Practice q u estion
Exp l a i n two conseq uences for re lations between t h e USA
and the Soviet U n ion of Rea g a n becom i n g president.
(For guidance, see page 1 9 and page 45.)

8.4 Th e Strategic Defe n ce I n itiative
On 23 March 1983, President Reagan announced the
Stracegic Defence Initiative, quickly nicknamed the 'Star
Wars' programme (after the film) by the media. SDI was
a plan for a ground- and space-based, laser-armed anti­
ballistic missile system that, if deployed, would shield
against missiles launched at the US, destroying them in the
process (see Figure 8.3).
Four days after the President's announcement, and in direct
response to it, Andropov spoke out firmly. He accused the
USA of preparing a first strike attack on the Soviet Union
and asserted that President Reagan was 'inventing new
plans on how to unleash a nuclear war in the best way,
in the hope of winning it'. Andropov saw that SDI would
give the USA an advantage in any conflict and would then
readily consider a tactical nuclear war. The US Congress
voted in favour of funds for the development of SDI.
Source M From P r e s i d e n t R e a g a n's State of the U n i o n
s p e e c h to t h e U S A , M a rc h 1 9 8 3 . H e w a s i ntrod u c i n g t h e
i d e a of t h e Stra te g i c Defence I n i t i a t ive (Star Wa rs)
Let m e s h a re with you a v i s i o n of the f u t u re w h i c h offers
h o p e . It is that we e m b a r k on a p r o g r a m to c o u n t e r t h e
aweso m e S o v i e t m i s s i le t h reat with m e a s u res t h a t a re
defensive . . . What if free people c o u l d live s e c u re in t h e
knowle d g e that t h e i r secu rity d i d not r e s t u p o n t h e t h reat
of instant U S reta liation to deter Soviet attack? We c o u ld
i n t e rcept a n d destroy strate g i c ba llistic m i s s i les before t h ey
rea c h e d o u r own s o i l or that of o u r a ll i e s .
1 Aggressor nation
Defender nation
1 N uclear missile is launched. 4 Beam is reflected to one of
2 Satell ite detects l a u n c h and feeds data many battle sate l l ites.
to ground-based laser 5 Beam is d i rected at missile.
3 Laser beam is d i rected at m i rror sate l l ite. 6 M issile is destroyed.
... Figure 8.3 The Star Wars programme
8 Flash poi nts betwe e n East a n d West
• S O l presented enormous problems for Andropov
a n d his advisers, who realised that the Star Wars
p rogra m m e meant that they would have to spend even
more money on a r m a m ents i n order to com pete with
the USA.
• The Soviet economy was a l ready experiencing
problems a n d renewed arms s p e n d i n g m i g h t destroy
it com p l etely. Part of Rea g a n 's p l a n was that the Soviet
U n i o n would try to com pete and, i n so d o i n g , its
economy wo u l d col l a pse.
• America had won the race to the moon i n 1 969 a n d ,
i n the e a r l y 1 980s, deve l o ped the next generation of
spacecraft - the space s h uttle.
• M o reover, the Soviet U nion was also behind the USA i n
com p uter tech nol ogy. During the 1 980s, the American
com p uter m arket boomed. Soviet leaders, h owever,
were h i g h ly suspicious of com p uters because they
were concerned that they might be used to undermine
the power of the Com m u n ist Pa rty i n the Soviet U n ion,
for exa m p l e being used to produce anti-co m m u n ist
propa g a n d a . H owever, com p u ters were essential for
the development of a Star Wars-type progra m m e .
The Soviet U n i o n cou l d no l o n g e r com pete i n the
arms race.
ACTIVITIES
•
Copy and co mplete the diagram below to illustrate S D I
(Star Wars) and i t s i m pact. Com plete it b y answering t h e
questions i n the c i rc les .
2 Using a flow diagram, show the main developments i n
the C o l d War i n the years 1 979-84.
9 The collapse of Soviet control of
eastern Europe
Gorbachev's 'new thinking' (see page 72) had major effects on eastern Europe and
encouraged the growth of opposition to communism. The fall of the Berlin Wall in
November 1989 set off a chain of events which brought about the collapse of Soviet
control of eastern Europe. In the Soviet Union itself, Gorbachev's reforms encouraged
criticism and eventually the downfall of Gorbachev himself, as well as the break-up of
the Soviet Union and the end of the Warsaw Pact.
9.1 I m pact of G o rbachev's 'new th i n ki n g ' on
eastern Europe
Gorbachev had shown that he was prepared to make deals
with the USA and to think the unthinkable. The Soviet
economy could no longer stand rhe strain of supporting forces
in eastern Europe. He went even further when he rejected
the Brezhnev Doctrine in 1988 (see page 59), and in 1989
he accepted that members ofthe Warsaw Pact could make
changes to their own countries without expecting outside
interference. This became known as the Sinatra Doctrine (see
Source B). This was part of Gorbachev's 'new thinking' on
eastern Europe, which meant that ideology would play a much
smaller role in Soviet foreign affairs. In practice, this meant
that the Soviet Union would no longer favour trade with
communist countries over trade with capitalist countries.
Gorbachev was keen for eastern European countries to
embrace his 'new thinking' and enjoy perestroika and
glasnost. In addition, he withdrew Soviet troops from
eastern European bases in order to save money.
Changes in easte rn E u rope
Gorbachev had never intended t o weaken communist
control of eastern Europe. Once again, as in the Soviet
Union, he wanted to strengthen communism by reform.
However, once reform started in eastern Europe) he was
unable to contain it. Figure 9.1 gives an overview of these
events in eastern Europe between 1989 and 1991.
Reform starred in Poland first, and in 1989 a non­
communist government was elected. In the same year,
a range of political parries was formed in Hungary and
free elections were proposed for 1990. Gorbachev did
not interfere and began to withdraw Soviet troops from
Hungary. The key to the changes in eastern Europe in 1989
was Hungary's decision to open its border with Austria
in May of that year. This meant that there was now a hole
in the Iron Curtain (see page 18). This created a way for
East Germans to move ro West Germany. It brought into
question whether the Berlin Wall and the Iron Curtain
could continue to exist.
Source A From a s p e e c h by M i kh a i l G o r b a c h ev to t h e
U n ited N a t i o n s i n 1 9 8 8 . H e was t a l k i n g a b o u t d e m ocracy
Force o r t h e t h reat of force n e i t h e r c a n nor s h o u ld be
i n s t r u m e nts of fore i g n p o l i cy. T h e p r i n c i p le of freedom of
c h o i ce is not n e g o t i a b l e . Refusa l to reco g n i s e this p r i n c i p le
w i l l have s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e nces for world p e a c e . To d e ny
a n a t i o n c h o i c e , regard less of a n y exc u s e , is to u pset t h e
u n s t a b l e b a l a n c e that has b e e n a c h ieve d . Fre e d o m of c h o i c e
is a u n iversal p r i n c i p le . It kn ows n o except i o n .
Source B G e n n a d i G e ra s i m ov, a Soviet F o r e i g n M i n istry
s p o ke s p e rso n , being i n t e rv i ewed o n U S telev i s i o n o n 2 5
October 1 989
T h e Soviet Union recog n i s e s t h e fre e d o m of c h o i c e of a l l
cou ntries, specifica lly i n c l u d i n g t h e W a r s a w Pact s t a t e s . W e
now h a v e t h e S i natra Doctri n e . S i natra h a d a s o n g , ' M y Way',
so now every cou ntry d e c i d e s o n its own w h i c h road to take.
Political structures must b e d e c i d e d by t h e p e o p le w h o live
i n a cou ntry and the Soviet U n i o n will accept the rej e c t i o n of
com m u n ist p a rt i e s .
ACTIVITIES �
•
Look at Source A. Work in pairs to d iscuss why this is a
surprising comment from a leader of the S oviet U n i o n .
2 What can you learn from Source B about the Sinatra
Doctrine?
Practice q u estion
Explain two conseq uences o f Gorbachev's 'new thinking' o n
eastern Europe. (For guidance, see page 1 9 a n d page 45.)
 9 The co l l a pse of Soviet contro l of eastern Europe

