TRAINING COURSE ON

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING

LEVEL II

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MODULE COMPONENT PAGE

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 Leak Testing with a Liquid Penetrant Error! Bookmark not defined.
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 PARTICIPANT TRAINING MODULE

LIQUID PENETRANT LEVEL II

COURSE INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this class is to provide you with the fundamental knowledge required to properly
perform a liquid penetrant examination. This includes the selection of proper equipment,
material, and techniques to be used when inspecting a particular item. Your goal is to assure
the proper quality level of the component using the specific acceptance criteria.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. Pass the Level II qualification and evaluation examination

2. Develop your understanding of the liquid penetrant NDT method.

3. Learn the basic principals and concepts of liquid penetrant testing.

4. Provide the process for preparing, performing and documenting a liquid penetrant test

5. Review the latest liquid penetrant specification changes.

6. Define the qualifications required for certification as an NDT technician

7. Define the responsibilities of the NDT technician

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After each lesson, there will be a short review of the material which was covered and
then a quiz to make sure that every one understands the material. This quiz is for your own
benefit as it will identify the areas that you e need review prior to the final exam, which will be
given at the end of the course.

The final exam consists of two written tests, general and specific. In order to receive a passing
grade for the course, you must score at least 70% on each test and achieve an overall grade of
80%.

NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
Introduction to NDT

Nondestructive Testing includes a variety of testing methods. Nondestructive testing is defined

as examination of a material or a component to determine the physical soundness of the
specimen without damaging, altering, or impairing its usefulness.

NDT is one of many tools used to assure the quality and reliability of a product during
manufacture and while it is in-service. The primary objective of any NDT method is to find
defects before they become large enough to cause expensive repairs or a component failure.
Industrial applications include all levels of material usage.

1. Raw Materials.
2. Fabrication Processes.
3. Finishing Processes.
4. In-Service.
5. Overhaul

Raw materials are examined before fabrication begins to avoid manufacturing or repairing a
component with defective material. Manufacturing productivity is increased by avoiding
unnecessary delays. NDT is accomplished after all fabrication and finishing processes to assure
a manufacturing procedure has not uncovered a defect in the material or damaged the
component. These precautions reduce wasted manpower and unnecessary component failures
in the field. Statistical analysis has proved conclusively that- a well planned and wisely
implemented NDT quality control program is safer and far more economical than a program
consisting of build now and fix later.

The Most Common NDT Methods are :

1. Visual Examination (VT)

2. Penetrant Testing (PT)

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3. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
4. Radiographic (RT)
5. Eddy-Current Testing (ET)
6. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

NDT methods are used to :

Assure Quality, Reliability and Productivity.

Reduce wasted time , machining and manpower.

Minimize scrap.

Reduce in-service failures and field repairs.

Reduce liability losses.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS NDT:

Can be applied to all levels of material usage.

-Raw materials

-Fabrication

-Finishing

-In-Service

-Overhaul

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 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING

Introduction to Liquid Penetrant Testing

Liquid Penetrant testing is capable of revealing only those discontinuities which are
open to the surface. All discontinuities which are subsurface will require an alternate NDT
method for detection. Radiography and Ultrasonic testing are most commonly used to
detect subsurface discontinuities while Liquid Penetrant and Magnetic Particle testing are
most commonly used to detect surface discontinuities. A discontinuity or flaw is defined as an
interruption in the normal configuration of a component. If a discontinuity or flaw will
interfere with a components usefulness, it is then called a defect.

Liquid Penetrant is an improvement over visual inspection. Penetrant testing

increases the sensitivity of flaw detection by highlighting a discontinuity for easier visual
detection. The discontinuity is magnified in size by an indication produced on the surface
being examined as a direct result of the test. By increasing the dimensions of the surface
defect, flaws previously undetectable with the naked eye become visible. Usage of
highly contrasting colors in the penetrant materials also provides increased ability to see.
The penetrants are usually bright red or fluorescent green. Developer is always white to
highlight the color of the penetrant.

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9
 LESSON 1

General
The primary purpose of PT is to make discontinuities highly visible for speedy detection and
interpretation. Visual inspection of large components or large quantities of test articles is neither
efficient nor economical and relatively small defects can not be detected with a high degree of
confidence. Liquid Penetrant testing provides for accelerated component scanning speeds with
an increased confidence level for the detection of small defects.

Fluorescent liquid penetrant testing is capable of detecting an indication 0.010 inch ( 0.254 mm )
When the correct penetrant materials are used and the procedure followed properly, an
indication 0.030 inch ( 1/32" or 0.76 mm ) is the standard size indication which should be
confidently detected.

Testing can be performed on a wide range of materials including metals, composites, glass,
ceramics, plastics, and rubbers. Liquid Penetrant testing is the most effective and works the
best when used on smooth and nonporous materials. Porous materials can be tested with
special penetrant materials that are specifically designed for this purpose.

INTRODUCTION

• Is only capable of revealing discontinuities open to the surface.

• Is an improvement over Visual Inspection.

• Improves sensitivity for surface flaw detection.

• Can detect flaws 0.01" or greater

• Standard size flaw detected 0.030" ( 1/32", 0.76mm )

• Can be used BEST on nonporous materials.

• Can be used on most materials.

• Is simple to perform and easy to understand

• Size and shape of test piece has minimal effect on testing.

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Advantages

Liquid Penetrant (PT) testing is the most widely used NDT inspection method. It is inexpensive,
does not require an extraordinary amount of training, and is more sensitive than a visual
inspection alone. It provides direct indications produced by the discontinuity. The average
penetrant test should only take approximately one (1) hour to perform. As compared to the other
NDT methods,. it is one of the relatively slower methods because it will not yield instantaneous
results. The primary advantage of PT testing is its versatility because it can be used to test a
variety of materials at a low cost.

Some of the other advantages of PT testing are its ease of application, ability to test irregularly
shaped components with complex geometries, field portability, and simplicity. The PT test
procedure consists of six (6) basic steps that follow a logical sequence and are relatively simple
to perform. All penetrant tests include the use of a liquid penetrant, some type of cleaner or
remover, and a developer. The application of the materials may vary, the equipment
requirement may differ, additional steps may be inserted in the more complicated methods, but
the six (6) basic procedure steps will always remain the same.

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The six (6) basic steps to a liquid penetrant test are:

1. Surface Preparation.

2. Penetrant Application.

3. Removal of the excess penetrant.

4. Developer Application.

5. Inspection.

6. Post-leaning

One of the biggest traps associated with PT is attitude. The tendency is to oversimplify the
method. As we will find out in the remainder of this course, PT requires technique and
experience to interpret and evaluate indications as well as to recognize when something is
going wrong with the test.

Limitations

PT has a limited operational temperature range. To be effective, testing should be performed

when the temperature of the surface to be tested is between 60°-125°F (16°-52°C ). The
surface temperature of the test article will directly affect the speed the penetrant will work. There
are special penetrants available which are designed for testing outside the operational
temperature range.

The success of any PT depends on the visibility of the indications. We already know that
penetrant testing is only capable of revealing discontinuities open to the surface and the test

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surface should be clean, dry, and smooth. Anything that could block the penetrant from entering
the opening of the discontinuity must be removed. A partial list of contaminants that must be
removed includes; dirt, rust, oil, grease, scale, and acids. The most common contaminant
encountered is water. Water is heavier than liquid penetrant and has a higher specific gravity,
therefore, penetrants will tend to float and bead upon the surface of a test article that is wet. All
paint and corrosion inhibitor coatings must also be removed.

Surface preparation prior to a PT by the use of any method that mechanically removes material
such as sanding, grinding. or sand blasting is not recommended. The use of these surface
preparation methods could possibly close the discontinuity opening. Chemical removal methods
are preferred for surface preparation but they take time. We can now see that careful and
sometimes extensive surface preparation is a limitation to PT testing.

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ADVANTAGES OF PENETRANT TESTING
-Inexpensive
-Faster and More Sensitive than a Detailed Visual
-Provides Direct Indications
-Versatile and can be used on many materials
-Irregular Shapes not a problem
-Portable in the Field
-Minimum Training Required

LIMITATIONS OF PENETRANT TESTING

-Detects Surface Discontinuities Only
-Discontinuities Must Be Open to the Surface
-Limited Operational Temperature Range 60°-125°F ( 16°-52°C )

-Extensive Surface Preparation is Required

-Messy
-Requires Good Ventilation
-Time Consuming if Reprocessing is Required

APPLICATIONS
-Cracks -Laps
-Porosity -Cold Shuts
-Seams -- -Pits -
-Undercut -Leaks .-

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BASIC THEORY AND PRINCIPLES

Capillary Action

Liquid Penetrant testing is a nondestructive means of locating surface discontinuities based on

CAPILLARY ACTION. This refers to the natural ability of a liquid to be pulled or drawn into a
small opening. The liquid penetrant consists of two (2) parts. The penetrant consists of an oil
based "Liquid Vehicle or Carrier" which must transport the "Dye content" in suspension and into
the discontinuity opening. The properties of liquid penetrant materials are tailored to maximize
this ability. Capillary action is employed twice during the PT test procedure.

In the Liquid Penetrant test procedure, the surface of the test specimen is thoroughly cleaned
and dried. The liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the specimen and sufficient time is
allowed for the penetrant to enter any openings of surface discontinuities. CAPILLARY ACTION
assists the penetration into the discontinuity openings. The excess penetrant on the test surface
is removed, leaving the penetrant inside of the discontinuity cavities or openings. CAPILLARY
ACTION is again employed when a coating of developer powder is applied to the test surface.
The developer acts as a blotter to draw penetrant out of the discontinuity cavity forming a highly
visible indication. The indication is then evaluated and the results compared to an acceptance
standard.

If the discontinuity is small or narrow, as in a crack or pinhole, capillary action assists the
penetration. Capillary action of a penetrant increases as the size of a discontinuity opening
decreases. This is why penetrant will work on the underside of a test component. Penetration
does not depend on gravity. The cohesive and adhesive properties of the penetrant and the
material of the component under test will promote or hinder capillary action. The forces of
cohesion and adhesion are described as the molecular attraction of the liquid and the test
surface to themselves and between each other. Cohesion is defined as the forces of attraction
of like molecules to each other, whereas, Adhesion is the attraction of unlike molecules to each
other.

Penetrant enters the discontinuity @ the 6 o'clock position.

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We can determine the capillary action of any liquid by witnessing the height or. depression of
capillary rise. A small diameter tube called a capillary tube is placed in a container of penetrant
for a specified amount of time. The height of the liquid rise in the tube is the point where the
liquids adhesive, cohesive, and surface tension forces are all equalized. The capillary tube
represents a discontinuity opening.
Surface Tension and Contact Angle

SURFACE TENSION and CONTACT ANGLE are the terms we use when we are referring to
the working properties of a liquid penetrant. A liquid with a high cohesive force has high surface
tension and will cause a liquid to form a droplet or bead. This will cause the liquid to stay in a
round droplet formation and will not allow the liquid to spread out into a thin film. Mercury is an
example of a liquid with an extremely high surface tension.

We can determine Surface Tension by measuring the Contact Angle of the penetrant in relation
to the way the penetrant lays on the test surface. The contact angle of the penetrant in relation
to the test surface must be 90 degrees or less. A good penetrant will have a contact angle of 5
degrees or less. The ideal penetrant will have a low enough surface tension to be able to flatten
out into a thin continuous film without breaking up. This ability to provide a complete and
continuous coverage of the test surface is referred to as WETABILITY. Wetability is totally
dependent upon Surface Tension and Contact Angle.

Remember, the penetrant must completely coat the test surface to assure that any discontinuity
opening is covered. The penetrant, obviously, has no chance to enter an opening if it does not
cover it. If the penetrant beads up on the test surface after penetrant application, something has
gone wrong with the test and the test surface must be cleaned and the test started over. Water
or solvent not thoroughly dried on the test surface is the most common causes of this
happening. Grease or oil left on the test surface will also cause this condition.

Cohesive and Adhesive forces are affected by the material of the test specimen and the
condition of the test surface. Surface Tension of a penetrant is naturally higher on steel as
opposed to aluminum. The same can be said about a smooth surface condition as compared to
a rough surface. Although a smooth surface is the best for the PT, a shiny polished surface will
cause a significant increase in surface tension and a higher contact angle. High surface tension
makes it more difficult for the penetrant to enter any openings.

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WETABILITY
Wetting of the Test Specimen Involves:

-Surface Condition of the Test Specimen.,

-Cleanliness of the Test Surface.

-Type of Material Being Tested.

-Surface Tension of the Penetrant.

-Contact Angle of the Penetrant as Related to the Wetting of the Test Surface.

