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Aeromagnetic And Aeroradiometric Response To Hydrothermal Alteration

Article  in  Surveys in Geophysics · July 2002

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 AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO
HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

M.-L. AIRO
Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FIN-02151 Espoo, Finland

(Received 26 October 2000; Accepted 16 October 2001)

Abstract. In Precambrian terrains all regional and most local intensive magnetic anomalies are
produced by magnetite. Monoclinic pyrrhotite is responsible for some local, but often intensive,
magnetic anomaly patterns. Both magnetite and pyrrhotite are affected by hydrothermal alteration
processes in various ways, resulting in changes either in abundance or in grain fabric. These changes
are recorded in the magnetic properties of the altered rock units and reflected in their aeromagnetic
signatures. Hydrothermal alteration in deformed bedrock zones is commonly controlled by structural
or tectonic features. Regional high-resolution aerogeophysical surveys can be utilized, in both re-
gional and detailed investigations, to map the overall geological and tectonic setting or to estimate
local changes in magnetic mineralogy and the relative abundance of radionuclides.
Magnetite is most commonly destroyed in alteration processes, such as biotitization, carbonation,
sulfidization and silicification. The progressive destruction of magnetite begins at grain margins and
results first in broken and cracked grain texture and smaller grain size, then progresses to total disap-
pearance of magnetite. Alteration in magnetite- bearing rock units may be recognized by decreased
magnetic intensity and by the broken, disrupted magnetic pattern. The abundance of monoclinic
pyrrhotite is enhanced by reducing hydrothermal fluids, and typical crystal anisotropy is developed
due to tectonic stress.
The relative contents of radioelements are changed in the same hydrothermal processes and partly
for the same reasons as the ferrimagnetic minerals. Potassic alteration often results in elevated K
radiation particularly for mafic rocks, and then anomalous K/Th ratios along local shear or fracture
zones may be indicative of gold-bearing mineralization. On the other hand, high U/Th ratios within
metasedimentary units may point out prospects for sulphidization. Although variation of U/Th ra-
tios largely reflects the environmental conditions during primary diagenesis or a later deformational
phase, mainly the decrease in Th radiation close to sulphide mineralization seems to be responsible
for the elevated U/Th ratios.

Keywords: airborne methods, Finland, gamma-ray methods, geophysical surveys, gold ores, hydro-
thermal alteration, magnetic methods, massive sulphide deposits, mineral exploration, petrophysics

Abbreviations: GTK – Geological Survey of Finland, AM - aeromagnetic, AEM - aeroelectromag-

netic, AR – aeroradiometric

1. Introduction

Hydrothermal processes can cause different types of change in magnetic min-

eralogy and radioelement contents in geological units under deformation. These
differences depend on the composition and oxidizing or reducing nature of fluids

Surveys in Geophysics 23: 273–302, 2002.

© 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
274 M.-L. AIRO

entering the deformation zone. Where different types of alteration affect the same
geological unit, they may have contrasting influences on the altered rock unit –
even cancel each other out. Since these changes affect the ferrimagnetic minerals
and the relative abundance of radionuclides, they generally cause a geophysical
response. This can be detected even by airborne geophysical methods, provided
that the data are of high resolution and that alteration extends to at least a few
hundred meters.
The Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) carries out systematic airborne geo-
physical surveys and provides high-resolution regional databases for scientific
and commercial purposes, both domestic and abroad. The airborne databases are
routinely utilized at GTK in an integrated manner (GIS-based correlation) together
with other regional databases, e.g., geological databases, regional gravity data (by
GTK and by the Geodetic Institute of Finland) and digital topographic data (by the
National Land Survey of Finland). In order to aid geological interpretation, GTK
also provides a national petrophysical database (Korhonen et al., 1989; Korhonen et
al., 1993). Interpretation case histories utilizing GTK’s aerogeophysical and other
databases show the advantages that can be derived from having systematic regional
databases available (e.g., Elo, 1997; Airo, 1999a; Airo and Ahtonen, 1999; Airo
and Kurimo, 1999; Palmu, 1999).
Comparison between geological and aerogeophysical data in different parts of
Finland has shown that a decrease in magnetization and changes in K concentration
or in U/Th ratio are commonly related to hydrothermally altered zones. Similar
observations on gamma-radiation data have been widely reported elsewhere in
the world, reviewed for example by Dickson and Scott (1997) and Jaques et al.
(1997) in Australia. Magnetomineralogical changes related to hydrothermal altera-
tion have not been so widely covered in the geophysical literature although both the
concentration and grain fabrics of magnetite and pyrrhotite, which are responsible
for the magnetic anomaly field in Precambrian shield areas, are strongly affected
by hydrothermal alteration processes.
This paper is based on a presentation given at the EGS XXV conference (Airo,
2000) and reviews the interpretation of airborne magnetic (AM), electromagnetic
(AEM) and gamma-radiation (AR) data in two different geological settings in
Finland: gold mineralization in the Lapland greenstone belt in northern Finland
and base-metal bearing sulphide mineralization in a metavolcanic-sedimentary
environment of eastern Finland.

2. Airborne Geophysics in Finland

Systematic aerogeophysical low-altitude surveys in Finland started in 1972 – based

on multisensor equipment using fixed wing aircraft, and extra high resolution di-
gital aerodata. The whole country will soon be covered at a very shallow nominal
flight altitude of 30 m and line spacing of 200 m. Presently these surveys cover
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 275