East Germany - Poland

October 1 989 Gorbachev tells East Germany that Soviet 1 988 Stri kes throughout the country.
troops will not put down East German 1 989 Free trade u n ion - Solidarity - wins
demonstrations. elections. Mazowiecki becomes fi rst
23 October 1 989 300 000 people protest i n Leipzi g . non-co m m u n ist Prime M i n ister i n
4 November 1 989 One m i l l ion people protest i n East Berl i n . eastern E u rope.
9 November 1 989 Berlin Wa l l is opened.
3 October 1 990 Germany reu n ified into one country.

t
SOVIET
UNION

0 500 km

�
POLAND
Czechoslovakia

1 7 November 1 989 Huge demonstrations against

com munism beg i n .
24 November 1 989 C o m m u n ist government resigns.
9 December 1 989 Vaclav Havel becomes fi rst
non-com m u n ist President of
Czechoslovakia si nce 1 948.
1 990 Democratic elections won by
C ivic Forum - a n a l l iance of
1 988 Gorbachev accepts that H u ngary can anti-co m m u n ist g roups.
become a m u lti-party state.
1 989 H u ngary opens its border with Austria.
1 990 Democratic elections won by Democratic ROMANIA
Forum, a n a l l iance of anti-com m u n ist groups.
YUGOSLAVIA

D Romania - The most brutal government in eastern E u rope.

16 December 1 989 Secret police fire on demonstrators i n Timisoara.

21 December 1 989 Huge crowd i n Bucharest boos President
Cea usescu, who flees but is captured later.
22-24 December 1 989 Army joins rebe l l ion and fig hts secret police.
H u n d reds a re k 1 l l e d .
2 5 December 1 989 Cea usescu and his wife a re shot by a firing
squad.
Democratic elect1ons won by
1 990 Democratic elect1ons won by National Salvat1on
renamed C o m m u n ist Party.
Front, conta i n i n g many ex-com m u n ists .

• Figure 9 . 1 Map showing the break-up of the Soviet Empire in the years 1988-91
Key topic 3 The e n d of the C o l d War, 1 970-91

9. 2 The fa l l of the Berl i n Wa l l

The fall of the Berlin Wall encouraged further reform in eastern Europe but did not
symbolise the end of the Cold War (see page 89).