ANGLE O ANGLE 0 = 90° ANGLE 00 LESS

GREATER THAN 900 THAN 90°

POOR POOR GOOD

WETTING WETTING WETTING

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Removability

High adhesion between the penetrant and the material of the test specimen will result in
the penetrant being very difficult to remove from the test surface. Capillary action also
becomes a problem on very rough or porous surfaces. The minute valleys and openings
on the test surface tend to hold the penetrant on the surface making the excess penetrant
difficult to remove. When the excess penetrant can not be adequately removed, the
developer coating will become saturated with penetrant and interpretation of small
indications becomes impossible due to a heavy background.

Viscosity

The capillary action of the penetrant and the speed of penetration into the discontinuity openings is
controlled by the viscosity of the penetrant. Viscosity is defined as a liquid's resistance to flow
and is measured in Centistokes (CS). The temperature of the test surface directly affects
viscosity. The higher the temperature of the penetrant, the lower the viscosity. The viscosity of
penetrant will breakdown and cause the penetrant to have a thinner consistency. The
lower the viscosity of a penetrant, the thinner the liquid and the faster it will penetrate an
opening. The opposite is also true. lower temperatures of the penetrant will increase viscosity
and thicken the consistency of the penetrant causing it to gel and become sluggish.
Penetration speed will ultimately decrease. PT is temperature limited because of the effects
of temperature on viscosity. The speed of penetration of penetrant into a surface flaw is
influenced greatest by viscosity.

Simply stated, and ideal penetrant will have a low Surface Tension, low Contact Angle,
low Viscosity and good Wetability. There is not one single property that makes a good
penetrant.

LIQUID PENETRANT CATEGORIES.

1. TYPE OF DYE contained in the penetrant:

a. FLUORESCENT - penetrants contain a green dye which fluoresces under ultraviolet light.
This type of penetrant is considered the most sensitive. Fluorescent penetrants are considered
more sensitive than visible dye penetrants because of their lower viscosity and better see-
ability.

b. VISIBLE DYE - penetrants contain a colored dye which is usually red and is visible in white
light. This penetrant is the least sensitive because visible dye penetrants have a higher
viscosity. Visible dye penetrant does not require special lighting when used.

c. DUAL SENSITIVITY - penetrants contain a combination of orange visible dyes and yellow
fluorescent dyes. The test article is viewed under black light when increased sensitivity is
required.

2. METHOD OF REMOVAL OF EXCESS PENETRANT from the test

surface.

Penetrants can be further categorized by one of the three (3) methods used to remove the
excess penetrant from the test specimen surface.

a. WATER - WASHABLE - penetrants contain a built in emulsifier and are self emulsifying. They
are removable with plain water in a one (1) step rinse process. The water washable method is
the least sensitive.

b. POST - EMULSIFIED - penetrants require an emulsifier to be added in a saparate step to

make the penetrant removable with a water rinse. This is a two (2) step removal process.

c. SOLVENT - REMOVABLE - penetrants must be removed with a solvent. This is the most
sensitive method.

Penetrant Removers

There are two (2) basic types of removers and cleaners used to remove the excess penetrant
from the test surface. The manufacturer designates the cleaner or remover that will be the best
to use with a particular PT system.

1. Solvent Cleaners and Removers

 a. Halogenated.
b. Non-halogenated.
c. Special Application

2. Emulsifiers

a. Lipophilic.
b. Hydrophilic

Developers

Developers come in two (2) basic forms, Wet and Dry. Depending on the manufacturer,
developers can be substituted to enhance a PT system sensitivity.

1. Dry

a. Dry powder.

2. Wet.

a. Non-aqueous.

b. Aqueous.

i) Water soluble.
ii) Water suspendable.
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 ASME SECTION V
CLASSIFICATION OF LIQUID PENETRANT
METHODS AND TYPES

METHOD A - FLUORESCENT PENETRANTS

T yp e 1 (Procedure A-1) Water Washable Penetrant, Dry or

Aqueous Developer.

T yp e 2 (Procedure A-2) Post Emulsifiable Penetrant,

Lipophilic or Hydrophilic Emulsifier, Dry or
Aqueous Developer.

Type 3 (Procedure A-3) Solvent Removable Penetrant, Solvent

Remover/Cleaner, Non-aqueous Developer.

METHOD B - VISIBLE PENETRANTS

Type 1 (Procedure B-1) Water Washable Penetrant, Dry or

Aqueous Developer.

T yp e 2 (Procedure B-2) Post emulsifiable Penetrant, Dry

or Aqueous Developer.

T yp e 3 ( P r o cedure B-3) Solvent Removable Penetrant,

Solvent Remover/Cleaner, Non-aqueous Developer.
 PROCESS SELECTION
The Selection of the best process of PT depends upon:

1. Sensitivity required or the smallest discontinuity to be detected.

2. Number of articles to be tested.

3. Surface condition of the part being inspected.

4. Configuration of the test specimen,

5. Availability of water, electricity, compressed air and equipment.

6. Suitability of the environment where the test will be performed.

7. History of the test specimen :

a. Manufacturing ,
b. Overhaul or Repair.
c. In-Service.
d. Record of prior failures,

8. Governing Specifications and Codes.

9. Intended application of the part.

Penetrant testing is successfully performed on metals such as Aluminum, Magnesium, Brass,

Copper, Carbon Steel, Stainless Steel, Titanium and most common alloys. It can also be used
to test other materials including Glass, Ceramics, Composites, as well as some Plastics and
molded Rubber products. Liquid penetrant testing is limited by its inability to detect
discontinuities which are not open to the surface. Test surfaces must be clean and free of
coatings and contaminants. The discontinuity must be open to the surface.

SPECIAL APPLICATION PENETRANTS

General

Penetrant materials are now biodegradable and safer for the environment. More recently, dual
sensitivity penetrants have given us the added capability of a fluorescent and visible dye mode
in a single operation. Today, penetrants also come in gel, crayon, and magic marker forms for
testing individual discontinuities. They fit in your pocket.
Filtered Particle Penetrant

Extremely porous surfaces, particularly ceramics and components which have been metal
sprayed, can be tested with Filtered Particle penetrants. These penetrants are available in
fluorescent and visible filtered particles. The particles are large and suspended in a liquid
penetrant. The properly sized and shaped particles are larger than the opening of the
discontinuity which is to be detected. The particles will accumulate at the top of the discontinuity
forming an indication.

Liquid Oxygen Penetrants

Special organic penetrants are available for the testing of liquid oxygen components. Liquid
oxygen has an average temperature of 275°F below zero and will instantly burst into flames
when contact is made with a petroleum based product. Therefore, penetrant materials used to
test LOX components must not have a petroleum base. Penetrants designed for this purpose
can be used with dry powder and aqueous developers.

High and Low Temperature Penetrants

Liquid penetrant materials have made significant advances in physical characteristics which
allow testing to be performed in extreme temperatures, above and below the normal operating
temperature range of 60°-125°F (16°- 52°C). Viscosities of the penetrants have been modified
to the point where they are extremely efficient. High viscosity penetrants are available for the
testing of hot welds. Low viscosity penetrants are available for testing in extremely cold
environments.
PENETRANT EQUIPMENT, LIGHTING, PENETRANT
MATERIALS, CLASSIFICATION CODES, AND SAFETY

Penetrant Equipment

There are two types of penetrant equipment; Stationary and Portable. Stationary equipment is
found in shops and permanent buildings and is primarily used for testing large components and
large quantities of test articles. The equipment is not mobile because of the usage of large dip
tanks, wash stations, oven dryers, and developer chambers. The equipment may be arranged in
any order to fit the process application.

Portable equipment is primarily used in the field for on site testing. Field portable equipment
could consist of portable electrical generators, black lights, pump spray bottles, air compressors,
and penetrant kits. Solvent-Removable Penetrant kits contain the necessary materials for
testing and were designed specifically to be portable in the field. Solvent Removable PT
materials come in aerosol spray cans which also makes them difficult to contaminate.

Water-Washable penetrants are mostly used with stationary equipment but can be used in the
field in portable, pressurized, pump bottle dispensers. Three (3) pump bottles are used. One
bottle is for the penetrant spray application and one for the rinse water. A third pump bottle may
be required for developer application. Portable air compressors can be used to apply the
penetrant materials with pressurized air.

Post-Emulsified Penetrant systems are not considered portable because they require an
extensive pressurized rinse water supply and the materials are more susceptible to
contamination. The Post-Emulsified penetrant process also utilizes more steps in the test
process. It is not economical and is more time consuming.

Penetrant equipment also consists of a variety of test panels, light meters, thermometers, and
gages necessary to monitor the system performance and the testing process. These items will
be discussed in more detail in the following chapters.

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N
N
 J

BLACK LIGHT

Description

Black light equipment is required when performing fluorescent penetrant inspections. Black light
is defined as electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet wavelength range. UV light wavelength
is measured in Angstroms (A) or Nanometers (nm) with 10 Angstroms equaling 1 Nanometer.
The required wavelength of ultraviolet light is 365 nm or 3650 A. It is at this wavelength that the
fluorescent dye in the liquid penetrant is activated. The dye absorbs the UV light, is energized,
and emits a green fluorescent light at approximately 525 nm which is highly visible to the
inspector.

A portable black light may be used with stationary or portable equipment. The black light
equipment usually consists of a current regulating transformer, a mercury vapor arc bulb, and a
deep purple, long wave, glass ultraviolet filter. The bulb and filter are contained in a reflector
lamp unit and the transformer is usually housed separately. Newer models, such as the
Spectroline BIB-150, no longer have the external transformer and all electrical equipment is
located inside the base of bulb.

Black light intensity is measured in microwatts per centimeter squared ( µw/cm2 ). For correct
test results, the lamp must produce a minimum intensity of 1000 µw/cm2 for darkened areas or
3000 µw/cm2 for field inspections. It should be noted that black light intensity decreases as the
light is moved further away from the test surface. Therefore, a specified distance is required to
standardize the measurement. The standard measuring distance is fifteen (15) inches
(38.1 cm) from the front surface of the filter to the test object surface.
2294
Bulbs and Lenses

The deep purple filter on the black light is designed to pass only those wavelengths of light at
365 nanometers (nm) or 3650 Angstroms (A) which will energize the fluorescent dye in the
penetrant. Longer wavelengths of the remaining visible light spectrum are filtered out. There are
two (2) kinds of filters, smooth and fluted. The smooth lens does not distort the light rays and
allows them to pass without changing their path. The fluted lens diffracts the light rays scattering
them over a wide area.

There are two (2) types of mercury arc vapor bulbs used in black light equipment, the Spot bulb
and the Flood bulb. The Spot bulb concentrates the rays of the light beam on a small area. The
Flood bulb disperses the light rays over a wide area. If the Spot and Flood bulbs are rated at the
same wattage or strength, the Spot bulb will read a higher intensity when measured because
more light rays are concentrated in a smaller area. Both types of bulbs have an overheat switch
located in the base of the bulb. The bulb will automatically shut down at a set temperature.

The intended usage of the black light unit and the intensities required for the inspection will
dictate the best combination of bulb and filter. Fluted lenses used in combination with Flood
bulbs were designed for use during penetrant removal and are usually found in the rinse
stations of PT stationary equipment. Spot bulbs coupled with Fluted lenses are ideal for
scanning large parts and large areas for indications. A Spot bulb used with a Smooth lens is
best for the inspection of small areas or small components. This combination is best because it
gives the maximum intensity on the test surface in the area of interest.

Measurement

Black light can be measured with a Spectroline DM-365X digital readout meter, UVP Black Ray
J-221 mechanical gage meter, Spectroline DSE-100X digital readout, combination white and
black light meter or an authorized equivalent. The light should be pointed in line with and
centered over the light sensor at a distance of 15 inches ( 38.1 cm) between the sensor and the
light. The light can be moved back and forth or side to side until the highest reading is obtained.
Black light intensity levels should be recorded on the PT Inspection Report (Form 4719-D) and
the Ultraviolet Light Intensity Log Sheet (Table 6) as required. A Light Intensity Log should be
kept with the black light at all times.
 TABLE 6

BLACK LIGHT
Equipment Operation

I I
Equipment Operation.

The full intensity of the lamp is not attained until the murcury vapor arc bulb is sufficiently
heated. At least a 5 minutes warm up time is required for the bulb to reach the
required arc temperature. Should the bulb go out for any reason, intentionally or accidentally,
the unit will not restart if it is immediately turned back on. You must always allow a 10 to 15
minutes cool down period before a restart is attempted.

Once turned on, the lamp should be left on during the entire working period. Frequently
switching the light on and off, for whatever reason, shortens the life of the bulb significantly.
Material is removed from the bulb electrode at each start. A single switch on and off is the
equivalent of approximately eight hours of burning time.

A stable electrical source should also be used. Line voltage drops will cause the lamp to
extinguish or go out, requiring a restart. Line voltage increases will drastically reduce bulb life.
One test showed a 110 volt black light with a 100 Watt bulb rated at 1000 hours of life was
operated continuously at 125 to 130 volts. The bulb burned out in 48 hours.