85% of Finland. The geophysical parameters measured are: total magnetic field,
electromagnetic field and Earth’s gamma radiation. These data are levelled between
various flights and survey areas and between various survey years in order to ob-
tain a uniform picture of the whole country and to be able to compare separate
study areas in different parts of Finland. Thus it is possible to evaluate the natural
magnetic field or gamma-radiation level due to lithological variations, but also to
compare geological formations representing different ages and amount of deform-
ation, and to outline the tectonic and structural features that guide the shape and
the internal structure of tectonic/structural basement blocks.
GTK’s aerogeophysical multisensor system is based on simultaneous mag-
netic, gamma-ray and active two-frequency electromagnetic measurement. The
development of instrumentation through years is shown in Table I (for additional
information see www.gsf.fi/aerogeo). The survey flights are flown on E–W or N–
S oriented flight lines, systematically in the whole country. The positioning was
earlier based on camera fixpoints and Doppler, and since 1993 on differential GPS.
The magnetic equipment consists nowadays of two Cesium vapour magneto-
meter sensors at the wing tips of fixed wing aircraft, to allow measurement of
the magnetic horizontal gradient across flight lines. This procedure improves the
quality of maps, giving a better view of the magnetic anomaly field between flight
lines, and thus improves the coverage without extra cost. The position of Finland
at northern latitudes requires a magnetic base station situated within the survey
area during flights, and strict criterion on diurnal variation. The aeromagnetic high-
resolution data in Figure 1 are complemented with airborne data measured at the
higher altitude of 150 m, flown before 1972 and the analog measurements digitized
on a 1 km grid.
The modern gamma-ray spectrometer includes downward and upward looking
crystals. The corrected pulse counts are converted to ground concentrations in or-
der to keep the same background level year by year. Radon reduction is carried
out using data from upward looking detector. The gamma-ray spectrometric data
describes the variation in K, U and Th concentrations in the uppermost c. 0.5 m of
the ground and provide a kind of geochemical map of the ground surface. Com-
plementary to magnetic data, they enable the location of geological boundaries
and compositional zoning within geological units to be identified. Potassium is
detected by measurement of the 1.46 MeV gamma ray emitted by the decay of 40 K
and is a direct estimate of K content in the ground. The U and Th equivalents (eU
ppm and eTh ppm) are calculated on the basis of the daughter isotopes in their
decay series. Levelling the AR data between various survey areas reduces effects
of spectral noise; this effect is particularly severe for U radiation. The potassium
concentration image in Figure 2 illustrates the good continuity between different
survey areas; the unsurveyed regions will be flown in the near future.
GTK started systematic AEM flights in 1953 with a towed bird system, and
has developed the method during the last decades by using different coil con-
figurations and instrumentation (Peltoniemi, 1982). Since 1980 the AEM system
 276

TABLE I
Airborne geophysics at the Geological Survey of Finland: instrument statistics.

Magnetometers Electromagnetics Radiometrics

Year Sensors Reg Coil Frequency Moment Reg Crystal Channels
P = Proton distance volume
C = Cesium
Number C/P (1/s) (m) (Hz) (Am∗ 2) (1/s) (l) Number

1973–1974 1 P 2 26.5 3220 127 2 27.3 36

1975–1977 2 P 2 25.8 3220 127 2 27.3 36
1975–1979 2 P 2 25.0 3220 127 2 27.3 54
M.-L. AIRO

1980 2 P 2 21.44 3222 105 4 25.0 120

1981–1983 2 P 2 21.36 3113 105 4 25.0 120
1984–1988 3 P 4 21.36 3113 105 4 25.0 120
1989–1991 2 P 4 21.36 3113 105 4 25.0 120
1992–1995 2 C 4 21.36 3113 105 4 25.0 120
1996 2 C 4 21.36 3125/14368 115/55 4 25.0 120
1997–1998 2 C 8 21.36 3125/14368 115/55 4 41 (33+8) 256
1999–2001 2 C 10 21.36 3125/14368 115/55 4 41 (33+8) 256
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 277

Figure 1. Aeromagnetic image of Finland. Framed regions A and B are discussed in text.
278 M.-L. AIRO

Figure 2. Airborne high-resolution geophysical surveys in Finland: radiometric image, K concentra-

tion (white squares are unsurveyed areas).
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 279

has been installed in the fixed wing Twin Otter aircraft and is an essential com-
ponent of the multi sensor airborne system. The present EM system includes two
frequencies (∼3 kHz and ∼14 kHz) which gives four components for interpreting
electrical properties of the ground at different depths (Poikonen et al., 1998). The
output parameters of the AEM system are in-phase and quadrature components
of both frequencies. With the registration interval of four times per second and
at the normal flight speed of 60 m/s information is produced along the flight line
every 15 meters (Table I). The depth penetration of the lower frequency can be
down to some hundred meters, whereas the high-frequency is more sensitive to the
conductivity variations of the upper surface. The two frequencies cover together
almost the entire resistivity range of the Earth. The AEM data are levelled to the
zero background level so that, in spite of different survey year, instrumentation or
coil configuration, coherent AEM data are available from the whole country. The
apparent resistivity calculated from AEM data does not depend on the various coil
configurations, and it gives the regional conductivity variations of the ground.
Since low-frequency measurements cover most parts of Finland and are
well suited for regional interpretation purposes, they are utilized throughout the
present article. In addition to mapping electrically conductive geological units, the
frequency-domain AEM data have proved to be valuable in defining the ferromag-
netic mineralogy of the magnetic anomaly sources. The negative in-phase anomaly
arising from the high induced magnetization (magnetic susceptibilities > 0.25 SI)
of the anomaly source indicates a high magnetite content; it is independent of the
remanence (Airo and Kurimo, 1999). In unexposed regions, where sampling for
laboratory measurement or in situ susceptibility measurements may be difficult,
the apparent magnetic susceptibility can be calculated on the basis of the in-phase
anomaly.
Distinction of magnetite- or pyrrhotite-bearing rock associations as the reason
for magnetic anomalies may be important both in mineral exploration and in
outlining weakness and fracture zones in bedrock. Although magnetite is the
main ferrimagnetic mineral in granites and granite gneisses, which dominate the
highly metamorphosed Precambrian bedrock in Finland, monoclinic pyrrhotite
may locally produce intensive magnetic anomalies. As magnetite-bearing forma-
tions generally cause negative AEM in-phase anomalies and they are discriminated
from pyrrhotite- and graphite-bearing formations, which also may be highly mag-
netic but which are good electrical conductors. The procedure of combining
magnetic and AEM anomalies has been used routinely by Airo and Loukola-
Ruskeeniemi (1991), Airo (1997) and Arkimaa et al. (2000) for the identification
of graphite- and sulphide-bearing metamorphosed black shales, so-called black
schists, which are either key horizons or actually host many Finnish base metal
deposits.
Figure 3 compares airborne results for a 20 km × 20 km area in northern
Finland; this area is part of the Lapland greenstone belt (within the region ‘A’ in
Figure 1). The highly magnetic unit in Figure 3a corresponds to ultramafic (ko-
280 M.-L. AIRO

