CHCCE CE COC AGO ‘@ What ara the main feats of pronuncation? The physiology of pronuriclation taser ot pens ‘©. Phonemi¢ transcription. ‘ci, © v! Phonetics and phonology ‘What are.” Ia order to shidy how something works itis often useful to break it down Jt its constituent pats. The following diagram shows a breakdown of the the main eer of.~ Main features of pronunciation. features of pronunciation? Features of pronunciation, Phonemes Suprasegmental features eo (Consonants [Vowels fiatonation] . [Stress] ed (Weiced] [Unvoiced] [Single vowels] [Diphthonge] [Word stress] [Sentence stees [Short] [Long Phonemes Phonemes are the different sounds within a language. Although thére are slight differences in how individuals articulate sounds, we can still destribe reasonably accurately how each sound is produced. When considering _ meaning, we see how using one sound rather than another can change the ‘meaning of the word. Ie is this principle which gives us the total number of phonemes in'a particular language. For example, the word rat has the phonemes /rat, (Refer to the sounds chart on the next page if you are not fama with the symbole ued here.) Te change the mide phones, we get /rov rot, different word. Ifyou or I pronounce /r/ ina slightly different -way, the word doesn't change,-and we still understand that we mean the. sme thing. To make an analogy, our individual perceptions of colours may theoretically vary (ie. your nation of green’ may not be the same as mine), but intuitively’ we know that we are likely to be thinking about more or less Escaneado con cam$@annerOL Raa aa a ores ens peek ae ANA AAA the same thing. We can both look at green trafic light and understand 34 ‘ significance, and how it differs fom a red one. : so Saunas ry be voiced ot unvoiced (eometimes refered to a3 ‘voiceles*) Voiced sounds occur wen the wpeal cords in the larynx are vibrated, 1¢ ie ‘ ey to tel whether a sound is voiced or not by placing one or two Ginger: Shryour Adanis apple: If you are producing a voiced sound) you will Ke) vibration; if you are, producing, an unvoiced sound, you Wi Uifference between /17 and /v for example, can be heard by putting your teeth on your bottom lip, breathing out in a continuous stream to produce W, then ling your voice to make /v/. Hold your Adam’ apple, white doing this, and you will fel the vibration, ‘The set of phonemes consate of two categories: vowel sounds and contonant sounds. However, these do. not necessarily cormespond to thie Somugnant oun To at wih i the agaet: Vowel tue all yoiced, and may be single (like /e/ as in ith oF &, combination, involving a movement from one vowel sou to anther (ike /et/ asin lat); such combinations are known at diphthongs. As additional term weed is ‘many paits of consonants which are seentially tlemeat of yoicing (for example /f, a8 in. fem, anc /v/,,a8'in-an). The following table lists English phonemes, giving, att example of a word in s which each appears. " Vowels Diphthongs Consonants | bead | ex [take aie 1_| bie [on [tog 300 v| book [ar [Wi she, : u:_| food =| 19. | beer maeature e | tof [ve | fewer hello - ‘2_| about | eo | where more ai shit [ov | go. no ox | eal | av | howe a | sing | hat 1 [hive a] _eun Levi [wan or [ ted | fr Epo] —ehinke | jes | dog: 6 | she [tw | ar00d "ust (Pairs of consonants (voiced and unvoiced) are thildy outlined. The boxes Containing unvoiced phonemes are shaded.) "9s. Hei Escaneado con Lamscanner1 « The description of speech Suprasegmental features Phones as we have seen, are’units of sound which we can analyse. They are also Known as segments. Supradegmental features, as the name ‘implies, are features of speech which generally apply to groups of segments, or-phonemes, The features which are important in English are stress, intonation, and how sounds change in-connected speech. . ‘With regard to individual words, we can identify and teach word stress. Usually one syllable in a word will sound more prominent than the others, s in Paper, or BOttle, The ‘stresses in words ‘are ustially indicated in lictionaties. ‘With regatti to utterances, we can analyse and teach intonation as well as stress, although as features they can af times be quite hard to consciously recognise and to describe, Stress gives hythm to speech, One or more words Within each uticeance ae selected by the speaker as worthy of stressing, and thus made prominent to the listener, Intonation, on the other hand, is the way in which the pitch of the voice goes up and down in the course of an utterance: (When discussing speech the term utterance is used rather than ‘sentence’, as it ‘refers to: anything we say including grammatically incomplete sentences, and to different ways of saying the same sentence.) Utterance stress and intonation’ patterns: are often linked to the communication of meaning: ‘For example, in the following utterance the speaker is asking a question for the first time. In this particular instance as yout can hear on the CD, the pitch of her voice starts relatively high and falls “ye at-the end, finishing relatively low. This intonation pattera is'shown here using an arrow. —e Where do you live? If the