Mercury vapor arc black light bulbs fade proportionally with operation time. Black light intensity
can fade more than 50% before the bulb burns out. Light intensity measurements should be
recorded on an Ultraviolet Light Intensity Log sheet. The log sheet should be reviewed
periodically to track the bulb intensity for fading trends.

A dirty, heavily scratched, or cracked filter can reduce black light intensity. Filters should be
cleaned on the inside and the outside and checked before each use. Cracked or excessively
scratched filters should be replaced immediately. Cracked lenses expose white light emitted by
the mercury vapor arc bulb and are dangerous to the inspector. NEVER look directly into an
operating mercury vapor arc bulb without a filter.

Eye Adaptation

A minimum of 5 minutes should be waited after entering a darkened area and before inspection
begins. This is called an eye adaptation period and will allow the pupils of the eye to expand
and adjust to the darkened condition. A short period for eye reorientation should also be allowed
after looking directly into an operating black light. Although it is not harmful, this may cause the
eyes to become cloudy due to the cornea of the eye fluorescing. Do not wear glasses with
photochromatic or light sensitive lenses while performing any PT inspections. UV light will tend
to darken the lenses.
Darkened Area Inspection

To achieve maximum black light intensity, fluorescent penetrant inspections should be

performed in a darkened area. A maximum white light intensity of 2 ft.-candles is allowable in a
darkened area or booth. All attempts should be made to darken the area where a fluorescent
penetrant inspection will take place in the field. Even if you can not darken the area to 2 fc or
below, darken the area as much as possible. This can be done utilizing a black blanket, hood, or
a portable enclosed booth.

White light penetrating the darkened booth, in sufficient quantity, absorbs the filtered ultraviolet
light. This reduces the intensity of the ultraviolet light, the ability to see any indications, and the
sensitivity of the inspection. It is for this reason that every attempt should be made to darken the
test area as much as possible. White light should be measured before each fluorescent
Penetrant inspection, whether performed in the field or in a darkened area. A white light
measurement is taken before performing a fluorescent penetrant examination to determine the
minimum black light intensity requirements.

Black Light Usage

The black light will always be used four (4) times during a fluorescent penetrant inspection. The
inspector will verify that the Precleaning (Step 1) and Postcleaning (Step 6) operations have
been thorough and complete by scanning the test surface with the black light. Excess
Penetrant Removal (Step 3) and the Interpretation and Evaluation (Step 5) of indications will
also be performed with the test surface illuminated with black light.

TROUBLESHOOTING AND REVIEW

The best bulb and lens filter combination, for inspection purposes, is a Spot bulb with a Smooth
lens. Any bulb and lens filter combination may be used for a penetrant test provided that the
minimum required light intensity is projected on the test surface. The rule of thumb is the highest
intensity possible is the most desirable.

Light intensity to be checked every 4 hours, when changing job sites, after a black light unit
failure, or after changing a bulb or filter. Minimum intensity should be:

a) 1000 µm/cm2 @ 15 inches (38.1 cm) for darkened areas 2 ftc or less of white light.

b) 3000 µw/cm2 @ 15 inches (38.1 cm) for field inspections or areas of white light greater than
2 ftc.
Causes for black Light failure:

a) Power disconnected.

b) Line voltage fluctuation.

1. Low Voltage - Will cause Bulb to turn off.

2. High Voltage - Will cause bulb to burn out.

c) Overheat - Thermal switch cutout or fan inoperative.

d) Bulb burned out

Causes for low intensity output:

a) Dirty, excessively scratched or cracked lens

b) Bulb fading

c) Excessive ambient white light.

d) Light meter out of calibration.

Procedure to check operation or bulb integrity after a failure:

a) Turn off unit and allow 15 minutes for unit to cool down.
b) Check power to the unit, turn the unit on and allow 5 minutes for bulb warm up.
c) Measure light intensity and check fan operation if so equipped.
d) Replace bulb if inoperative or intensity is below minimum requirements.
e) If bulb is still inoperative, replace unit.

WHITE LIGHT
Requirements

The amount of visible white light necessary to perform a visible dye penetrant inspection is
measured in Lux (Lx) or Foot-Candles (ftc). 11 Lux equals 1 Foot-Candle. SAEP-1145
recommends 32.5 ftc (355 Lux) at the examination surface for a field inspection and specifies
100 ftc (1076 Lux) minimum for a bench examination.

White light is necessary throughout the inspection process but is very important during
Interpretation and Evaluation (Step 5). Elevated white light intensities greatly increase the
contrast of the red penetrant indications against the white developer background. This makes
the indications easier to see and reduces eye strain and eye fatigue.

Measurement

White light can be measured using a Weston 703 mechanical light meter, Spectroline DSE-
100X digital light meter, or an authorized equivalent. When measuring light intensity, the light
sensor or meter should be placed on the surface to be inspected in a configuration reproducing
the normal viewing of the test specimen by the inspector. White light levels should be measured
before each inspection and recorded on the inspection report.

Darkened Area

When a fluorescent penetrant inspection is to be performed in a darkened area, white light is

measured at the test surface. This white light measurement is what determines the minimum
black light intensity requirements for the examination. If the ambient white light level is 2 ftc or
below, the inspection area is considered a darkened area and 1000 µw/cm2 is the minimum
black light intensity required. Should the ambient white light level be above 2 ftc, the test is
considered a field inspection and a minimum of 3000 µw/cm2 is required.
 PENETRANT TESTING MATERIALS

Penetrant materials are often restricted to specific groups. The established groups can use a
combination of penetrant materials to obtain the best results.

1. WATER-WASHABLE PENETRANTS - contain an emulsifying agent which makes them

easily removable in one (1) step with a water rinse or wash. They were specifically designed for
ease of removal from rough surfaces such as castings, for testing large parts, large quantities of
parts, and parts with complicated shapes. Penetrant removal is extremely critical because the
penetrant is easily over-washed. This type of penetrant can be obtained in either a fluorescent
or visible. dye.

2. POST-EMULSIFIABLE ( PE ) PENETRANTS - are high sensitivity, oil based, visible, or

fluorescent penetrants that are not soluble in water. These penetrants must be treated with an
emulsifier before they can be removed by a water rinse. The emulsifier is added separately to
make the penetrant water soluble and then rinsed off. This procedure is referred to as a two (2)
step removal process. PE penetrants are not as easily over-washed as Water-Washable
penetrants. They are mostly used in stationary equipment and are not considered portable.

3. SOLVENT-REMOVABLE PENETRANTS - are oil based penetrants that also do not contain
an emulsifying agent. They are identical to PE penetrants except they are manually removed by
wiping the test surface with a solvent dampened cloth or rag. These penetrants are specifically
designed to be portable and come in pressurized spray cans. They are available in visible or
fluorescent types.

4. EMULSIFIERS - are applied to a penetrant coated surface and makes the resultant mixture
removable by a water rinse or wash. Emulsifiers have low penetrating characteristics so they
will not remove indications from the test specimen surface. There are two (2) kinds of
emulsifiers. Lipophilic emulsifiers quickly diffuse into the penetrant on the test surface in 1 to 4
minutes much like a solvent. Hydrophilic emulsifiers react more slowly. They are commonly
sprayed on the test surface in a water mixture. The excess penetrant is removed with the
assistance of a scrubbing action water spray like a detergent. Emulsifiers only come in bulk
containers and are not portable.

5. SOLVENT REMOVERS - are designed to be used with specific penetrants. Typical removers
are organic or man-made petroleum based chemicals. They come in bulk containers for use in
spray guns or portable aerosol spray containers. They are typically used 3 times during a
penetrant test for precleaning, excess penetrant removal, and postcleaning.

6. DRY DEVELOPERS - are a fluffy, absorbent, white powder that is used in both fluorescent
and visible dye penetrant tests. These developers are not mixed with anything and applied in a
dry state by dusting. They are only available in bulk and are primarily used with stationary
equipment such as dust chambers. They can also be applied manually with a squeeze bulb. Dry
developers are very sensitive. They are excellent for use on parts with rough surfaces and
complicated geometries and are easily removed. Dry powder developers are rarely used in the
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field and not considered portable. J

7. AQUEOUS WET DEVELOPERS - are a mixture of water and white developing powder.
Water is used as the delivery vehicle to apply the developer to the test surface. Application is by
dipping or spraying. There are two (2) kinds of Aqueous Wet developers. Water Soluble is a
mixture of water and powder where the powder dissolves in the water. Water Suspendable
developer keeps the powder particles suspended in the water. The particles do not dissolve in
the water. Water Suspendable developer is considered the least sensitive of all the developers.
Aqueous developers are best used on parts with smooth surfaces and simple shapes.

8. NON-AOUEOUS WET DEVELOPERS - differ from wet developers because, the powder
particles are mixed with a quick drying solvent. The powder is suspended in the solvent and is
applied to the test surface by spraying. These developers are most commonly used in aerosol
spray cans which makes them portable. They can not be used in open tanks because the
solvent base evaporates too quickly. The use of solvent as a delivery vehicle is what makes
Nonaqueous wet developers the most sensitive for the detection of extremely small and tight
defects.

9. LIQUID OXYGEN ( LOX ) COMPATIBLE MATERIALS - must be used when testing parts that
will be in contact with either liquid or gaseous oxygen. These materials are specifically designed
to be inert when in the presence of LOX.

10. FILTERED PARTICLE PENETRANTS - are used for testing porous surfaces, such as
unfired ceramics and thermal sprayed metal and coatings. They use large fluorescent particles
which gather at the top of a discontinuity to form an indication rather than penetrate the into the
discontinuity cavity.

Corrosive Contents

Penetrant materials must be designed with a low sulfur and halogen content to avoid harmful
effects on the test articles. These chemicals will promote corrosion and in some cases hydrogen
embrittlement. Stainless Steels are especially susceptible to corrosion when exposed to
Chlorine and Carbon Steels to Sulfur. Titanium is extremely susceptible to embrittlement when
in contact with Halogens. These harmful chemicals can be found in small amounts in all the
penetrant materials and are limited to 1% by weight of content.

Penetrant materials can be used in a variety of combinations. Most materials are available in
either bulk quantities or pressurized spray cans. All penetrants are available in either visible or
fluorescent types. The flow chart below illustrates the different material combinations. However,
it can not be overstated that care should always be taken to assure that the manufacturers
specifications and company procedures are closely followed. The manufacturer designed the
material groups and designates the groups and combinations that will give the best test results.
It is the responsibility of the Saudi Aramco NDT Level III to authorize a compatible material
group for use or a suitable substitute material if required.

LIQUID PENETRANT MATERIAL FAMILIES

Penetrant Material Selection

A family or group of penetrant materials will always include a penetrant, cleaner or remover, and
developer. The manufacturer designates the compatible family and group. Substituting products
from the same manufacturer is not allowed unless the manufacturer recommends it. These are
penetrant materials that are designed to work well together and will when selecting your
 w
consumables before a PT , NEVER substitute penetrant materials made by different J
manufacturers in a family. NEVER substitute penetrant materials from different groups either.
This is especially true when using fluorescent penetrant materials. Certain chemicals may
degrade the brightness of the penetrant indication. A penetrant test procedure using substitute
materials from different manufacturers is not valid unless qualified by a certified NDT Level III.

Part Numbers

Some material part numbers may have different letters or numbers at the end of the part
number. This indicates a revision has taken place. The manufacturer may have changed an
ingredient in the material or possibly the propellant in the spray can. It should be confirmed that
the product is still compatible with the family. For example, Magnaflux cleaner SKC-NF / ZC-7
can be used for testing with both Magnaflux visible and fluorescent penetrants. Crown 1071 and
1031 solvent cleaners are not interchangeable.

