TEMA 1: Evolución de la didáctica de las lenguas.

Tendencias actuales de la didáctica del inglés

como lengua extranjera. Los enfoques comunicativos.

Contents:

1.Introduction

2.Evolution of language teaching:

-Grammar-translation method

-Natural and direct methods

-Structuralism  Audio-lingual method

-Cognitivism  Notional-functional syllabus, Threshold level, LOMCE

3.Present-day trends-Communicative approaches

-Suggestopedia

-Total Physical Response

-Natural order approach (Krashen)

-Student-centred learning

-Task-based approach

4.Didactic applications

5.Conclusion

6.Bibliography

1. INTRODUCTION

The evolution of language teaching has tried to answer the question “how to teach?” Many
theories and models have been presented, all of them contributing with some positive aspects
but also drawbacks. Knowing the evolution of language teaching until the 21 st C is a necessary
task for any teacher, who must be aware of history in order to make his/her own personal
choices when creating their style.

In the first section of the unit we will explore the evolution of language teaching and how the
influence of emerging cognitive theories shifted the focus of language teaching.

In the second section we will look at some current trends as well as focus on the
communicative approach as the central paradigm of language teaching.

It is essential to consider the differences between approach (a particular theory), method (a

way of presenting that theory into practise) and methodology (the classroom procedure).
 2. THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

Languages began to be taught very early in history. For centuries, Latin was the dominant
language of education, commerce, religion and the government in the Western world. Thus it
was the most widely foreign language studied. However, in the 16 th century French, Italian,
Spanish and English became the model for foreign language study from the 17 th to the 19th
century. In the 18th century Harvard University started to offer courses on modern languages
but it was not until the 19 th century when the first serious attempts of a teaching method
arose. The need to learn a second language seems to have reached its peak in our times:
multilingualism is the norm; it is what the Common European Framework of Teaching
Languages (CEFR) establishes for European citizens regarding it as a natural state in human
societies.

2.1. Grammar-Translation method

As we have seen, English was taught in the same way that classic languages (Latin and Greek),
through the mother tongue. It consisted of a rigid presentation of grammar with much literary
vocabulary. Translation was widely used and students had to learn rules by heart and apply
them. The method was based on reading and writing, so its main drawback was that there was
no conversation and no knowing of why using certain pieces of vocabulary and structures.
However it provided students with knowledge of grammar, syntax and phonology. This
method has been broadly used until recently, but today only a minority is satisfied with it since
there is a lack of spoken language and cultural aspects.

2.2. Direct and natural methods

Both appeared as a contrast to the G-T method. Phonetics and speech were the base of
teaching. The name ‘natural’ develops from the way considered to be natural when learning a
language, that is to say, through conversation and communication. There was no work with
grammar or translation, no mother tongue was spoken and memory was not the way to learn
the language. Writing was only used with advanced students.

The ‘direct’ method mainly followed these criteria, but it included writing, translation and
reading after speech. At the same time they also used drills for memorization. Its main
problems were that it required very able teachers and big efforts on the part of the students.
Besides, the learning of grammar and vocabulary was rather slow. This method is not much
used at present except for the Berlitz School.

2.3. Structuralism

In the 20th century we have witnessed the main advances in the teaching of languages. The
first new approach was the structuralist-behaviourist one. Structuralism was a language
description based on structural paradigms that is learning a language as a mastery of the
elements of the language and the rules by which they are governed. Also it follows the idea
that speaking must be taught first. It is based on the studies of contrastive analysis of
languages and has aural and oral procedures as well as behaviourist theories. Students develop
a set of habits, which are learnt through imitation and become automatic. The use of drilling is
therefore essential in order to memorise these paradigms.
The behaviourist theory developed from Pavlov and Skinner’s experiments with animals and is
based on the stimulus-response sequence. Skinner added the concept of reinforcement, which
is defined as the reward to strengthen the possibility of a response to a given stimulus. The
structuralist language description and the behaviourist learning theory were combined by the
audio-lingual method.

2.3.a. Audio-lingual method

This was the most popular method of language teaching in the 50’s and 60’s. It combined
structuralism and behaviourism. It was the first method that included both linguistics and
psychological aspects.

The main contribution of the Audio-lingual method was the introduction of drills instead of the
speech base of the direct method. These drills were used for repetition. In this way the
students formed a series of habits that in the end would permit them the learning of the new
language. The objectives were the mastery of the four skills (reading, writing, listening and
speaking), beginning with list-sp and acquiring read-writ afterwards. The students acquired
comprehension and speaking quite early in their learning experience and the techniques used
were drilling and memory in order to produce and manipulate the structural elements.
Motivation was usually quite high because there was an introduction to ‘real language’. It was
taught through the foreign language and there was not much explanation of the rules.

Nevertheless, there were certain drawbacks to this method. The use of drills led to a
mechanical way of learning. Students were not aware of the use of the learned language in
different contexts and also they could end up feeling bored as a result of the different
techniques of memorisation. Finally, there was a big gap between oral and written
presentation.