speaker should ask the question for'a second time (having already been, given the information, but having forgotten jt), then the voice falls on the word where and rises again towards the end of the question. This indicates to the listener that the speaker is aware that they should know the answer. eS ay where do you live? . ‘The next exarnples display how stress can have én equally significant role to play in the communication of meaning, 'The most stressed syllables within the utterances ar in capitals: Changes to which sabe is eee inthe same sentence changes the meaning of the utterance in vatious subtle ways. ‘The implied meaning is given in brackets after each utterance. Fd like a cup of herbal TEA. (A simple request.) Vd Uke a cup of HERbaltea, (Not any other sort of tea.) {rd like a CUP of herbal tea, (Not'a mug.)> : - ‘The first example is like the default choice, a first time request, while in the other two. examples’ there’ is an apparent. attempt ‘to: elear up. come misunderstanding between the speaker and the listener. On the CD, we'can, notice how the epeakers voice falls on the syllables which are in capitals, demonstrating how intonation and stress are strongly linked in utterances, Escaneado con LamscannerThe Physiology of Pronunciation ‘Teachers also riced to consider how the sounds we'tise tome about, and to.” study the physiology which allows us, to use thoselsotirids,"We all'use the same speech organs to produce the’ sounds’ we become accustomed to Producing, The set of sounds we acquite, however, may vary:a child brought up in an English-speaking environment will:develop:the; phonemes. of nglisli, a French-speaking child will develop a different set, and so on. We also learn to'use our voices in different ways: the English-speaking child will earn to use appropriate stress and intonation patterns; and the Cantonese- speaking child wil lear fo use tones (eee page 87) to gave distinct meanings to the sime set of sounds. 3 } 4 certain extent we ean learn to use our gpieech organs in new ways in 2order to produce learnt sounds in a foreign Janguage, or to lose sounds from ‘our own language which are not appropriate in the foreign language...t seems, however, that after childhood our ability to adopt an unfamiliar set of sounds diminishes somewhat, . ‘ ‘The diagram below shows the location of the miain areas of the head -and ‘eck associated with the production of sotinds. In the hurnari larynx (or Voice box’, asit is comrionly: known), there ate. two flaps of clastic, connective tissue known as vocal cords, which can open arid close. During, normal breathing, and also in the production of unvoiced sounds, the cords are open. When the edges of the vocal cords ‘come’ close together, the’ air which passes between them makes them vibrate, resulting invoicing. The Pitch of the sound (how high or low) is conjrolled by muscles which slacken and lengthen the'cords for low tones, and shorten the cords, pulling them ‘taut, for high-pitched tones. : ‘We speak using the lips, tongue, teeth, hard and soft palates and slvedlar ridge. (See the diagiam below.) ‘The nasal cavity’ comes into’ play for certain sounds, and the movement, of the lower jaw is also important. Articulation happens when the airstreani is interrupted, shaped, restricted or diverted. The role‘played by each physiological feature ih the articul- ation of vowels and consonants is summarised in this’ chapter, and there is a more detailed investigation of the articulation of individial phonemes Jn Chapteys 3 and 4. ‘ 1 ite 10 Larynx. 2 11 Lower teeth 3° Uppet teeth.,""' 42 Lower lip 4 Alveolar ridge’ 13 Tongue 5 Hard palate a tip 6 Soft palate: b blade 7 Uvula § front 8 Phatynx: att ‘od centre 9 Glottis. + “gies |e back nat Escaneado con Lamscanner11 + The desciption of speectt i rl ee caale Sinr Seri, eaten Se atieuation of, Vowel ae roe he te anu wed th he ainaionel Sh ~ the vocal cords inthe lary and ing the tongue and the Bs i phonemes,” "to modify the overall shape of the mouth. The position of the tongue is © «Atel reference point for describing the differences between vowel sounds, and these are summarised inthe following diagram. Front Centre Back - lose ‘ ("The diagrasn is a representation of the ‘vowel space’ in the centre of the mouth where vowel sounds are articulated. + ‘Close, Mid’ and ‘Open’ refer to the distance between the tongue and the z0of of the mouth, : +" ‘Rront’, Centre’ and ‘Back’ and their corresponding ‘vertical’ lines refer to ‘the part of the tongue. ee ‘The position of each phoneme represents the height of the tongue, and also the part of the tongue which is (however relatively) raised. Putting these together: : 5 fil bead (a close front vowel) is produced when the front of the tonigue : is the highest part, and is near the roof of the mouth. 