Batch Numbers

Batch numbers are supplied by the manufacturer to provide traceability from the manufacturer
to the inspection test and usually indicate the date the material was manufactured. Batch
numbers are usually found somewhere on the material containers stamped in ink. If they are not
stamped on the containers or aerosol cans, they may be found on the box the cans were
shipped in or the certificate of compliance (C of C) received with the shipment. The penetrant
batch number will be recorded on the inspection report along with the part numbers of all the
penetrant.
 w
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LIQUID PENETRANT MATERIAL FAMILIES

A-1 Fluorescent Water Washable (Group IV)

SHERWIN HM-420, HM-430, Water D-90G, D-100, D-100NF
HM-604
ARDROX P133D or P134D Water 9D1B, 9D4A, 9D6/D495A,
D499C
MAGNAFLUX ZL-56 or ZL-67 Water ZP-4B or ZP-9F

B-I Visible Dye Water Washable (Group III)

SHERWIN DP-50 or DP-51 DR-60 or Water D-90G, D-100, D-100NF
ARDROX 996/P303A Water 9D1B, 9D4A, 9D6/D495A,
D499C
MAGNAFLUX SKL-WP SKC-S or Water ZP-4B, SKD-NF, SKD-S2

A-3 Fluorescent Solvent Removable (Group VII)

SHERWIN RC-65 or RC-77 DR-60 or DR-61 D- 100 or D-100NF
MAGNAFLUX ZL-27A SKC-NF/ZC-7 or SKC-S SKD-NF/ZP-9 or ZP-9F
ARDROX 996/P300A 9PR50, 9PR551, K410C, 9DIB, 9D6/D495A,
PR1 D499C

CROWN 1032 1031 1033

B-3 Visible Dye Solvent Removable (Group I)

TURCO Dy-Chek Remover #3 NAD
CROWN 1075 1071 1079
MAGNAFLUX SKL-LO or SKL-SP SKC-NF/ZC-7 or SKC-S SKD-NF/ZP-9 or SKD-S2
SHERWIN DP-40 DR-60 or DR-61 D-100 or D-100NF
ARDROX 996/P300A 9PR50, 9PR551, K41OC, 9D1B, 9D6/D495A,
PRl D499C
CASTROL 222 LD-3
S - 72
JOHNSON and ALLEN JAP JAC or JAC II JAD
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SURFACE PREPARATION

Surface Cleaning

Pre-cleaning is the very first step when performing a liquid penetrant inspection. The
effectiveness of a penetrant test is based upon the ability of the penetrant to enter surface
discontinuities. All contaminants including grease, carbon, dirt, scale, varnish, oil, oxides,
corrosion and water must be removed from the test surface and the discontinuity cavity. All
paint, plating, core material is the most common contaminant, the test surface should also be
throughly dry before the penetrant is applied to the surface.

Liquid penetrant placed on the surface of a test specimen does not only seep into a flaw cavity,
it is pulled into them by capillary action. Proper cleaning is essential to liquid penetrant testing
for three reasons :

1. Contaminant will prevent the penetrant from wetting the surface properly and block
the entrance of penetrant into the flaw cavity. Discontinuities must be open to the
surface.
2. If all traces of penetrant materials are not removed after the test, they may have a
harmful effect on the test specimen. Sulfur and halogens will promote corrosion and in
some cases hydrogen embrittlement in some alloys.
3. Acids, water and salts can affect the sensitivity of the penetrant. This is specially true
for fluorescent penetrants.

A visual inspection will always be accomplished before, during and after the precleaning
procedure. The purpose is to select the proper precleaning method, assure that the test surface
is contaminant free, identify gross discontinuities and identify any areas of interest where an
indication will be expected to occur. A contaminant is defined as any foreign material on the
surface that will prevent the penetrant materials from performing their intended functions. An
area of interest is defined as any irregularity on the surface where a penetrant indication will be
expected to form.

There are several contaminant removal methods to choose from. The selection of the proper
method depends on the type of the contaminant you wish to remove and the type of matrial you
wish to remove it from. The ideal method selected wil remove the contaminants and not disturb
or damage the surface of the material to be tested.

1. DETERGENT SOLUTIONS : are a common means of precleaning to remove

contaminants and residual chemical films from the component surface. Initial
precleaning is for removal of dirt and soil. Some industrial detergents will also remove oil
and grease. Secondary precleaning is for removal of residual chemicals or oily films after
paint stripping, acid or alkaline cleaning or an etching procedure has been
accomplished. Detergent cleaning is accomplished by scrubbing with a soft bristle brush,
rinsing and drying.

2. STEAM CLEANING : is performed with a heated degreasing or detergent solution

applied in a high pressure spray. It is particularly adaptable to the cleaning of large or
bulky articles which can not be handled easily.

3. SOLVENT CLEANING : may be applied by flushing the test surface with spray, a wipe
on and off technique or immersed in a dip tank. It is the most commonly used method for
 w
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precleaning and must be performed in a well ventilated area due to the toxicity of the
vapors.

4. ACID & ALKALINE CLEANERS : are used for corrosion, rust and scale removal. They
are usually applied by dipping or brushing and allowed to dwell on the surface for a
certain period of time and rinsed off. The manufactureres’ instructions should be closely
adhered to or this method could damage the part. An acid or alkaline cleaning is always
followed by a detergent washing or solvent flushing to assure the test surface is totally
free of residual chemicals.

5. VAPOR DEGREASING : is the most desirable method for removal of oil, grease and
similar contaminants. However, certain alloys such as titanium have an affinity for
specific elements used in vapor degreasing which may cause structural damage. Vapor
degreasing is performed by dipping the part in a tank of degreasing vapor and usually
accompanied by heat. When allowed to soak in the vapor for a sufficient time, the vapor
will penetrate into the discontinuity openings. This makes vapor degreasing a very
through cleaning method.

The tank is partially filled with solvent and the solvent is heated to the boiling point. As the
solvent vaporises, the cooling coil condense the vapor creating a cloud. The parts are
suspended in a hanging basket inside the vapor cloud. The solvent vapor penetrates the
discontinuities in the test part removing the oil and grease.
 w
J

6. CHEMICAL PAINT STRIPPERS : are also commonly applied by dipping or brushing.

Paint strippers are chemical bond release agents or solvent strippers which are for the
removal of paint and corrosion inhibitor coatings. They work well with heat to accelerate
the removal process. The paint stripper is removed and the test surface detergent
washed or solvent flushed to remove residual chemicals from the test surface.

7. ULTRASONIC CLEANING : is performed by immersion or dipping the part in a ultrasonic

tank with almost any kind of cleaning solution. Solvents and alcohol work well when
assisted by ultrasonics. This method is most efficient deep cleaning process. It is the
most effective method for opening up discontinuities by removing contaminants
imbedded in the cavity of the discontinuity.

It should be noted that heat or ultrasonics may be used to increase the effectiveness of
almost all the cleaning methods. Prior to the usage of any cleaning agent the manufacturers
recommendations must be reviewed before heat may be used to supplement any cleaning
process.

8. ETCHING : uses dilute acids or alkalines to open up discontinuities by dissolving

smeared metal which is blocking the discontinuity opening. Etching should be performed
after any operation that mechanically removes material from the test surface such as
sand blasting, grinding or power brushing. These operations tend to smear, peen or cold
work the material around a discontinuity and can close or seal off the opening of the
discontinuity. Etching is preferred before starting a penetrant test after any grinding
operation has been accomplished. Etching of steel is accomplished using water diluted
with 5 % to 20 % of nitric acid, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid or ammonium persulfate.
The solution is applied for a specific amount of time,neutralised and removed. The
amount of time the solution remains on the surface is directly related to the amount of
material that is dissolved or removed. Etching usually requires extra training and a
separate certification because of the inherent danger to the inspector and the
component being tested.

Mechanical means to clean the test specimen surface must be avoided. Etching must be
performed if surafce has been cleaned using mechanical means, ie. grinding, shot blasting, wire
brushing, grit / sand blasting, scrapping, turning, filing etc.
 PENETRANT APPLICATION

Liquid penetrant must cover the entire area to be tested. It must be a continuous
coverage that is not allowed to break up or bead up. Separations in the penetrant film
would indicate either poor wetting ability on behalf of the penetrant or the surface
preparation was improper or inadequate. Common causes for this condition are shiny
surfaces from power brushing, residual oil or grease film still remaining on the surface,
or not allowing sufficient time for the cleaner to dry. All these conditions result in an
instant increase of surface tension and contact angle of the penetrant vehicle degrading
its wetting ability. If this condition should occur, the component should cleaned and
reprocessed. Wet-ability of the penetrant is totally dependent upon its surface tension
and contact angle. The penetrant surface tension and contact angle are subsequently
dependent upon the test specimen material, cleanliness, and surface finish.

The penetrant must cover the discontinuity in order to enter the flaw cavity and the
capillary action to take effect. Both visible dye and fluorescent penetrant can be applied
by four (4) methods:

1. Dipping or immersion
2. Spraying.
3. Brushing.
4. Flowing, flushing, pouring or flooding.

Stationary Equipment

Dipping and spraying are the most commonly used methods. For dipping, the
component is submerged in a penetrant bath and removed. The part is set in a drain
station to allow the excess penetrant to drain off. The component is never left completely
submerged in the dip tank. The test surface needs only to be wetted. It is necessary for
some of the more volatile constituents of the penetrant to begin to evaporate, effectively
increasing the dye component of the penetrant and making it more sensitive. Excess
penetrant removal before further processing in a stationary system is necessary to avoid
contamination of the emulsifier or developer tank materials by penetrant tank drag out.
Contamination from excessive tank drag out can cause the need for frequent bath
changes for all materials. This becomes very expensive, time consuming and wastes
productive man hours.

It is for this reason the spray application is desirable. Spraying is accomplished with an
air gun or paint gun. Recently, the electrostatic spray has become very popular.
Electrostatics can be applied manually with a spray gun or by automatic processors. The
component is positively grounded and the penetrant negatively charged as it is sprayed
through a turbine and electrode on the end of the spray gun. The advantages are;

1. A minimum of penetrant material is used.

2. Less chance of spreading contamination.

The penetrant supply is kept in a sealed pressurized container and is less susceptible to
contamination. The negative electrical charge induced in the penetrant assists the
penetrants ability to adhere to the test surface. The penetrant can therefore be applied in
a misty spray resulting in a thin coating and extremely little waste.

Portable Equipment

Solvent-Removable penetrants provide excellent portability utilizing the aerosol spray

can dispensers. They can not be easily contaminated, are dispensed easily, and are
light weight. They can be adversely affected if not stored in cool, dry place, out of direct
sunlight and subject to excessive heat. Fluorescent penetrants are subject to fading from
heat. Solvent-Removable kits were specifically designed for spot-checking small
components and small areas of large parts in the field. As with all methods, if the
penetrant test can not be completed in the allotted time frame, the component should be
tested in smaller increments. The penetrant can not be allowed to dry on the test
surface. The increments shall have minimum overlapping borders of 10%.

Water-Washable penetrants are frequently used in the field. They can be dispensed by
spraying from manually pressurized portable containers. Magnaflux now has a Water-
Washable penetrant available in aerosol spray cans.

Post-Emulsifiable penetrants are primarily applied by dipping or spraying in stationary

equipment. It is not economical to apply in the field because of all the material and
equipment required for the entire process. The materials are also more susceptible to
contamination.

PENETRANT DWELL

Dwell Time

Dwell time is considered to be the amount of time the penetrant has remained on the
test surface after penetrant application. The amount of time a penetrant is allowed to
remain on the specimen critical and is a vital part of the test. Sufficient time must be
allowed for the capillary action to take place. Tight discontinuities, such as fatigue
cracks, stress corrosion cracks, or forging laps may require in excess of thirty (30)
minutes for penetration that will yield an adequate indication. However, gross
discontinuities may be suitably penetrated in three (3) to five (5) minutes.

Viscosity of the penetrant directly affects the penetrability or speed that a penetrant will
enter a flaw cavity. For higher Viscosities which would occur in the colder weather, it
would be wise to add an extra 5 to 10 minutes of dwell time. Usage of maximum dwell
times is always recommended, especially if the type of discontinuity expected is
unknown.

At one time, heating of the test surface or the penetrant before penetrant application was
regularly practiced. This was done to reduce the viscosity of the penetrant to accelerate
the penetration speed. Today's penetrants have a much lower viscosity than the
penetrants of the past due to advances in penetrant design. Preheating the component
surface or the penetrant is no longer necessary.

Solvent-Removable and Post-Emulsifiable penetrant viscosities are approximately 10 to

15 Centistokes (Cs). Water-Washable penetrants average slightly higher at 15 to 20 Cs
due to the viscosity of the built-in emulsifier. This is why dwell times for Water-Washable
penetrants are always significantly higher than Solvent-Removable or Post-Emulsified
penetrants. The higher Viscosity is also what makes Water-Washable penetrants the
least sensitive. In some cases, Water-Washable penetrants are not recommended for
use.

Remember, the type of material being tested and the condition of the test surface affects
the surface tension of a penetrant. A higher surface tension will create a higher contact
angle which will result in a poor wetting ability and slower capillary action. Since the
surface tension of a penetrant is naturally higher on Steel as opposed to Aliuninum, it is
safe to assume that PT testing of steels will, require a longer dwell time.

Criteria for Dwell Time Selection

1. The type of penetrant.

2. The type of the discontinuities sought.
3. The manufacturing process of the component.
4. The type of material being tested.

Dwell times are based on the assumption that the penetrant will remain wet on the part
surface. The penetrant may be periodically rewetted by applying additional penetrant to
the test surface during the dwell time. This will assure the penetrant does not dry when
longer dwell times are employed.

Selection of the minimum dwell times required can be based on the type of pentrant
used, method, test material and its manufacturingb process provided the temperature of
the penetrant and the test article are within the prescribed operational temperature range
60°-125°F (16-52°C).