matiitic) metavolcanites, which in places are highly altered and which are known
for their gold-prospectivity. Figures 3c and 3e compare between the AEM in-phase
data and the apparent resistivity for half-space model calculated from the AEM
measurements. The weakly magnetic (tholeiitic) greenstones on the upper right
corner are associated with a number of electrically conductive graphite-bearing in-
tercalations, namely metatuffites and schists. The quartzites display as electrically
resistive regions, while the ultramafic unit is related to a negative AEM in-phase
anomaly. The advantage of the in-phase data is its ability to outline sharply the
magnetically highly susceptive units, rich in magnetite, and to discriminate the
magnetite-bearing units from the electrically resistive or conductive provinces. The
apparent resistivity image does not separate between magnetite-rich or magnetite-
poor non-conductive regions. The radiometric images of the same area (Figures
3b, 3d and 3f) display the overall high radiation of the metasedimentary rocks
quartzites and schists. The stratigrafically uppermost, so-called Kumpu quartzite
differs from the other quartzite units in the area particularly due to its higher
Th and U content. Throughout the Lapland greenstone belt, the quartzites can be
divided into mainly two categories on the basis of their AR data reflecting their
age-difference and stratigraphic position.

3. Geological Overview of the Precambrian Bedrock of Finland

Finland occupies the central part of the predominantly Late Archean and Early
Proterozoic Fennoscandian (Baltic) Shield. The bedrock of Finland (Figure 4) can
be subdivided into three broad domains that have shared a common history since
about 1.8 Ga. The Late Archean granitoids, gneisses and greenstones mainly in
central and eastern Finland comprise the Karelian Craton. It is flanked on both
sides by early Proterozoic mobile belts, namely the Kola-Lapland domain in the
north and the Svecofennian domain in the south (Gaál and Gorbatschev, 1987; for
more information and for a coloured map, see www.gsf.fi/explor). A prolonged
and episodic history of sedimentation, rifting and magmatism throughout the Early
Proterozoic characterizes the northern part of the Karelian Craton, particularly
Finnish Lapland. The Lapland greenstone belt is one of the largest mafic-dominated
provinces preserved in Finland. Rifting began, accompanied by bimodal komatiitic
and felsic volcanism at around 2.5 Ga and continued with widespread emplacement
of gabbro-norite layered intrusions between 2.45–2.39 Ga. These are discordantly
overlain by terrigenous clastic sediments. Further episodes of mafic magmatism
produced sporadic lavas and sills dated at around 2.2 Ga, 2.10 Ga, and 2.05 Ga.
This latter phase coincided with rifting and subsidence of the Karelian Craton
margin, recorded by coarse clastic turbidites, carbonates, iron formations and finer-
grained graphitic schists. Rifting culminated in extensive mafic and ultramafic
volcanism within the Lapland greenstone belt and the formation of oceanic crust
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 281

Figure 3. Examples of high-resolution airborne survey, size of map area is 20 km × 20 km (located

within the framed region A in Figure 1). Lithological units are outlined (um = ultramafic unit; qtz
= quartzite; volc-sed = volcano-sedimentary unit). (a) aeromagnetic image (showing a highly mag-
netic ultramafic unit); (b) aeroradiometric image showing K concentration; (c) AEM in-phase image
(negative in-phase related to magnetite-bearing ultramafic unit); (d) aeroradiometric image showing
eTh concentration; (e) apparent resistivity calculated from AEM measurements; (f) aeroradiometric
image showing eU concentration.
282 M.-L. AIRO

at 1.97 Ga. Fragments of oceanic crust were subsequently thrust back onto the
Karelian craton as the Jormua and Outokumpu ophiolites.
Comparisons between Figures 1, 2 and 4 show that magnetic and lithological
provinces roughly correspond, for example the intensive regional magnetic anom-
aly in the northern part of Finland (the dark region in Figure 1) is associated with
high K concentration (the dark region in Figure 2) on the gamma-radiation image.
These provinces correspond to the wide early Proterozoic post-orogenic granitoid
area in Central Finnish Lapland. Two distinct geological provinces, outlined in
Figure 1, will be discussed in more detail later in this paper. They are the Early
Proterozoic Lapland greenstone belt, north of Rovaniemi (see also Figure 4) and
the metasedimentary area at the Karelian craton margin, east of Kuopio.
The overburden in Finland is dominated by the influence of continental glaciers
(the latest ∼13000 to 9000 years ago), with the weathered bedrock surface having
been scoured off by their movements. Overburden effects differ in various parts
of Finland. In Figure 2 the K radiation in central Finland displays a northeasterly
trend related to overburden texture, but in southern Finland K and the other two
radioelements, Th and U, are enhanced over cultivated clay-rich fields. Moraine
hills or eskers are also marked as areas of high radiation. The AR image of Finland
is decorated by a network of thousands of lakes, rivers and wet mires. Enhanced ra-
diation, particularly high U, follows the lake outlines, which commonly are barren
rock or moraine.