1 sfte/.: bat (an open front yowel) is produced when the front of the tongue is the highest part, but the tongue itself is low in the mouth. ‘ol deg (an openback vows) is proiced when the baekof the tongue is the highest part, but the tongue itself is low in the mouth. \ rut food (a close back vowel) is produced when the back of the tongue is the highest part, and is near the roof of the mouth. ‘The articulation of consonants » Consonants, .as mentioned earlier, can be. voiced or unvoiced. The articulation of /p/ or /b/ is effectively the same, the only difference being: that the latter is voiced and the former is unvoiced. As the relative force involved in producing /p/ is greater than that used to produce /b/, the terms “fortis strong) and lenis (weak) are sometimes used, Try holding a small slip _of paper in front of your mouth and making both sounds the paper should fap for /p/ and hardly move for /b/. Essentially, in English at least, ‘ortis’ applies to unvoiced consonant sounds like /p/, whiereas ‘lenis’ describes thei ‘ ‘voiced counterparts like /b/. In addition to the presence: or absence of ‘voicing, consonants can be described in terms of the manner and place of articulation. Escaneado con LamscannerWith regard’ t6 the manne? of articulation, the:ocal tet. may be completely closed so that the air ie temporarily unable to:pass through. ‘Alternatively: there may be « closing movement ofthe lips, tongue or throaty _ $0 that it is possible to hear the sound made by sir passing through. Or, in the case of nasal sounds, the aie is diverted through the nasal passages. 1¢ Virious terms used are explained in the following table: ve one pe i NURS are Pa Se test aaa [Manner of articulation plosive ‘Jand the soft palate is also roised.: Air pressure increases fa complete closure is made somewhere in the, vocal tract lbehind the'elosure, ind is then released ‘explosively’, «.g. /p/ and fb : : afiticate la complete closure is made spmewhefé in the mouth, and the:soft palate is raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure, and is.theni released more slowly than in plosives, leg: AZ and /ds/ fricative when two voeal organs come close enough together for the rriovement of air between them to be heard, €.g-/f/ and /v/ fhasal fa closure is made by the lips, or by the tongue against the palate, the eoft palate is teased ad aie cecapes though the nose, eg /m/ ind /n/ : Tateral fa partial closure is made by the blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge: Air is able to flow around the sides of the tongue, e.g. ‘approximant lvocal organs come tear fo each other, but not so close as to Jcause audible friction, e.g. /e/ and /w/ main moveme With regard to the place of articulation, the Following table summarises the nts of the various articulators: Place of articulation bilabial pr and Fan! jusing closing movement of both lips, ¢: Tabio-dental [using thé lower ip and the upper tecth, eg, 17 and /v/ dental the tongue lp is used either between the tecth or close to the upper teeth, eg. /0/ and /0/ 23 alveolar” |the blade of the tongue is used close to, the alveolar ridge, e.g, /U and /s/ foaled palato- | the blade (or Gp) of the tongue is used just behind the estat: fbvelae tne iy Mandl (AG. reine palatal the front of the tongue is raised close to the palate, eg (V7 velar the back of the tongue is used against the soft palate, e.g. \ik/ and fof glottal the gap between the vocal cords is used to make audible *[eiction, eg Av! Escaneado con CamScanner | |ILOCOS oe COoCE OCC OOGD OCC SS 1 6 The descriptn of speech. Voicing, manner and place of articulation are together summarised in the following table: "Table of English Consonant Phonemes Plice of articulation ee labial ab1o-| dental alveolar] palato- [palatal[velar| total dental siveolar| €[_plosive [ipa b Ra 4 Kio HE [adicate * fesed ds i ig ‘fricative ele fore | = [Atal s ay (2) nasal om om a “| | § [lateral 1 [ appro | w) 7) 13 ‘mant “ (Unvoiced phonemes are ona shaded background. Voiced phonemes are on a white background.) Phonemic: “When writing in English, we use 5 vowel and 21 consonant letters. When. transcription: "speaking English we typically use 20 diferent vowel sounds (including 12 i diphthongs), and 24 consonant sounds, Ficome languages, there is essentially a rie-to-one relationship between spelling and pronunciation, and there will be (with the occasional eEtcption) the same number of phonemes used in the language a8 there are Jetters in the alphabet. : (The lack of a one-to-one: relationship between spelling and” sronunciation in English, while by no means being unique, presents learners Pith snany problems. A typically cited example is the pronunciation of igh, which has at least eight distinct sound patterns atached tole ‘cough /kof7 through /onw/ ough /oau/ “bought bow ‘ rough /rat/ thorough /Oara/* ve [although 7oittau/ Tough /lox/** e ish; /@arou/ ie mote common in US English. of the more familiar ‘loci; the spelling used * British Eh seal vepresents the same sound as atthe end depends upon the vaity of English. Examples abound’ of spellings and pronunciations which can. cau difficulties for learners: ee Me ©) why don't you read /rid this book? Oh, I've already read /red it. Look over there! can see /si the sea /siy. Escaneado con LamscannernOceceooneco 11 + The description of speech strees'and intonation which may be [Chapters 5 and 6 will explain the so show teachers how to ineorporate sid intonation Other conventions exist for marking easier