Overall, the penetrant oil based vehicle must be able to carry the visible or fluorescent
dye in suspension and into the flaw cavity. The dwell chart assists in making the proper
determination as to the minimum amount of time that is required for sufficient penetration
into the discontinuity cavity that will yield an adequate indication.
WATER WASHABLE PENETRANT REMOVAL

Water washable penetrants have a built-in emulsifier. The emulsifying agent in the penetrant is
activated by water and renders the penetrant instantly water soluble. This makes the penetrant
removable in a one step rinse. There is no emusifier dwell time as water contact initiates the
penetrant removal process. This makes over-washing extremely critical when water washable
penetrants are selected for testing. Rinse removal is stopped when the background
disappears.

Rinsing is performed with coarse, low pressure and low temperature water spray directed at a
45 deg angle to the test specimen surface. A coarse spray is one utilising large water droplets.
Typical water pressure is 30 – 40 psi in a temperature range of 50 – 100 deg F ( 10 – 38 deg
C ). If large test articles are to be tested, good removal technique is to start your rinse at the
bottom of the part working your way up. This will prevent prevent rinse water from activating
the emulsifier as it runs down the side of the part as you are rinsing the upper portions.
Particular care must also be taken not to allow rinse water to pool-up or puddle in pockets and
remote areas of the test article.

Manual Wipe.

Excess penetrant should first be removed with a clean, dry and lint free cloth or absorbent
towelling. The remaining surface penetrant should be removed with a water dampened cloth or
towel. The surface shall not be flushed with water nor shall the cloth or towel be saturated with
water. The test article shall be examined under appropriate lighting to ensure adequate
removal of the surface penetrant. The surface is then dried by blotting with a clean, dry towel.
The surface can be allowed to dry by normal evaporation or assisted with a portable forced hot
or cold air drier. Overcleaning of the surface penetrant shall require the test article to be
cleaned and reprocessed.
ADVANTAGES :

Easily removed with water in one step.

Suitable for rough surfaces, complex shapes and geometries.
Relatively inexpensive.
Large quantities as well as large parts can be easily tested.

DISADVANTAGES :

Least sensitive.
Easily over-washing.
Unsuitable for wide and shallow discontinuities.
Requires adequate water supply.
PENETRANT REMOVAL AND EMULSIFICATION
Post-emusifiable Penetrant
Removal

There are two (2) types of emulsifiers commonly in use today.

1. Lipophilic

2. Hydrophilic

Post-emulsification is performed in two (2) steps. If a prerinse is selected for use, the process
becomes a three (3) step procedure. The emulsifier is first applied to the penetrant in a
separate step. If the dip or flow method of emulsifier application is employed, then the resulting
emulsifier and penetrant mixture is removed with a water rinse, after the appropriate dwell time
has expired. Emulsification dwell time is determined through experimentation by the inspection
test operator. The emulsification time should be long enough to mix the emulsifier with the
excess penetrant only. Control of emulsion time is critical. If the emulsion time is too short,
excessive background fluorescence could result. If excessive emustion time is allowed,
penetrant could be removed from discontinuities.

Hydrophilic emulsifier immersion tanks will usually have either a circulating pump that creates
a whirlpool effect or an air pump that aerates the emulsifier solution to create a mechanical
scrubbing action. Hydrophilic emulsifier is most commonly applied by spraying. This process
involves the initial application of the emulsifying agent to the test surface in a scrubbing type
water spray. Residual emulsifier left on the surface is then removed by a second light water
spray rinse.

Prerinse

Sometimes a prerinse water spray is used before an emulsifier is applied. This is done to
remove the heavy excess penetrant on the component test surface. This reduces the amount
of time needed to spray the Hydrophilic emulsifier mixture. This would cut down the amount of
emulsifier used, ultimately saving money. The time it takes to do a prerinse and an emulsifier
scrubbing rinse as compared to an emulsifier scrubbing rinse only is about the same. A
prerinse can also be employed prior to a dip application of lipophilic or hydrophilic emulsifier.
Tank contamination is drastically reduced and emulsifier dwell times are also drastically
reduced. This procedure should be qualified by and NDT Level III before usage.
Lipophilic

A high viscosity oil based emulsifier which is highly reactive to penetrants. Lipo is a Greek prefix
which means affinity for oil. Lipophilic emulsifier immediately starts to chemically breakdown the
penetrant on contact. The emulsifier diffuses into the penetrant, making the penetrant water
soluble. It is comparable to a solvent type action. Water is not required to start the breakdown
process. Typical dwell time is between 1 to 4 minutes. Application is ONLY by the dip or flow
method to ensure instantaneous and total coverage of the test surface. This provides an even dwell
time over the entire test surface.

The resultant mixture is removed with the same type coarse scrubbing spray of large water
droplets used in the Water washable process. Removal should be performed in the same manner,
starting at the bottom of the test component and working your way up. The rinse removal should
always take place under adequate lighting. Fluorescent penetrant removal shall
be done under black light. Rinsing is immediately stopped when the surface penetrant and
background fluorescence is removed.

CAUTION

NEVER apply by brush or spray. Mechanically applying Lipophilic emulsifier will force emulsifier
into the discontinuity, thereby reacting with the penetrant, and causing the indication to be washed
away.

Advantages of Lipophilic emulsifier use include;

1) Does not evaporate in an open tank as quickly as hydrophilic emulsifier.

2) Does not require mechanical assistance to react with the penetrant.
3) Has a high water tolerance and activity is not as affected by water content.

Tank maintenance is performed by comparing the bright pink color and activity of an unused
sample to the color of the emulsifier in use and its activity by performance on a stainless steel sand
blasted test panel. Dip tanks can be contaminated by penetrant tank drag out and excessive water
content, which weakens its activity level. A Water Xylene test is performed to confirm water
content.

Hydrophilic

A low viscosity water based emulsifier. Hydro is the Greek prefix meaning affinity for water.
Hydrophilic emulsifiers are mixed with water and have a slow reaction to penetrants. The mixture is
most effective when accompanied with a mechanical scrubbing action. It is comparable to a
detergent action. This is accomplished in a dip tank by agitation with air bubbles or a circulating
pump creating a whirlpool. Dip tank concentrations run between a 20% - 50% mixture of emulsifier
with water. The inspector determines the concentration levels by processing an actual test article or
a sand blasted test panel. The ease of penetrant removal will indicate if an adjustment in
concentration level will be necessary. Hydrophilic emulsifier can be applied by dip, spray, and flow.
NEVER apply by brush.

Emulsifier dip tanks are easily contaminated with penetrant drag out and water concentration levels
fluctuate due to evaporation. Tank contamination and activity levels are monitored by stopping the
agitation and allowing the tank to settle. Contamination is checked by comparing the mixture color
with an unused sample. Emulsifier concentration levels are quickly and accurately verified with a
refractometer. Emulsifier activity is checked by observing its performance on a calibrated stainless
steel sand blasted test panel for all of the application methods.

In the Hydrophilic spray application, a mixture of 0.5% - 5% emulsifier is introduced into a water
spray through a Dema valve. The Dema valve works on Bernoulli's principle of induction. The
emulsifier mixture is induced into a low pressure, coarse, water spray utilizing large water droplets.
Water pressure should be 30 - 40 psi with water temperature between 50 to100°F (10°-38°C). The
spray should be directed at a 45° angle to the test surface to avoid overwashing. Washing should
start at the bottom of the component and working your way to the top. The 45° angle water spray of
large water droplets, performed under adequate lighting, will insure proper removal of the excess
penetrant only and prevent overwashing.

A secondary or final rinse should be accomplished with a low pressure water spray, performed
under proper lighting, to remove any emulsifier residue. This would be considered the third rinse if
a prerinse step is selected for use. The test surface is then dried.
 POST EMULSIFIED PENETRANTS
ADVANTAGES

-High sensitivity for detection of very fine discontinuities.

-Good on wide and shallow discontinuities.
-Not easily overwashed, more control over the rinse process.
-Shortened dwell times.
-Reliable for reinspection

DISADVANTAGES

-Two step removal process.

-Requires large pressurized rinse water supply.
-Difficult to remove from threads, keyways, blind holes, and rough surfaces.
-Emulsifier and developer can be easily contaminated with water.
-Not portable

Solvent Removable Penetrants

Solvent Removable penetrants are typically removed with a wiping technique. Excess surface
penetrant is first removed by wiping with a clean and dry cloth, rag, or paper towels until the excess
is completely removed. The test surface is then wiped with a clean rag, slightly dampened with
solvent, to remove residual penetrant which could cause excessive background during
interpretation. The test surface should then be wiped again with a clean dry cloth to remove any
residual solvent. NEVER flush or spray solvent directly on the test article surface! The test surface
is allowed a minimum of a five (5) minutes drying period, after the removal procedure is complete,
to allow any solvent transferred to the test surface to evaporate before developer application.

ALWAYS perform penetrant removal under adequate lighting. Usage of black light for fluorescent
and white light for visible color contrast is mandatory. During wiping, good technique is exercised
when a single wipe is performed and the amount of penetrant on the rag is checked in addition to
the test surface. The rag is then folded over exposing a clean section and another wipe initiated. A
dirty rag is immediately discarded. Using a black rag or a cloth which is the same color as the
penetrant is not recommended. The test surface must be totally dry and free of residual solvent
this would degrade the ability of a fluorescent penetrant to fluoresce before developer application.
Solvent removers come in a variety of base contents and it should not be taken for granted that
they can be substituted with another brand or type. The solvent remover is usually supplied by the
manufacturer in a kit. The kit contains a matching set consisting of a compatible penetrant,
developer, and solvent remover. Once again, the family rule takes precedence. This is especially
true when performing a fluorescent penetrant test. There is always the danger of chemical
residues left on the surface from a remover which could degrade the fluorescent dye, as was
mentioned before.

ADVANTAGES

-High sensitivity.
-Not easily contaminated.
-Portable.
-Suiatble for small parts.

DISADVANTAGES

-Flammable material.
-Requires ventilation.
-Difficult to remove from threads, keyways, blind holes, and rough surfaces.

SAFETY

Extreme caution should be exercised when using these chemicals. High volatility solvents are also
used as carriers in the nonaqueous developers. Areas in which the testing will be performed shall
be well ventilated and / or filtered breathing apparatus worn. The high volatility solvents can cause
dizziness when breathed in sufficient doses. Prolonged skin contact can cause irritation and
rashes. Oils in the skin are removed by the solvents. Wear rubber gloves and apron when
possible. Safety glasses are always required. Safety is the responsibility of the inspector
performing the test.

DRYING
Water Washable and Emulsifiable Methods

Following all penetrant removal operations, the part is to be thoroughly dried unless an aqueous
developer is to be applied. If an aqueous developer is used, the drying operation is to be
performed after the developer application. After application of a wet developer, the drying process
aids in securing a uniform developer coating. In all other operation, the drying takes place before
the developer application.

Drying is essential to the penetrant process in two (2) ways. By applying heat, the rinse water is
driven off by evaporation and the heat activates and excites the penetrant. This begins the reverse
capillary action of the penetrant out of the discontinuity cavity. This is particularly important when
dry developers are employed.

Extreme caution must be exercised to assure overdrying does not take place. The more volatile
materials within the penetrant can be driven off by the heat. This makes The penetrant viscosity
increase. Increased viscosity will cause the penetrant be sluggish about exiting the cavity.
Provided the penetrant has not been completely dried to a hardened state, the part may be
rewetted with penetrant. A minimum of half the original time should be used to ensure the
penetrant throughout the discontinuity cavity is also rewetted.

Idealistically, the drying should take place in a controlled atmosphere such as a temperature
controlled circulating forced hot air oven. Because this is not always possible, a hand held portable
dryer may be used. If the outside ambient temperature and environment are conducive, then
normal evaporation may be employed as well.

Oven Dryer Operation

Operating temperature of an oven may exceed the effective temperature range of the penetrant.
However, the surface of the test specimen and the penetrant must never exceed ( 38°C ) when
Water-Washable penetrants are used. The effective operational temperature range of most
conventional penetrants is 60°-125°F (16°- 52°C). Typical dryer operating temperature is 170° F
(78°C) although the maximum allowable temperature is 225° F ( 107°C ). Therefore, the absolute
minimum drying time should always be used to thoroughly dry the component without overheating
the test surface or the penetrant in the flaw cavity. Drying is complete when the surface of the test
part is dry. Maximum drying time is usually thirty (30) minutes in a controlled oven. Drying time is
totally operator dependent unless an automated system is used. Temperature gages should be
calibrated quarterly and monitored daily before testing is started.