Developm ents in East Germany

East Germany was slow to embrace perestroika and glasnost. Indeed the East German
government even banned Soviet publications of the later 1980s because they believed
they would undermine communism. However, the communist government was unable to
contain the desire of many East Germans for freedom once they had seen other eastern
European states abandoning communism.
Demonstrations occurred in East Germany in 1989 and there were calls for changes to the
system of government. Gorbachev visited East Germany in October 1989 and informed
political leaders that the Soviet Union would not become involved in its internal affairs.
Demonstrations continued and, on 4 November, the largest demonstration in East
Germany's history took place, with over one million people in East Berlin demanding
T Source C Crowds
democracy and free elections.
witnessing the breaking
down of the Berlin Wall,
November 1989
y
 9 The co l l a pse of Soviet contro l of eastern Europe

As soon as democratic elections were announced in Hungary there was a mass movement
of East German citizens through Hungary to West Germany. As a result the East German
government was forced to announce much greater freedom of travel for East German
citizens. As part of this decision, on the evening of9 November, the East German
government announced the opening of the border crossings into West Germany. The
people began to dismantle the Berlin Wall (see Source D). Within a few days, over one
million people per day had seized the chance to see relatives and experience life in the West.
West and East Germany were formally reunited on 3 October 1990.
Tension in the world seemed to ease by the day while the power of the Soviet Union seemed
to be dwindling so quickly. The new Germany joined NATO and, in 1991, the Warsaw Pact
was dissolved.

• Source D Demonstrators breaking down the Berlin Wall, November 1989

Practice q u estion ACTIVITY ?, •

Write a na rrative account a n a lysi ng the m a i n d eve l o pments i n the co l l apse o f t h e Berlin What can you learn about
Wa l l d u ri n g 1 989. the breaking down of the
Berlin Wa l l from Sources C
You may use the fo l l owing in you r answer: and D?
• The i m pact of Si natra Doctrine
• Deve l o p m e nts in East Ge rm any

You m ust also use information of you r own.

(For guidance, see page 30 a nd page 62.)

Key topic 3 The e n d of the C o l d War, 1 970-91
9.3 The Co l l a pse of the Soviet U n ion
Gorbachev was now undoubtedly the darling o f the West.
He was widely respected for his willingness to reform and
rhe fact that his policies had encouraged the break-up of
eastern Europe, bur there was a paradox about Gorbachev's
removal. He was seen as a villain by many in the Soviet
Union, bur a hero by many in the world. He was awarded
the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990 (see Source E).
Source E A n extract from the c i t a t i o n of t h e N o b e l Peace
P r i z e C o m m ittee, 1 9 9 0
T h e Nobel C o m m ittee has d e c i d e d to award t h e 1990
Peace Prize to M i kh a i l G o r b a c h ev, President of t h e Soviet
U n i o n , f o r h i s lea d i n g role i n t h e peace p rocess. D u r i n g the
last few years. dramatic c h a n g e s have taken p l a c e i n t h e
rela t i o n s h i p betwee n East a n d W e s t . C o nfro n t a t i o n has
b e e n replaced by n e g o t i a t i o n s . O ld E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s have
been a llowed to reg a i n t h e i r free d o m . T h e arms race is
slowi n g d own and we see a defi n i te and act ive p rocess i n the
d i re c t i o n of a r m s control a n d d i s a r m a m e n t . These h istoric
changes spring from seve ra l factors, but i n 1990 t h e N o b e l
C o m m ittee w a n t s to h o n o u r M i k h a i l G o r b a c h ev. T h e g reater
o p e n n ess h e has brought a bo u t i n Soviet s o c i ety has a l s o
h e l p e d p ro m ote i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r u s t .
However, at home, in the Soviet Union, Gorbachev's
policies were treated with suspicion and led to ever
increasing criticism. Leading members of the Communist
Party believed that perestroika and glasnost had weakened
communism rather than reviving ir. As a result, on 1 9
August 1 9 9 1 , a group o f senior communist government
officials - known as the 'Gang of Eight' - organised a cou p
which removed Gorbachev from power.
ACTIVITY
What can you learn from Source E
� r;.'!'
{� '
.
'lATVIA
RUSSIA
about Gorbachev's rol e in ending
the Cold War? UTI-lUANIA
.. Figure 9 . 2 The break-up of the
Soviet Union into the Commonwealth
of Independent States
The new government declared a stare of emergency and
removed the policies ofperestroika and glasnost. However, the
new government only lasted for three days. Boris Yeltsin,
the Chair of the Russian Supreme Soviet, played a crucial
role in overthrowing this new government. Describing the
new government as illegal, Yeltsin called on the people of
Moscow to resist this regime.
On 21 August, Gorbachev returned to Moscow and resumed
his position as leader. However, the coup had damaged the
authority of Gorbachev and made Yeltsin a popular hero.
Gorbachev's final attempt to save the Soviet Union was
the imroducrion of a new constitution, which would give
the Soviet republics, such as Latvia and the Ukraine, much
greater independence.
The leaders of these countries, however, wanted full
independence and never accepted the new constitution. The
many nationalities and ethnic groups saw how the satellite
states in eastern Europe had been able to break away from
Moscow and wanted to do the same. In 1990, the Baltic
states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania declared themselves
independent, which was accepted by Moscow in 1991. This
led to other demands for independence within the Soviet
Union. There were fears that the country was about to
disintegrate and Gorbachev found that he was opposed
by most sections of Soviet society. As a result Gorbachev
officially announced dissolution of the Soviet Union and
his resignation on 25 December 1991 and the Soviet Union
split into several independent states (see Figure 9.2).
i..
.-'""
�
t
N
,�-�
SOOkm
RUSSIA
 9 The co l l a pse of Soviet contro l of eastern Europe

End of the Wa rsaw Pact and the Col d Wa r

As Soviet control of eastern Europe fell away, it became obvious that the Warsaw Pact could
not survive. The Pact was an alliance that united the communist states of eastern Europe
against the capitalist states of the West. However, as first Poland, then Hungary and finally
East Germany all rejected communism, the Pact no longer served any purpose. The Soviet
Union's military strength had been called into question in Afghanistan (see page 77) and
its weak economy meant that it could no longer bolster the Warsaw Pact. Furthermore,
internal divisions and demands for independence from some of its own socialist republics
meant the Soviet Union was on the verge of collapse. The Soviet Union had been the
cement which kept the Eastern bloc together. As the cement dissolved, so did the Warsaw
Pact. Military co-operation stopped in early 1990 and the Warsaw Pact was formally ended
in july 1991.
George Bush Senior, the American President, had declared at the Malta Summit between
him and Gorbachev in 1989 that the Cold War was over. However, communism was still
undefeated and the Russian coup of August 1991 which overthrew Gorbachev could
well have revived rivalry with the West. Therefore, it was the fall of the Soviet Union
in December 1991 that finally ended the rivalry between communism in the East and
capitalism in the West.