Some methodologies used this audio-lingual method. For example, during the Second World
War the Audio-lingual method was used with American soldiers through what was called ASTP
(Army specialised training programme). The results were excellent because they were few,
very motivated and highly intelligent people. They wanted to interpret messages they could
interfere so the emphasis was put on the aural skills. This method, however, was a failure
when put into practice with children.

Basic English was another methodology that used the audio-lingual method as a starting point,
but it focused on its conception of a common core of all grammars and vocabularies. It tried to
reach that ‘basis’ that we could find in all languages, for example using ‘nice’ to mean all
‘handsome’, ‘pretty’ and ‘beautiful’.

The biggest problem of the methodology was that it was too limited and only useful for certain
specific purposes. It created an artificial language not widely used.
 2.4. Cognitivism

Cognitivism defends that to learn, students must think (rather than repeat). It is a learning
theory that reacts to Skinner’s one (Behaviourism) and is based on Chomsky’s theory of
competence and performance. For him, language is an intricate rule-based system and a large
part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. There are a finite number of
grammatical rules in the system and, with knowledge of these; an infinite number of sentences
can be performed. This is why a child (or learner) can produce a sentence that she/he has
never heard before. This way the child acquires ‘Linguistic Competence’ and it allows him to be
creative as a language user.

Chomsky’s contribution to teaching was the allowance of ungrammatical examples and errors,
the usefulness of explanations and creativity for the students. According to Chomsky, to
produce communicative performances student must be motivated and teachers must have an
understanding of the learning processes. As a summary we could say that Chomsky criticises
Structuralism because he defended students learnt by extracting a generative rule from a mass
of unsorted data and analysing the situations in which the rule can be reapplied. Cognitivism
gave learning and teaching a new emphasis on communication in the 70’s with new items such
as purpose and meaning in the tasks.

2.4.a. Fuctional-notional approach

A course based on a functional-notional approach sets out to teach communicative skills, and
structures and vocabulary are the by-product of this aim. Notions are the concepts and
meanings that the learner needs to communicate (spatial relations, possessive relations, etc.)
Functions are what we do with the language, for example expressing agreement or
disagreement. This notions and functions take place in a situation, where people are when the
communication takes place. Firth said that the meaning of an utterance depends on the
cultural and situational context. There are other concepts that affect communication such as
social and psychological roles of the speakers, their style (formal or informal) or the stress and
intonation they use. Grammar and vocabulary, as we have seen, are the product of the
previous aspects.

The functional-notional approach together with cognitive language description of the cognitive
approach to language is the most followed today. It always works on the four skills and is
meaningful. It is based on the constructivist learning that is, the student establishes a relation
between his/her own previous knowledge and the new one. It takes learner’s needs and
motivation into account. ‘Write about your partner’: cinema at the weekend  students will
use Present Simple. They will have to comment the results to the class  communicate.

The communicative approach has been followed by several methods, among them the one
proposed by the Threshold Level and the LOGSE.

2.4.b. Threshold Level

It is the syllabus for the common core that you have to have before specific purposes. It
follows Jespersen’s notional-functional categories and it refers to the integrated working on
the four skills. There are also indications on the level of skills expected in the learners.
2.4.c. LOMCE Model

It is bases mainly on the Direct Method, but there is a balance of the four skills. The goals are
seen through capacities and the contents are divided in concepts, procedures and attitudes.

Its methodology is based on constructivism and meaningful learning and it regards evaluation
as a continuous process.

3. PRESENT-DAY TRENDS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING- COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES

Most of the current trends in language teaching are based on communicative approaches. We
are going to analyse some of the most common methodologies.

3.1. Suggestopedia:

Based on the view that the brain has an unusual power, which can be exploited through
suggestion, that is putting the learner in deep relaxation, close to hypnosis, using rhythmic
breathing and readings with music. The emphasis is on informal communication and
grammatical errors are not paid any attention. The student begins with words and the
essential grammar and then develops to the dialogues to be memorised and studied. It was
hardly criticized because it only seemed to work if the students thought it was a scientific
method.

3.2. Total Physical Response (TPR):

The beginning of this methodology is through oral understanding. Students have to perform
the action that the teacher says. It begins with simple things like ‘stop’ or ‘stand up’ and it
develops gradually until reaching chains of actions. The essential view is that understanding
comes before production; because that is the way we acquire our mother tongue. It is linked
to the ‘Trace theory’ that claims that the more often a memory connection is traced, the
stronger the memory association is and the more likely it is recalled. It is recommended in
combination with other methods.

3.3. Natural Approach

Based on Krashen’s Natural Order Hypothesis that states, connected to the way we acquire our
mother tongue, that we first understand and later produce utterances. He also claims that
grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order. Hence, if British children acquire
the –ing form of the verb earlier than the irregular past, we should teach the language
following this natural order up.