4. Magnetic Mineralogy

The magnetic patterns in Precambrian terrains are mainly caused by magnetite or

pyrrhotite. Magnetite is the main magnetic mineral in felsic igneous rocks, which
constitute the major part of Finnish bedrock and are the source of the most prom-
inent regional anomalies. Mafic and ultramafic metavolcanic rocks may also be the
source of intense magnetite-related magnetic signatures, depending on their meta-
morphic and alteration history. Monoclinic pyrrhotite, present in metamorphosed
shales and schists, may locally cause intense anomalies. These are particularly met
at the craton margin in eastern Finland.
Primary (titano)magnetite content of rocks is controlled by several factors,
the most important of which are iron, titanium and magnesium contents, and
the oxygen fugacity during the original cooling of magma (Grant, 1985, Frost,
1991a, Frost, 1991b). Prograde regional metamorphism of mafic rocks generally
produces secondary magnetite by redistribution of ferric iron, whereas under ret-
rograde conditions and hydrothermal alteration magnetite tends to be gradually
destroyed. In shear and fracture zones introduction of oxidizing fluids may result in
lower magnetite content. Comparison of the magnetic properties of unmetamorph-
osed and metamorphosed igneous rocks in various geological settings in Finland
supports the idea that primary magnetite content predominates over secondary
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 283

Figure 4. Bedrock map of Finland (adapted from www.gsf.fi/domestic, where a coloured version of
the same map is available).
284 M.-L. AIRO

magnetite formed by metamorphic processes, for example in Early Proterozoic

mafic dykes (Airo, 1999b). However, hydrothermal alteration may locally severely
reduce magnetic minerals, for example in talc-carbonate alteration of ultramafic
rocks.
Formation of primary pyrrhotite in sedimentary beds is controlled by sulphur
and oxygen fugacities, iron, graphite and sulphur content and temperature. In re-
gional prograde metamorphism pyrrhotite may change into magnetite or pyrite,
depending on various factors. Relations between magnetite, pyrite and pyrrhotite
in mineralised environments have been discussed by Large (1977). In Finland,
the Early Proterozoic black shales have been metamorphosed to greenschist or
amphibolite grade (so-called black schists), and therefore they are rich in mono-
clinic pyrrhotite and magnetite is absent. Tectonic and metamorphic processes tend
to increase the amount of pyrrhotite, as observed in black schists of the Kainuu
schist belt (Airo and Loukola-Ruskeeniemi 1991). In the same way as the primary
conditions for magnetite-bearing lithologies, the environmental conditions during
original diagenesis and the redox character of later hydrothermal alteration, seem
to be the most important factors influencing the primary pyrrhotite concentration
in metamorphosed black shales in Finland (Airo and Loukola- Ruskeeniemi, in
press).

5. Geological Interpretation Based of Aerogeophysical Data

Gold- and sulphide-bearing mineralization is often closely connected to hydro-

thermally altered zones of bedrock, and commonly controlled by both large scale
and local structural and tectonic features. Integrated use of different databases
offers the interpreter the opportunity to discover both lithological and structural
information based on airborne geophysical data.
Deformation leaves distinct fingerprints on aeromagnetic data. Plastic deform-
ation and folding are generally marked by magnetic patterns which tend to be
curved and continuous (magnetic formlines) and stratigraphy-related, while brittle
deformation affects nearly cooled crust and discordant magnetic patterns are ex-
pected. No magnetomineralogical changes are expected to take place at the late
stage of cooling, but during plastic deformation changes in magnetic mineralogy
occur, depending on the changed conditions such as temperature and oxidation.
Smoothly – continuously – changing magnetic field intensity was formed un-
der laterally uniform environmental conditions and temperatures high enough for
affecting magnetic minerals. Where plastic magnetic patterns show weakened mag-
netic intensity they may be related to shearing. The deformed, often mylonitized
zones, display weakened magnetic properties because of gradual destruction or
alteration of magnetic minerals due to oxidizing fluid injection, or due to hydro-
thermal alteration at a late stage of cooling. Linear steps in magnetic field intensity
have been formed deeper in the crust, under semi-brittle conditions, whereas faults
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 285

and fractures which interrupt the plastic signatures are formed more close to the
surface. Straight, linear block boundaries which follow the strike of the axial planes
of the regional folding are often accompanied by linear faults or fracture zones.
Even a 5 nT difference in magnetic level can be detected from high- resolution
data. According to modelling of aeromagnetic profiles, such a variation may be
produced by 1–2 km vertical variation of the upper surface of a 10–15 km wide
magnetized body, at a depth of 5–10 km.
Aeromagnetic data mostly record the latest tectonic events, although many of
them are strongly controlled by the framework formed during earlier events: the
last folding period, late faults disrupting the folded formlines, and even the frac-
tured and jointed texture of the weathered bedrock surface. Examples of some late
structures in magnetic data are displayed in Figure 5, which illustrates the southern
part of the early Proterozoic Lapland greenstone belt (LGB). The weakly magnetic
LGB greenstones in the north (Figure 5a) are separated from the Central Lapland
Granitoid area (CLG) in the south by a more strongly magnetic schist belt. The
magnetic banding within LGB, readily observed in the horizontal derivative image
(Figure 5b), generally corresponds to folded bedding planes. LGB extends from
northern Norway across Finnish Lapland to eastern Karelia, and it is characterized
by poorly outcropping greenstone areas occupying topographic valleys, and sur-
rounded by younger quartzitic or granitic fells. Geophysical studies confirm up to
6 km present-day thickness of the volcanite- dominated Kittilä Group (Lehtonen
et al., 1998). The schist belt is fragmented by the NW-SE oriented Sirkka Thrust
zone, which is composed of several parallel gently southwards dipping thrust faults
and steps, with a strike length of more than 150 km altogether. The contact zone
between the greenstones and the schist belt hosts several gold- and sulphide-
deposits (for more information see www.gsf.fi/explor). The known gold-bearing
mineralization in the Lapland greenstone belt is related to a network of fractures,
faults and shear zones which are strongly tectonically related to the Sirkka Thrust
zone.
In Figure 5 the Sirkka Thrust zone is represented by the NW–SE trending mag-
netic ‘steps’ of deeper origin, which are associated with a linear change in magnetic
field intensity, and accompanied by faults or fractures which represent surface
structures. Overthrusting from S–SW is marked by the fragmented structure of the
highly magnetic schist belt and the NE–SW oriented large scale fracture and shear
zones along the boundaries of the NE-wards thrusted blocks. The formlines within
the granitoid (CLG) and the greenstone areas (LGB) in Finnish Lapland record
the trend of the latest folding period, earlier than the overthrusting or related to it.
Within LGB a weak systematic NS trend is revealed by processed aeromagnetic
data, and it is often associated with shearing. The sharp faults within the CLG,
normal to the trend of folding, were possibly formed as relaxation cracks related to
the late stage of the cooling. The series of lineaments, particularly clearly displayed
as the NW-SE trending faults fragmenting the ‘granitoids’ in Figure 5 (and Figure
6), represent brittle structures.
286 M.-L. AIRO