for students to understand: theory behind theit. use, and will-al both standard and alternative notations for indicating stress * Jn transcription, As suggested above, dictionary work can be very usc not only because it helps foster independence. in the learner, but ‘also because learners will get used to seeing stress symbols used in the ‘word ~ filets Phonetics and The study of pronunciation consists, of two fields, inmely phoneties and phonology phonology. Phonetics refers to the study of speech sounds. ‘A phonetician OY usually works in one or more of the following areas: + the: anatomical, neurological, and physiological bases of speech (collectively known a8 physiological phonetics) + the actions arid movements of the speech orga _ (articulatory phonetics) + the nature and acoustic, of the sous (acoustic phonetics) ‘+ how opeech is received by the ears (auditory phonetics) + how speech is perceived by the brain (perceptual phonetics) Phonetics is wide-ranging field, and it does not necessarily have a direct conmestion with the study of language itsel€ While the phonetic disciplines Tisted above can be studied independently of one another, they are clearly connected: speech organs move to produce tounds, which travel in sound ‘waves, which are received by the ears and transmitted to the brain. TE phonetics deals with the physical reality of speech sounds, then phonology, on the other hands is primarily concerned with how we Fiterpeet ahd aystematise sounds. Phonology deals with the system and pattern of the sounds which exist within particular languages. The study eF'the. phonology of English looks at the vowels, consonants and Suprasegmental features of the langtage. Within the discipline of phonology, when we talk about vowels and consonants we are referring to Are udiffeent sounds we make when speaking, and not the vowel and ‘congpnant letters we refer to when talking about spelling. It would be wrong Te" Eesome that phonology. is always. monolingual, Much. work in phonological study dal with generalisations concerning the organisation tod interpetation of sounds that might apply across diferent languages __ This Book, while being primary concerned vith the phonology of i English and how it might Y in producing sounds sad’ waves which, transmit. speech integrated successfully into language teaching, vyill also draw on aspects of phonetics, particularly those concerned with articulation, As we will see, both fields have’ practical significance and application it the classroom, Escaneado con Lamscanner‘pier pur D2 pury ouo 2y3 uo aney axojazaqy 2M, “pug TRY 8 sey Ajensn fomoa Buoy -v.,“smoqToy “uEUEsUOD ot sxaqi 2 [215] 7296 pur [pss] paas yp paredusoo se [15] vie 24M]. 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Jo suo WON) SBueyD ta gh TE +)» swomsodyeamatre ydope 03 pue NC HR pooumouord st ‘0. ue tum fads Escaneado con CamScannernok 7, ‘Aqesined pmo sel a3! pur’ wo} ‘= wou; sokour ee seo. ep UT ang fps. wel “vormamay poo8 Ky ¥ sonpoad 03 09 pros oop ‘Les 0} aqqissode wade oyy-ur. [IRs symb! yinour. amc exsquowos wonsod = ie sui8> ‘eodo! ey of sey 28 oa now dy) nog “pasm- sys Burkes opmyat toxin way y]9019 ‘yyw pomos-Jouon. agp, s ‘52 spue pur jouoa auo se suifag af fuoponpoxd 315 2ip up Jigen su safurgo yor, joiKoa"e 24) 24 sopwuoyd uy .",punos ajqnop,, suvour pi sro Suoynydp pio ayy, -ysndug-ur pesn: s8u0 snouea ayy sures. jeys .amj'zoadeyo) sr CCCcc ccc CE GCECECETE rea : -vo ayexius0udo pynoys eR Le] Jo puny om st‘usm ‘spy, “[e] yo pury sry tH 2aCy. NT Yorn ‘sive Aube, wayfo wy 3 sea OU" ITLM Nok ariq:"puoses x yo uonoesy v 05 Aquo yr ‘siqy 32; 7e aened Uuxb: ovo’ senzvag: ayo, sina Cou aseiqd aye Ue aE zea, Acurnox ay sayye amned t st’oxaqp siojun sisal. wopjos - {eh Jo Aterrea puooss oy ueurodurr Araa st siya pre ‘940. SHOT [Smous arom ways. Suryeur ou jo ain § TeSvep aod pur ‘sjomon anosqo pue 39K axe ipog' yooads uso ‘mot ur [e] Jo spuny omy oy2. woeazaq ‘stuaryip SB 02 wonuone yonts Led 100 Pinoys nok “=joqad ayf UO | “isH8ug-im sym |spuhos 3 303 "'p ‘sritir “sty + Gai y0q U9 ss2.95 pena yaus) (er, 1 £es 03 feaud] jo Ruovsur “enya pus fe] jeuy 205 0 se[nseuroa ayp sinansqns Pine TY. Stone ouspuss jerous8 x st aroy, “uada 002 eee a Sxetr 03 tox oz '0q mous strony spar F Re se uourysyBug somo soxens suyy mng fv] ayy aso SPUHOS 41.32 MOT Os,JKOA ay ypu. ysey ‘otdoad ysr/8ug sutog “[:e] 203 weqa saxo] ape saa 5 [e].. 