ay United States Patent {00 A 01155097482 0) Patent No: US 11,550,974 B2 Samson et al. (45) Date of Patent: Jan, 10, 2023 (8) DYNAMIC RESERVOIR 0) References Cited CHARACTERIZATION US, PATENT DOCUMENTS (71) Antica: Sehumberge Technolgy a Corporation, Siar Land TX (US) SUBOLRDAKD AL 7202 Vi eb a (72) vento: Barys Samo, Pikingon (GB); ' Aleksandr Bogush, Didcot (GB) eee Wo onotssig t_ 22012 (73) Asian: Schlumberger Technolgy WS woROSl AL 232. eas a00 Corporation, Siar Land, TX (US) (#) Notice: Subject to any disclaimer, the term of this: eee pects oneded or afust unr 33 usp, Danian al, Pefomce of Suen Opinio USC. say by 86 a on sgt fr Pherae Ree Poses T1017 Jounal of Pose Stare and agsig 13 (21) App Nos toms Fe BY Cle 201712 (22) Filed: Dec. 19, 2019 (Comtinwed) o Prior Pubtiation Data Primary Exaniner Cole Ikon 1s 20200202086 A Jn. 25,2020 on ansteact (o) on) ay 8) Related US. Application Data Provisional application No, 62/784.423, fled on Des 22, 2018 Int. Cl Gor 3027 (2020, Gow 130 (2006.01) GO6E 30/17 (2020.01) vs. cl. cc Go6R 30/27 (202001); GOLY 1/307 (01301; Garr 221016249 (2013.01, GO6F ‘30777 (2020.01) Field of Classification Search CPC an. E21B 220020; GOGF 30°27; Gost 30100; ‘G06t' 30/17; GOTV 1/307; GOV 22106244; GOTV 1/30; GOT 991008 spe TONID, 6 ‘Se application file for complete search history A method of operating a reservoir simulator can inchade perlorming a lime sep of a reservoir simulation using ‘putial reservoir model tht represents a submancan envi- ronment that includes a reservoir Io generate sin resus for first time where the simulation results include a ont defined by atleast in part by a gradient at position between portions ofthe spatial eservoir model: predicting a positon of the Font for a subsequent time step Tor a Corresponding second time using a trained machine model; the spatial reservoir model locally atthe pre= ofthe font to generate a loealy discretized ‘version othe spatial reservoir model; and performing atime sep ofthe reservoir simulation using the locally disretized version ofthe spatial reservoie model generate simblaton resus for the second time, 20 Claims, 16 Drawing SheetsUS 11,550,974 B2 Page 2 66) References Cited (OTHER PUBLICATIONS Nwachukw, Azor eta, “Machine Leaming-Basod Optinization ‘of Well Locations and WAG Parameter under Geslogi Uncer: tainty" Ape 4-15, 2018, PE loved Oi Recovery Contec, Sevity of Peoletin Engineers, (Year 2018) ‘Armacanus De-] Sue et al "The Use of a4 Operational Fer ‘oorted Antica! Neu Network for Selection of Enhanced Oi Recovery Technique, Sp. 14-16, 2015, SPE Non AffeaTooh- seal Confrence sal Exibition, Solely of Palau Fagincesag (Gene 2015)" "Aare Machine Lean.” reieved at hpsazare most om ‘tegerice inchine- earning’ on Dec 18 2019, ‘Bene, Mutdimensional inary search ees used for associative ‘arching in Communication ofthe ACM. 3, pp 5001 ms Berg, a, “Local Adaptive Mesh refinement for shock hyo- ‘iynamis” Jour of Computational Payee. 82, pp C184, 198, ‘Ghisteasen, etal. "Applicions of Dynamic Gringo Tha Simulations" SPE Imerational Thertal Operation an ear Oi Symposia and Wester Repional Mecemg het in Bakers, (Cen USA, Mar 6-18, 2004 (Csi eal "Algebras dja mlievel (ADM) method for fly pic’ smlssons of matiphase Bow pore matin” Jounal of Computational Piyses, S14. pp. 60-7, 2016 Gonzales, “Adapive Grit Refinement Improves Gas Injstion “Modling.” SPE Tatemational Stolen Paper Contest atthe SPE Annual Technical Conference and Esibion bed in Dub, UAE, Sep 26.28, 2016, Horning, el, “Adaptive Mosh Refinement and Muilovl les tin for Flow in Por Medi” fouenl of Computational Phi. “Mostighini, al," Dynan Mesh Approach for Simulation of Immisible Visous Fingering” SPE Reservoir Simltion Sympo- sium eld in Houston, TX USA Feb. 23-25, 2015 Sammon. “Dynamic Grid Refinement ani Armeamation for Com- pstional Simaltion,” SPE Reservoir Simtlation Syngas ek fn loston, TX, USA, Feb. 35, 2003 ‘an Batcaburg, etal, “Apliaion of Dynamic Griding Tech niques to TOR EOR-Proceses" SPE Reservoir Simulation Sympo- ium eld in the Woods TX USA Feb, 21-28, 2011 Wikipedia, “Anifcial neural network" reieved at pen Wikipdiovg Wik Avil aca network on Dec. 18, 2019. Wipe, “Machine Teaming.” reievd at htps:/en wiki ‘ong wiki acne lesning 99 Dee 18, 2019 ‘Wikipedia “Repression Analysis" rece pen wikipedia. ‘ong Wiki Repression analysis on Dee. 18,2019 Tinie et aly "An Fraluaion of Crea for Dynamic Gridding ding Reais Simulation of Water Floding sad Salven nce tho SPE 141796-P2 SPE Reservou Simulation Symposia kd in The Woolland, Teas, USA, Feb 21 fo 23, 2011.9 pages ended Furopean search eprint equivalent Furopean Patent Appiction No. 192178713 dats! May 3, 2020, 10 pages. CCommuntaton pustant o Atle 943) issued fo the equivalent mpenn Patent Aplction No 1921783 ded Ape 14 2021, “pues. * cited by examinerU.S. Patent Jan, 10,2023 Sheet 1 of 16 US 11,550,974 B2 Management Components 110 Framework 170 Modules 175, ‘Simulation 180 Framework Services 190 Framework Core 195 Seismic Data Information 120 Analysis! Visualization 142 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I Simulation 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 I I Geologic Environment 450 (eg., sensing, drilling, injecting, extracting, etc.) 1000U.S. Patent Horizons Method 220 Data Acquisition 224 Model Geometry 228 Vertical Deviated Jan, 10, 2023 Sheet 2 of 16 Computer(s) 254 Processor(s) 256 [Memory 258 US 11,550,974 B2U.S. Patent Jan, 10,2023 Sheet 3 of 16 US 11,550,974 B2 Se 120 Hg = Se + Sw - Sweo ay, "8 Se + Sw = Sweo 28 kro = KrogHe + krowHw Plot 320 +S yet 718 8 gg P89 GAS Ol WATER ag Fig. 3U.S. Patent Jan, 10, 2023 Sheet 4 of 16 GRID, EDIT Sections PROPS, REGIONS, SOLUTION Sections coc owe Flow Rate | r ‘SCHEDULE Section a Time Well Fig. 4 US 11,550,974 B2 Method 410 420 Calculate Pore Volumes, Transmissibilities, Depths and NNCs. 440 Initialize, calculate initial saturations, pressures and fluids in place 460 Define wells and ‘surface facilities. Advance through time by material balance for ind. cells with wells as sinks or sourcesU.S. Patent Jan, 10,2023 Sheet § of 16 US 11,550,974 B2 ‘Method 500 Performing a time step of a reservoir simulation using a spatial reservoir model that represents a subterranean environment that comprises a reservoir to generate simulation result for a first time where the simulation results include a front defined by atleast n part by a gradient at a position between a frst portion and a second portion ofthe spatial reservoir model 510 CRM S11 Predicting a positon ofthe front for a subsequent time step for a corresponding second time using a trained machine model 520 Discretizing the spatial reservoit model focally atthe predicted postion of the front to generate a locally discretized version of the spatial reservoir model 530 Performing atime step of the reservoir simulation using the locally discretized version ofthe ‘spatial reservoir model to generate simulation results for the second time 340 Fig. 5 mentUS 11,550,974 B2 Sheet 6 of 16 Jan, 10, 2023, U.S. Patent ) ) GUI 610 Gas saturation (SGAS) ES il saturation (SOIL) (SWAT) Water saturation Saturation Fig. 6US 11,550,974 B2 Sheet 7 of 16 Jan, 10, 2023 U.S. Patent NGS oez oz wl ur 2 SRS — SSS HONESEY | Aan0dey | = S SSSSS p100 1 vonpaluy ‘spins LoroefuU.S. Patent Jan. 10, 2023 Sheet 8 of 16 US 11,550,974 B2 Method 800 tat, .t, Reservoir simulation at time t, 810 Relevant physical properties Machine learning aided front prediction at time tia at Time increment Front position/orientation t-> tes Apply kD-tree discretization over predicted front 830 Fig. 8U.S. Patent Jan, 10, 2023 Sheet 9 of 16 US 11,550,974 B2 Grid 900 Fig.U.S. Patent Jan, 10,2023 Sheet 10 of 16 US 11,550,974 B2 Grid 4010US 11,550,974 B2 Sheet 11 of 16 Jan, 10, 2023, U.S. Patent Grids 1100 Fig. 11US 11,550,974 B2 Sheet 12 of 16 Jan, 10, 2023, U.S. Patent ZL “Bld papioda: st ay +3 suuy ye UoNIsod yuoy pue J etun ye suajawesed jeoishyd UeeMjeq UORIeUUOD e DOzT pouew vonezijees wopues yoee Joy « uonsel}oo ejeqUS 11,550,974 B2 Sheet 13 of 16 Jan, 10, 2023, U.S. Patent Aysoiod aBesane urewop y08s0) - (d) Aupqeaunad a@esane wewop y8e1 - Op suopesmes saiem syoo ojey - e suogesiuaoua> tua 530.0704 - squaipesd amnssard syao ojey. “yd 4 fonyen Anaad sao oe = 97 appl ED & CO) KD} + (98549 yd yt} uoneiedaid jas Bulules| OEP POEU.S. Patent Jan, 10,2023 Sheet 14 of 16 US 11,550,974 B2 Grids 1410 Grids 1430 Fig. 14U.S. Patent Jan, 10,2023 Sheet 15 of 16 US 11,550,974 B2 Grid 1510 Plot 1530 Lean Factor as a function of refinement levelU.S. Patent Jan, 10,2023 Sheet 16 of 16 US 11,550,974 B2 ‘System Components 1600 Processor(s) 1602 Memory/Storage 1604 VO Device 1606 Network System 1610 Components) Network 1620 Component(s) 1622-N Component(s) Fig. 16US 11,550,974 B2 ‘CHARACTERIZATION ‘CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS, ‘This application claims the beaeit of priority to US. Provisional Patent Application 62/784,423, filed on Dec. 22, 2018, the entire content of which i incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND. A reservoir may be a subsurface body of rock that includes suicient porosity and permeability 19 store and transmit his. As an example, sedimentary ock may pos sess more porosity than varios types of igneous and met ‘morphic rocks. Sodimentary rok may fom under tempers ‘ure conditions at which hydrocarbons may be preserved. A reservoir may be a component of a so-called petroleum system, A geologic environment may bea sedimentary basin that may include one oe more Mud reservoirs SUMMARY A method of operating reservoir simulator ean inclade performing a time step of a reservoir simulation using a pial reservoir model that represents a subterranean envie ronment that includes a reservoir to generate simulation resus for fies {ont defined by atleast in part by a gradient ata position between portions ofthe spatial reservoir model: predicting a position of the font for a subsequent time step for a corresponding second time using a trained machine model; Alisretizing the spatial reservoir model locally atthe pre tticted position ofthe font to generate a version othe spatial reservoir model and performing: ‘ep ofthe reservoie simulation using the foal diseretzed ‘version ofthe spatial reserva modelo generate smilaton resulls for the second time, Various other apparatuses, tems, methods, ct, ae also disclosed. This summary is provided 10 intoduce a selection of concepts that are further described below ia the detailed {deseription, This summary is not intended to identity key or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used 3s a ad in limiting the seope of the aimed subject matter. [BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Features ond advantages of the described implements done can be more readily understood by reference to the following description taken in conjunction With the accoa- panying drawings 1G. 1 illustrates an example system that includes various onens for modeling a geologic environment and vari= fous equipment associated with the geologic environment FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a sedimentary basin, an cxampic of a method, an example of a formation, an example of borehole, an example of a borehole tool, an example ofa convention and an example ofa system; FIG, ¥illisates examples of equations and an example of a plo FIG. 4 strates an example of a methods, FIG. 8 illustates an example of a method FIG. 6 illustrates examples of graphicel user interfaces (GU; Where the simulation results include a 2 FIG. 7 illustrates an example of an operation and equip- FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a method IG. 9 iusrtes an example ofa front that i discretized at a resolution that is finer than other portions of a reservoir model, FIG. 10 illustrates examples of grids and data as t0 Aitfereat types of physical phenomens FIG. 11 illustrates examples of grids; FIG. 12 illustrates an example of a method FIG. 13 illustrates an example of method FIG. 14 illustrates examples of grids: FIG. 15 ilustrates an example ofa grid and an example Plot; and FIG, 16 ilustates