Solvent-Removable Method

It should be mentioned that drying after solvent removal of penetrants is usually by normal
evaporation unless the operating environment dictates otherwise. Drying may be assisted by
forced hot or cold air using a portable hand held dryer. In the case of a low volatility solvent being
employed, it would be prudent to assist the drying operation with forced hot or cold air.

DEVELOPERS
A developer has two (2) primary functions. It must provide a contrasting background to hightlight
the penetrant indication and increasing its seeability. This is why developer is always white in
color. The other essential function is to provide Blotting Action for the bleed out process. The
developer must be absorbent to assist the reverse capillary action of the penetrant exiting out of
the discontinuity cavity and allowing the indication to spread. The indication becomes larger than
the discontinuity, magnifying the size of the discontinuity. This process makes the indication large
enough for visual detection.
56
There are two (2) classifications of developers; Wet and Dry. Dry developers are a fluffy white
chalk type powder that is applied dry by dusting. Dusting can be performed automatically in a dust
chamber or manually with a squeeze bulb. Wet developers are further classified into two (2) types
Aqueous and Non-aqueous. Aqueous developers are a developer powder mixed with a water
carrier. Nonaqueous developers are a powder that is mixed and suspended in a solvent carrier.
Nonaqueous is the most sensitive type of developer. Aqueous developers are further classified into
two (2) additional types; Water Soluble and Water Suspendable. Water Soluble developer has a
dry powder that dissolves in the water carrier it is mixed with and is the most sensitive of the two
types. Water suspended is exactly as its name implies. The developer powder is suspended in the
warter carrier. It does not dissolve in the water.

Developers are essential to the formation, seeability, and improved resolution of penetrant
indications. Developer use is "Mandatory" unless otherwise specified by the written procedure or
an authorized NDT Level III. Developers and penetrants can be used in a variety of combinations.
Because the different developer types have specific limitations, they should NEVER be substituted
without checking the manufacturer's specification. The procedure should be qualified by an
authorized NDT Level III.

Desirable developer Characteristics :

1. The powder must have high absorption to secure maximum blotting action.
2. Provide a contrasting background for improved resolution and see-ability.
3. Form a thin uniform coating over the surface.
4. must not fluoresce if used with fluorescent penetrant.
5. Be easily removed after the inspection is complete.
6. Be inert to the materials being inspected and the equipment being used.
7. Non-toxic to the test operator.
8. Inexpensive.

The developers in the order of sensitivity :

1. Non-aqueous.
2. Dry powder.
3. Aqueous water soluble.
4. Aqueous water suspendable.

Non-aqueous

A Non-aqueous wet developer consists of a developer powder suspended in a solvent carrier.

Non-aqueous developers are exclusively applied by a spray method most commonly available in
the aerosol spray can. Being in portable sealed aerosol cans also makes them difficult to
contaminate. The primary advantages of the Nonaqueous developers are their highest sensitivity
rating and their portability.

The solvent carrier must be highly volatile to evaporate quickly after depositing the developer
powder on the test surface and allow the developer to perform its intended functions. Additionally,
the carrier must activate or excite the penetrant to promote the reverse capillary action out of the
discontinuity cavity, in much the same manner as heat during the drying cycle, and begin the
developer blotting action. The high volatility of the carrier permits it to exit the test surface quickly
to avoid diluting the indication.
57
The developer should be applied in a thin, light, and even coating. The coating should be
translucent and not solid white. The aerosol can should be vigorously agitated before each
application to ensure the powder is suspended evenly in the solvent and has not settled in the
bottom of the can. The can should be held approximately 8 to 10 inches from the test surface at a
45 degree angle. Holding the can too close to the test surface will result in excessive developer
being applied EVERY TIME. Applying the developer in sweeping strokes, allowing the solvent to
evaporate between strokes, is considered good technique. This is essential for the detection of
very fine or tight discontinuities. Applying too heavy a coating will mask indications, trapping the
penetrant in the discontinuity. By not allowing the solvent to evaporate between strokes, the
solvent will dilute the penetrant and the indication will become diffused and weak.

It is wise to do a test shot of the aerosol can before application procedure starts to ensure the can
does not spit the developer out. Sometimes the nozzle is blocked up or the developer contents are
old and coagulate inside of the can. These conditions will prevent an even coating application. If
the nozzle has been replaced and the can continues to spit, discard the can.

Aqueous

Aqueous wet developers are used primarily in the manufacturing sector with stationary equipment.
It consists of a dry powder mixed with a water carrier which can be applied by dipping, spraying,
and flooding. The most common method of application is by dipping or immersion. Aqueous
developers are applied to the test surface immediately after the excess penetrant removal but
before the drying cycle. After the test surface is wetted, excess developer is allowed to drain off
and the test specimen is allowed to dry. The developer should not be allowed to puddle or pool on
the test surface. This will result in an excess developer coating.

Aqueous developers must be continuously agitated at all times and must not be allowed to settle.
This will assure an even powder distribution throughout the mixture prior to application. The
developer mixture is easily and quickly checked for powder concentration level with a hydrometer.

There are two (2) types of Aqueous wet developers. Water Soluble developers are mixed with
water and the developer powder dissolves in the water. It is the most sensitive of the two types.
Water Suspendable powder particles are held in suspension by the water vehicle. They do not
dissolve.

The developer powder in both types also contain additional wetting agents to decrease the surface
tension of the water. This increases the wetability of the water and promotes a more even
distribution of the developer particles on the test surface which provides a more even developer
coating. Water Soluble developer may never be used in combination with Water-Washable
penetrants. This is because the added ingredients which make the developer powder dissolve in
the water also will activate the built-in emulsifier of the Water-Washable penetrants and wash the
penetrant out of the discontinuity. Water Suspendable developers may be used with Water-
Washable penetrants but only with extreme caution. Typically, Water Soluble developer is used
with stationary equipment in combination with a Post-Emulsifiable penetrant.

58
Advantages

Aqueous developer is popular to use because of its low susceptibility to excessive

developer application. The amount of developer applied is controlled by the powder
concentration level and not by the amount of mixture applied. It is recommended for use
on smooth surfaces and for the detection of wide and shallow defects because of its
ability to leave a more uniform and even developer coating.

Limitations

Caution should be exercised when using aqueous developers. The concentration should
be closely monitored as the mixture is subject to fluctuation due to evaporation. The
mixture should be continuously and thoroughly agitated before use, at least thirty ( 30 )
minutes before use in the dip tank application. Most importantly, the test article and the
developer mixture should be at or near room temperature during application. Water is
not a versatile carrier. Extreme operating temperatures adversely affect the way, the
developer is distributed on the test surface.

Aqueous developers have several limitations. They are not recommended for use with
Water-Washable penetrants. The water carrier in the developer may activate the
emulsifier of the Water-Washable penetrant in the discontinuity cavity. Indications could
become diluted, diffused, or washed out during the developer application process. Extra
caution shall be practiced when using a spray application. Apply only enough developer
to wet the surface with a fine, misty, low pressure spray and immediately stop.

They are not recommended for testing components with complex geometries or rough
surfaces. Rough surfaces prohibit the even distribution of developer on the test surface.
Aqueous developers are best used on test articles with simple shapes and smooth
surfaces. The water carrier of the developer tends to accumulate naturally on sharp
edges, fillets, keyways, and threads. This may deposit excess developer powder. That is
why the testing of in-service components for the detection of fatigue cracks is not
recommended. This can mask indications. Fatigue cracks are in-service defects which
inherently initiate on the surface, in radii, and at the edges of a component.

Dry Powder
Dry developers are the most commonly used because they are extremely versatile. They
are made of a light, fluffy, and highly absorbent powder. Application is accomplished by
dusting. Dusting can take place in an enclosed chamber, by an air gun, or by a squeeze
bulb. Dry developers are excellent on rough surfaces or parts with complex geometries.
They have a high sensitivity, are the easiest to remove from the test surface during
postcleaning, and can not be contaminated as easily as aqueous developers.

Dry developers are checked visually under white light for being lumpy or caked and with
a black light for contamination. It is not recommended to use dry developers in an
environment with high humidity where they will easily become caked and lumpy.

59
Developer Dwell Time

Developer dwell times differ with each type and test application. Interpretation of
indications typically begins after seven (7) minutes for all types. As is the case with
penetrant dwell times, the length of time used for interpretation also depends on the size
of the discontinuities the test operator expects to detect. Small or tight discontinuities will
require the maximum development times to be used. Of course it is considered good
practice to begin viewing the test specimen immediately after the developer has been
applied. This will help you interpret the cause of any indications that appear.

Maximum development time is thirty (30) minutes. If any indication grows beyond the
allowable size limits within the 7 to 30 minute period of time, it shall be rejected. It should
be noted that a maximum development time limit is needed because all indications will
eventually grow to a rejectable size. Exceeding maximum development time will require
complete recleaning and reprocessing.

Postcleaning should be accomplished immediately after the test is complete. The

penetrant materials will become more difficult to remove when left on the surface too
long. This is especially true with Nonaqueous developers. Nonaqueous developers
contain the highest amount of corrosive materials of all the penetrant materials. Brushing
the surface with a soft brush and flushing the surface with solvent will usually remove
the residual penetrant materials from weld edges and crevices.

INDICATIONS INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION,

PERMANENT RECORDS, POST CLEANING AND
QUALITY CONTROL OF PENETRANT MATERIALS.
Interpretation of Indications

Interpretation of an indication is the determination of the cause of the indication.

Indications are identified and classified as either True or False. When an indications is
determined to have been caused by poor handling or processing by the inspector, it is
classified as False and the part may need to be reprocessed., However, if an indication
is determined to be True, it must be further classified. A True indication must then be
evaluated as Relevant or Nonrelevant. This can be determined by the type of indication
displayed on the test surface by the penetrant test.

The inspector uses his judgment to classify the indication and assess it's a relevance.
The interpretation should be made according to the characteristics of the indication.

1. Location.
2. Shape
3. Size
4. Color
5. Brightness
6. Sharpness
7. Persistence.
8. The amount of time the indication takes to form.
60
Watching the indication form immediately after developer application and awareness of
the type of discontinuities that may be encountered before hand is extremely helpful.
Remember, the indication is not the same size as the discontinuity. The developer will
magnify the discontinuity size to make it more visible to the naked eye for easier
detection. The penetrant bleeds out into the developer throughout the development time.
Therefore, the longer the development time used to make an evaluation, the larger the
indication will be. Timing of when to make an evaluation of an indication becomes very
important when the indication is on the borderline of acceptance or rejection Acceptance
criteria will specify the maximum allowable indication size and not the discontinuity size.

INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION

Evaluation of indications

After an indication has been interpreted, it is then evaluated. Evaluation is the

assessment of a discontinuity as to whether it will affect the usefulness of the
component. A discontinuity is considered a defect when it is determined that it will
interfere with the components intended function. Engineering provides comparison
information to make this decision in the form of acceptance criteria. The acceptance
criteria may be found in the PT procedure. The size of the indication is recorded and
compared to the acceptance criteria. (i.e. ANSI B31.1 or B31.3) In some cases, the
number of indications in a specific size area on the test part is evaluated. (i.e. ASME
Sect. VIII or AWS D1.1). If there is no acceptance criteria available, the inspector should
evaluate the part in accordance with its design and intended function. If further
clarification is required, an NDT Level III or an Engineer should be notified.

Development Time

Wise usage of minimum and maximum development times is highly recommended.

Gross or large discontinuities will begin to form an indication immediately. Tight and
extremely small discontinuities will require the maximum allowable development time to
form. Maximum development time used together with maximum penetrant dwell time will
assure that extremely tight and small defect indications have had sufficient time to
completely form.

Swabbing
Removing the indication with a solvent dampened cotton tipped applicator, re-application
of developer, and witnessing the reappearance of an indication can greatly assist the
interpretation process. However, swabbing should not be performed until after the
indication has been evaluated for size. An acceptance or rejection decision should have
been already made. The ability of an indication to reappear is called persistence. This
61
 will alert the inspector to the fact that the discontinuity has depth. This is one of the main
advantages over the magnetic particle inspection. Since magnetic particles gather at the
top of the discontinuity only, there is no indication as to depth. Swabbing an indication is
a useful technique to verify false indications or retest nonrelevaIt indications.

DISCONTINUITIES

-Interruptions in the Normal Physical Structure of a Material.

-Results in a Relevant or Nonrelevant Indication. May or may not Affect the Soundness
of the Material.

DEFECTS

-Discontinuities that Interfere with the Usefulness of a Component.

-Engineering Judgment Determines whether a Discontinuity is a Defect or not.

-These Judgments are Expressed as Codes or Specifications.

Types of Indications

1. TRUE - An indication that is determined not to be false and requires further evaluation as to its cause.
True indications are further classified as relevant or nonrelevant.

2. FALSE - An indication which occurs as a result of improper handling or poor processing during the
inspection process. This may appear in the form of excessive background or streaking from insufficient
or improper excess penetrant removal. Other common causes are dirt, lint or fingerprints from handling
during the test process.

