• Data consists of raw facts and figures - it does not have any meaning until it is processed

and given a context.

Data comes in many forms. Although it is generally alphanumeric (text, numbers and symbols) it
can also consist of images or sound.

INFORMATION: Information is the result of processing data, usually by computer. This results
in facts, which enables the processed data to be used in context and have meaning. Information is
data that has meaning

 Data on its own has no meaning. It only takes on meaning and becomes information when it is
interpreted. Data consists of raw facts and figures. When that data is processed into sets
according to context, it provides information. Data refers to raw input that when processed or
arranged makes meaningful output. Information is usually the processed outcome of data. When
data is processed into information, it becomes interpretable and gains significance.

In IT, symbols, characters, images, or numbers are data. These are the inputs an IT system needs
to process in order to produce a meaningful interpretation. In other words, data in a meaningful
form becomes information. Information can be about facts, things, concepts, or anything relevant
to the topic concerned.

It may provide answers to questions like who, which, when, why, what, and how. If we put
Information into an equation it would look like this: Data + Meaning = Information

Information Example 1

Three different examples of data were given to you earlier. Let's have a look at how that data can
be turned into information.

Example 1:

Data

We started off with the raw data which was 51, 77, 58, 82, 64, 70.

At this stage, those numbers could have been anything from street numbers to chart positions of
certain records.
Context

The raw data is given a context. We are told that the numbers are test scores which were
achieved by a group of students. At last they start to make some sense.

However even with a context, the data still needs to be processed in order to turn it into
information.
Processing

The processing in this case might be to calculate the average from the set of scores. The average
is 67 so we can now tell that student 1 did particularly badly in the test because they were so far
below the average mark.

Knowledge

Knowledge is the capability of understanding the relationship between pieces of information and
what to actually do with the information.

What this means in simple terms is that you apply rules to the processed information.

Let's try to explain this by looking at our previous examples.

Example 1
Data - a list of numbers having no context

51, 77, 58, 82, 64, 70

Information - the list of numbers are student test scores

Now that some context is included, the data begins to make sense. However, further information
can be obtained by carrying out some analysis of the data. For example, an average score can be
worked out and then each student compared to that average.

The average of the test was 67. Student 1 did particularly badly in the test because they were so
far below the average mark.
Knowledge

The class teacher applies the rule "If a score is much lower than average, then I need to discuss it
with the student to see what needs to be done to improve it".
 

1-Dictionary definitions tell us that the word 'static' means 'to show little or no change' and this
is a pretty accurate description of a static information source.

Once a static information source has been created, it is unlikely to be changed or updated for a
significant amount of time.

Think about an encyclopedia which has been produced on a DVD. Once the encyclopedia has
been written and checked for accuracy it probably will not be updated again for at least a year.
So once the DVD has been made the data will not change - it will be static.

Books and newspapers are other examples of static information sources. Books take months,
sometimes years to write. They are checked and edited thoroughly before being printed. They
won't be changed for a long time, if ever. Newspapers on the other hand are printed each day and
obviously they change on a daily basis. However, once the newspaper is compiled and printed
for a particular day, it won't be changed again - thus it is a static information source.

Advantages disvantages

Advantages
Usually checked for accuracy so often
more reliable than dynamic sources
Can be used without access to the
internet.
If the information is paper-based then it
can be used without access to a
computer.
Have a historical copy to refer back to
even if a later version is produced.
Whereas with a dynamic source, the
data can be overwritten or vanish
Can be distributed to the people who
Disadvantages
If held on a CD, the disk could be
lost or damaged
Can take a long time to produce i.e.
in terms of checking, publishing and
distribution
Specialised information can be
expensive to purchase
May have a licence agreement which
means that only one person can use
it at a time and that copies cannot be
made
If a mistake is found in the
have a specific interest in the
information e.g. customers, teachers
information then new copies need to
be printed and distributed
Limited to the information available
in the CD/book - not so easy to
cross-reference as it would be with a
web site.
If in a CD/DVD format then will
need access to a computer.

2-Dictionary definitions tell us that the word 'dynamic' is characterised by continuous change,
activity or progress. This is a fairly accurate description in terms of a 'dynamic information
source'.