ACTIVITIES
•
Construct a timeline showing developments in relations between the superpowers from
1 985-90. Place positive devel opments above the l i n e and negative ones below. Explain
why each was positive/negative.
2 Construct a flow chart to show how the Soviet Empire fe l l a part (beg i n and end
as fol lows):
Rejection of Coll apse of

/
Brezhnev doctrine Warsaw Pact

3 In g rou ps, write an obituary for the Cold War, as if it were a h u m a n being. Cover its birth,
death, high poi nts, low poi nts, positive outcomes and offer a n overa l l judgement.
4 I nterview your grandparents, relatives or teachers to gather first-hand accounts about the
Cold Wa r - the key events of this topic may have happened i n their lifetimes. Ask them
about their attitudes to the U SA and the Soviet U n ion, where they were when certa in
crises occurred, what it was l i ke living under the th reat of a n uclear war, if their l ife was
changed by any event in the Cold War.

Practice q u estion
Write a na rrative account a n a lysi ng the key events i n the Soviet U n ion a n d eastern Europe
i n the years 1 989-9 1 .

You may use the fo l l owing in you r answer:

• The i m pact of 'new t h i n king'
• The fa l l of t h e Berlin Wa l l

You m ust a l s o u s e information o f you r own.

(For guidance, see page 30 a nd page 62.)

Key topic 1 The origins of the Col d Wa r
Are the fo l l owing statements about the origins of the Cold 5 Decide whether each of the fo l l owing statements is a cause,
War true or fa lse? event or effect of the Berlin Crisis of 1 948-49.
• Sta l i n turned the eastern zone into the German
Democratic Republic
The two superpowers after 1 945 were • British and US planes made 1 93,350 flights d u ring
Britain a n d the Soviet U n i o n . the airl ift
C h u rch i l l , Tru man a n d Attlee attended t h e • The Al lies set up their own cu rrency in the Western zone
Potsdam Conference. • D u ring the a i rl ift West Berliners were suppl ied with
4,000 tonnes of suppl ies per day
The Western Powers supported the • The Berlin Crisis led to the setting u p of NATO
Bolsheviks d u ri n g the Russian Civil War. • The West zone recovered quickly because of
M a rsh a l l Aid

Roosevelt, C h u rch i l l and Sta l i n attended 6 H ow many:

the Ya lta Confere n ce. a) Allied zones in Germany?
b) countries in NATO when it was first set u p?
c) countries in the Warsaw Pact when it was set u p?
2 Place the fol l owing events i n chronological order:
7 Decide whether the fo l l owing statements a re causes or
• Potsdam Conference
effects of the H u ngarian Crisis of 1 956.
• Tehran Conference
• Yalta Conference • Nagy was determined to introduce reforms
• Formation of the G rand A l l i an ce • Nagy introd uced free elections and ended the one­
party system
3 The fol l owing account of the Truman Doctrine and
• Khrush chev was anxious not to appear weak to other
the M a rsh a l l Plan is by a student who has not revised
members of the Warsaw Pact
thorough ly. Re-write the accou nt, correcting any errors.
• On 4 N ovember 1 956 Soviet troops and tanks invaded
1"' �45; TI-�.<.IM.a"", tht prt""-t ""''""L>tor oft�t �A, H u n g a ry
a"-"-0"-"-Ctol S"-j>)>Ort for the gavor"'""'"""t of <=;reece whtch • Western countries did not intervene to h e l p the
was btt"'-0 threate"'eol btj fascL>ts. Thts was a poltctl of H u n garian rebels
eo�t"�""'�eV\..t t:� vo..d wt:�s R.li\.OW""' t:�s the CVI�.<.rcVI�ll Dootrill\.t. • The West was preoccu pied with the Suez Crisis
TI'�.<.IM..&t ll\. aLso deci.ded to gi.ve eeoV\..o YIA..i.c. t:l:i.d to cou.ll\.trf.es • Rakosi killed 2,000 in purges and im prisoned a further
LV\.. 6�A.ro-pe rec.overi.""-0 t:�fter the WQY. T11Ls WRs �""'ow"" as 200,000
tYie TrKIM.et"" Doc.trL""e. staLL"" was deli.grtted wi.Ht thi.s ai.d
8 What explanation can you give for the fo l l owing
t�vt.d e""c.ot.<.Yt:tgevt eou.ll\.tri.ts i."" et::� stent. St.t.Yope to accept
contradictory statements?
assL>ta"'et fro�M the IA.SA.
a) The West opposed the Soviet invasion of H u ngary and
4 Draw a set of concentric circles and then read the l ist of yet did noth i n g .
events that affected relations between East and West in b) Khrush chev carried out a pol icy o f de-Sta l i n isation and
the years 1 945-47. Place them in order of im porta nce, from yet invaded H u ngary i n 1 956.
most im portant to least im portant. Begin with the most
i m portant in the centre to the least im portant on the outer
circle. G ive a brief explanation for you r decision.
• Soviet expansion into eastern Europe
• I ron Curtain speech
• Tru man Doctrine
• M a rs h a l l Plan
 Revise