example components ofa system and ss netvorked system, DETAILED DESCRIPTION ‘This description is not tobe taken ina limiting sense, but rather is made merely for the purpose of describing the ‘general principles ofthe implementations. The sope of the ‘described implementations should be ascertained mith rel ference o te ised elas. ‘Areseroir can bea subsurfice body ofrock that includes sulicient porosity and permeability to store and transmit fluids. A dynamic rexervoir simulator, as a computational tool to characterize a reservoir based atleast in parton Bld data (eg seismic data, satellite data, wellbore data, ct), fan simalate physical phenomens that ean occur in a reser voir, which may be a reservoir ina sedimentary basi (eg, aapeologic environment. In reservoir simulation, multiphase Apw effects through a porous medium (e.e or porous media) may be determined via saturations that may, for example, characterize eative pemneability of one phase given sa ration of one or more other phases. Asan example, tabulated fumetions fr saturations may be prepared fr Various facies within @ reervoir In such an example, where 9 reservoir Simulation uses grid cell model, various cells within the rid cell model may be assigned common values (eg. via ‘Values determined using tabulated functions, tabulated fun tion vale, ele) ‘Asan example a il recovery process ca include one or ‘more recovery phases, which can be categoriza, for example, as. primary, sooondary: and tertiary recovery phases. In a primary ail recovery’ phase ol ean be diven by hatual pressure of @ reserve. AS an example, natural rmovenient oF oil may be enhanced with ati it teh: rigues such as pumps (ex, eletic submersible pumps, fc) As an example, an ol extraction range as to prim recovery may be from about 10 percent to about 20 percent fof the oil avilable in the field. Asecondary recovery phase ray employ water in a process known as Watefiooding 10 help recover ofl ftom the field. Wateeflooding ean involve injection of water andlor seam that ais to displace oi aad direct i (© 4 wellbore (9). As an example, an additional 10 percent to about 30 percent recovery a el from the ava fable oil Rild may be possible via implementation of a Sccondary recovery pase. As toa tertiary oll recovery or enhanced oil recovery (EOR) phase, it may utilize one or ‘ore addtional processes, which ean be more compl a5 1 types of equipment, materials, operation, te. Proper appi- cation of one of more tertiary phase processes may enhance oilrecovery tw about 30 percent to about 60 percent of atta oil el, AS may be appreciated, water-based (eg. including steam-based) techniques can introduce water into afield,US 11,550,974 B2 3 Which can be considered new water as water can already exis in Field. New water ean complicate processing of recovered oil where @ produced cil includes water, which ‘may include an increasing fraction of water depending on ‘one or more types of recovery phase processes utilized. For example, new water introduced during waterlooding can increase water fraction during recovery, which may demand Separation of ol and water during futher processing of produced ol uid) nthe field of chemical enhanced ol recovery (chemical FOR), one or more types of chemicals can be used to increase a recovery Tact of eld. Such chemicals may be ferred to as chemical agents, which can include surface active agents, known as surfactants. Surfactants ean lower surface tension (eg. imerficial tension) between two Tig tids or between a iguid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, and dispersant, ‘Asan example, i microemulsion forming recovery pro cess, anol reservoir canbe flooded with water that includes Surfictant and other additives, Such a solution may react ‘with natural acids in trapped ol io facilitate microemulsion formation. Surfactant selection can play roe in determin Jing what type of microemulsion oe microemulsions form, ‘which ean help to diminish the iterocal tension (FT) a8 10 targeted ol ‘Asan example, where waterloding has boon successful, smicroemulsion flooding tends to be applicable: while, in instnoes where waterooding has not readily benefited production, microoamision flooding may stil be employed And roductive via microemulsion enhanced mobility. ‘Asan exaniple, a mieroemulsion process may aim to form ‘a mieroemulsion slg that can travel ina eeservoir from an injection well toward a production well. Formulation of a ‘microemulsion shu fora particular reservoir ean depend on various factors, including characteristics of a reservoir, Which may be affected by one or more prior recovery processes (eg, waterflooding, ete). A microemulsion pro fest can depend on one oe more of, for example, temper- ture, salinity, erade oil ype, ete Surftctants may be classified as natural, symbeti onganic, inorganic, «fe As an extmmple, @srfactant ca be amphiphilic with hydrophobic character and hydrophilic character where the surfactant ean orient itself atthe inter Tae between a hydrophobic liquid and a hydeophiliefigui, where “hydrophilic” and “hydrophobic” ean be relative terms with respect «0 the 1wo Tiguids. AS an example, consider water and oil where a portion ofa surfactant that is hydrophilic associates witha portion ofthe water and where «a portion ofthe surfactant that is hydrophobic associates ‘with a portion ofthe oil. Where a gas phase is present such 18 sir, hydrocarbon gas, et. « portion of a surfactant may associate with the gas phase while, for example, anther portion associates with & Tiguid phase ‘ surfictant can be defined a8 a chemical that preeren- sally adsorbs at an iterace, lowering the surface tension or ‘neracial tension betwown fide or between a hid and a solid, The tr “surfactant” can encompass a multitude of| ‘materials that function as emulsifiers, dispersant, oil-wel- ters, waterwetters, foamers and defoamers. The type of surfactant behavior depends on strctial groups of s mol seule (ex, oF mixture of molecules). As an example, hydrophileipophile balance (HLB) number can help 10 dele the fupetion that a molecular yroup wll perform ATILB number can be on a sale of one 4 40 according to the HLB system devised by Grifin. The HB system is 4 semi-empirial method to predict what type of surfactant 4 properties molecular struct will provide, The HLB system js based on the concept that some molecules have hydrophilic groups, other molecules have lipophilic proups, and some have both. Weight percentage of each type of troup ona molectle or inv mixture can help to predict what behavior the molecular structure will exhibit. Waterin-il emulsifiers tend ave a low HLB numbers (e. around 4 solubilizing agents tend to have high HLS numbers: and oiin-water emulsifiers tend 10 have intermediate to high HLB numbers An emulsion can be a dispersion of one immiscible liquid Jno another, which may be achieved, for example, dough the use of one or more types of chemical agents. For example, a surfctant may be utilized to reduce the interl cial tension between wo liquids o achieve some amount of| ability (eg, depending on factors such a6 temperature, pressure, ow, pH, ee). With respect to il ad water, an oikin-water (oe divet) emulsion oF a water-in-oil (or invert) emulsion may exis, Emulsions may form when id filtrates or injected Buide and reservoir Huds (for example oil or brine) mix or, for example, when the pH of producing fid changes, such as fatter an acidizng treatment Aciizing might change the pH from 6 o¢7t less than 4. Emulsions may be found in gravel pucks ad perforstions, oF iaside formation (ea reser ‘oir formation, et.) Some types of emulsions break when source of mixing energy is reduced. Some satural and tnfcial stabilizing agents, soch as surfactants and stall particle solids, may tend to kosp Mids emulsified, Natural Surfactants, created by bacteria or during the oil generation process, canbe found in various waters and enue ils, while anifcial surfactants can be part of one or more drilling, ‘completion andlor stimulation Aus. As to solids tht ean help t0 stabilize emulsions, consider one oF more of ion sulfide, paraffin, san, sil, clay, asphalt, seale and corrosion procucts As mentioned, surfactants may be ulized as part of a chemical EOR operation, for example, by injcting chemical ageats into a formation, One particular approach, surfactant fooding, achieves this by reducing the interfacial tension (PT) between oil and water andl mobilizing rapped oil on microscopic scale. As an example, surfactants utilized as part ofa chemical EOR operation may include one or more Petroleum sulfonates, one or more ethoxylatd alcool sul fates, ete AS mentioned, surfactants may be clasiied as amphi phil molecules that inehue hydrophobic and hydrophilic roups. This amphiphilic nture can rece the IPT between oil and water and, depending on circumstances, may lead 19 formation of aggregates called micelles and a separate ‘microcmulsion (ME) phase, for example, considera Separate ME phase that inches oil or water or both. Therefore, ‘wal solubility of immiscible Muids can be achieved, as well 3s enhanced How charoteristis of the water-oil-mi- roemulsion system (as IFT between water‘il and newly ormed ME phase can be reduced. ‘The process of adding surlactant to a mixture of vil and water can reslt in complex phase state changes. Such Complex phase behavior. along with the raid reduction of | IFT, ean make dynamic reservoir characterization via a Aynamie reservoir simulator more challenging. A dynamic reservoir simulator ean utilize one oF more types of models that describe physical phenomena, For example, consider the Ambenivs equation as a model that characterizes dynamic reactions with respect to temperature. "The Arthenits equation canbe wllized o determine arte ff a chemical reaction and, for example, o ealeulate anUS 11,550,974 B2 5 ‘energy of activation. The Arthenis equation may have some physical justification while some contend that it isa type of ‘empirical relationship, which is supported by real-world data, As an example, the Arrhenius equation ca be used 19 model the temperature variation of difusion coeliciens, population of erystal vacancies, creep rates, and various ther thermally-induoed processestenctions. ‘As to mixtures of liquids that include oil and an aqueous ‘medium, an increase intemperate can enhance the thermal energy of the mixtre that may, Tor example, use aa oil Aroplet to vibrate and travel foster in Brownian motion ‘within an aqueous medium, thus easier for an emulsion 10 flow. Based on the Arhenius equation, there is an inverse relationship betwcen the viscosity and the temperate: mene where ni a constant, E isthe aetivation energy, Tis the absolute temperature, and R isthe gas constant (8.314 KI mol”), Viscosites of formulations may decrease th an increase in temperature within «© mixture that can be adequately described by the Arenius equation: noting that factors elated to loose packing between polymer chains ean fuse more space fora polymer chain to slip through. ‘As an example, an emulsion may be a miero-emulsion oF microemulsion (ME), which can be a dispersion made of Wate, oil (@., 8 Water insoluble Fguid), and surfactaa(s) that iS an isotopic and thermodynamically stable system with dispersed domain diameter varying approximately from 1 nm to 100 nm (eg. consider a range from approx: rmtely 10 nm to approximately $0 nm). Such a dctinition may be an TUPAC definition. Ina microemulsion the domains of the dispersed phase ean be globular or intercon nected (e-e, consdera bicontinuous microemulsion). Asan ‘example, an emulsion may be @ macro-emulsion or macro emulsion where the average diameter of droplets in a ‘mcroemulsion can be close to one millimeter. As af example, a microemulsion can bea mixture where entities of| 4 dispersed phase ate stabilized by a surfactant andor a surfactant-cosurfactant system (e aliphatic alcohol, ee). (A dynanie reserve simulator that can characterize dynamic behavior ofa reservoir, particularly where chemi cal EOR is uized, ean feilitate operational decision mak: ing as to various factors of development of a