A good example of a dynamic information source would be a web site which is updated on a
regular basis. Think about the BBC news web site - it is changed throughout the day as news
stories happen around the world. The growth of video phones and satellite technology means that
news can be reported on whilst it is still happening.

However, you need to be clear that not all web sites are dynamic information sources, some
could be classed as static. Although we are constantly adding new worksheets and pages to this
web site, the theory mini-web that you are using right now probably won't be updated again for
at least another year. That would class it as a static source of information.

Although many web sites are updated regularly there is nothing to guarantee that the information
is correct or unbiased. No one polices the internet and basically anyone with access to web
creation software and hosting space can create a web site about anything they like. Unless the
content is illegal, then it will stay on the web for anyone to view.

Dynamic data sources are widely available on smart phones in the form of an 'app'. For example
you can get an app to monitor stock prices. It is updated minute by minute.

Another example is real-time traffic updates linked to your Sat-Nav. You subscribe to a traffic
monitoring service which then sends the latest information into your navigation system.
People traveling by air can make use of dynamic information sources at airports. They can see a
real-time list of all flights which are due to arrive and depart. Delays and cancellations are
displayed as soon as information becomes available.

Advantages Disavantages

Adaantages
Can be updated very quickly as
changes happen
Often fairly inexpensive to maintain
when compared with producing
static information sources
A large number of people can access
the information at the same time
It is easy to find related information
or to cross-reference information
You don't need to know where to
look for the information because you
can use a search engine to locate
relevant web pages
Can access a lot of free content
Disadvantages
Changes can be made quickly and
mistakes may go unnoticed
You may need certain hardware such as
a computer to access the internet or a
mobile phone to access information
services.
There may be conflicting information
on different web sites
The information may be biased or
completely wrong
Information overload - it can feel
overwhelming if you don't know what
you are looking for.
 

3- DIRECT data sources

1 What is a direct data source?
A direct data source is one that data can be gathered from, without having to go to a third party.
It gives us data that is often called ‘original source data’. A census is a common direct method of
collecting demographic data. A census is usually carried out by a national government which
tries to collect details of every person in a country.
However, censuses are usually carried out every 10 years and are therefore not the best source of
data on births and deaths.
Advantages of direct data sources
• Only as much or as little data is gathered as needed
• Exactly where the data came from, and therefore how reliable it is, is known
• There may be an opportunity to sell the data for other purposes
• Gathering data directly addresses specific issues, as the data gatherer controls the methods of
collecting the data to fit their needs.
• Disadvantages of direct data sources
• Data gathering may be expensive as other companies may have to be hired to get it.
• It may involve having to buy equipment such as data loggers and computers
• It may not be possible to gather original data due to the time of year e.g. winter snowfall data
may be required but it is now the middle of summer
• Compared to indirect data sources, using direct data sources may be very expensive in
preparing and carrying out the gathering of data. Costs can be incurred in, for example,producing
the paper for questionnaires, or the equipment for an experiment
• It takes longer to gather data than to acquire data from an indirect data source
• By the time the project is complete the data may be out-of-date
• The sample size may be small.

4- INDIRECT data sources

What is an indirect data source?
Indirect sources means data that was collected for a particular reason but is then used for
something else. It often occurs when one organisation collects data about individuals and then
sells this data to another organisation.
Example – indirect data sources
Electoral register
This is a list of adults who are entitled to vote in a local or national election.
An edited version of the register can be purchased and used for any purpose. Businesses
collecting personal information Businesses sell the information that they collect from their
customers.
For example when someone purchases something online they are often asked to tick a box
authorising the business to share this with other organisations. Customers often provide personal
information that has a commercial value. Businesses use this information to create mailing lists
that can be purchased by any other organisation/individual to send emails or even brochures
through the post.
Advantages of indirect data sources
• Indirect data sources may allow a larger set of data to be examined using less time and money
than direct data collection would require
• The use of indirect data sources allows data to be gathered from subjects (e.g. people) to which
the data gatherer does not have physical access
• A larger sample size can be used. Direct data gathering can have limitations due to the
availability of the people being interviewed, but by using indirect data sources, the size of the
sample can be increased giving rise to greater confidence in the findings
• Using indirect data sources can be done at a relatively low cost, although this varies. Quite
often the data can be in an easily accessible location such as the internet whereas for direct data
sources, travelling expenses and time taken to collect data can be great
• Information can be of a higher quality. Data collected indirectly has already been collated and
grouped into meaningful categories and, for example, poorly-written responses to questionnaires
or interview transcripts do not have to be read through to create the data
source.
• Disadvantages of indirect data sources
• The various purposes for which data was collected originally may be quite different to the
purpose of the current research and unnecessary data may need to be filtered out
• There may be no data available – the data required has simply never been recorded
• There may be sampling bias – data from only one section of the community (whether it is based
on educational level, level of income etc.) may have been collected but what is required is data
from a representative cross-section of the community.
At this point it may be necessary to give a brief outline to learners regarding the coding of
information (section 1.4 of the syllabus).