Key topic 2 The Co l d Wa r crises Key to pic 3 The end of the Co ld

1 958-70 Wa r, 1 970-91
Explain in one sentence what you know about the fol l owing: Below is a l ist of events that affected relations between East
• The U -2 spy plane, 1 960 and West i n the 1 970s. Place them i n order of im portan ce,
• East German refugees and West Berl i n from most im portant to l east im portant. G ive a brief
• Vienna S u m m it, 1 961 explanation for you r decision.
• ' l ch bin ein Berliner' • Detente
2 Write a paragraph explaining why you a g ree or disagree • SALT I
with each of the fol l owing statements: • Helsinki Agreements

a) The b u i l d i n g of the Berlin Wa l l was a victory for the • I nvasion of Afg h a n ista n

Soviet Union i n the Cold War. 2 ' I n the yea rs leading up to 1 979, after SALT I, detente fa iled.'
b) The b u i l d i n g of the Berlin Wa l l showed that Ken n edy Write two paragraphs disagreeing with this statement.
was a wea k leader. 3 Explain i n one sentence what you know a bout the fol l owing:
3 Construct a mind map showing the fol l owing main reasons • ' Evil empire'
for the Cuban M issile Crisis: • SDI
• Castro in power • Arms race • Cruise m issiles
• Trade issues with the • Soviet trade with Cuba • N UTS
USA • Castro's political views • MAD
• Bay of Pigs • US m issiles in Europe
4 Place the fo l l owing events in chronological order:
4 On your mind map:
• G orbachev became leader of the Soviet Union
a) Draw a line showi ng l i n ks between at least two of the
• SDI progra m m e a nnounced
reasons. On the line briefly explain the l i n k.
• M oscow Olympic G a m es boycotted
b) Indicate which you t h i n k was the most im portant reason.
• Death of Andropov
G ive a brief explanation for you r choice.
• Death of Brezh nev
5 What explanation can you g ive for the fo l l owing • Los Angeles Olympic Ga mes boycotted
statements?
5 Summarise in no more than ten words the im portance
a) Kennedy was successfu l in the Cuban Missile Crisis
of the fol l owing events in the Cold Wa r i n the 1 980s and
because the Soviet Union dismantled the sites.
1 990s:
b) Khrushchev was successfu l in the Cuban M issi le Crisis
because the USA dismantled missile sites i n Turkey. • Soviet economic problems
• Effects of the Afg han Wa r on the Soviet Union
6 Construct a mind map showing the fol l owing main reasons
• START
for the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia i n 1 968:
• Si natra Doctri ne
• Czech economy • Attitude of Brezh nev
6 'Gorbachev was more i m portant than Reagan i n ending the
• Soviet control • Attitude of Wa rsaw Pact
Cold War.' Do you agree with this statement? M a ke a l ist
• Events of 1 948 countries
of ways in which Gorbachev was more im portant and a l ist
• Reforms of D u bcek
of ways in which Reagan was more im portant. Give brief
7 On your mind map: explanations i n each case.
a) Draw a line showi ng the l i n ks between at least two of
7 Explain the mea n i n g of:
the reasons. On the line briefly explain the l i n k .
a) Glasn ost
b) Indicate w h i c h y o u t h i n k w a s the most im portant reason.
b) Perestroika
G ive a brief explanation for you r choice.
c) The Sinatra Doctri ne
8 Write a paragraph explaining why you a g ree or disagree
8 Place the fo l l owing events in chronological order:
with each of the fol l owing statements:
a) The most i m portant consequence of the Soviet invasion • Ba ltic States declare themselves independent
of Czechoslovakia was the Brezhnev Doctri ne. • Resignation of Gorbachev
b) The Soviet Union had no choice but to invade • Fa l l of the Berlin Wa l l
Czechoslovakia in 1 968. • Non-co m m u n ist government elected in Po land
• G orbachev i ntroduces the Sinatra Doctri ne
Glossary
ABM (anti-ballistic missile) system A system designed
to detect, track, intercept and destroy attacking inter­
continental ballistic missiles
ABM Treaty Part of the agreements of SALT I, whereby
an ABM system was only allowed at two sites and each site
could only contain 100 missiles
arsenal A collection of military equipment and weapons
Berlin Ultimatum Khrushchev's 1958 accusation that
the western Allies had broken the Potsdam Agreement
and that they should therefore leave Berlin in six months,
suggesting that Berlin should be turned into a neutral free
city
Bolshevik Member of the Russian Bolshevik Party
Bolshevik Revolution This took place in Russia in
October/November 1917 when the Bolsheviks seized power
and set up a communist state
Brezhnev Doctrine Soviet foreign policy which called
for military intervention by Warsaw Pact forces if another
member of the Warsaw Pact tried to leave the Soviet sphere
of influence or moderate socialism
Carter Doctrine President Carter announced in January
1980 that the USA was prepared to use military force to
protect its oil interests in the Persian Gulf region
CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) US office which
coordinates and conducts espionage and intelligence
activities
collectivisation of agriculture Grouping of farms into
one body managed by the State, which then takes most of
the production, leaving only a small amount for people to
live on
Comecon Association of Soviet-oriented con1tnunist
countries set up in 1949 to coordinate economic
development
Cominform Communist Information Bureau
established in 1947 to exchange information among nine
eastern European countries and coordinate their activities
Congress US parliament consisting of the Senate and
House of Representatives
containment Using US influence and military resources