field. For ‘example, outpat from 2 dynamical reserve simulator ean be utilized to determine amounts andor types of chemicals) ‘0 utilize for chemical BOR, when to andor na to uilize one ‘or more chemicals) for chemsieal EOR, injection rates) of chemical(), ef. AS an example, devisions as 10 types of ‘equipment, types of ding, types of hydrauli facturing, fe. may be based a lest in part on outpat from a dynamic feservoir simulator that can characterize dynamic behavior ‘of areservoic base at least in part on data (eg. survey daa) and one of more models (eg, that model physical phenom- ena, ete) As an example, simulator can inelude features of the UTCHEM simblator, which is. mblticomponent, multi phi, three-dimensional chemical compositional reservoir Simulation model simulator In the UICHEM simulator, flow and transport equations areas follows a mas consce- vation equation foreach chemical species; an overall mass fonsevation equation that yields a pressure equation when sombined with generalized Dave¥"s lw; and an energy conservation equation, In the UTCHEM simulator, four phases can be modeled, The phases ae a single component 2s phase and up to thee ligud phases agueous, oleic, and ‘microemulsion depending o the relative amounts and effective electrolyte concentration (salinity) of the surface 6 tanvoiliater phase environment Inthe UTCHEM simla- tor, accurate and realistic chemical flooding, models. the complex microemulsion phase behavior and the various properties associated with these phases (suc as interfacial teasion, relative pemnesblity, capillary pressure, capillary desaturation and viscosity) and factors that determine the behavior ofthe species in these phases such as dispersion, sorption and eation exchange. The resulting flow equa- tions of the UTCHEM simulator ate solved using a Block- centered finiteilference scheme, The solution method is implicit in pressure and explicit in concentration (IMPES. like) third-order spatial discretization is used and in order to increase the stability and robustne tthod, a tx limiter based on the to ishing seme has been added. The UTCHEM simulator ean be used to simulate laboratory’ and field scale processes such ss water flooding, tracers in water, polymer, srfactant’ polymer, profile control using gel, ad high pH alkaline’ Surfactand/polymer. Some applications ofa simulator such as the UTCHEM simulator include: surfactant flooding, high ll aaline/srfacta polymer flooding, polymer flooding, fonformance control using polymer gel, tracer txts, for ‘ation damage, soil remediation, microbial enhanced oil recovery and surfactant foam. ‘As an example, various features of the UTCHEM simu. lator may be utilized in the INTERSECTS: simulator (Schlumberger Limited, Houston, Tex.). The INTERSECT ® simulator (eg, INTERSECT (1X)) can characterize dynamic reservoir behavior where there isa presence of ‘microemulsion phase, which may be present fr oe oF more periods of time The INTERSECT® high-resolution reservoir simulator can provide for accuracy and eciency in eld development planning and risk mitigation. As an example, the INTER: Te simulator may be uiized to characteriza reservoir 8 to one or more of the following: complex geological structures, highly heterogeneous formations, challenging ‘wells and completion configurations, advanced production controls ia tenns of reservoir coupling and Mleible Feld mangement ‘simulator such as the INTERSECT® simulator may be utilized to achieve ins in eonsisteney and productivity, for example, though sutomation andlor coss-dscipline inke- prtion. For example, one or more projets may be under taken using the INTERSECT® simblator together with the PETRELE BAP soflvare platform (Sehlumberger Limited, Houston, Tex) A system ean provide an ability to define the snveture and properties of a reservoir (@2, Using Survey data, ee) characterize Duids and rock phiysis, and ouput ‘and implement a field development pla, ‘As an example, a method can inlude performing one oF ‘more integrated workflows through a framework such a the PETRELE E&P platform or framework. The PETRELI EAP software platform can integrate_multidiscplinary ‘workflows as associated with the INTERSECTIP sinlator, hie ean provide dia flows and graphical user interfaces Jor reservoir engineering. The PETRELI plaloem supports siomated, repeatable workflows that stresmine the incor poration of new data in a manner that can help to keep a modeled subsurface (eg. dynamie reservoir) lve and eur tent. Migrator functionality ofthe INTERSECT® simulator an allow reservoir engineers o move from the ECLIPSE reservoir simulator tthe INTERSECT® simulator, with data validation performed! by both the migrator and INTER- SECT simulstoro help to ensure the quality of «reservoir ‘model, The INTERSECTS simulator can deliver insights through reservoir characterization. AS an example, 2 simuUS 11,550,974 B2 7 Jator (eg, andor framework) may’ be implemented ia one ‘ormore manners (e, workstation, laptop, in-house cluster, serge in the cloud, te) Below, various cxamples of equipment, frameworks, simulators, ete. are deseribed, which may be uilized 0 implement one or more techniques for reservoir character ization. Such examples may be utilized, for example, 10 characterize ane of more formations subject 0 EOR (6, surfactant Aooding, ete). Asan example, an operation can include surfactant Rooding. Such an enhanced vil reeovery (POR) process ean inclide adding an mount of surfactant (6) an aqueous Mid injected into a reservoir, for example, ‘n'a manner that sims to sweep the reservoir. In such a chemical EOR, te presence of srfactant aims to rece the ‘merfacial tension (IFT) between the oil and water phases and can, for example, alter wettability of reservoir rockin a ‘manner that ean improve oil recovery ‘AS lo pommeabilty for characterizing a reservoir via reservoir simulation (ew, via @ reservoir simulator), data can be in a tabulated form (eg. diserete data points, etc.) that may representa function of phase relative pemcability versus phase saturation (eg, or & “curve” of phase relative permeability versus phase saturation) Of such funeton data, So-called end-points may’ be defined. For example, consider the following end-points: @) connate saturation, the satura jon below which a phase does not fll: (i) ertcal satura fon, the highest saturation for which a relative pernesbilty of a phase is zero (eg. al a saturation value above the critical saturation value, 2 phase may be deemed to be mobile) and (i) maximum saturation, the saturation above ‘which a phase does not exceed. As an example, saturation unetions may be specified to honor certain’ conditions between phases, which may aise, for example, die to miss conservation (eg, mast balance), 2 phase saturations of ‘lip lids that may be constrained to sum to uni (6, approximately unity within an enor limit or error iis). ‘As an example, a subsurface envizonment may be under stood via data acquisition and analysis. As an example, seismology may be used to acquire data, In such an example, the data may be subject to interpretation. For example, consider seismic interpretation as a process that involves ‘examining seismie data (eg, with respect to location and time or depth) to identify one or more types of subsurfce structures (eg, facies, horizons, faults, geobodis, et) Seismic data may optionally be interpreted ith other data suchas, for example, wel log data. AS an example, process ‘may include receiving data an wenerating model based st Jeast in parton such data ‘Asan example, a process may include determining one or sore seismic atrbues. seismic attribute may be consi cred, for example, a way'to deseibe, quant et, chars ie content of seismic data, As an example, a quantified characteristic may be computed, measured, et, from seis- ime dts. As an example, framework may incive proces- sor-executable instrutions stored ia memory to determine fone oF more seismic attributes, Seismic attributes my optionally be classified, for example, as volume attributes or srfice attributes or one-dimensional attributes. "A seismic interpretation may be performed sing display able information, for example, by rendering information 10 display device, a projection device, printing dviee, ete ‘As an example, one or more color sehemes (eg, optionally including black and white or preyscale) may be referenced Tor displayable information wo enliance visual examination of the dsplayable information. Where te oman eye wil be used of Is used for viewing displayable information, a Alispay scheme may be selected to enhance interpretation 8 Asan example, seismic interpretation may be performed using scismic to simlation sofware such as the PETREL® ‘cimic to simulation software framework (Schlumberger Limited, Houston, Tex.) which includes various features 19 perform atribute analyses (eg. with respect toa 3D seismic cube, 2D seismic line, et.). While the PRTRELW seismic to simulation software framework is mentioned, oer types of software, frameworks, ete, may be employed. As an example, a model built ving a framework may be uilized by a simulator, for example, consider a reservoir simulator such as the BCLIPSE® simulator (Schlumberger Limited, Houston, Tex), the INTERSECT® simulator (Schlum- berger Limited, Houston, Tex), ee Asan example, "pay" may bea reservoir or portion of a reservoir that includes economically praducible bydrocae bons (ew, pay sand, pay zone, ete). The overall interval in ‘which pay sections occur may be refered to as gross py ‘where, for example, smaller portions ofthe gross pay th ret local itera fr pay (¢., such as minimum porosity, permeability and hydrocarbon saturation) are referred to het pay. As an example, a reservoir simulator may assess geologic environment that includes at lest @ portion of @ Feservoir (or reservoirs) st its physical properties that may be used estimate pay. In such an example, parameters aso physial properties sich as porosity, permeability ad uration may be included within equations that can model geologic environment. Asan example such properties may be initlized prior to performing a simulation. Ia such an example, values for the properties may aflct simulation results, convergence of a simulation solution, ete. AS an exaniple, a method ean include adjusting values prige 10 pecforming a simulation, which may in turn, reduce com- Putaton time, enhance eonvergeace rte allow for output of 4 converged solution, ete FIG, 1 shows an example of » system 100 thot incdes various management components 110 t© mansge variovs "spect ofa geologic environment 150 (ean environment that includes a sedimentary basi, a reservoir IS1, one or ore faults 183-1, one or more geobodies 18822, et.) For example, the management components 110 may allow for direct o indirect management of sensing. ding injecting, extracting. ete, with respect to the geologic environment 150, In tum, further information about the geologic envi ronment 150 may become available as feedback 160 (e., ‘ontionally a input to one oF more of the management eomponents 110). Tn the example of FIG, 1, the management components 110 include a seismic data component 112, an ational information component 114 (eg, welllogging data), a pro: cesting component 116, a simulation component 120, an syibute component 130, an analysisivisualzation compo: nent 142 and a workflow component 144. In operation, Sismie data and ether information provided per the com. Poneats 112 and 114 may be input to the simbltion eom= ponent 120, Tn an example embodiment, the simulation component 120 may rely on entities 122. nities 122 may inlude earth entities or goological objects suchas wells, surfaces, bodies, reservoirs, ete. In the systom 100, the entities 122 cs include virtual representations of actual physical entities that fre revonsicted for purposes of simation. The eniies 122 may incinde entities based on data aegired ia sensing, observation, ete (eg, the seismic data 12 and other infor ‘mation 11d) An entity may be characterized by one or more properties (eg. a geometrical pillar grid entity ofan earth fodel may be characterized