50 Aor" puosas siya 303 wonysod’ anBuoy'syy, “oS § ~~ Escaneado con CamScanner CEC COO CoC ALU biG & Cis OG ¢v IescRAP SPEECH ep OF the main characteristics of a human being i his ability to communicate to his fellows complicated messages conceming every aspect of his activity. Early life a child leams to respond to sounds and tunes which his elders habitually mes king to him; and in due time he imitates those patterns of sounds and starts Producing oral language. However, a number of years will pass by before he acquires the sound system used by his community. And if we think in terms of vocabulary or syntax the time he needs is even longer. LANGUAGE WRITING is the visual representation of speech. SPEECH is the act or power of speaking. LANGUAGE is a system. of conventional signals used for communication by a whole community. ‘A complete description of the current state of a language must provide information on several interrelated levels: PHONOLOGY: it deals with the concrete phonetic characteristics (articulatory, auditory, acoustic) of the sounds used in the language, the combinatory possibilities of the phonemes and the features such as pitch, stress, accent and intonation. LEXIS: it is the total number of word forms that exist in a language (words are formed by phonemes -level I-) GRAMMAR: it is the system of rules governing the structure of phrases, clauses and ‘sentences consisting of the words of the lexicon (level 2) SEMANTICS: it has to do with the analysis of meaning. Escaneado con CamScannerIescRap ° o @ o * 2 2 2 2 THE PRODUCTION OF SPEECH -THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT, 2 _Any manifestation of lafguage by means of result of a highly complicated 2 was jevge by meas of reece rest of highly compl > pSTAGE The formilation of concept takes place ata ings level in the br 5 fore, the first stage is said to b& psychological. STAGE 2: The nervous system transmits this, message to the so-called “organs of 2 speech”. These behave in a certain way to make the, oral production, possible. Then, the 2 second stage is said to be physiological, 2 gi HAGE: The movement of our organ.of speech erentes disturbances the st. These 5 listurbances may be studied from acoustic or physical level. 5 ‘This process is reversed if we concentrate our attention on the listener. . 2 @ t /es those vibrations at an acoustic or physical level. STAGE 2; These vibrations are perceived through his auditory system, which carries the message to the brain. Then the 2 stage is said to be physiological. STAGE 3: The brain decodes the information. The 3 stage is sa l id to’be psychological. "THE SPEECH MECHANISM 5 ‘When man speaks, he makes ‘use of the so-called “organs of speech”, which he = borrows” from the digestive and respiratory tracts. The most usual source of energy for our vocal activity is provided by an air stream expelled from the Tungs. The air stream provide by the lungs undergoes important modifications in the upper stages of the respiratory tract. From the lungs it passes through the trachea and the larynx til it reaches the mouth or the nasal cavity. The larynx is a casing situated in the upper part of the trachea within 3 Which are the vocal folds, two folds of ligament which may be brought together or parted. ‘The opening between them is known as the glottis. ‘The vocal folds may assume three different positions: ‘They may be held tightly closed with the lung air pent up below them (as for the glottal stop, e.g. can’tgo / ka:n? gov / ‘They may be held open so that when the air stream passes through them, there is mo vibration (as for voiceless sounds), " ‘They may be held sufficiently closed together so that they vibrate when the air stream expelled by thé lungs passes through them (as for voiced sounds). 23 Escaneado con Lamscanner2 4 IcscRAP fara Sit assed through the larynx the air stream expelled by the lungs is subject 10 further modifications, as it passes through the pharynx, the mouth and according to whether the nasal cavity is brought into use oF not. ___ The escape of the air from the pharynx may be affected in one of these ways. The Position of the soft palate may be: - lowered as in normal breath, in which case the air may escape through the nose and the mouth.(e.g. French vowels) 2. lowered but there is a complete obstruction at some point in the mouth, so that no ‘ral escape is possible. The air stream is expelled only through the nosc/m/n/y/ 3. raised so that the air escapes only, through the mouth. All normal English sounds, except for /min/y/ have-oral escape. However, it is the shape of the mouth, which determines finally the quality of the majority of the speech sounds. )SITION OF. S ‘The lips may: 1) form a-complete obstruction or occlusion, the air stream may be cither momentarily prevented from’escaping (as in the initial sound /p/b/) or may escape through the nose (as for /m/). 2) be held apart, and assume different positions: * sufficiently closed to the upper teeth, so that when the air stream passes through through them, there is friction (fricative labio-dental sounds: /{7 /v/) * sufficiently far apart, so that when the air passes through them, there is no friction + spread lip position e.g, fis! [lel +neutrally open e.g. fel IAI Ja: / +roundede.g./D/ />:/ /0/ hu: As it may be noticed, the position of the lips is extremely important in the articulation of vowels. As regards consonants, their position is important in the production of /m/p/oiw/ and /f/v/. For the other consonants they assume the position of the adjacent vowel. Escaneado con Lamscannerescrap THE PHONEME 41s an abstract linguistic unit. Iti the smallest contrastive unit, which may bring about a change of meaning, snimall 8 Possible to establish the phonemes of a language by means of the discovery of ‘minimal pairs, ie. pairs of if words which are different in respect of only one phoneme or sound segment. E.g./lisw/ iv! = These clements of contrastive units are called phonemes. Most phonemes can occur in these three positions: Initial position: man /msen/ Mid position: dreamer /dri:ma/ Final position: claim /kleim/ If they do not occur in the three positions, they are said 10 be Of festricted occurence, There are wsonantal, phonemes;-twenty-two of these phonemes are ‘capable of contrastive function initially in the word, 13 | mid position eg. leisure rare in final position e.g. rouge 1b J not in final position 1 rT not in final position, except when followed by a vowel (in British English) c..g. Brother and father. 