Figure 5. (a) Lapland greenstone belt: some interpreted structures on total field aeromagnetic data;
(b) horizontal gradient (southing) of magnetic field. LGB = Lapland greenstone belt; CLG = Central
Lapland granitoid area.
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 287

Figure 6. Post-orogenic porphyric granitoids in northern Finland (the ‘granitoids’ in Figure 5). (a)
aeromagnetic total field image (dark = highly magnetic); (b) K concentration (dark = a high K
content, white areas are covered by wet overburden and water which decrease the gamma radiation).
288 M.-L. AIRO

Although greatly influenced by overburden, the lithological variation in Finland

is reflected in airborne radiometric data, and regional summaries and characteriz-
ation of lithological or structural bedrock provinces are feasible. For example in
northern Finland the overburden is often in situ and largely reflects the underlying
lithology. However, properties of overburden can dramatically change or reduce the
radiation output from bedrock surface and soil moisture decreases radiation effect-
ively. Calculating radioelement ratios effectively decreases the variation caused by
soil moisture, variable thickness of overburden and source geometry. Vegetation in
Finland does not influence aerial gamma-ray data in any important way for regional
investigations.
In general, vast granitoid areas in northern Finland are indicated by particu-
larly high K radiation but also enhanced U and Th, while greenstone areas have
low radioelement concentration. Regions of high K and particularly high U and
Th are typically metasediments. All quartzite units in the southern part of the
Lapland greenstone belt are non-magnetic and easily outlined; they also display
some internal structures, such as weak magnetic anomaly bands indicating their
compositional variation. The different AR data divide the quartzites into two com-
positional categories, depending on their degree of sericitization which which in
turn is related to two different ages. Six rounded magnetic units, which denote
early Proterozoic porphyritic granitoid stocks in Lapland, are illustrated in Figure
6, three in each of two rows. Their postorogenic emplacement was controlled
by large-scale crustal faults of the same system, reported by Wennerström and
Airo (1998), who studied the magnetic characteristics and the magnetic anisotropy
related to the emplacement history of the western group of granite stocks. The
‘broken’ appearance in both AM and AR data for some of the stocks might reflect
their more weathered nature.

6. Petrophysical Analysis

In order to aid the interpretation of geophysical anomalies, GTK provides a petro-

physical database. It contains density and magnetic property data, such as magnetic
susceptibility and the intensity of remanent magnetization for rock samples from
all over Finland, presently for more than 170 000 samples and the number is still
growing. Such a large amount of petrophysical information can be utilized both in
detailed local studies and in regional correlations between bedrock provinces (e.g.,
Elo, 1997; Airo, 1999a). The basic idea of using density and magnetic susceptibil-
ity information for interpretation of aeromagnetic data was reported in Finland as
early as the 1960’s (Puranen et al., 1968). Since then a petrophysical sampling pro-
gramme has been carried out in Finland and elsewhere in Fennoscandia (Korhonen
et al., 1989, 1993; Henkel, 1991, 1994). Analysis of petrophysical data has been
shown to improve the geological interpretation of aerogeophysical data (e.g., Clark,
1997).
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 289

Aeromagnetic interpretation benefits greatly from information on the induced

and remanent magnetization. Further, by correlating induced magnetization to
density, the overall rock compositions and their magnetic mineral contents can
be estimated (Puranen, 1989). These estimates are most easily demonstrated by
scatter diagrams between magnetic susceptibility and density or the Königsberger
ratio Q (remanent/induced magnetization). In magnetite-bearing rocks the ratio Q
is a coarse measure of the magnetic grain size. Petrophysical property analyses
are seldom documented in geophysical interpretation case histories but they can
give very useful information. Therefore the interpretation of density and magnetic
property distributions are here explained in some detail.
The petrophysical parameters in Figure 7 are based on the GTK petrophys-
ical database. The scatter diagrams show the distribution of 1098 granite samples,
434 samples of different ultramafic rock and greenstone and 70 graphite-bearing
schists, in order to compare different typical rock types in northern Finland.
These rock groups occupy different fields both on density-susceptibility and Q-
ratio-susceptibility plots, reflecting in this way the differences in their modal
composition (i.e. mafic to felsic silicates) and magnetic mineralogy. Magnetite
is the major ferrimagnetic mineral in granites and ultramafic rocks, whereas in
graphite-bearing schists it is pyrrhotite. Magnetite and pyrrhotite have distinct
magnetic properties, as reported by numerous authors (reviewed e.g., by Clark,
1997). The induced magnetization due to pyrrhotite is lower than that due to mag-
netite, but the remanent magnetization may be an order of magnitude higher. The
effect of other magnetic minerals is minor compared with these two and can be
disregarded in aeromagnetic interpretation. Differences between the petrophysical
properties for pyrrhotite- and magnetite-bearing rocks in GTK’s database have
been described, for example by Airo (1997).
In Figure 7 those samples with magnetic susceptibilities above c. 1000 × µSI
(marked by the hatched lines), have induced magnetization high enough to cause
a magnetic anomaly within a paramagnetic environment. This value corresponds
roughly to the induced magnetism related to iron-bearing silicates within the rock.
Samples above the 1000 µSI threshold contain ferrimagnetic minerals, either mag-
netite or pyrrhotite. The diagrams show that magnetite-bearing ultramafic rocks
have induced magnetization about an order of magnitude higher than that of
pyrrhotite- bearing schists.
The density-suceptibility plot in Figure 7a shows that granites have a narrow
density distribution at about 2600 kg/m3 . The densities of ultramafic rocks are
between 2700 and 3200 kg/m3 with serpentinite and talc-bearing varieties having
the lowest densities. The densities of graphite-bearing schists vary widely, increas-
ing with the concentration of sulphides (mostly pyrite and pyrrhotite). The low
mean bulk density for granites reflects their low mafic silicate content and their
narrow distribution reflects quite uniform mineral proportions of mafic and felsic
silicates. The magnetization of granites varies widely, from very weakly magnetic
(diamagnetic) to more than 10 000 µSI, which is common in porphyritic granites
290 M.-L. AIRO