to prevent the expansion of communism into non­
communist countries
Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty
(CFE) Agreement signed in November 1990 to reduce
numbers of tanks, missiles, aircraft and other non-nuclear
military hardware held by those countries that signed the
Treaty. It was signed by representatives from both NATO
and the Warsaw Pact
conventional weapons Non-nuclear weapons
coup d'etat Armed rebellion or revolt against the existing
government
coup A sudden seizure of power from a government
defect To permanently leave one's country in order to join
another, opposing country
demilitarisation Removing all armed forces from an area
deployment Distribution of military forces within a
given area
Deputy Chief of Mission Second in command in an
embassy, after the ambassador
de-Stalinisation Elimination of the influence of Stalin
detente An attempt to reduce the tension between the USA
and the Soviet Union
disarmament To withdraw, reduce or abolish military
weapons and force
dissident A person who disagrees with the government.
In the Soviet Union, dissidents were often placed in work
camps or placed under house arrest
draft system The US name for conscription. It was
compulsory for men who reached the age of 18 to serve in
the armed forces
glasnost The name given to Gorbachev's policy of
openness encouraging free expression and an end to
censorship
guerrilla Someone who fights in a guerrilla war
guerrilla tactics The use of ambushes, raids, sabotage
and hit-and-run by a smaller group of combatants against
larger and more traditional military forces
guerrilla war Fighting in small groups against
convemional forces, using such methods as sabotage,
sudden ambush
H-bomb (hydrogen bomb) An explosive weapon of
enormous destructive power
Helsinki Agreements A series of agreements covering a
range of global issues made by 35 nations at the Conference
on Security and Cooperation in Europe in July/August
1975. It had far-reaching effects on the Cold War and US­
Soviet relations
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) An
agreement to get rid of nuclear and conventional ground­
launched ballistic and cruise missiles by 1 June 1991, signed
by the US President Ronald Reagan and the leader of the
Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev in December 1987.
interwar years The period between the two world wars -
1919-39
Islamic fundamentalism Opposes secular western
society and seeks to set up a state based on Islamic law
MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction} The belief that
nuclear weapons made each side more secure and less likely
to attack. The enemy would not dare to attack first, because
if it did, the other would strike back before its bombs had
landed and it too would be destroyed
Marshall Aid US programme of financial and economic
aid given to Europe after the end of the Second World War.
Marshall Plan A special system ofloans from the USA to
European countries implemented at the end of the Second
World War which allowed for reconstruction and economic
regeneration. General George Marshall was the senior US
army officer who devised the plan
Marxism The political and economic theories of Karl
Marx and Friedrich Engels, which were later developed to
form the basis of communism
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation} Created
in 1 949 following the Berlin Crisis of 1948-49, its 1 2
founding members included the USA and Canada, Britain
and France. NATO exists to protect the freedom and
security of its members using both political and military
means. Today NATO has 28 member countries
Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty Agreement that
prohibited non-nuclear weapon states from acquiring
nuclear weapons by manufacture or transfer of technology
Nuclear Utilization Target Selection (NUTS) The idea
that in a nuclear war specific targets could be identified,
thereby limiting destruction. It gave rise to the idea that
there could be a victor in a nuclear war
Nuclear weapon Highly destructive explosive device that
gets its power from nuclear reactions
Outer Space Treaty A promise signed in 1968 by the
USA, Soviet Union, Britain and several other countries
to use outer space for peaceful purposes and to not send
nuclear weapons into space
Limited Test Ban Treaty Agreement made in 1963
prohibiting nuclear testing in the atmosphere, outer space
and underwater
perestroika The name given to Gorbachev's policy for
economic restructuring
Polaris submarines A Royal Navy submarine armed
with up to 16 Polaris A-3 nuclear missiles
Prague Spring Series of reforms introduced in
Czechoslovakia in Spring 1968 by Alexander Dubcek, First
Secretary of the Communist Party
purge Elimination of opponents from a state or political
party
Red Army The Soviet army
reparations Compensation to other countries to be paid
by Germany as the defeated country, after the Second
World War.
republic A country in which the head of state is an
elected president
royalist government Government run by a monarchy,
such as a king or queen
sanctions A way of enforcing a decision, for example by
means of a trade boycott
satellite states Countries under the domination of a
foreign power
secret police Police agency which operates in secret
to protect national security. Generally used to frighten
opponents and critics of a government
Six Day War of 1967 War between Israel and its Arab
neighbours which lasted six days in June 1967
sphere o f influence Region of the world in which one
state is dominant
Soviet bloc Countries in eastern Europe controlled by the