3. RELEVANT - A True indication as a result of a discontinuity that requires further evaluation in

accordance with the applicable acceptance criteria.

4. NONRELEVANT - A True indication which occurs as a result of the components geometry or

configuration such as a change in section, keyways, splines, bolt threads, press-fit parts, assembled
parts or rough surfaces. It could be caused by an actual discontinuity that was determined not to affect
the components usefulness when evaluated against the appropriate acceptance criteria.

5. LINEAR-. An indication that has a length greater than three (3) times its width. It will appear as a
continuous, straight or jagged line.

6. ROUNDED - An indication that is circular or elliptical and has a length three (3) times or less than its
width.

7. DIFFUSED - An indication that is weak in color and brightness after the indication has completed its
bleed-out. This usually occurs when excessive developer was applied, too long a development time has
been used or the test surface was overcleaned.

62
8. INTERMITTENT - A broken linear indication which appears as a series of adjacent small rounded or
linear indications. This is a result of an extremely tight discontinuity such as a fatigue crack, forging lap
or casting cold shut.

APPENDIX IX
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

1.0 ANSI/ASME B31.1 Power Piping

The following relevant indications are unacceptable:

1.1 any cracks or linear indications.

1.2 rounded indications with dimensions greater than 3/16 in. (4.8 mm).

1.3 four or more rounded indications in a line separated by 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) or less edge to edge.

1.4 ten or more rounded indications in any 6 sq inch ( 150 mm2 ) of surface with the major dimension of
this area not to exceed 6 inches (150 mm ) with the area taken in the most unfavorable location relative
to the indications being evaluated.

2.0 ANSI / ASME B31.3 Chemical Plant and Refinery Piping

2.1 Any cracks or linear indications are unacceptable.

3.0 ASME SECTION VIII DIVISION I (Appendix 8) Construction of Pressure

Vessels

Indications with major dimensions greater than 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) shall be considered relevant. All
surfaces to be examined shall be free of:

3.1 Relevant linear indications.

3.2 Relevant rounded indications greater than 3/16 in. (4.8 mm).

3.3 Four or more rounded defects in a line separated by 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) or less from edge to edge
except where the specification for the material establishes different requirements for acceptance so far
as defects are concerned.

63
4.0 ANSI / AWS D1.1 Structural Steel Welding Code

4.1 Section 8 Statically Loaded Structures

4.1.1 Welds shall have no cracks.

4.1.2 Thorough fusion shall exist between the weld metal and base metal.

4.1.3 For material less than 1 inch ( 25.4 mm ) thick, undercut shall not exceed 1/32 in. ( 1 mm ) except
that a maximum 1/16 in. ( 1.6 mm ) is permitted for an accumulated length of 2 inches ( 50 mm ) in any
12 inches ( 305 mm ). For material equal to or greater than I inch (25.4 mm) thick, undercut shall not
exceed '/16 in. ( 1.6 mm ) for any length of weld.

4.1.4 The sum of diameters of piping porosity 1/32 inch (1 mm) or greater in fillet welds shall not exceed
3/8 in. ( 9.5 mm ) in any linear inch of weld and shall not exceed 3/4 in. (19.1 mm ) in any 12 inch ( 305
mm ) length of weld.

4.1.5 Complete joint penetration groove welds in butt joints transverse to the direction of computed
tensile stress shall have no piping porosity. For all other groove welds, piping porosity 1/32 in. ( 1 mm )
or greater shall not exceed 3/g in. ( 9.5 mm ) in any linear inch of weld and shall not exceed 3/4 in. ( 19.1
mm ) in any 12 inch ( 305 mm ) length of weld.

4.1.6 Inspections may be performed immediately after the completed welds have cooled to ambient
temperature. Welds in ASTM steels A514 and A517 shall be evaluated no sooner than 48 hours after
completion of the weld.

4.2 Section 9 Dynamically Loaded Structures

4.2.1 Welds shall have no cracks.

4.2.2 Thorough fusion shall exist between the weld metal and base metal.

4.2.3 The frequency of piping porosity in fillet welds shall not exceed one in each 4 inches ( 102 mm ) of
length and the maximum diameter shall not exceed 3/32 in. ( 2.4 mm ). Exception: for fillet welds
connecting stiffeners to web, the sum of the diameters of piping porosity shall not exceed 3/8 in. ( 9.5 )
in any linear inch of weld and shall not exceed 3/4 in. ( 19.1 mm ) in any 12 inch ( 305 mm ) length of
weld.

4.2.4 Complete joint penetration groove welds in butt joints transverse to the direction of computed
tensile stress shall have no piping porosity. For all other groove welds, the frequency of piping porosity
shall not exceed one in 4 inches ( 102 mm ) of length and the maximum diameter shall not exceed 3/32
in. ( 2.4 mm ).

4.2.5 Inspections may be performed immediately after the completed welds have cooled to ambient
temperature. Welds in ASTM steels A514 and A517 shall be evaluated no sooner than 48 hours after
completion of the weld.

64
4.3 Section 10 Tubular Structures

These requirements are identical to the requirements for Section 8.

5.0 API 1104 Welding of Pipelines and Related

Facilities

Any indication with a dimension greater than 1/16 in. ( 1.6 mm ) shall be considered relevant. Relevant
indications shall be unacceptable when any of the following conditions exist:

5.1 Linear indications evaluated as crater cracks or star cracks which exceed 5/32 in. ( 3.96 mm ) in
length.

5.2 Linear indications evaluated as cracks other than crater cracks or star cracks.

5.3 Linear indications evaluated as incomplete fusion (IF) and exceed 1 inch ( 25.4 mm ) in total length
in a continuous 12 inch ( 304.8 mm ) length of weld or 8% (percent) of the weld length.

5.4 Individual or scattered porosity (P) shall be unacceptable when any of the
following conditions exists:

5.4.1 The size of an individual pore exceeds 1/8 in. ( 3.17 mm ) or 25% of the thinner of the nominal wall
thicknesses joined.

5.4.2 Cluster porosity (CP) in the finishing pass shall be unacceptable when any of the following
conditions exist:

5.4.3 An individual pore within a cluster exceeds 1/16 in. ( 1.6 mm ).

5.4.4 The CP diameter exceeds 1/2 in. ( 12.7 mm ).

5.4.5 The aggregate length of CP in a continuous 12 inch ( 304.8 mm ) length of weld exceeds 1/2 in
( 12.7 mm ).

ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA & PERMANENT RECORDS

ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

Acceptance criteria for examinations performed to ANSI / ASME B31.1, ANSI / ASME B31.3, ASME
SEC. VIII Division I, API 1104 and AWS D1.1 are given in Appendix IX.

Acceptance criteria for API 620 and API 650 liquid penetrant examinations shall be in accordance with
ASME Section VIII, Division 1. Acceptance criteria for ANSI/ASME B31.4 and B31.8 shall be in

65
accordance with API 1104. Selection of acceptance criteria not included in this specification or
acceptance criteria for special projects shall be approved by the Inspection Department Supervisor or
his designated representative.

An indication of a discontinuity may be larger than the discontinuity that causes it, however, the size of
the indication and not the size of the discontinuity is the basis of acceptance or rejection.

Any questionable or doubtful indications shall be retested to verify whether or not actual discontinuities
are present.

Any indication which is believed to be nonrelevant shall be regarded as a discontinuity and shall be
reexamined to verify whether or not actual discontinuities are present. Surface conditioning may precede
the reexamination. Nonrelevant indications which would mask indications of discontinuities are
unacceptable.

After a defect is thought to have been removed and prior to making weld repairs, the area shall be
examined by any suitable NDT method to assure the defect has been eliminated or reduced to an
acceptable size.

RECORDS
Results of liquid penetrant examinations shall be recorded on the attached Liquid Penetrant Examination
Request and Report Sheet Form. PT examinations performed and recorded by a PT Level I shall be
reviewed and signed off on the PT Report by a PT Level II or III The reports shall be kept on file and
available for review at the Inspection Department.

A sketch, chart, or marked-up drawing shall be provided to show coverage, orientation for clarity, and to
permit duplication of the examination. Permanent records pertaining to the PT examination such as
photographs, indications lifted with transparent tape, fixers, lacquers, or sketches shall be attached to the
PT report.

Permanent Records

Fixing and Recording Indications

1) Photographs - Typical black and white and color film is used. The self-developing films provide the
most convenience and an instant permanent record of the inspection results. High speed film will be
required to photograph fluorescent inspection results.
2) Special Wax and Plastic Film Developers - Special developers have been developed to absorb and fix
the penetrant indication to form a permanent record. Strippable lacquers are sprayed in several light
coats over the indication and, can be lifted to provide a permanent record. Special fixers are sprayed
over the indication, and when dry, are lifted with transparent tape and attached to the inspection report.

3) Transparent Tape - Ordinary scotch tape can be affixed to the indication, lifted and attached to the
inspection report.

4) Sketches - Sketches should be attached to a report to add clarity to the location, size, and shape of
the discontinuities which have been detected. The sketches do not have to be to scale but should include
descriptions and accurate dimensions of the defect locations, sizes, and shapes. Be sure to include a
part number, serial number, and zero datum. If there are no distinctive markings or datum, then you must
put one on the part. The zero datum on pipeline is at 12 o'clock, in the direction of flow, and clockwise.

5) Reports - Fill out the appropriate report at the conclusion of your inspection. Include as much
information as possible. Be neat and concise. Attach all important records such as sketches,
photographs, fixed or recorded indications. The report will become a permanent record providing
repeatability and traceability to the inspection procedure and results.

A Supervisor or Coordinator may be required to review the report and possibly reproduce the inspection
results. If a defect was found, rework will need to be scheduled. The Engineer evaluating your inspection
results will need to find the area inspected and assess the damage correctly. The Repair Technician,
scheduled to begin the repairs, will need the most accurate information so he can find and rework the
correct area of the component to specification, sometimes quickly.

Your name and ID number, as the NDT technician who performed the inspection, will be on record. The
integrity of the inspection may be reviewed. Your credibility as an NDT Technician and the reputation of
the NDT department could be damaged. Remember, the report will become part of the components
history and will probably be reviewed in the event of a failure in the field.

POSTCLEANING

This is step six and is the final step of the Liquid Penetrant examination. After the specimen has
been inspected, it is very important that it be thoroughly cleaned. Any method which will assure
complete removal of all penetrant materials form crevices and remote locations will be
acceptable.

Although in small quantities, Penetrant Materials Contain Corrosives. All metals are susceptible
to corrosion when in prolonged contact with any of these materials. Penetrant materials left on
the test surface will also attract moisture and other contaminants. This will also accelerate the
corrosion process. As discussed in chapter 2, Sulfur is especially harmful to Carbon Steel.
Halogens, primarily Chlorine, are destructive to Stainless Steel. Titanium is highly usuceptible to
corrosion and Hydrogen Embrittlement with the usage of any halogenated chemicals. In some
cases, Titanium is not allowed to be tested with halogenated chemicals. Chemicals containing
Chlorine, Fluorine, Bromine and Iodine are called Halogens. Most volatile solvents are
halogenated. Aluminum alloys should be thoroughly cleaned after testing because the alkaline
content of developers and emulsifiers could result in surface pitting.
 Usually a solvent flush of the test surface is the final postcleaning step. Whichever method is
employed, the component must be thoroughly dried. Postcleaning should always be followed
with a postvisual inspection to ensure the test component is totally free of penetrant materials
and that the test operator has not damaged the component. If a fluorescent penetrant test was
performed, the test surface should be scanned with a blacklight to ensure the test component is
totally free of penetrant materials and that the test operator has not damaged the component. If
a fluorescent penetrant test was performed, the test surface should be scanned with a blacklight
to assure completeness of the postcleaning operation.

Post Cleaning is essential to:

1. Prevent future corrosion formation before the next processing operation is performed or
before being returned to service.

2. Prevent damage to gaskets and seals before assembly.

3. Facilitate the application of a protective coating or cosmetic finish.

4. Facilitate a retest if necessary.

QUALITY CONTROL OF PENETRANT MATERIALS

Introduction

There is no simple quantitative test for measuring performance or sensitivity of a penetrant

material or process. Although some tests will have to be accomplished in a laboratory, there are a
series of comparison tests which can be performed at the test site. Most material or process
control testing will be done in the shop or in the field by the test operator. Process control checks
are usually completed just prior to the performance of a liquid penetrant test due to constant
fluctuating environmental and material conditions. Additionally, the possibility of contaminants
being introduced at any time is always eminent. Complicated tests requiring laboratory conditions
are not practical and would require material samples to be sent out. This takes time and must be
accomplished frequently. Information about the material which are about to be used, such as
sensitivity, concentration and contamination, as well as the overall penetrant system sensitivity will
be required to be immediately known. Minor adjustments to the material or the process may be
required before testing can begin.