Figure 7. Petrophysical properties for granites, ultramafic rocks, greenstones and graphite-bearing
schists from Finnish Lapland (petrophysical data base by GTK). (a) magnetic susceptibility against
density; b) magnetic susceptibility against Königsberger ratio Q (remanent to induced magnetiza-
tion). Squares = granite; circles = black schist; diamonds = greenstone and ultramafic rock; black
diamonds = serpentinite.

of northern Finland. Whereas granites are clearly separated magnetically from

greenstones and ultramafic rocks, pyrrhotite-bearing schists occupy the interval
between these two groups, with susceptibilities almost linearly related to pyrrhotite
content. Those samples of graphite-bearing schists within the density range 2700-
2900 kg/m3 are mainly black schists. The density and magnetic characterisics of
black schists have been shown to reflect their geochemical character (Airo and
Loukola-Ruskeeniemi, 1991).
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 291

In the Q-ratio-susceptibility plot (Figure 7b) almost all the magnetite-bearing

granites (> 1000 µSI) have Q ratios below 1 due to their coarse magnetic grain
size. The Q ratios for ultramafic rocks concentrate around 1, also indicating their
coarse-grained magnetite content. However, some have Q ratios above 10 and
such samples contain very fine-grained magnetite, which usually is secondary and
formed in prograde metamorphic processes. Most of the measured graphite-bearing
schists from Finnish Lapland lack pyrrhotite, as indicated by magnetic susceptibil-
ities below the 1000 µSI threshold and these do not carry remanent magnetization.
Black schists elsewhere in Finland have Q ratios clustered around 10 verifying
that pyrrhotite-bearing rocks have remanence an order of magnitude higher than
induced magnetization.
The fact that magnetite and pyrrhotite-bearing rocks can be distinguished by
their differing magnetic properties helps to interpret the sources of magnetic
anomalies. Black schists are commonly associated with base metal mineraliza-
tion in Finland. Their magnetic anomaly patterns discriminate them from those
caused for example by ultramafic rocks within the same association. Nevertheless,
ultramafic rocks with fine magnetite grain size may have similar remanence-
dominated magnetic signatures to those of black schists (Airo, 1995; Airo and
Loukola-Ruskeeniemi, in press).

7. Chemical Alteration in Geophysical Sense

The concentration and textural appearance of both magnetite and pyrrhotite are
related to metamorphic and alteration processes. In addition to the amount of
ferrimagnetic material which largely determines the induced magnetization of
rock and which is measured by the magnetic susceptibility, the magnetite grain
shape is known to influence remanent magnetization. Comparisons between optical
and hysteresis properties for metavolcanic rocks in Finnish Lapland indicate that
broken and irregular shapes of magnetite grains, as well as fine magnetite grains,
are related to higher intensities of remanent magnetization than for large, euhed-
ral magnetite grains (Airo, 1993). The abundance of pyrrhotite seems to increase
with tectonic deformation and metamorphic processes, where secondary pyrrhotite
grows along cleavage planes between or cutting the sedimentary beds. The typical
crystal anisotropy of pyrrhotite leads to the orientation of grain long axes parallel
to the tectonic stress. This has been observed in metamorphosed black shales and
intermediate gneisses in Finland. When the mineral composition and magnetic
mineral content of rock are changed in deformational processes, the magnetic
properties and bulk density are also changed. Roughly, the alteration effects can be
predicted on the basis of petrophysical properties compared with those of unaltered
rocks with similar modes.
Hydrothermal alteration is known to change the abundances of U and Th, and
particularly the K content of rocks. To evaluate the effects of alteration on gamma-
292 M.-L. AIRO

radiation, information on the overall radiation level for different rock types must
be obtained by calculating the mean ground-level abundances of the radioelements.
Variations in U and Th contents and their relationships characterize the metasedi-
mentary regions both in northern and eastern Finland (the outlined regions A and B
in Figure 1) whereas K-alteration is common in the Lapland greenstone belt. These
two relationships are discussed in the following two case histories.

7.1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SULPHIDE MINERALIZATION AND U/T H

In eastern Finland the structure of the metasedimentary, mainly weakly magnetic

belt at the craton margin is controlled by regional fold structures (Figure 8). Many
known base-metal bearing sulphide deposits, e.g., Outokumpu-Vuonos, Luikon-
lahti, Kylylahti and Hammaslahti seem to be tectonically controlled by a NW–SE
trending regional scale fault system. In addition to the curved magnetic signatures,
regional folding can be mapped from the systematic variation between dome-like
regions with higher and lower magnetization level.
The base-metal bearing sulphide deposits in eastern Finland are associated
with metavolcanites and related metasedimentary units which include graphite-
and pyrrhotite-bearing metamorphosed black shales, or black schists (Loukola-
Ruskeeniemi, 1999). These are recognized as narrow magnetic horizons in Figure
8a – in Figure 8b the same units are electrically conductive. Black schists either
act as hosts to, or occur close to, these deposits, and hydrothermal alteration is
common. The chemical composition of graphite-bearing schists is known to reflect
the nature of the hydrothermal alteration and the possible mineralization. Protero-
zoic black schists in Finland were originally clay-rich sediments, inheriting their
generally high U and Th along with detritus weathered from Archean rocks, e.g.,
granitoids in eastern Finland. However, there are variations in U and Th radiation
between various black schist settings. This is mainly due to differing environmental
conditions during diagenesis of these metasedimentary beds, depending on ox-
idation state and the depth of seawater above the sediments. Oxidized U6+ ions
are soluble in seawater and may therefore leave the sediment. On the other hand,
mineralising processes may cause an influx of U and Th and thereby enhance their
concentrations in parts of the sedimentary basin.
Variation of AR data for distinct geological units is commonly studied by eval-
uating their ternary images and comparing their K, U and Th concentrations. The
variation in gamma radiation may be very weak and differences hard to recognize,
but they can nevertheless be determined by statistical analysis. For example, three
magnetically and lithologically distinct bedrock provinces are compared by analys-
ing their gamma- radiation data in Figure 9. The intensive magnetic signatures and
electrically conductive zones are caused by the combination of serpentinites and
pyrrhotite-bearing black schist beds in the lithologically and tectonically similar
provinces 1 and 3, and the magnetic bodies of province 2 are mainly magnetite-
bearing ultramafic intrusive rocks. Province 1 contains mineralized zones, for
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 293