Soviet Union
strategic warheads Warheads delivered by rockets and
missiles that are linked to their delivery vehicle and ready
for launch
superpower A country or state that has great power and
influence globally
Treaty for the Reduction and Limitation of Strategic
Arms (START) Agreement signed in 1991 by President
Bush and Gorbachev, stating that both the USA and the
Soviet Union would undertake to reduce their strategic
nuclear forces over the next seven years
Truman Doctrine US President Truman's idea that it
was the USA's duty to prevent the spread of communism to
eastern Europe and the rest of the world. To do this, he was
prepared to engage the USA in military enterprises all over
the world
United Nations International body set up in 1945 to
promote peace and international cooperation and security
UN peacekeeping force Deployment of unarmed
or lightly armed military personnel from a number of
countries, who are under UN command, to serve as a
neutral party to observe the peace process
Vietnam War Conflict from 1954 to 1975 between the
communist government of North Vietnam, known as the
Viet Cong and the government of South Vietnam and its
main ally, the USA
Warsaw Pact A military treaty and association, formed
in 1955, consisting of the Soviet Union and its European
satellite states
Index
A Comecom (Council for Mutual Assistance) economic aid, Marshall Plan 21, 22
ABM treaty 66 24 economic problems
Afghanistan 71, 76 -8, 79 Cominform (Communist Information satellite states 34, 54
Albania 61 Bureau) 17, 2 1 , 24 Soviet Union 72, 73, 83
Amin, Hafizullah 77 communism 8 Eisenhower, Dwight 36, 40-1
Andropov, Yuri 72, 82, 83 breakdown 84-5 Estonia, independence 88
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty 66 challenges to Soviet model 5 6 -7 Eurocommunism, development 6 1
Apollo-Soyoz link-up 69 establishment in Cuba 48 European Recovery Plan 21, 22, 26
Arab states 64, 68, 71 Gorbachev's 'new thinking' 72, 84 'evil empire' speech (Reagan) 82
Arab-Israeli War ( 1 9 73) 68 in satellite states 16-17, 18 F
arms race see nuclear weapons computer developn1ent 83 Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) 28
atomic bombs see nuclear weapons Conventional Armed Forces in Europe 'free' elections 1 1 , 12, 1 6 - 1 7
Attlee, Clement 12, 13 (CFE) Treaty 75 G
B crises 'Gang of Eight', Soviet coup 88
ballistic missiles 33, 49-51, 71, 83 Berlin Crises 25-8, 40-4 Geneva Accord 74
limitation 52, 66 -7, 68, 71, 74-5, Cuban missile crisis 46, 48-52, 64 Geneva Summit Conference ( 1985 ) 72
82 Czechoslovakian invasion 5 6 - 6 1 German Democratic Republic (GDR) 28
Baltic states, independence 88 Hungarian uprising 3 4 - 8 Germany
Batista, Fulgencio 46 Warsaw uprising 1 0 Berlin crises 25-8, 40-4
Berlin cruise missiles 8 1 division into zones 12, 14, 25, 28,
crises 25-8, 40-4 Cuban blockade 5 0 - 1 42-4
post-war division 25, 42 Cuban missile crisis 4 6 , 48-52, 64 reparations 10, 1 2
reunification 8 6 -7 Cuban Revolution 46 re-unification 85, 8 6 - 7
Berlin airlift 27 Czechoslovakia Gero, Erno 3 5 , 36
Berlin Wall 42, 86-7 communism 17, 56, 58, 60 glasnost 72, 73
'Big Three' meetings 10-11 economic problems 54-5 Gorbachev, Mikhail
Bolshevik Revolution 8, 10 political reforms 54, 56 -7, 85 dissolution of Soviet Union 88
Bratislava Declaration 5 7 Soviet invasion 5 7- 6 1 'new thinking' 72-3, 84
Brezhnev, Leonid D Nobel Peace Prize 88
and Czechoslovakia 54, 55, 57, 59 'de-Stalinisation' 3 4 , 35 summits with Reagan 74-5
relationship with United States detente 52, 64-71, 79, 80 'Gorbymania' 75
65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 79, 82 Dubcek, Alexander 54, 55, 56, 57, 58 Grand Alliance 10-13, 15
support for Afghan PDPA 77 E Greece, Western support 15, 20, 21
Brezhnev Doctrine 59, 60, 72 East Gennany H
Britain Berlin crises 25-8, 40-4 Helsinki Agreements ( 1 9 75 ) 65, 70-1
Churchill's stance 9, 10, 11, 15, 18 German Democratic Republic 28 hotline, U. S.-Soviet link 52, 64
in Grand Alliance 10-13, 1 5 Hungarian route to West 84, 87 human rights 70, 71, 73
Suez crisis 36 refugees 40, 43 Hungary
support for Greece 15, 20 reunification with West 85, 86-7 communist control 17, 34
Bulgaria, Soviet influence 15, 16, 85 East-West relations opening ofborder 84, 87
Bush, George (Senior) 89 arms race 32-3, 71 political reforms 84, 85
c and Berlin crises 28, 43 Soviet/British influence 15
capitalism, ideology 8 and Cuban crisis 46, 48-52, 52 uprising 34-8
Carter Doctrine 78 detente 52, 64-71, 79, 80
Carrer,James Uimmy) 71, 78 development of rivalry 18 'lch bin ein Berliner' (Kennedy) 44
Castro, Fidel 46, 48-9 and NATO 29 Interim Agreement on Offensive Arms 66
Ceausescu, Nicolae 61, 85 and Soviet invasions 38, 60, 71, 76, Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty
China 61, 71 78, 79 (INF) ( 1987) 74-5
influence of Mao Zedong 36, 49, summit conferences 40-1, 72, Iran, Tehran hostage situation 71, 78
52 74-5 'Iron Curtain� 18, 84
Churchill, Sir Winston 9, 10, 11, 14, 18 trade issues 52, 78, 82 Islamic Fundamentalism, Soviet
Cold War and U.S. policies 20-2, 78 opposition 77
definition and features 7-8 and Warsaw Pact 31 Israel 64, 68, 71
see also East-West relations; Soviet see also Soviet Union; United States J
Union; United States Eastern Europe see East Germany; satellite Johnson, Lyndon B. 60
states
K p Sputnik 33
Kadar,Janos 37 Paris Summit ( 1960) 40-1 spying 8, 40
Kennedy, John F. PDPA (Afghanistan) 77 Stalin, Joseph 7, 14-15, 34
Berlin crisis 41, 43-4 percentages deal 1 5 attitude to West 15, 22, 29
Cuba crisis 47, 48, 50-2 perestroika 72, 73 Berlin blockade 25, 26, 28