• There may be coding difficulties. For a number of reasons, coding is one of the most difficult
tasks faced. The reasons include:
− the purpose for which the data was originally collected being different to the purpose it is to be
used for now
− different sources resulting in differences in the content
− lack of standardisation across the required data
− different sources having different amounts of data.
• If data has already been coded the coding may be difficult to understand
• The data may vary in reliability, depending on who collected the data and how old the data is
• Before using an indirect data source, the reason why the data was collected directly in the first
place needs to be known.

What is quality of information?

Quality of information is its fitness for purpose. If it is fit for purpose, that is, good enough to do
the job it was intended for, then the information is regarded as being of good quality.

Accuracy of information
The accuracy of information relies on the underlying data: if the collected data is inaccurate then
the information produced will also be inaccurate. The following table gives examples of ways in
which inaccurate data can occur, and ways this can be prevented

Relevance of information
Relevant information is information that meets the need of the user: information that can help
towards finding a solution to the problem or task. The first step is to select your sources. For
example, relevant sources in an education environment should be selected so that non-
academic,commercial, as well as biased resources are ruled out. Having judged which sources
are relevant,the next step is to read through the sources selecting relevant information.
Students have a great deal of information to learn for their AS levels. They take a lot of notes and
are given handouts by their teachers to read. Suppose the teachers spent some time each week
discussing current affairs? What was discussed might prove very interesting to learners but it
isn't relevant to what they need to pass their IT exam.
Examples
Travel
A student might find it interesting to find out how long it takes to travel by train from Chicago to
New York. This information will not be relevant if, however, the student wants to travel by bus
from home to school.
Library
If you are phoning the library to reserve a book it wouldn't be very useful or relevant to you if
the librarian started to tell you the opening and closing times of the library on each day of the
week.

• Age of information
In order to be accurate and relevant, information needs to be up-to-date. Often information
changes with time, so information which is out-of-date can produce inaccurate results.
Businesses that base their planning on out-of-date information are likely to make bad decisions.
This could affect their future profits and their share price, and as a result the value of the
company will reduce. It is important that where planning is involved, only accurate and up-to-
date information is used.
Example :
A colleague’s PC has developed faults and he asks you to recommend a computer to replace it. If
your current PC or laptop is three years old then you may not be in a good position to advise
them. Your laptop might have a 500Gb hard disc with 4Gb RAM. Today’s laptops are more
likely to have a 1Tb hard disc and 16Gb RAM. You would probably lose the respect of your
colleague by giving them this out-of-date information.
• Level of detail of information
In order to be helpful in solving your problem the information you use needs to have the correct
level of detail. If there is too much detail, this makes it difficult to find the exact information you
require, and you may not get an overview of the problem. If the information is not detailed
enough,you may not find the information you need.
Example
Finding the best way to get from one town to another by public transport
Too much detail could be:
• Not only telling you that you could get the train or bus, but telling you all of the different routes
you could take and how the choice of each one would affect the time it took to get to your
destination.
• Telling you exactly how many minutes your train or bus would spend at each stop and the
names of all the places you would stop at.
• Telling you the exact time that the bus or train would take in-between stops for every possible
route you could take.
Not enough detail could be:
• Telling you that the best way would be to go by train without telling you which station to get
the train from, or how to get to the station.
• Telling you to get the train without telling you the time the train leaves or what time you would
expect to arrive.
• Telling you the exact time that the bus or train would depart without telling you how long it
would take or when you would arrive.