Figure 8. Metasedimentary sequencies in eastern Finland (region ‘B’ in Figure 1): (a) aeromagnetic
map, (b) apparent resistivity map.
294 M.-L. AIRO

example the Luikonlahti Cu-Zn-Co deposit. The AR data histograms for province
1 indicate its overall U enhancement and bimodal K and Th concentrations. The
lowest U, and in particular K and Th concentrations, are associated with province
3. Because of the relative Th and K depletion for province 3, the U radiation will
be enhanced when calculating AR ratios – for example the U/Th. It is suggested
that province 3 is favourable for sulphide deposits and this is marked by the low
K and Th contents. Comparison between the AM and AR data for several sulphide
deposits in eastern Finland has shown that they share a local depletetion of Th and
K, with minor U enrichment, in the same way as the northeastern part of province
1 (Airo and Karell, 2001; Airo and Loukola-Ruskeeniemi, in press). Magnetization
is locally reduced, although the surroundings of the mineralized zone may display
intensive magnetic anomalies. These comparisons suggest that the contents of both
monoclinic pyrrhotite and U in black schists are largely controlled by the same
environmental factors during the original diagenesis and during later deformation.
These are, amongst others, sulphur and oxygen fugacities and temperature, and the
availability of iron. Within mineralized zones, magnetic changes in black schists
are expected, because their pyrrhotite content is increased in tectonized and metal-
bearing settings. The stability relations between pyrite, pyrrhotite and magnetite
influence the magnetic properties of black schist beds.

7.2. K ALTERATION AND GOLD IN THE L APLAND GREENSTONE BELT

Aeromagnetic images of the Lapland greenstone belt show large areas of low to
moderate average magnetization with weak compositional banding (see Figures 3
and 5). The greenstones host structurally controlled, mesothermal gold mineraliz-
ation, which is commonly associated with deformed contacts between greenstones
and electrically conductive schists or some syn- and late-deformation intrusions
(Eilu, 1999). Many of the gold occurrences are small but they also include deposits
of economic interest. The recently found Suurikuusikko gold deposit is one of the
largest in Europe (see www.gsf.fi/explor/gold ).
Pre-, syn- and post-gold chemical alterations characterize the gold-bearing
greenstones. Both the tholeiitic and ultramafic units are known for their increased
K content due to intensive potassic alteration (biotitization and sericitization). The
tholeiites are particularly weakly magnetic, but the most deformed parts of the
ultramafic units also have reduced magnetization. Both biotitization and carbonate
alteration tend to destroy magnetite and talc-carbonation results in a total lack of
magnetite. The influence of chemical alteration on the magnetic properties for the
ultramafic unit is quite local and hard to distinguish, since it is displayed only by the
narrow, weakly-magnetized stripes close to the contacts. Petrophysical measure-
ments verify a progressive decrease in magnetization associated with progressive
talc-carbonate alteration. At the same time densities increase due to increasing
content of heavy ferromagnesian, paramagnetic silicates. In aeromagnetic images
this partial destruction of magnetite is seen as regions of spotted and disrupted
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 295

Figure 9. Comparison between gamma-radiation data for three geological provinces. (a) provinces
1, 2 and 3 outlined on the aeromagnetic total field image (framed region in Figure 8); (b) histograms
illustrating U, K and Th content and U/Th for the three provinces.

magnetic anomaly pattern instead of the strongly magnetic compositional banding

which is typical of fresh ultramafic units.
Because of the localised effects of the alteration, analysis of the flight line data
improves the information obtained from airborne AR surveys. Elevated K-radiation
output due to potassic alteration characterizes the ultramafic unit at the southern
boundary of the Lapland greenstone belt (the same ultramafic unit as discussed
already in Figure 3), whereas unaltered ultramafic formations commonly show very
weak or no radiation. Flight line paths and the calculated K/Th profile for a selected
flight line traversing through the altered ultramafic sequence is shown in Figure
10a. In addition to K/Th, magnetic, EM and K concentration data along this line
is shown in Figure 10b. The negative AEM low-frequency in-phase component
between 5 to 6 km in Figure 10b is related to the magnetite-bearing, magnetically
susceptive ultramafic unit, while the positive AEM anomalies mark good electrical
conductors. Increased K content and K/Th ratios for the ultramafic unit (5–6 km)
are indicative of alteration: due to deformation, the ultramafic – metakomatiitic
296 M.-L. AIRO

Figure 9. Continued.
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 297

– units are brecciated and altered to green marble, typified by K/Th maxima in
airborne data.
Figure 11 summarizes the geophysical response for gold and sulphide-hosting
deposits. It shows the record of geophysical logging in one 75 m deep borehole in
the Kittilä prospect of LGB and compares between magnetic, electromagnetic and
radiation data and lithological variations. The uppermost ∼35m is composed of
highly brecciated ultramafic rock unit (so-called green marble) which is character-
ized by low radiation and high apparent resistivity. The fractured green marble is
also marked by great variation of the borehole diameter. The next highly radiating
unit downwards has high electrical chargeability and a peak in bulk density plus a
small magnetic maximum: this unit contains sulphides. Below the sulphide-bearing
unit there are ultramafic rocks down to a black schist unit at 50 m depth. Increased
magnetization and radiation are related to black schists. Below the black schists,
at about 65 to 70 m, the electrically conductive unit is marked by anomalously
high density and magnetization. This unit is typified by enhanced radiation, and it
contains gersdorffite, which is commonly related to mineralized zones in Kittilä.