by a porosity propery). SuchUS 11,550,974 B2 9 properties may represent one oF make measurements (€3, ‘quired dat}, caleulations, ete Tn an example embodiment, the simulation component 120 may operate in conjunction with a software framework such as an object-based framework. ln such a framework, entities may inchide entities based on pre-defined classes 1 Ticiltate modeling and simulation, Anexaimple of an abject based framework isthe MICROSOFTE NET™ framework (edinond, Wash, which provides a set of extensible object classes Inthe LNET™ framework, an object elas encapsu- Tater a module of reusable eode and associated data str: tures, Object classes can be usid 10 iastanGate object instances for use in by a program, script, etc. For example, borehole classes may define objects for representing bore holes based on well data Inthe example of FIG. 1, the simlation component 120, may’ process information to coaform to ane of ore a= bles specified by the atbute component 130, which my include a library of atvibutes, Such processing may’ occur por to input to the simulation component 120 (eg, con- der the processing component 116). As an example, the simulation component 120 may perfom operations on input information based on one of more attributes specifi by the atibute component 130. Tn an example embodiment, the simulation component 120 may construct one or more models of the geologic environment 150, which may be relied on to simulate behavior ofthe geologic environment 150 (eg. responsive to one or more oes, whether natural or anifcial) Inthe example of FIG. 1, the analysis'visuaiza jon component 1412 may allow for intrsction with model. ‘ormodel-based resus (eg, simulation rests, ee). As an exaaiple, opt from the simulation component 120 may be input to one or more other Workflows, a indicated by a wworkllow component 144 ‘As an example, the simulation component 120 may’ inchide one of more features of a simulator such a the ECLIPSE® reservoir simulator the INTERSECT reser: voi simulator, etc. As an example a simulation component, simulator, ete. may optionally include features 10 imple- ment one of more meshles techniques (eg. 10 solve one or ‘more equations, ete.) As an example, a reservoir or see oirs may be simulated with respect Io one ce more enhanced recovery techniques (eg consider a thermal process such as SAGD, ety), Than example embosiment, the management components 110 may include features of Tramework svch as the PETRELE seismic t simulation software framework The PETREL® framework provides components that allow for ‘optimization of exploration and development operations ‘The PETRELE framework incidles scismic to simulation software components that ean outpt information foe use i Increasing reservoir perlormance, for example, by improv: ing asset team productivity: Through wse of such a frame- work, various professionals (eg. geophysicists, geologists, fand reservoir engineers) can develop collaborative Work ows and integrate operations to streamline processes Such ‘framework may be considered an spplication and may be considered a data-tiven application (ej, where data is ft for purposes of modeling. simulating, cc.) nan example embodiment, various aspects of the man- agement components 110 may include add-ons or plug-ins that operate accorting. t specifications of a framework environment, For example, a ramework environment such fs the OCEAN framework environment (Schlumberger Limited, Houston, Tex. allows for integration of add-ons (or phig-ins) into a PETREL® framework workllow. The OCEAN®: framework environment leverages NETE tools 10 (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, Wash.) and offers stable, user-friendly interlaces for efficient development. Tan example embodiment, various components muy’ be imple: ‘mented as adl-ons (r plug-ins) that conform to and operate according to specifications of a framework environment {@g., according to application programming interface (API) spscifications, et.) FIG, 1 also shows an example ofa framework 170 that Jnchudes « model simulation layer 180 slong witha frame- work services layer 190, a framework core layer 198 ad a todoles layer 178, The fratework 170 may inclode one or ‘more features ofthe OCEAN framework where the model ‘simulation layer 180 may include one or more fetures ofthe PETRELR model-centic software package that hosts OCEANE framework applications. In an example embod ment, the PETREL software may be considered a data ‘driven application, The PETREL sofware ean inch a Tramework for model building and visualization, ‘As an example, a framework may include features for implementing ane ot more mesh generation techniques. For cxanipl, frameworks may inclue an iapat component for receipt of information from interpretation of seismic data, ‘ne or more attributes base at lest in part on seismic data, Jog data, image dat, ete. Such a framework my include 4 ‘mesh generation component that processes input informa tion, optionally ia conjuacton with other information, to tgenertea mesh. Asan example, a mesh may bes grid Such constructs (eg, meshes or gids) may be defined by nodes, calls intervals, segments, ete. AS mentioned, a so-called ‘meshess approach may'be implemented, for example, based fn points such as ina point cloud, ete Inthe exansple of FIG, 1, the model silation layer 180 may provide domain objects 182, aet as a data source 184, provide for rendering 186 and provide for various user Interfaces 188. Rendering 186 may provide a graphical environment in which applications can display their data ‘while the user interfaces 188 may provide a common look land feel for application user interface components “As an example, the domain objects 182 ean include entity objets, property objets and optionally other objets. Eni objects may be used 10 geometrically represent wells, sur Tes, bodies, reservoirs, et, while property objects may be used to provide property values as well as data versions and display parameters. For example, an entity object may represent a well where a propery object provides 10g information as well as version information and. display information (0 display the well as part of a model. Inthe example of FIG, 1, data may be stored ia one oF more data sources (or dia Stores, generally physical data storage devices), which may be at the same or different physical sites and accesible vin one or more networks, The {model simulation layer 180 may he configured to model projects. As such, a particular project may be stored where sored project information may include inputs, models, resulis and eases. Thus, upon completion of a modeli Session, a user may store a projec, Aa later time, the project tan be accesses and restored using the model imation layer 180, which can recreate instances of the relevant domain objects. Inthe example of FIG. 1, the geologic environment 150 may include ayers (eg, statifiation) that inchade a reser Voir 1S1 and one oF more other Features sucha the fle 153-1, the geubody 15%2, ete, Asan example, the geologic cavirdnment 180 may be outlited with aay of a variety of Sensors, detectors, actuators, ec. For example, equipment 4152 may include commonicationcircity to receive and to transmit information with respect to one of more networksUS 11,550,974 B2 W 185, Such information may include information associated ‘with dowahole equipment 184, which may be esipment 19 acquire information, 10 assist with resource recovery. ee (Other equipment 186 may be located remote froma well ste ‘and include sensing, detecting, emiting of other ciruitry Such equipment may include storage and communication circuitry to store and to communicate dts nstrctions, ec Asan example, one of more saelites may he provide for purposes of communications, data acquisition, ete. For ‘example, FIG. 1 shows a satellite in communication with the network 185 that may be configured for communications, noting that the satelite may’ additionally o¢ alternatively Include circuitry for imagery (eg, spatial, spectral, fempo- ral radiometric, et.) FIG. 1 also’ shows the geologic environment 180 as optionally including equipment 187 and 158 associated with ‘well that includes 9 substantially horizontal portion that ‘may intersect with one or more fractures 189. For example, ‘onsidera well in shale formation that may ichide naira Fractures, artificial fractures (e.g. hydraulic fractures) of @ combination of natural and ‘example, well may be drilled fora reservoir this laterally extensive. In such an example, lateral variations in proper ties, stresses, ete. may exist where an assessment of such 2 Variations may assist with planning, operations, ete, 10 develop a laterally extensive reservoir (e.g, vi facturing, injecting extracting, te). AS an example the equipment 157 andlor 158 may include components, a system, systems, co. for fecuring,soismic sensing, analysis of seismic data, assessment of one oF more fractures, ee AAs mentioned, the system 100 may be used to peeform fone or more workilows, A workflow may’ be process that incu a number of worksteps. workstep may operate on data, for example, to create new daa, to update existing data, fe. Asan example, a may operateon one oF more inp and freate one oF more results, for example, based on one or ‘more algorithms. As an example, a system may include a ‘workflow editor for reation, editing, executing, et, of a \workilow In such an example, the worklow editor may provide for selection of one or more predefined worksteps, ‘one oF more cusiomized worksteps, ete. AX an eximple, Wworkilow may be a workllow implementable in the PETRELR software, for example, that operates on seismic data, seismic atribute(s), ete. As an example, a workow may be a process implementable in the OCEAN frame ‘Work. As ah example, a workflow may include one oF more Wworksteps that access a module such as a plug-in (ea, external executable code, sets of instructions, ete.) Asan example, a framework may be implemented within ‘rina manner operatively coupled to the DELFI cognitive Timited, Houston, Tex) ‘hich ia secur, cognitive, clond-based collaborative envi ronment tht integrates data and. workflows with digital techaologies, such as artificial iatelligence and machine utilized in conjunetion withthe DELFT'® eavironment, As an example, one or more methods may be implemented at feast in part via a framework (eg, computational frame- work) andor an environment (eq, 8 computational envi ronment) FIG, 2shows an example ofa sedimentary basin 210 e2, 1 geologic environment) an example of a method 220 for ‘model building (efor a simulator, ete), an example of @ {formation 230, an example of a borehole 238 in a formation, sn example ofa convention 240 and an example of a system 250. 12 As an example, reservoir simulation, petroleum systems ‘modeling, ete. may be applied to characterize various types of subsurface etironmens,ichuding environments sue 38 thre of FIG. 1 InFIG. 