Here is an example of that order:

-ing, plural, to be  progressive auxiliary, article  irregular past  regular past, 3rd p-s

And this would be an example of the natural order methodology applied in class:

Listening to a dialogue  Speaking: repeat the dialogue, Role-play  Reading a connected

text  Writing: answer questions, write a similar paragraph.
 3.4. Task-based approach

The most important part of this approach is the realisation of a task. Students know from the
very beginning what the objectives of the lesson are and they have to do several tasks to reach
the final one, which is the objective. There are two different types of tasks, namely
communicative and enabling tasks. The communication tasks involve learners in the
comprehension, production and oral interaction of the foreign language. The students’
attention is primarily on meaning which as far as possible resembles activities that are carried
out in everyday life, thus reproducing processes of everyday communication.

The enabling tasks act as support for communication tasks. Their purpose is to provide
students with the necessary linguistic tools to carry out a communication task. Although they
must be as meaningful as possible their main focus is on linguistic aspects. Some enabling tasks
could be presentation of new language, aid with problems in any of the four skills, etc. They
must have a specific language learning purpose and use appropriate materials. EXAMPLE:

-Basic point of organisation  Task: students will find out about their free time activities.

-Main language point necessary in order to do the task  Present Simple

Finally the task-based approach integrates all skills at the same time as opposed to Natural
Approach.

3.5. Student-centred learning

This methodology is based on the belief that students work and behave at their best when
providing the right environment, the appropriate goals, the necessary stimulus and when they
can decide freely.

The main features of student-centred learning are that learning is natural, enjoyable and
appealing. It is also a personal experience that involves an active role of the learner. Sharing
work and ideas is seen as enriching as well as co-operative work which is essential to develop
active listening and ownership (possession + responsibility). Language is seen as a vehicle for
communication and finally, in the class affective and emotional factors have to be taken into
consideration.

Some activities for a co-operative group: role-play, simulation, discussion, or problem-solving

task.

So, in student-centred learning students focus their attention on their own work. Genuine
communication is at the core of class work. The students learn by doing, the emphasis is on
discovering techniques, and in this way students are responsible for their own learning. As a
result of this co-operative work there is an intrinsic motivation, which usually leads to
discipline and order. Cognitive and affective domains are given equal emphasis. The role of the
teacher is to guide the educational experience. The teacher directs, distributes and monitors
students’ work and times.
Both pupils and teachers participate in curriculum planning to cope with the students’ learning
needs. Evaluation is also shared by teachers and pupils and self-evaluation is a common
practice, being the criterion effective communication. We can evaluate activities, material,
group work skills, performance, etc. This is done to develop the students’ awareness and
involvement with their own learning process.

4. DIDACTIC APPLICATIONS

We can find as many didactic applications as methodologies we have seen. The main
application of this topic will be, therefore, to help teachers make personal choices when
creating their own style, providing them with options and ideas. We must never forget that
there is no perfect approach and an eclectic design is the closest we, as teachers, can get to
fulfil the diverse needs of the student body.

There are many advantages of the Grammar-Tr method. For example, students learn
metalinguistic vocabulary which will be useful when learning syntax, as well as learning the
functions of different types of words. The use of translation in short texts in class can help our
students understand that each language has a different system, uses different expressions and
vocabulary. Translation can be used in class to raise awareness on ‘false friends’ or even show
punctuation.

When working the audio-lingual method in class, it will mostly be by the use of ‘drills’ or
repetition of patterns, this way students will be practising pronunciation and intonation. As
they repeat, those less self-confident students will feel comfortable, since they will become
part of a common voice, and won’t feel the pressure of being listened to. These drills,
however, must always be put in context, relate them to the topic that is being seen in class and
teachers should always give space to creativity to those students who are fast learners,
allowing them to vary the patterns in pairs, but also giving a strong base to those slower
students who will have to rely on the drills repeated in order to create their own speech.

The notional-functional approach will help our students to interpret and produce accurate and
coherent speech. They will learn pragmatics, that is, what we mean, what our intention
(function) behind our words is. A visual way of working it in class is through different writing
styles.

We can bring suggestopedia to class playing relaxing music while we ask our students to read
or write individually. Even in a class in which students can get overly excited, the teacher can
practise some relaxation breathing methods together with the repetition of, for example, new
vocabulary.

The natural approach could be connected to the ideas of linking contents in order to make
learning functional. More than organising the contents from the easiest to the most
complicated, we should take into consideration which tools our children need when dealing
with a task.
Lastly, the most innovative trends we can bring to class are Task-based approach, personal
application and student-centred learning. Regrettably, the Spanish system is not used to these
methods and it will take some time until both, teachers and students learn how to bring it to
class. However, there are many professionals who are giving courses throughout schools
providing teachers with the necessary tools to bring co-operative work into their lessons.

5. CONCLUSION

All the methodologies we have described above follow the communicative approach.
Moreover, the last two begin to use the new concepts of interaction that means that learning
a language implies to be socially communicative.

Perhaps this new concept of interaction will be the next step in language teaching and we,
teachers, will witness a new revolution in the English teaching class.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Krashen, S.D. Second Language Acquisition Theory, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1983

Richards and Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP, 1986

Downing, A. & Locke, P. English Grammar. A University Course (2nd Ed.) Routledge. London
and New York, 2006

Jespersen, O. Essentials of English Grammar, London: G. Allen & Unwind Ltd. 1975

Swan, M. Practical English Usage, Oxford: OUP 1990