8. Summary

Gold and base-metal exploration based on interpretation of airborne magnetic,

radiometric and electromagnetic surveys proceeds, by addressing the following
topics: (1) overall geological and tectonic setting; (2) magnetic mineralogy and
structural control; (3) mineralising processes; (4) how these processes affect the
ferrimagnetic mineralogy (Airo and Mertanen, 2001). The general impact of hy-
drothermal alteration is to destroy magnetite, and under certain conditions this
destruction may be severe, but magnetite may also be produced by alteration
processes, such as serpentinization or potassic alteration related to oxidized felsic
fluids (Clark, 2001). Monoclinic pyrrhotite is common in Finland because of the re-
latively high metamorhpic grade, but hydrothermal fluids may influence its change
into non-magnetic minerals, either pyrite or hexagonal pyrrhotite.
The geological interpretation benefits from distinguishing the magnetite- or
pyrrhotite- bearing settings in order to understand the aeromagnetic signature of
the survey area and the possible magnetomineralogical changes. Magnetite- and
pyrrhotite-bearing lithologies are separated by comparing AM and AEM data:
monoclinic pyrrhotite is associated with coincident magnetic and electrically con-
ductive anomalies, while magnetite-bearing formations are highly magnetic but
marked by their negative AEM in-phase anomaly. In petrophysical plots compar-
ing density and magnetic properties the pyrrhotite-bearing samples occupy totally
different fields than the magnetite-bearing ones.
The magnetic field data record the deformation history of bedrock and, in
the Precambrian, multiple deformation stages have left their fingerprints on the
magnetic properties of rocks. Comparisons between the magnetic properties for
298 M.-L. AIRO

Figure 10. (a) Aeromagnetic image, flight line paths (200 m line-spacing) and the calculated K/Th
profile along one flight line. Dark = the highly magnetic ultramafic unit; (b) flight line data: AM,
AEM, K% and calculated K/Th profiles. Length of flight profile is 10 km.
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 299

Figure 11. Record of geophysical logging in one borehole at the southern margin of the Lapland
greenstone belt.

geological formations representing different ages, geological and tectonic settings

and deformational styles in different parts of Finland have shown that the magnet-
ization is largely overprinted by the latest deformational period – either the regional
metamorphism or the deformations post-dating the last orogeny. The induced and
remanent magnetization reflect the content, composition and grain fabrics of mag-
netite or pyrrhotite. These all may be changed during deformation, but the total
magnetization of rocks is generally dominated by their primary magnetic min-
eralogy. A dramatic change in environmental conditions is required to produce
great changes in the content of magnetic minerals: particularly the fugacities of
oxygen and sulphur during primary cooling and later deformational periods are
important factors, provided that the required temperature range for the alteration
reactions was reached. For example, regional metamorphism of mafic rocks gen-
erally produces secondary magnetite, but this secondary magnetite is commonly
very fine-grained and volumetrically minor compared to the primary, more coarse-
grained magnetite. Its influence on the induced magnetization is only to enhance
the intensity, but this fine-grained material may have a great effect on the re-
manent magnetization and thus on the appearance of magnetic anomalies. Most
300 M.-L. AIRO

of the sharp, intensive magnetic anomalies on the aeromagnetic map of Finland

are strongly affected by the remanence which is due to the secondary magnetite
produced during the Svecofennian orogeny (1900–1800 Ma ago). Palaeomagnetic
results verify that Svecofennian partial remagnetization is a pervasive overprint
throughout whole Finland (Mertanen, 1995). The importance of remanence on the
magnetic anomaly map of Finland has also been stated according to analysis of
the large petrophysical database at GTK (Puranen, 1989; Korhonen, 1992; Airo,
1999a).
Apart from magnetic mineralogy, the radioelement concentrations may also
be changed during hydrothermal alteration. Airborne gamma-ray data offer a
three-element geochemical image of the prospective area and may reflect later
deformation episodes than the magnetic data. By estimating the mean ground-level
abundances of K, U and Th content for bedrock, it is possible to evaluate changes
in the altered zones. K alteration generally produces the most prominent effects,
since K is the most abundant of the three radioelements in bedrock. The effects
of K enrichment are particularly clear on mafic rocks, which commonly lack K-
bearing minerals. Elevated K concentrations of mafic or ultramafic rock units may
indicate promising targets for gold exploration. On the contrary, U and Th are
enhanced in metasedimentary rocks, where they often mask the role of K. U/Th
reflect the environmental conditions during formation (diagenesis) or deformation
of the metasediment: enhanced U relative to Th means reduced conditions and
depleted U relative to Th means more oxidized conditions.
Regional differences and variations in radioelement concentration and mag-
netization may be so weak that they are hard to analyse without having access
to high-resolution airborne data and modern image processing and enhancement
methods. Integrated interpretation of simultaneously measured airborne geophys-
ical data improves the recognition, mapping and geological interpretation of
hydrothermally altered zones. Because hydrothermal alteration generally accom-
panies and is controlled by tectonic deformation, regional AM interpretation is
necessary for studying the tectonic and structural setting. Information on electrical
conductors aids in interpretation, since they are commonly found close to min-
eralization of both gold and sulphide base metals. In particular, the neighbouring
conductive horizon can be used as a key horizon in locating the promising zones,
and it also may have played an important role in the mineralising process by intro-
ducing a reducing, graphite-bearing contrast surface. Complementary topographic
data help to estimate the effects of soil cover on AEM and AR data. Reasonable
interpretations of airborne geophysical data are carried out only by incorporating
geological information on the local alteration history.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank M. Kurimo and an anonymous reviewer for their detailed
comments on the manuscript, which helped to improve this paper considerably.
AEROMAGNETIC AND AERORADIOMETRIC RESPONSE TO HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION 301

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