2, the sedimentary basin 210, which is a geologic environmen, includes horizons, faults one or more gvo- bodies and faces formed over some period of geologi time. “Those features ae distebuted in 160 or three dimensions in space, for example, with respect to a Cartesian coondinate system (ep, x, ¥ and 2) or other coondinate system (e2, cylindrical, Sperieal, et.) As shown, the model building method 220 includes a data aequistion block 224 and a ‘model geometry block 228, Some data may be involved in building an intial model and, therealer. the model may optionally be updated in response to model output, changes in time, physical phenomena, additional data, ete. As an example, data for modeling may include one or more oF the following: depth or thickness maps and fault peometies andl timing from seismic, remote-sensing. eleclromagnetc, gr ity, outerop and well fog data. Funhermore, data may inchide depth and thickness maps stemming fiom focice Variations (ede to seismic uneonformities) assumed 1 following geological events iso” times) and data may Jnchude lateral facies variations (dew lateral variation in sedimeataton characteristics). To proceed 10 modeling of geological processes, data may be provided, Jor example, data such as geochemical dat (eg. temperature, kerogen type, organie richness, et), timing data (eg, ffom paleontology, radiometric dating, magnetic reversals, rock and fluid propentios, ot.) and boundary condition data (eg. heatllow history, surtice temperature, paleowater depb, et). Inbasin and petroleum systems modeling, quantities seh as temperature, pressure and porosity distributions within the sediments may be modeled, for extmple, by solving partial differetial equations (PDEs) wsing one or more numerical techniques. Modeling may also model geometry ‘wth respect to time, for example, to account for changes ‘temming from geological events (eg, deposition of mate- Fil, erosion of materi, shifting of material, et), A modeling framework such as the PETROMOD® Jamework (Schlumberger Limited, Houston, Tex.) can inchide features for input of various types of information (eg, seismic, well oologieal, et.) to model evolution ofa sedimentary basin, The PETROMODE: framework provides for petroleum systems modeling via input of various data suchas seismic data, well data and othr geological data, for exanmple, t0 model evolution of sedimestary basin. The PETROMODO framework may predict if, and how, a 1es- exvoir has been charged with hydrocarbons, including, for example, the source and timing of hydrocarbon generation, ‘migration routes, quantities, pore pressure and hydrocarbon ‘ype inthe subsurface oat surface eondtions. In combina- fon with a framework such asthe PETREL® framework, workflows may be constructed to provide basin-to-prospect scale exploration solutions, Data exchange between fae- ‘works can facilitate consinietion of models, analysis of data (eg. PETROMOD® fiamework data analyzed si PETRELR framework capabilities), and coupling of Wor flows. ‘AS shown in FIG. 2, the formation 230 inchuds a hot zontal sirface and various subsurface layers. Asan example, ‘borehole may'be verical. As anather example, a borehole may be deviated. [nthe example of FIG, 2, the borchole 238 ‘nay be considered a vertical borehole, for example, where the z-axis extends downwardly normal to the horizontal surface ofthe fomnation 230.8 an example, a tool 297 mayUS 11,550,974 B2 13 be positioned in @ borehole, for example, to segue infor sation. As mentioned, a borchole tool may be configured 19 ‘scquire electrical horehole images. As an example, the {lfbore Formation Microlmager (FMI tool (Schlumberger Limited, Houston, Tex.) ean aoquire borehole image data. A dota acquisition sequence foe such tool ean ince minning the tool into a borehole with acquisition pads closed, open ing and pressing the pads against a wall of the borehole, delivering electrical curent into the material defining the borehole while truslating the tool in the borehole, and sensing current emotely, which is altered by interactions with the materia Asan example, a borehole may be vera, deviate andor horizontal. As an example, a tool may be positioned 19 squire information in horizontal portion of « borehole. Analysis of such information may reveal vugs, dissolution planes (eg., dissolution along bedding planes), stress lated features, dip evens, etc. As an example, a tool may ‘quite information that may help to characteriza fractured reservoir optionally where fractures may be natural andor anifcil (eg. hydrauli fractures) Such information may assist with completions, stimulation treatment, etc. As an example, information acquired by a wool may be analyzed using framework soch as the TECHLOG®: framework (Geblumberger Limited, Houston, Tex.) As to the convention 240 for dip, a6 shown, the three dimensional orientation ofa plane can be defined by is ip fnd strike. Dip is the angle of slope of a plane tom a horizontal plane (eg, an imaginary plane) measured in a3 ‘ertical plane in peste ditetion, Dip may be defined by ragaitue (ea, also own a angle oe amount) aad sz tnuth (eq. also Kawa ss dition). As shown ia the Convention 240 of FIG. 2, various angles indicate angle of slope downwards, for example from aninaginary horzoe Plane eit per surace): wheres, ip refers ta the einetion towards which a dipping plane slopes (eg. which tay be given with respect to degre, compass directions, {#¢), Another feature shown in the convention of FIG. 2 s Strike, which i the orientation ofthe line eeated by the inteneetion ofa dipping pane dla horizontal plane (ea, consider the Mt upper srice as Being a Snainary bor ‘onal plane), ‘Som atonal terms related to ip and stike may apply to at analysis, for example, depending on eicumstances, orientation of collected data, te One term is tr dip” 686 {2g Dipy inthe convention 249 of FIG. 2). True dip is he dip ofaplane messed dil pempeadiculaeto strike (86 eg line directed northwadly an beled “tke” and angle 2} andals the maximum posible vale of dip magnitude ‘Another tonm is “oppoent dip” (eo, eg. Dipy in the convention 240 of FI. 2). Apparel dip my be the dip of 4 plane as measured in any ther diretion excep inthe dineetion of the dip (se. €8., $4 a8 Dip, for angle «) however, iis possible thatthe appre ip ise othe tee dip Gee, eas Dip,Dip, for angle wth espct tothe sinke) nother wor, where he term spare ip 8 sed (ee. in # method, analysis, algortim, te.) for a Partculaedipping plane a value for “apparent dip” may be equivalent (othe tue dip of that paricular dipping pane "As shown inthe convention 240 of FIG. 2 the dip of @ plane as seen in a cross-section perpendicular to the strikes tre dip Ge, og, the surface with as Dip,-Dip, forangle {tg with spect othe rhe. As indiated dp observed ia fs crorracction i any other direction is apparent dip (os {g. srlaes labeled Dip,)- Faber as shown inthe con ‘ention 240 of FIG. 2, apparent ep may be approximately 14 0 dcgres (e4, pata to horizontal surface where an dye of cating plane rns long srke direction. In terms of observing dip in wellbores, we dip is observe in wells dled veal In wells dll in xy ber erentation or deviation, the dips observed are appar: ent dips (eg, which are efered hy someas relative dips). Tn ondr to determing ta dip value for plans observed ia soch horcholes, as an example, a vector somputation Based onthe borehole deviation} may be applied to one ot snore apparent dp als. “As mentioned, another tem that Gnd we in sediment logical interpretations from orc mages "rela ip” (@a. Ding A value of tue ip measred rom borehole tmnges in'rocks deposited in vey cal environments may be subractod (eg using veetorsbtraeton) fom dips ina sand body In seh an example he esting dips reeled featve dips and may find use in inerpeting sand Boy ‘convention such asthe convention 240 may be used with respect to an snubs an interpctation, an atbuc, ie (55 eg, variot blocs of the system 100 of FIG. 1. ‘san example, various type of features may be described, in par by dip ex. sedimentary Deding, faults and fac tures, cuentas igneous dikes and sills, metamorphic foi Gin, et) As an example, dip may change satel a8 layer approaches a goobody. For example, coir a salt Bony dat may rise dc to various fares (3, oy etc) In such an example, dip may’ teed upward as body moves upward. ‘Scio interpretation may sim o identify andlor casify cone or mare subsurface boundaries based at est in part on one or more dip paraneters (eg, angle or mogaitule, vig, et) Asa example various types of atures, Sedimentary being fuls and facts, esas, noes tikes and sil, metmorphie foliation, ce) may be deserted at east in prt by ange at east apart by azanth, ‘As an example, equations may be provided fr psteolsum expision and migration, which may be modeled sim Ine, for example, with respect to a period of ime. Petr Jour migration fom a source material . peimry mig Gin or expulsion) may include use of «saturation mee vere mighation-sstrtion vals conta expulsion, Deer Iinatons a secondary migration of pete (eg i br gis), may include using hydrodynomepotetal of id and ocountng fr ving frees that promere Mid fo Sveh lores can ince hooyaney gradient, pore presie radia! and epllarypressre gradient “As shown ia FIG. 2 the sytem 280 saclues one or more information storage devices 252, ene ot more comptes 254, one or more networks 260 and one or more as of ‘nstrtions 270. othe one oF mone computers 24, cach computer may include one oF more processors (ea, oF processing cores) 256 and memory 288 foe storing ins tions (ea one or more sets of insiuctions 270), for example, excetable by at Teast one of the one oF moe processor. Avan example, a computer may acne one oF Inor network itrces (eg. wired or wireless). one oF more grphics cards 2 doplay interface (ep. Wired oF else. AS an example, imogery such 36 suriace Imagery (stl, gologieal, geophysical et) may be sored, processed, communicated, ste, As an example, ata may inelide SAR data, GPS data ead may be stored, fo tiple, in one cr more of the storage devices 252 ‘Asn example the oe oe more sss of instrstions 270 nay inclode nsections (eg stored in mony) exeable by one or more procesors fo instruct the sytem 250 foUS 11,550,974 B2 15 peeform varius aetons. Asan example, the system 280 may be configured such that the ane ae more sets of insteuetons 270 provide for establishing the framework 170 of FIG. 1 or portion thereof. As an example, one or more methods, techniques, etc. may be performed using one er more ses of Instructions, which may be, for example, one or more ofthe fone oF more sets of instructions 270 of FIG. 2 As an example, “pay” may be a reservoir or potion of a reservoir that ineiudes economically produeible hydrocat- bons (ew. pay sand, pay zone, ete). The overall interval in hich pay sections oocur may be refered to as the gross pays where, for example, smaller portions of the gross psy that moet focal eniteia for pay (eg. such 2s minimum porosity. permeability and hydrocarbon saturation) are net pay. Thus, a workflow may include assessing 2 geologic Environment that ineiodes at least a portion of a reservoir (eg, oF reservoirs) as (ois physical properties that may be used (0 estimate pay. For example, at assessment my include soquiring data, estimating values, et. and running a simulation using a reservoir simulator. In such an example, 2 parameters as to physical properties such as porosity. P= Inability and saturation may be inckuded within equations that can model a geologic environment Asan example, porosity may be defined as the pereentage of pore volume or void space, or that volume within rock that can include Muid(s). Porosity may be a ec of deposi ion (eg. primary porosity. such as space between grins that were not compacted together completely) or it muy develop through alteration of the tock (eg, secondary porosiy, such as when feldspar grains or Fossils are dis solved from sandstones). Porosity may be generated by development of fractures (ep, eonsier fracture porosity). Elective porosity may be defined as the intereonneeted pore volume rack tht can contribute to fk flow ina reservoir (eg, excluding isolate pores). Total porosity may be ‘defined asthe total void space in rock whether a not teat contribute to fuid flow (eg., consider effective porosity being fess than total porosity). As an example, a shale gas reservoir may ted to have relatively high porosity, however, aliynment of platy grains such a elays ean make for low permeability Asan example, permeability may be defined as an ability, cor measurement of rack ability, to transmit Huds, which may bbe measured in units such as darces, milldarcios, ete Formations that transmit fluids readily (e., sandstones) ‘may'be characterized as being “permeable” and may tend 10 Jnclude connected pores, whereas, “impermeable forma dons (shales and siltstones) may tend tobe fer grained or of @ mixed grain size, with smaller, fewer, or less interconnected pores, ‘Absolsle penmesbility isthe measurement of the perme- ability conducted when a singe uid, or phase is present in ‘malt (eg. in rock). Effective peemeabiity isthe ability ‘o preferentaly flow or eansmit particular fd though a rock when other immiscible us are present in the resee- voir (ex, ellective permeability of gas in a gas-Water