19 / mid and final position.e.g, sing singer 1J/-/W1 notin final position. Are they consonantal? There are twenty vocalic phonemes. These are the following vowels and vowel slides: seven short Hilele/Al wlal five long: fislazlo:/ ul 30 three long glides to /i/: /ei/ ai/ two long glides to /u/: Jou / au/ 1 © three long glides to /9/: /ia/ea/ va/ 25 Escaneado con LamscannerDESCRIPTION AND. SIFICATION OF SPEECH SOUNDS Consonants and Vowels: From the grammatical point of view they have been defined as follows: Vowel: it has typically a central syllabic function. Consonant: it has typically a marginal syllabic function. From the phonological point of view they have been defined as follows: Vowel: a sound whose articulation is not accompanied by any closure or narrowing, It is most easily described in auditory terms, since there are no contacts in their articulation. Consonant; ‘a sound, which necessities a closure or narrowing which involves friction. 1¢ is ‘most easily described in articulatory terms, since we can feel the organs move. Semiconsonants: /r/ /1'/ Semivowels: Lyte! wt THE VOWEL TYPE ‘A vowel is mainly described in auditory terms because there is no closure or narrowing in the production of a vowel (characteristic of consonants) A description of a vowel includes: lowered, © The position of the soft palate: if it is raised, they are oral sounds; if they are nasalized sounds. In English all vowels and diphthongs are oral. The kind of aperture formed by the lips, i.e. the degrees of spreading or rounding. ‘The part of the tongue which is raised, and the degree of raising. THE CONSONANTAL TYPE din terms oft ‘A consonant must be descril 1, The nature of the air stream (from the lungs ~pulmonic-) 2. Vibration of the vocal folds (voiced — voiceless) 3. Position of the soft palate (oral — nasal — nasalized) 4. Place of articulation (where the organs meet) 5. Manner of articulation (what kind of closure or narrowing the articulators form) 26 Escaneado con CamScannerIcscRAP. mn other words, you must answer these questions: |. Where does the air stream’come from? 2. Do the vocal folds vibrate? 3. Isthe soft palate lowered or raised? 4. Where do the organs meet? 5. Do the organs form a closure or a narrowing? PLACE OF ARTICULATION * BILABIAL: The two lips are the primary articulators. Both. lips are brought together. /m/p/b/ LABIO-DENTAL: The lower lip articulates with the upper teeth. / f / ¥ 7 DENTAL: The tip and blade of the tongue artidulate with the upper teeth 70/07 AVEOLAR: The tip and blade of the tongue articulate with the alveolar ridge. (slat t/d/1/ nf & * PALATO-ALVEOLAR: The tip and blade of the tongue articulate with the alveolar ridge and at the same time the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. Mids / figs © VELAR: The back of the tongue articulates with the soft palate /k/2/0/ GLOTTAL: An obstruction or a narrowing causes friction but no vibration between the vocal folds /#/?/ MANNER OF ARTICULATION ‘The obstruction made by the organs may be total, intermittent, partial or may merely constitute a narrowing sufficient enough to cause friction. ¢ CLOSURES according to the degrees of closure 1. COMPLETE CLOSURE: “SPLOSIVE: There is a complete closure at some point in the vocal tract behind which the air stream is pent up. The organs forming the closure separate abruptly so that the air stream is released explosively (ie. with plosion)./p/b/t/d/k/g/?/ “2AFFRICATE: There is a complete closure at some point in the vocal tract, but the separation of the organs forming the obstruction is slow compared with that for plosives; so that friction is a characteristic of the second element of the sound. / tf / Id3/ =NASAL: there is a complete obstruction at some point in the mouth, the soft palate is lowered and the air stream escapes through the nose. /m /n / / 27 “Escaneado con Camscannerlo ICSCRAP. 2. INTERMITTENT CLOSURE: SROLL: there is a series of rapid intermittent closures or taps, made by a flexible organ on a firmer surface. / ¥/ ; firmer = FLAP! it is produced with a single tap made by a flexible organ on ft! sarfice, for which the tip of the tongue taps only once against the teeth ridge, nr 3. PARTIAL CLOSURE: " SSLATERAL: a partial closure is made at some point in the mouth (between the iP and blade of the tongue and the alveolar ridge) and the air escapes through one or both sides of the contact. /1/ 4. NARROWING: SFRICATIVE! two Organs approximaté t0 such extent that the air stream passes through them causing friction. /f/v/0 /O/s/z/f/3/b/ CONSONANTS PLOSIVES ‘There are three stages in the production of plosives: * Closing stage: the movement when the articulatory organs move together. Hold or compression stage: in this stage the air stream is pent up behind the c!. this stage may or may not be accompanied by vibration of the vocal folds. © Release or explosion stage: in this stage the organs forming the obstruction part rapidly. There are three pairs of plosives: © Bilabial: /p/ (voiceless) — /b/ (voiced) * Alveolar: /t/ (voiceless) /d/ (voiced) © Vela: /k/ (voiceless) —/g/_ (voiced) And there is the GLOTTAL STOP /?