There are several comparison tests which have been developed that will provide sufficient
information for the test operator to proceed with confidence that the system is operating efficiently
and reliably. These comparison tests simply compare the reactions of new penetrant material
properties and characteristics against those of the materials in use. These process control checks
are not used for a determination of absolute values.

Penetrant Material Samples

A sample should be taken whenever penetrant materials are used from a bulk container
immediately after it is opened. The sample procedure is followed when a new mixture or bath is
made up. The sample should be kept in a sealed clear glass jar. The jar should be stored in a
darkened place at room temperature, where it will not be exposed to any light or extreme heat.
This will prevent premature degrading of the sample material.

Liquid penetrant materials are tested and classified by sensitivity levels in accordance with this
specification. The first test normally performed on any penetrant is a visual colour comparison.
This will be the first indication of penetrant contamination or degradation. All comparison testing
requires the usage of fresh, unused penetrant material from the test sample jar. There are
individual detailed material and process control tests specified in the documents ASME Section V
Articles 6 & 24 for the petrochemical industry. These documents reference individual detailed
ASTM testing procedures.

Aluminum Test Blocks

The blocks are made of 2024 -T3 aluminum approximately 2" wide x 3" long x 3/8" thick. The
blocks are heated and quenched to produce an overall crack pattern. Since the cracking is
uncontrolled, the blocks can be used for comparisons only and not for absolute evaluations. A
groove is machined in the middle of the block to separate the two penetrant samples. These
blocks can be used to check the sensitivity of the penetrants only. There are two blocks used for
testing. A 950°F ( 510°C ) cracked block is used to test Fluorescent and sometimes Visible Dye
penetrants. An 800°F ( 427°C ) cracked block is for comparing Visible Dye penetrants only.

For Fluorescent or Visible Dye penetrant comparisons, the block is heated to 950°F ( 510°C ) and
quenched in water. This produces a relatively tight and uniform crack pattern over the entire face
of the block. It is because of the tight crack pattern that Visible Dye penetrants are not normally
checked with this block. The cracking will be symmetrical on either side of the separation groove
although the depth of the cracks produced is uncontrolled and unknown. New and used penetrants
or different brands can now be processed and then compared side by side.

For Visible Dye comparison testing only, the 950°F cracked block is heated a second time to
800°F ( 427°C ) and quenched to open the cracks wider. Visible dye penetrants are usually not as
sensitive as fluorescent penetrants. They have a higher viscosity and may not adequately
penetrate the tighter cracks of the 950°F block.

The in-service penetrant can be checked for its crack detection capability and brightness against
that of a new penetrant. If cracking detected on the used penetrant side is not as complete as the
new side, the penetrant is considered contaminated and should be discarded. If the brightness of
the used penetrant appears to be below 90% of the new penetrant, it is again considered
contaminated and discarded.

Usage of penetrants outside their recognized operating temperature range can be qualified with
these blocks. Two blocks are used. One is heated or cooled to the desired temperature and the
other kept within the normal operational temperature range of the penetrant. Penetrant is applied
and the blocks processed normally and the results compared.
2. Meniscus Lens

This test consists of a flat glass plate called an optical flat and a convex lens. It is an overall
penetrant sensitivity test that primarily checks the wetability of the penetrant and the dye
concentration. A drop of penetrant is placed on the optical flat. The convex lens is then placed
directly on the penetrant droplet. At the point of contact, a spot will form. The spot is measured
and allowed to set for thirty ( 30 ) minutes. The capillary action of the penetrant should prevent the
spot from increasing in size. If the spot increases in size, the penetrant is considered
contaminated and discarded. Evidence of oil and dye separation should also be noted and will
indicate contamination.

3. Fluorescent Penetrant Dye Fade Test

The fade test requires an aluminum cracked block. A drop of in-use penetrant is placed on each
side of the block. One side is then exposed to a standard black light for one (1) hour while the
other half is covered to block the light. After removing the cover, the fluorescent brilliance of the
both sides is then observed. If one side is noticeably less brilliant, the penetrant is discarded.

4. Paper Toweling Dye Fade Test

This is a simple field test to determine if the fluorescent dye has faded. A drop of used and new
penetrant are placed side by side on a sheet of absorbent paper towel, allowed 8 hours to dry, and
examined under a black light. If one droplet is noticeably less brilliant the penetrant is discarded.
The droplets should also spread equally in the paper towel.

5. Viscosity Test

A viscometer is used to measure the viscosity of penetrants and emulsifiers in Centistokes to

determine if the viscosity is within the range recommertded by the manufacturer. Viscosity should
be checked monthly and in accordance with ASTM D-445.

6. Water Washability Test

This test is a side by side comparison test of the residual background left by visible dye and
fluorescent penetrants after excess penetrant removal. Both Water-Washable and Post-
Emulsifiable penetrants can be checked. Ease of penetrant removability and emulsifier activity can
be determined. The 4" x 6" stainless steel panel has two 1.5 inch sandblasted strips separated by
a 1 inch smooth strip. The Sherwin WTP-l is a typical test panel.

In-use penetrant is applied to one sandblasted strip and new penetrant is applied to the other. The
panel is allowed to set the same amount of penetrant dwell time you are using for the inspection
test. The normal wash removal procedure is performed and the panel examined for residual
background. Ease of penetrant removability and residual background is observed. The in-use
penetrant should not take any longer to be removed than the new penetrant. If the in-use
penetrant takes significantly longer to be removed from the panel, the penetrant is considered
contaminated and replaced. If both penetrants are removed evenly and the residual backgrounds
are similar, then the in-use penetrant is considered to be usable. This procedure is the same for
both Post-Emulsifiable and Water-Washable penetrant systems.

Emulsifier Activity

The efficiency of the Post-Emulsification process can be verified by checking the emulsifier
activity. If the PE penetrants are removed evenly from the removability panel but the wash time is
longer than usual, then the emulsifier activity is weak. First the emulsifier should be checked
visually against a new sample for color difference and possible contamination. In the case of
Hydrophilic emulsifier, the concentration level is then checked. The concentration is adjusted
accordingly. Penetrants and emulsifiers that have aged or have been contaminated become much
more difficult to remove. Removability of both the visible and fluorescent penetrants and the
emulsifier activity should be tested monthly.

7. Water Content Test

One hundred (100) ml of penetrant is put in a flask with one hundred (100) ml of moisture free
xylene and the mixture is boiled. The condensation is collected in a graduated tube and measured
to show percentage of water by volume. This test is performed with Water
Washable penetrants and Lipophilic emulsifiers. If water content exceeds manufacturers
specifications the materials are replaced. The test is performed on a monthly basis and in
accordance with ASTM D-95.

EMULSIFIERS

8. Emulsifier Concentration Test

A Refractometer is used to measure the concentration mixture of emulsifier and water for all
methods of application. After the mixture has been sufficiently agitated, a droplet of the liquid is
placed on the window of the refractometer and held up to a bright light. The refractometer is then
viewed through the eye receptacle. There is a scale in the viewer and a reading is taken. The
reading is then translated to a percentage value by a chart supplied by the manufacturer.
Emulsifier concentration levels are adjusted accordingly.

Comparing the color of the in-use emulsifier against a fresh mixture sample should always be
performed first. This will give the test operator a good indication if the concentration is too diluted
or the emulsifier is contaminated before a concentration measurement is taken. Care should be
taken to skim off floating penetrant and other contaminants before a dip tank is agitated prior to a
concentration measurement. For Hydrophilic spray application the hose should be allowed to
spray for at least thirty ( 30 ) seconds to clear the hose of settled mixture. The Concentration is
recorded when the final mixture is determined after water washability testing has been completed.
Xylene water content and viscosity tests are also performed monthly on Lipophilic emulsifiers.
Activity levels are monitored daily using the water washability test panel as described earlier.

DEVELOPERS

9. Aqueous Wet Developer

Aqueous developer solutions are checked for powder concentration levels with a hydrometer. The
hydrometer is a 12 inch vacuum tube with a weighted end and a graduated scale on the opposite
end used to measure specific gravity. It is placed in the bath with the weighted end down and
allowed to float. The measurement is read from the scale at the top of the tube where the nearest
graduation meets the bath level.

Specific gravity is a measurement of density and is relative to the powder concentration level of
the developer solution. The specific gravity of water is used as the comparison. Water equals one
(1). The addition of the water soluble or water suspendable powder into the water will slightly
increase the density of the water. The typical effective range of readings is between 1.04 and 1.08
but should be within the range recommended by the developer manufacturer. The concentration
should be measured weekly. When developer is applied by dipping, the solution is also visually
checked daily for visible dye or fluorescent penetrant contamination and for wetability. If the
developer is being applied by spray then only wetability is checked. Wetability is confirmed by first
wetting a test panel, then observing and verifying a continuous and complete coverage of the test
surface.

Remember, developer coating thickness is controlled by the powder concentration level. The
developer solution should be thoroughly mixed before a reading can be taken. As is the case with
all mixtures, a sample of the solution is taken when the first satisfactory developer solution is
made up and the sample is kept for future color and contamination visual comparisons.

10. Dry Powder Developer

Dry developers are visually inspected daily under white light to ensure they are not lumpy or
caked. The powder should be light and fluffy and the particles easily dispersed by blowing on
them. The powder is then spread into a 4 inch circle and visually inspected under black light. If any
more than 10 dark or fluorescent specs are found, the developer should be considered
contaminated and discarded.

PENETRANT SYSTEM SENSITIVITY SYSTEM

There are several test panels designed for this purpose. We will only discuss a few. The objective
of the test is to provide a daily overall indicator of the process performance and sensitivity of the
system selected. The panels designed for this test have artificially induced cracks. The cracking is
controlled and the dimensions of the defect are known. The defects simulate actual flaw conditions
as closely as possible. The size, depth and width of the defects are recorded and the sample is
used as a standard.

A standard will commonly include a range of flaw sizes for comparison purposes. The test panels
will ultimately confirm that the entire test procedure, materials, and the process used are in good
working order and the test is being performed correctly. The result is superior test accuracy with a
high confidence level. All of the following test panels should be thoroughly soaked and cleaned
after each usage.
11. Part with a Natural Defect

The best way to test any NDT system performance is with a piece of material or a component,
identical to the component under test, with a naturally occurring defect. This is not always possible
because of the components size or the cost of destroying a part for sample purposes. The major
restriction is that the sample part must contain the smallest defect that the test is expected to
detect, or one that is agreed will be representative of one. As long as the defect is detected the
system is considered good.

12. Cracked Chrome Panel - (TAM)

The panel is made from a 4" x 6" x 0.09" thick piece of stainless steel which has been chrome
plated. One half of the panel face is grit blasted and the other half has five (5) star cracks induced
in the chrome in size order. The largest crack is 1/4 inch in diameter and the smallest 1/32 inch in
diameter. The panel is processed through the system normally and the resultant number of cracks
displayed indicates the system sensitivity. The grit blasted side is used to monitor the removal
process to keep the procedure uniform for each successive test. This panel is sometimes known
as a TAM PANEL. This comes from the original Pratt and Whitney design specification TAM
146040. A typical test panel is the Sherwin PSM-5.

13. Twin NiCr Cracked Chrome Panels - (Constant Thickness)

These panels are made from a single brass plate with a constant thickness chrome plating. The
panels are bent over an arbor and straightened. This produces extremely tight uniform horizontal
cracking across the panel chrome face which is not visible to the human eye. The depth of the
cracking is known by the plating thickness. The panel is then cut in half into two individual panels
approximately 1.5" x 4" inches. The panels are supplied with a picture of the cracks after
processing for reference.
The panels are then processed through the penetrant system as a comparison set. In-use
penetrant is applied to one panel and new penetrant on the other. The results are compared and
the penetrant system efficiency is evaluated. The panels can be ordered in three (3) different
plating thicknesses of 10, 20, & 50 microinches.
14. Twin NiCr Cracked Chrome Panels - (Tapered)

Construction and usage of these panels is essentially the same as the constant
thickness panels except they offer the versatility of a tapered chrome plating. The panels
have a controlled chrome plating which tapers from 00 to 50 microinches. This provides
for a total system sensitivity verification in one test instead of having to run several
panels of different constant thicknesses.

15. Penetrant Material Samples

A sample should be taken whenever penetrant materials are used from a bulk container
immediately after the seal has been broken. The same procedure is followed when a
new mixture or bath is made up. The sample should preferably be kept in a sealed clear
glass jar. The jar should be stored in a darkened place at room temperature, where it will
not be exposed to ambient light and extreme heat. This will prevent premature degrading
of the sample materials.

The first test performed on any material is a visual color comparison. This will be the first
indication of material contamination or degradation. All comparison testing requires the
usage of fresh, unused penetrant materials from these sample jars.