reservoir) The relative saturations of Muids as well as the ature ofa reservoir can afc effective permeability. Asan ‘example, saturation may be defined for a water, ol and gas asthe relative amount of the water, the oil and the gas in pores of rock, for example, asa percentage of volume Relative penmeability may be defined 36 the ratio of elective permeability of a particular fluid at @ particular Saturation to absolute permeability of that’ Muid at total saturation. Asan example ifa single uid is present in rock, its relative permeability may be 1 (unity), Calelation of relative permeability can allow for comparison of diffrent 16 abilities of fds to How in the presence of each other, for example, asthe presence of more than one id may tend 10 inhibit ow. As an example, a method may include creating a simu- lation case for example, using a framework (eg, the OCEAN framework). In such an example, a workfow ‘may include inating a simulation case, optionally using tool such as a “wizard” AS an example, a workflow can include defining arguments. For example, consider argu- ‘mens that may'be associated witha grid model ofa geologic environment. In such an example, a grid model may be a pillar grid! model or other type of grid model, Arguments sociated with a grid model may include physical proper ties of rock such as, for example, porosity and permeability and may include functions that can define physical phenom fena such 4, for example, a saturation function, @ tock ompaetion funetion, a Blak oil Mid Function, ee AS an example, & workllow may include accessing 2 reservoir simulator such as, for example, an ECLIPSE reservoir simulator, an INTERSECT" reservoir simulate, te, As an example, a workllow can ince getting ® grid From grid porosity property and, for example, sting acase rd property argument (e., Grid Matrix Porosity) to an Input porosity propeny (ex, as a “Gridltem=Property>") ‘Asan example, worklow ean inlude sting arid property ‘nguasents (“Grid Matrix Permeability” for indexes I,J and K ofa grid) t appropriate input permeability proper (eg. a8 a “Gridltem=Property>"), As an example, a work- flow can include setting one oF more case function arg ments. For example, considera saturation function boing sot ‘o an input fimeton, a rock compaction funetion being set 19 sn input function, 2 black ol funtion being sett a input Tneton, et Asan example, a workflow may include a ease argument ‘ora simlation case sich as initialization angament (eg, consider “Intializequilbration”). ‘Asan example, a workflow can include receiving prop: erties and functions. For example, consider accessing data for a project crested with framework sich as the PETRELR framework, In such an example, data may be received lor purposes of performing a simulation such as a reservoir simulation. For example, considera Gullfaks proj ext (g, forat least a portion ofthe Gllfaks field, an ol and Bs field in the Norwegian sector ofthe Nomth Sea) where properties such as permeability and porosity may be loaded, a sand saturation funetion (eg, 38 a type of rock physies Tnetion) may be loaded, a consolidated sandstone rock compaction function may be loaded (eg. as a type of rock physics function), where “light oil and yas” may be loaded 5a black oil ud input, ete Given various properties and fictions, a simulation may he nun that may provide sim ion rests, As an example, a grid may inelude grid cells where properties are defined with respect to a positon or positions Of a grid cell. For example, a property may be defined as being ata centroid ofa grid cell, As an example, consider cell properties such as porosity (eg. 8 PORO parameter), permeability in an x-direction (eg, a PERMX parameter) Permeability in a y-direction (eg. a PERMY parameter) perabilty in. ziretion (.g4.a PERMZ parameter and fetto-gross ratio (eg, NTG) being defined as averages for ‘nee at a center of cell. In sich an example, the directions X,Y and 7 may correspond 10 ditections indexes (64, Fand K) ofa rid that may model a peologic environme As an example, a reservoir simulator may take as input values that may be predetermined. For example, to approxi- ‘mate multiphase flow effects through porous medi, one orUS 11,550,974 B2 17 more tabulate saturation fnetons values may be sed that sharacterize relative permeability of «phase given one or tore satrations of one oF more other phases. AS a example, tabulated functions may be available on 8 facies dcpoleat basis whore values are avaiable for indvdual faci. Asan example, where a cll ofa model (ea, a arid calls ssc wih « priulr facie ht ex may bo assigned a valve from a table (eg, o other form for a predetermined valve). In such an example, multiple cells may be signed common value. For a casponding tcologc envionment, common vals assign to els tht trode! a region of the geologic environment may be Approximation of the geologic environment In other words, ls that difer for one or soe ofthe cells may mone Aecurately represent the region of the geologic environment. IG. 3 shows an example of a model for faction of robile gov 312 and 4 model for retion of mobile water 314, an example ofa multi-phase oil este peneablity aiing ale 316 and plot 820 Hat illustrates portions oF tater gar and oil phoce with respect to sotumtons. AB ilustated ia FIG. 3, oil lave permeability depends ‘Avan example, inthe context ofa geologic environment that inchdes reser to be develop or ude develop ment a reservoir simulator may be wed to assess the vironment optionally before deiliag of one ce more wells or olher operations (eg. facturing, ee.) In such an ccample, # reservoir simtltor may” be implemented 10 Sdvancein ime eq. vis time increment et) given oncer assigned 1 bea sink or source. Asan example, well may bean injection well rodveton wel, iformation sich a ha ofthe plot 320 of FIG. 3 may Fela dovelopment, Tocexampl,tounderstndheter where mile i may ex within a reserva to desi beter where injection or ber rover teshnigues maybe inplemented to produce silat TG. 4 shows an example of method 410 that includes ‘calculation block 420 for ealeulating pote volumes, tas: tnissibiites, depts and NCS, an inialzaton ad caleu- lation block $40 for inalizing and eaeulting nia sat rations, pressure and Mids in place, and a definition and mse progression block 460 for defining wae of more well and surlace faites and advancing through time, for ample, via material Balanoos for individ calls (x, With the one oF more well ay adividal sinks andlor Sources). ‘As tothe iiilization and calculation block 440, for an ‘nial tine (ex, 10). situraton dstbuton within # grid ‘model of 8 goalogc covinnmeat and presi dstibtion ‘within the gid model ofthe geologic envionment may be ct 1o represent an equilib ste (static state oF “rofl” tat), or example, ith espet 1 gravity. AS a example, © approximate the equlibvium ste, elcuations can be performed. Asan example, such cautions may be perform by one oe more sts of instistions. For example, Sine or mow of seisnie-o-simulition framework, a see. ‘ir simulator, a specializes of iastuctionset-may be Jnlemeoted to porlorm one oF more calculations that ny fim to approximate or to facilitate approximation of a uiiium sate As an example, a mservoi simulator may include a st of instructions fo inialization Using dat 10 Compute epilary and hid gradients, and hence tid sae ration densiics individual cells of grid model tht ‘eprerets 8 aclogic envionment Tnialization ai o define fd saturations in inv cell sch that “sytem” being modeled is inn eri is shor, for example, an individual well may be 2 18 sate (eg, where no external forces reapplied, no uid aw is wo tae place in a reservoir, 2 condition that may not be obeyed in practice). AS an extmple, consider oil-water contact and assume no transition zone, for example, where Water saturation is unity below an oil-water contat and at fonnate water saturation above the contact. In such an example, grid cells that include oil-water contact may pose some challenges. cell (eg. of grid cell may represent Point or points in space fr purposes of simulating geologic fevironaent, Where an invidl eel represen a volume tnd were that individusl cll includes, for example, a center Point for definition of properties, within the volume of that ial cel, the properties may be constant (with Variation within the volume). In such an example, th Individual cel includes one valve per property, for example, fone valve for water saturation. AS an example, an inti ization process can include selecting a value for individ properties of individual cells. ‘Asa example, stration distribution may be generated based on one or mare types of information. Fer example, saturation distribution may be generated from seismic infor: ‘mation and saturation versus depth measurements in one or more barcholes (eg, test wells, wells, ete) As an example, reprodvetion of such an initial situation field via a simu: Jation model may be inaccurate and such an initial saturation feld may not represent an equilibrium sate, for example as simulator model approximates ral physical phenomena Asan example, an initialization of water saturation may be performed sing information as to oil-water contact. For example, for a eel that is bolow oil-wator contact, a water saturation value for that call may be set to unity (he as Water is the more dense phase, it i below the oll-water oataet; and Tor a cell Wat is above oil-water contac, ‘water satiation value fr that cell may be set to nll (2, soil is the lighter phase, itexists above water and hence is assumed to be free of water) Thus, in such an example, ‘where at Jeast some information as to spatially distributed depths of oil-water contact may be known, an inilized grid cell model may inelude eels with values of unity and cells With values of zero for water saturation AAs mentioned, an initialized grid cell mode! may not be jn an ewuilibrium state. Thus, sts of iastrtctions may be executed using a computing device, a computing system, fe. that acts to adjust an initialized grid cell model 10 approximate an euilibrium state. Given # certain saturation Feld fora grid cell model, technique may adjust relative permeability end points (et, critical saturations) such thst relevant fluids ae just barely immobile at their alculated or ‘thertse defied initial satrations, As a result the grid ell ‘model, initialized, may representa quiescent state in the sense that no flow will occur if « simulation is stared ‘without application of some type of “Yoree™ (eg. injection, prluction, ete). As mentioned, reservoir simulator may advance in ime. As an example, aumerie solver may be implemented thst tan penerate solution for individ ime increments (68, Points in time). As an example, a solver may implement an implicit soltion scheme andor an explicit soltion scheme, ‘noting that an implicit solution scheme may allow for langer time inerements than an explicit scheme. Times at which @ solution is desired may be set fonth in a “schedule”. For example, a schedule may include smaller ime increments Toran earlier period of time followed by larger time incee= ‘solver may implement one or more techniques to help assure stability, convergence, accuracy, ete. Fer example, ‘when advancing a solution in time, a solver may implementUS 11,550,974 B2 19 subsineremenis of time, however, an inezease inthe number ‘of time increments cat increase computation time. AS an example, an adjustable increment size may be used, for ‘example, based on information of one or more previous ‘Asn example, a simulator may implement an adjustable gd (or mesh) approach to beip with stability, convergence, ceuraey, ete. For example, when avancing a solution in time, a solver may implement grid refinement in region where behavior may be changing, where a change in €on- 10 ditions existsoccurs, te. For example, where a spatial talent of « variable excoods w threshold spatial gradient ‘value, a fe-griding may be implement that refines the grid inthe rogion by making grid cells smaller Adaptive gridding can help to decrease computational 15 times ofa simulator Such a simulator