'Ich bin ein Berliner' speech 44 Poland in Grand Alliance 10, 1 1 , 12, 1 3

communist control 16 'Star \Vars' defence programme 74, 83

Khrushchev, Nikita
importance to Soviet Union 14 START treaty (arms reduction) 75, 82
Berlin issues 40, 41, 44
political reforms 84, 85 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks 52, 66-7,
and Cuba 46, 48 -9, 51-2
71
'de-Stalinisation' 34, 35 Second World War 10
Strategic Defence Initiative 74, 83
Hungarian uprising response 36-7 Solidarnosc 82, 85
student protests 35, 58, 59, 60
L Potsdam Conference ( 1 945 ) 12, 1 3
Suez crisis 36, 3 8
La Brigada 2506 47-8 Prague Spring (Dubcek) 5 6 - 7
superpowers see Soviet Union; United
Latvia, independence 88 propaganda 8, 9 , 2 8
States
Limited Test Ban Treaty ( 1963) 52, 64 R
T
Lithuania, independence 88 Rakosi, Matyas 34
Taraki, Nur Muhammad 77
Rapid Deployment Force {RDF) 78
Long Telegram 15 Tehran Conference ( 1943) 10
M
Reagan, Ronald (US president)
Tehran hostage situation 71, 78
'evil empire' speech 82
MAD theory 8, 8 1 Tiro, Marshal[ Josip Broz 17, 57
impact on Cold War 80-3
Malenkov, Georgy 3 4 , 35 trade with Soviet Union 52, 78, 82, 84
nuclear strategies 74, 81-2, 83
Mao Zedong, influence 36, 49, 52 Treaty for the Reduction and Limitation of
refugees 37, 38, 40, 43 Strategic Arms 75, 82
Marshall Plan 21, 22, 26
Reykjavik Summit Conference ( 1986 ) 74 Truman doctrine 20-1, 41
Middle East 64, 68, 71, 78
Romania 15, 16, 61, 85 Truman, Harry 12, 15, 20-2, 27
MIRVs 66, 67
Roosevelt, Franklin D. 10, 1 1 , 1 2 Two Thousand Words manifesto 57
missiles see ballistic missiles; cruise
s u
missiles
SALT I 52, 66 -7, 71 U-2 spy plane 40
Moscow Olympics, boycott 79
SALT II 71 United States
mujahideen 77, 78
satellite states agreement on Czechoslovakia 60
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)
economic problems 34, 54 arn1sjarmed forces 12, 33, 74, 8 1 ,
theory 8, 81
governments 16-17, 18 83
N
independence 85 containment policies 20-2, 23
Nagy, Imre 17, 35, 36, 37
Soviet domination 10, 14, 36-8, European missile bases 49, 51, 8 1
NASA 33
57-61, 72, 84-5 and Hungarian uprising 36
NATO 29, 31, 52 in Second World War 10, 1 1 , 1 2
Warsaw Pact 29, 31, 57, 89
Nixon, Richard 64-5, 66, 67, 68 trade with Soviet Union 52, 7 8 , 8 2
satellites (space) 33
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation 29,
SDI (Star Wars response) 74, 83 see also East-West relations; NATO
31, 52 v
'Second Cold War' 8 0
North Vietnam 64, 65 Vienna Summit ( 1 9 6 1) 41
Second World War alliance see 'Big Three';
Novikov telegram 15 Vietnam War 64, 65
Grand Alliance
Novotny, Antonin 54 w
Sinatra Doctrine 84
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ( 1968) Warsaw Pact
Solidarnosc {Polish trade union) 82
52 creation 29, 3 1
Soviet expansion 14, 18, 29
Nuclear Utilization Target Selection 81 dissolution 89
military 12, 32, 49, 71
nuclear weapons 32-3 member countries 3 1
Soviet Union
Soviet Union control 10, 14, 36-8,
arms race 8, 29, 72, 74, 83 arms/armed forces 12, 32, 33, 49, 71
5 7-61, 72, 84-5
Cuban Missile Crisis 46, 48-52, 64 collapse and dissolution 84-9
see also satellite states
limitation 52, 66 -7, 68, 71, 74-5, computer technology 83
Warsaw Uprising 10
82 domination of satellite states 10,
West Germany 26, 40
US test 12 14, 34, 36-8, 54, 5 7-61' 72, 84-5
re-unification with East 85, 86-7
NUTS 81 economic problems 72, 73, 83 Western powers see Britain; NATO; United
0 expansion 14-15, 18, 29 States
OEEC 22 human rights issues 71 y
Olympics, boycotts 63, 79 invasions 36-7, 57- 6 1 , 76 -8 Yalta Conference ( 1 945 ) 10
Operation Mongoose 48 reforms under Gorbachev 72-3, 84 Yeltsin, Boris 88
Operation Plainfare 27 relationship with Cuba 46, 48, 49 Yom Kippur War ( 1 9 73) 68
Organisation of European Economic see also East-West relations; Warsaw Yugoslavia, political stance 15, 17, 6 1
Recovery (OEEC) 22 Pact z
Outer Space Treaty ( 1968) 52 space race 8, 69, 83 'zero option' proposal 82
Acknowledgements
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Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers will
be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.