The Sociological Perspective -

Introduction to Sociology -
Lecture Notes
Introduction to Sociology
Bharat Ratna Dr. B. R. Ambedkar University
4 pag.

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 The Sociological Perspective

Sociological Perspective
• Peter Berger: “seeing the general in the particular”
– possible to identify general patterns in the behavior of particular people
• C. Wright Mills: “sociological imagination”
– understand the connection between “history” and “biography”
– awareness of the relationship between private experience and (external influences in the) wider
society
• our experiences in group interactions influence our perceptions of social
reality and our reaction to it (social behavior)

Benefits of the Sociological Perspective

• helps us assess the truth of “common sense” assumptions
• prompts us to assess both the opportunities and constraints that characterize our
lives
• empowers us to participate actively in our society
• helps us recognize human variety and confront the challenges of living in
a diverse world

Importance of a Global Perspective

• societies are increasingly interconnected
• many problems we face are more serious elsewhere
• thinking globally is a good way to learn more about ourselves

Development of Sociology
• origins in Europe during mid-1800s
– Industrial Revolution (urbanization, rapid social change)
– colonization
– success of natural sciences (positivism)
• expansion in America at the turn of the century
– immigration
– emphasis on social reform
• applied sociology
– public policy
– evaluation research

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 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
• sociology is a multiple paradigm science
– a paradigm is a perspective or basic image of society that guides thinking and research
• functional perspective (focuses on macro level)
– sees society as complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability;
maintain equilibrium
• conflict perspective (focuses on macro level)
– sees society as arena of inequality that generates conflict and change; groups competing for
scarce resources
• symbolic interaction perspective (micro level)
– sees society as product of the everyday interactions between individuals; how people use
symbols to develop and share views of the world

Sociological Investigation

How do we “know” what is “truth”?

• ways of knowing or “kinds of truth”
– faith
– wisdom of experts
– general agreement among people
– empirical evidence (information we can verify with our senses)
• Science is a logical system based on direct, systematic observations.

Research Model
• selecting a topic
• defining the problem
• reviewing the literature
• formulating a hypothesis
• choosing a research method
• collecting the data
• analyzing the data
• drawing conclusions
• sharing the results

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 Research Methods
• Henslin (text)
– surveys
– participant observation
– secondary analysis
– documents
– unobtrusive measures
– experiments
• another method of categorization
– experiments
• laboratory
• field
– surveys
• interviews
• questionnaires
– observational studies
• participant
• detached
– secondary analysis
• govt. statistics
• previous research data

Important Concepts in Research

• variable: a concept whose value changes from case to case
• measurement: the process of determining the value of a variable in a specific case
– operational definitions of variables specify exactly what will be measured in assigning a value to
a variable
– reliability: consistency in measurement
– validity: measuring precisely what one intends to measure
• relationships among variables
– cause & effect: change in one variable causes change in another (independent, dependent)
– correlation: two or more variables change together
– controlling for intervening variables
• population: people who are the focus of the research (target group you wish to study)
• sample: part of the population that represents the whole
– random sample, stratified random sample
• questionnaire: series of written questions that a researcher presents to subjects
– closed-ended, open-ended
• interview: series of questions a researcher administers in person to respondents
– rapport

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 Research Ethics
• use of data
– openness
– honesty
• no invasion of privacy
• informed consent
• no harm to participants
• avoid deception

Interplay of Theory and Research

• Theory and research are interdependent.
– Inductive reasoning transforms specific observations into general theory.
• Theory is used to interpret research data and research data is used to generate theory .
– Deductive reasoning transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for scientific
research.
• Theory generates questions which need to be answered.

Objectivity vs. Subjectivity

• These concepts are best understood as points on a continuum, not mutually
exclusive categories.
• Sociologists minimize bias and personal value judgments in the collection and
analysis of data by:
– adhering to the scientific method
– openly stating their perspective (and sources of research funding)
– reliance on replication or repetition of research by others
– A.S.A. code of ethics
– critical review by peers

Limitations of Sociological Research

• Human behavior is too complex to allow sociologists to predict precisely any
individual’s actions.
• Because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a researcher
may affect the behavior being studied.
– Hawthorne effect
• Social patterns change constantly; what is true in one time or place may not hold
true in another.
• Because sociologists are part of the social world they study, being value free when
conducting social research is difficult.

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