may account for one ‘or more types of physical phenomena, which ean inelode foncentralions, reactions, micelle formations, phase changes, thermal elfets (¢., intrduction of heat enensy, heat generated via reactions, heat consumed via reactions, 20 te), momentum effects, pressure fleets, ct. AS an ‘example, physical phenomena can be coupled via a system ‘of exiations ofa simulator. One or more types of phisieal phenomena may’ be a tiguer for adaptive ardding, ‘Asan example, a mumerie solver may implement one or more of « fite diference approach, finite element approach, finite volume approach, ete. As an example, the ECLIPSE® reservoir simulator ea implement central i erences for spatial approximation and forward differences in time. As an example, a matix that represents grid coll and associated equations may be sparse, diagonally handed fand blocked as Well 3 include off-diagonal eae. ‘As an example, a solver may implement aa inplicit pressure, explicit saturation (IMPES) scheme. Such a elieme may be considered fo be an intermediate form of explicit and implicit techniques. In an IMPES scheme, Saturatons are updated explicitly while peessure is solved impiety As to conservation of mas, saturation values (€ for wate, gas and oi) in ingividaleells of grid cell model 40 ‘may’ be specified to stm to unity, which may he considered ‘8 conigel erterion for mass conservation. In such an example, where the sum of saturations is not suficeatly lose to unity, «process may be iterated until convergence js doomed satisfctory (eg, according to one or more ‘convergence erieria). AS governing equations tend to be ron-linear (eg, compositional, black oil, te), Newton- Raphson type of technigue may be implemented, which includes determining derivatives, erations, ete, For ‘example, a solution may be found by iterating according 19 the Newion-Raphion scheme where such iterations may be referred to a8 ponlincar iterations, Newton iterations or ‘outer iterations. Where ane oF more eer entra ate ful filled, the solution procedure has converged, and a con- verzed solution bas’ boen found, Thus, within a Newton iteration, Tneae problem is solved by performing a number of linear iterations, which may be relered () as inner ‘As an example, solution scheme may he represented by the following psevdo-algorithm: woe 20 contin ae ‘enemas {dee ona syom ser Ie snes ‘nblelson tier sytem Bos noe someret)) As an example, «solver may perform a numberof inner ‘iterations (linear) and a number of outer iterations (eg non-finear). Asan example, number of inner iterations may be of the order of shout 10 to sbout 20 within an outer ‘eration whilea number of outer iterations may be about en or les for an individual time increment. As an example, a method can inclode adjusting values belore performing an iteration, which may he associated with aime increment. Asan example, a method can inclide a reception block for receiving values, an adjustmeat block for optimizing a quadratic fanetion subject to linear con straints for adjusting at least a portion of the values to provide adjusted vals and simulation block to perform simulation using a least the portion of the adjusted values ‘As mentioned, Mid saturation valves ean indicate baw fluids may be distributed spatially in a grid model of a reservoir. Por example, a simulation may be run that com: pies values for iid suturation parameters (eg, at last ome of which are “unknown” parameters) as well a vals Jor one or more other parameters (et, pressure, et) ‘As meationed, a simulator may iniplement one or more types of adjustment techniques such a, for example, one or tore of time step adjustment and grid adjustment, which ‘may be performed dynamically. As an example, a simulator suchas a reservoir simulator may implement one or more of| such adjustment techniques. ‘As mentioned, a simulation may account for one of more thermal processes where, for example, there ean be dixplace- ment of a thermal front (eg, @ combustion front, a steam chamber interface, ete), around which most fuid Hows takes place. As an example, a dynamic aridding approach ‘may aim to Keep a finer scale representation ofa grid round the thermal front and a coarser seale representation of the arid at some distance from the front. Through vse of the foarsee scale represeniation of the gry the number of ‘sqations/number of variables may be reduced, which ean reduce matrix sizes, ee. ofa simulator and thereby allow the simulator to operate more effectively. ‘As an example, a simulator can commence a simulation with an original or initial grid. As the simmlator operates to generate simblation result, the simulator may re-amalgan ois grid cll, while Kooning some rogions (for example around well) finely gridded. The simulator may identify a ‘moving front through one or more large spatial pradiets of fone oF more specific properties (eg, temperatures, id saturations and eompesitions, et.) Inthe font vicinity, the simulator mey de-amalgamate the originally amalgamated cells, and later on re-amalgamate them once the front hos passed through a spatial region (eg. a rion of a subter Fanean formation such as-a reservoir formation). A an example, amalgamated cells may be assigned up-saled properties, for example, upscaling being based upon one or more types of averauing techniques, ‘As to thermal simtlation simulator may include one or more featres ofa simulator such as the STARS sinilator (Computer Modelling Group Lid (CMG). As an example,US 11,550,974 B2 2 simulations may involve combustion andor SAGD simula ions. Asan example, a simulator may operate according 10 ‘metric such as CPU time. As an example, « quantitative measure of elliciency ean be CPU time in relationship 19 ecuraey. 5 ‘As explained, reservoir ow simulation benefits from representing an ‘underground environment accurstely, pa ticularly whore one oF mote fronts may exist, which may vary spatially and change differently in space with respect 19 ne. For example, front may be a relatively plait front 10 fata particular spatial scale in a rogion or, for example, a font may include fingers, curves, ete. AS an example, fonts shape may change with respect to time, in terms of | overall extent and geometrical shape (¢., planar, curved, fingering, et). Soch variations can pose’ challenges in 1s dynamic grdding As mentions theemal processes can involve convective, uifusive and dispersive lows of nis and enemas, Which ‘may’ lead to the formation of Mud hanks and fonts moving fin the reservoi. Some of these fronts may represent intr= 20 faces between mobilized oi, which is hot and has had its viscosity reduced, and the more visoous ois which areas yet ‘unaffected by heat energy. Asan example, other fronts cant ‘ecur between phases, sch as wher a Teading edge of hat ‘combustion gis moves into an unconteted il, Suh inter aces may be thin when compared to a cell size ofa grid (eg, an original grid) used to model EOR processes in a Simulator. As such, challenges exit in how to properly represent varios types of fluid physics near interfaces. As mentioned, use of fine sale computational grid cell throughout a reservoir can be prohibitively expensive sxample, a simulator can adaptive grid refinement and coarsening ina compositional reservoir simulation. Such an apprcaeh can optionally target indi Vidal grid cells Tor refinement hased on one or more forecasted compositional frons, which may be calculated, ‘oe example, using streamlines and an analytical convection: dispersive transport equation. In svch an. approach, quater decomposition may be implemented to determine fin optimal spatial diseretzation serosa portion of a sima- 30 lation grid using dynamic and static reservoir properies. AAs an eximple, a dynamic gridding simulator may pro- vide for specifying one or more limits as to how a grid is «dynamically handled. Foe example, a parameter can be for ri cell refinement size as predetermined input value. As fan example, 2 dynamic gridding simulator may perfoom ‘dynamic gridling using @ compositional map from a previe ous time step to “predict” a refinement region. As may be appreciated, where “old” information i relied upon (ea, @ previous time step mup), a solution may be suboptimal due fo time-lagging refinement and lack of grid adaptability in Fhterogenous reservoirs andlor fast-moving compositional fronts. As mentioned, an approach may utilize techniques such a5 stteamfine and pice trajectories to forecast a location ofa front and adapt grid sizes in advance of that front (eg. prior toa time step where the font enters that location) ‘As an example, a method can include tracking composi tonal variations by calculating fixes for grid cells using a humeral solver (e-, @ finite-diffrence solver, et.) In such an example, a tracing technique ean allow for reduction ‘ofa 3-limensional gridded region into a series of Idimen- ‘sina teamlins, while the eonvection dispersive equation ‘can forecast future compositions shape, and location of an Injection font slong each streamline tjectory ‘As an example, @ method can inclode implementing a decomposition technique such as, for example, 2 quadtree 2 decomposition technique, n such an example, the decont- position technique can provide for analysis of homogeneity of dynamite andor statie properties (e ., composition, pres sure, permeability, facies, etc) to determine if a volumetric region can be represented by a single gridblock ot if that volumetric region ean be more effectively represented by refined grid calls that sim to. preserve spatial dois. Ax mentioned, a method can implement dynamic grid adjust- ment where, for example, grid discretization i dynamic with respect time and where refining is lized for grid regions that demand high-resolution andor where coarsening is lized for grid region that exhibit low variation therein. A an example, a method may simulate CO, injection where a model can rediced a foal number of grid ells to ‘model and simulate miseible injetion by continuously ere fing adaptive grids that represent the advancement and ‘ae of the injection font, AS an example, redetion in ‘computational demands may be approximately 30 percent or ‘more over a sta fine grid (eg. without compromising the representation of compositional mixing phenomena and production forceast) ‘As explained, FOR can involve injection of water, ga, solvent, surfactant, etc, into a reservoir to enhance oil recovery Foreeasting and control of operations an involve simulation, for example, use of numerical models that can sceurately represent compositional phenomena. Complex phase behavior created by continuous changes in fluid Composition may demand small spatial discretization of a reservoir model, whereas, use of large grid ells may result fn substantial erors inthe forecast of production eats and breakthrongh times doe to numerical dispersion and non nearity of the flash equation Numerical dispersion errors occur as a numerical tech- nigue's (eg. init difference) approximations replace mass conservation derivatives in a compositional system, which fan cavse truncation errors that lead t0 saturation and ‘composition dispersion. In addition, the nonlinearity ofthe flash equation may have an impact when averaging compo- sitions and pressures over several pridcels. As various yes ff compositional simulators assime theemodynamic ei- librium in each ped cell, grouping cells ad re-nommalizing compositions mi resul na ilferent overall phase bei tor response The use of small grid blocks can raduce the impact of both ‘numerical dispersion and non-linearity of flash calculations. ‘computational demands of solving Mash equilibrium equations in multicomponent systems tends 10 make the use of fine grid cells relatively impractical for modeling an average sized reservoir. Adaptive mesh refinement and coarsening provides for cliciencies in diseretzing a spatial domain. As an example, fn approgch can include generating local grid adapations 10 represent dynamic features ofa reservoit moda, providing fine grid description in areas where spatial truncation feors are too high using coarser cells, while reducing