/ 28 Escaneado con LamscannerIescRaP ARFRICATES There is one pair of affricates in English: / tf /ds / ._The difference betiveen plosives and affricates is that the separation of the organs Le the closure is slow for affricates, so that friction is a characteristic of the second element. ERicaTives £7 labiowdental 1018 /dental /s/2/ alveolar N73! palato-alveotar Mh glottal NOTE: For a complete description see manner and place of articulation THE GLOTTAL FRicaTn tis made by the passage ofa strong voiceless Itis not pronounced: > Initially: hour, heir, honour. > Medially: exhaust, exhilarate, vehement. stream through the open glottis, > Final suffixes:-ham Clapham; -herd shepherd. NASAL /m(n/g/: for description, sce manner and place of articulation. NOTE: They are voiced. ‘THE ENGLISH LATERAL It is sometimes treated as semi-consonants, since it is frictionless, i.e. there is no friction in its articulation. And it sometimes has a central syllabic function, e.g. lip / lip /, dull /dAL/ IE POST-ALVEOLAR FRICTIONLESS CON} rr It is regularly spelt: > rored > m—cany > wrewrite > th—rhythm 29 Escaneado con Lamscanner3+ Vowels * Close vowels -For close vowels the tongue if quite high in the’ mouth. Moving from /i through to /u/, we also notice the different positions of the tongue; /i/ is a _ front vowel, and /ud/ is a back vowel, Characteristics The front of the tongue is slightly behind and below’ the close front position. (The ‘close’ position is where the tongue is closest to the roof of the mouth.) Lips are spread. The tongue is tense, and the sides oe tongue touch the upper molars. ‘Asin... dead, Rey, cheese, scene, "police, people, quay Difficulties for: 0; Gk, BR, Tu Characteristics: ‘The part of the tongue slighty nearer the centre is raised to just above the half-close position (not as high as in /iv/). The lips are spread loosely, and the tongue is more relaxed. The sides of the tongue may just touch the upper molars. Asin... bit, sausage, Biggest; rhythm, mountain, busy, women, sieve» Difficulties for: A, C, F, Gk, It, J, P, Se, Sp, Tu Characteristics ‘The part of the tongue just behind the centre is raised, just above the half-close position. The lips are sounded, but loosely £0, The tongue is relatively relaxed. As in. ,. da0k, good, woman, push, pull Difficulties for: F Gk, It, P, Spt Characteristics ‘The back of the tongue is raised just below the close position. Lips are rounded, The tongue is tense. Asin... Yaod, rude, true, who, uit soup Difficulties for: C, P 4 Escaneado con CamScanner32 Mid vowels For mid vowels the tongue jg neither high nor-low in the mouth: Moving fiom /e/ through to /o/, we also notice the different postions of the tongues /el is a front vowel, and /ov/ is a back vowel. a ‘Characteristics : ‘The front of the ‘nah is between the half-open and half-cloge positions, Lips are loosely. spread. the tongue is.tenser-than for //, and the sides of the tongue may Youch the upper molar. Asin. any, leisure, Difficulties for: A, Ind, Tu 1s sai, bad, rad (past), ited leopard, is Character ‘centie of the tongue i between thie half-elose and half-open p Lips are relaxed, and neuttally spread. “As in. «about Papen Sana ation the (before “consontants) Conon rola hE Se Wa dalapeenan eatery ea ect Gea nee oe iis oyeaed e Raptaeser making Difficulties for: A, C, FG, Ge Ind, Ie,J,P, R, Se, Sp,T Asin. +, shizt, bes, word, farther, pearl serve, myrtle | Charactetisties ~The centre of the tongue is between the half-close and half-open positions. Lips are relazed, and neutrally spread. Difficalties for: J As in... fork, call, snore, taught, boughs, Pearl, AD, Characteristics. ‘The back of the tongue is raised to between the Jhalf-open arid half-close prions, Lips ate loosely rounded. ‘pout bread, al, law, hotse, hoarse Difficulies for, A, C, 7G, Gk, Ind, 16], BR, ip, Te ‘Escaneado con CamScannerOpen vowels = a tive Ror ‘open vowels the fongu it ow in the mouth. Moving from /e/ through “te Zo), we also notice the different positions of the tongue; /e/ is a front 4 ‘vowel; anid /n/ is a back vowel. ; Characteristics "The front of the tongue is raised to just below the half-open position. Lips are neutrally open. ‘As ins bat attack, antique, plait Difficulties for: A; C, F, G, Gk, Ind, It, J, P, R, Se, Sp, Tu Characteristics é The centre of the tongue is faised to just above the | filly open position: Lips are neutrally open. ‘Asin... 7un, uncle, front, nourish, does, come, flood: Difficulties for: Aj C, F, Gk, It, J, P, Sc, Sp, Tu. Characteristics The tongue, between the centré and the back, is in. ‘the fully open position’ Lips are neutrally open. “As in... far, part, half clas, 4, tlerk, memak a ieee naff class, command, clerk, memoir, Difficulties for: A, C, F, G, Gk, Ind, It, J, P, Ry Sp, Tul Characteristics ‘ a ‘The back of the tongue is in the fully open position, Lips are lightly rounded, : Asin... dag, often, cough, soant, Because, knoaaledge, Australia’ Difficulties for: Ind Escaneado con LamscannerDifficulties in analysing vowel sounds nis - “Aside from the articulatory differences, the length of shore and long vowels, (the long vowel phonemes being followed by the lengthening symbol //), is best seen ag relative. For example, consider the sound /y/ in the words bid (1 a i ot 1 you say the vg words ove to pour a fe ties becomes apparent thatthe Vin bid ls longer than the /i/in.bit, The same phenomenon is noticed in the sniniinal pair badge /bseda/ and bateb /bec\{/. sentially the rule in operation here is that a short vowel is longer before a voiced consonant. Taking the investigation further would reveal that they. are actually more likely to be longer beforé certain types of voiced consonant ~ too, Interestingly this is not true of all languages, yet it is a distinctive feature of English, There are further aspects of vowel length which we will explore im Chapter S. You should keep in-mind the premise that each symbol. represents a family’ of sounds. © ~ a The A criide definition ofa dipht ight be’a combina charactritics A sigh covet amis shome ts hatte wage or mareent oth jure vowel sound to another. The first sound of diphtho tongue, lips and jaw) from one r oe , in each phoneme is longer and Jouder than the second in English, but not in all languages. If we listen to the word ouie (the diphthong in.question is fav), wean hear that the /a/ part of the sound is. lenges ee the final /u/ part. Ifyou try making the /u/ part longer, you will heag the difference. English aly devetbed ts baring igh diphthongs, and they can be usefully grouped in the following way: vA Centxing diphthongs end with « glide towards /o/. They-are called ‘centring’ because /o/ is a central vowel (refer to the /o/ table'on page 32). ,-Examples:: , : ny ‘1 clearing fra! ‘ bP . 2 sure lal . 3 there lool, . Closing ‘diphthongs end with a glide towatds /1/ or towards /u/. The glide is towards 2 higher position in the mouth. : 3 Eximples: 4 thy ley 5 bay foil 6 mighty [ail 7 ga/oul, 8 row /au/ : ‘The following tables show. the chiaractetistics of the eight diphthong sounds, in the same manner a8 the previous vowel tables, Bear in mind that while we have mentioned a combination 6f sounds, of more accurately ide from. one tongue position to another, diphthongs gre perceived as onic oe ‘tnd should Bs ented as euch The ‘glide in each diagram is shown as an arrow from the tongue position of the initial sourtd (cepresented by a «lot) to the finishing position of the second element of the diphthong. Escaneado con LamscannerCentring diphthongs Characteristics The glide begins in the position for /1/, moving down and back towards /o/. The lips are neutral, but with a small movement fam spread to-open. ‘Asin... deen beard fear plates Jan, bere, idea Difficulties for: A, C, F, G, Gk, Ind, It, J, P, R, Se, Sp,Tu Characteristics ® OD | | The slide begins in the position for /u/, moving ; forwards arid down towards /o/.The lips are loosely rounded, becoming neutrally spread. “Asi sure, moor, tour, obscure Gite arate diphiton. Many pears replace eth Difficulties for: A, C, FG, Gk, Ind, It, J, P,R, Sc, Sp, Tu ae Characteristics ‘The glide begins in the position for /e/, moving back towards /0/,"The lips remain ineutrally open. Asin’... where, wear, chair, dare, stare, there Difficulties for: A, C, F, G, Gk, Ind, It,J, BR, Se, Sp, Tu i : : Closing diphthongs ending in /i/ 2 az Characteristics ®, cel ‘The glide begins in the position for /e/, moving up" a eh and slightly back towards /1/,"The lips are.spread, ‘Asitici. cake, way, weleh, say, pain, Hey, vein | Difficulties for. A, C,F, G, Ind, It, Se, Sp, Ta Escaneado con LamscannerChiairncteristics oD se ‘The glide begins in'the position for /ov/, moving: ‘up and forward towards //,’The lips start open ‘ind Younded, and change to neutral: | Asin. tay avaid woied,enjah bay [ Diticutes for A, C, Ind, Se. Te v.> | Charactetistics ‘The glide begins in an open position, between, front and centre, moving up and slightly forward : : towards /i/. The lips move frorh neuttal, to loosely spread, Erg Pe ae a a ee : ‘Asin... sbighe te, buss Rite might ery ce Difficulties for: A; C, Sp Tae Closing diphthongs ending in /o/ Characteristics The glide begins in the position for /a/, moving up and back towards /u/."The lips are uta, but change to loosely rotinded. Loe AG in .4. go snow foast, home, hella, altboiigh Difficulties for: A, C, EGk |__| Dicuss fF A, CF, Gis Ind, Je], Sp, oe ol Chaametdes The glide begins in a position quite similar to /a:/, a moving up towards /u/.'The lips start neutral, with a always completed, as.the movement involved is ‘a movement to loosely rounded. The glide is not ‘extensive. Asin... fate ud down, acs Taagh ‘ Difficulties for: A,-C;Sp, Tu Y : i. Escaneado con CamScanner