the total numbers of blocks in the model. In addition to such a refining process, a methad can include coarsening gr ells (eg. to remove unnecessary grid cells in regions where fine resolution ino longer demanded). Such an approach ean be quite practical in gas injection operations where some regions exhibit drastic changes (eg. injection font), ths demanding quite fine resolution while others may remain relatively constant (@32, swept and nswept regions). TInadeptive yridding, a challenge canbe to identify one oF more features that may be utilized as a basis for triggering a refinement process andlor a coarsening process. Various types of IMPES models tend to present rigid schemes withUS 11,550,974 B2 23 imitations suchas: a refinement region i estimated from a provious tnt step solution (e. neglecting movement of Injection fron at an end ofa ime step) and a sizeof grid cll sub-division is defined based on a pre-determined input value, AS mentioned, such an approach can lead to subop- imal application due to time-lagging results and lack of refinement flexibility An approach that utilizes an adaptive gridmesh refine- ment and coarsening (AMRC) model for compositional simulation ean help to address one or moce ofthe foregoing ‘issues, for example, consider an implici-presure, explicit: saturation, and expliei-composition (IMPESC) approach ‘Incorporating a dynamic a priori determination of refine ‘ment region and systematic selection ofa level of grid cell subsdivision, However as mentioned, such an appetach ean depend on using streamlines and an analytival convection tlspersive transport equation, For example, consider a ticthod that depends on a tnicing technigue allows for reduction of 3-dimensional gridded region into a series of 2 ‘dimensional streamlines, while the convection-dispersive ‘equation ean forecast future eompesitons shape, and loca Gon ofan injection font along each streamline trajectory. ‘As an example, # method can inciode adjusting # arid using a model, which may be, or example, a machine model 2 that is trained using simulation data, which can include simulation data from one or more prior simulations. In suc ‘an example, the machine model can be tained to generate a trsined machine model that can make predictions as to ‘where and how a grid i o he adjusted cng a simulation of a simulator: For example, a machine model can be a ‘evra network miadel that is rained on lang sets of data for ‘one or more prior simulation runs for a reservoir or resee- vis. In such an example, the trained machine model ean be Utilize to predict where od how a ont ill progress piven appropriate input In such an example a grid can be dynami- cally adjusted, for example, in a "ustin-time" manner that Js informed by more than the on-going similation itself. For example, « method can utlize more than on a tracing technique that generates streamlines For an on-poing snmd- lation and forecasting via a physics-based conveetion-is- persive equation for future compositions, shape, and loca tion ofa font slong each streanilne tmjectory ‘As explained, simulating fluid flow in reservoirs, andl in particular, propagation of eiflrent components, is part of @ larger sorkoW that ean charaeterize, select andoe conte fone oF more of various types of inereaseenkanced oil recovery (@ FOR, et). AAs explained, © help ensure that a simulator operates properly during a simulation (eg, with high precision, providing fist performance for timely decision making) te, a simulator ean include its own contol scheme oF control schemes a8 to time stepping and/or adaptive grid- ding. Achieving high precision and fast performance (eg, lesser computational demands) can be challenging whe snalyzing lng reservoir models, especially ones with eo plex geological stricture and Tid heterogeneity "Asan exsimple, a simulator can incade a controller that can control how a simltion is performed ina manner that the simulation ean concentrate on physically and practically relevant parts of hydrocarbon flow ina complex reservoir. It such an example, the controller ean help to ensure that Front propagation simulation i carried ont in an apropriate level of detail via an adaptivetdynamie riding scheme that can call for gri cel refinement in a manner that is precise fn inctime, where it can be beneficial to mestng accuracy ‘nd computational resouree demands. Such a echnigue cat 24 allow for other parts of a reservoir 10 be sppropatly ‘upscaled without losing beneficial information (ea. via coarsening), ‘Asan example, a method can include using one or more discretization techniques, as appropriated depending en the ‘ype of physical phenomena and/or spatial region and/or ime stepping (eg, non-linear solve) that may be involved, For example, a method can implement a kD-tree disreti- “zation onthe basis of predictions from one or more machine Jearning regression tehniques, sueh as Boosted Devision Tree, Decision Forest, Neural Network, thit are tained on relevant data. For example, consider relevant data such ot rock and iid properties, which may inelude pormeabiliis, porosities, agent concentration and pressure gradients AAs toa KDstee (or k--tee, of kate), ican be a binary twee in which leaf node iss k-dimensional point. In such an example, eich on-leaf node can be thought of a implicitly generating a spliting hyperplane that divides the space into tWo pars, known as halspaces, which can be referred to, for example, left and right spaces or, for example, first side and sovond side spaces as defined by a hyperplane of other appropriate dividing structure. As an example, points 10 the left of @ hyperplane can be repr sented by 2 lft subtee ofthat node and points tothe right ofthe hyperplane can be represented by the right subtree. As ‘example, a hyperplane direction may be ebosea in the following way: each node inthe tee is associated with one of the K-dimensions, with the hyperplane perpendicular 19 that dimension’s axis. So, for example, if for » particular split the “¥" axis is chosen, points inthe sublece with a smaller °x" value than the node will appear in the lft subtree and points with lager "" valve willbe ia the right subtree. In such a eas, the hyperplane would be set by the sc-value ofthe point, and is normal would be the unit x-axis ‘As un example, considera method where moving down & twee, there isa cycling through axes used to select one or ‘ore sping planes. For example, ina 3-imensional tee, the root can have an x-aligned plan, the roots children can both have y-aligned planes, the rot’s grandehiliren can have zaligned planes, the root's preat-grandehildren can have xalignel planes, the root's great-sreat-grandcilden can have y-aligned planes, and so on In such an example, Points may be inserted by selecting the median ofthe points being put into the subir, with respect to their coordinates inthe ais being used fo erente the splitting plane. Such an fpprosch can lead to a hanced KD tee in which eaeh lea rode is approsimately the same distance from the root; noting that unbalanced trees may be utilized, depending on circumstances, et As an example, additionally or altematively to points a D-toe can include contain rectangles or hyperroctangles. In such an approach, « minge search can operate to retum rectangles intersecting the search rectangle. Such a tree may be constructed with the rectangles at the leaves. In an ontogonal range seach, the opposite coordinate may be used When comparing against the median. ‘As mentioned, one oF more other techsiques may be utilize, aditionally or altematively. A decison tee can be ‘nictural and represent a piysical space such asa space of | subtenanean environment. As to decision suppor, a tee ike model ean provide for decision making as fo where and how diseretization of spatial region is (© oseur, for exanple, with respect to one or more spatial phenomena that tay Berwin with eae oti (oder ving FIG. § shows en example of « method 500 of operating @ reservoir simulator that includes a performance block $10US 11,550,974 B2 25 ‘oe performing a sine step of a reservoir simulation vsing 9 spulial reservoir model tht represents a sublerranean envie ronment that inclides a reservoir to generate simon restlls fora first time where the simulation results include a front defined by atleast in part by a gradient at position between a fist portion and second portion of the spatial reservoir model, a prediction block 820 for predicting positon of the font for a subsequent time stop for a corresponding second time Using a tained machine model; 4 discretization Block S30 for dscrtizing the spatial rese- voir mode! locally atthe predicted positon of the front 9 enerate a locally discretized version of the spatial reservoir ‘model: and a performance block S40 for pelorming a time sep ofthe reservoir simlaton using the locally diseretzed version ofthe spatial reservoir model 0 generate simaton results fr the second tim. As shown, the method S00 cat be looped where the block $40 may proceed tothe block $20 ‘where the time at the block 20 can be the second time incremented 10 8 third ime, ee Inthe example of FIG. 8, the method $00 can control a2 reservoir simlator such that one or more types of opert= tonal modes are implemented based at least in part on ‘underying physies ast fluids, Such contol ean belize ‘o generate simulation results that can be utzed for con- teoling one or more pies of fled equipment for petra ing one or more EOR operations (see, eg. the system 700 of FIG. 7), As an example, results of a reservoir simulator can be utilized to generate and render a graphical user Interface (GUI) © a display where results are distbuted Spill, for example, asin clls ofa modo ofthe reservoir ‘being simlated by the reservoi simulator. AS an example, an operator and/or a controller may utilized spatially dis- tebuted results that correspond ta time or time to issue one ‘ormore signals (eg, commands, ee.) 0 oe oF more pies Df feld equipment (ee, e the GUIs 610 and 630 of FIG. 6 and the sysem 700 of FIG. ). “The mietod 500 is shown in FIG. § in assocation with various computer-eadable media (CRM) blocks S11, 521, S31 and S41. Soch blocks generally inclu insievetions Suitable for execution by one oF more peocessors (oe prO- ‘estor cores) to inset a computing deviee or system to perform one of more actions, "While various blocks are ‘Showin single medium may be configured with instvctions tw allow for, atleast in par, performance of various actions fof the method 500, As an example, 2 computer-readable medium (CRM) may be a computerreadable storie ‘medium that is non-ransitory and that is no a earier wave. Asan example, one or more of the Block SH, $21, $31 and ‘S41 may be in the form processor-exevutable insiructions, Tor example, consider the one or more ses of instructions 270 ofthe system 250 of FIG. 2 (sae also the system 700 of | IG. 7 and the computerized! control equipment 780), “The method 500 oF FIG. 8 may provide for dynamic grid refinement for adaptive font tracking in reservoir simla- dons, for example, using a KD-tve technique for disereti- ation and one or more michine leaming repression tech- rigues Tor purposes of prediction (eg. Boosted Decision Tre, Decision Forest, Neural Newwork) The method 500 of FIG. Scan be part of a simulator that ean improve the simulator, for example, by increasing performance and accuracy of simulating various types of hydrocarbon recovery in heterogeneous axl siuctrally complex reservoirs FOR can include injection of surfactant w « downhole region ofthe Earth using equipment such as, for example, fone or more pumps. As an example a surfactant can nclide ‘chemical that forms a surfactant in a subterranean envi 26 ronment, for example, due 10 one o€ more chemical inter sets andor restions that may occur in'@ sblerancan environment. As an example, a surfetant can bea polymer that becomes a surface active agent responsive to exposure to an alkaline environment, For example, EOR can include injection of polymer as a surfactant where the polymer becomes a strlice active agent downhole in a dovnbole alkaline environment. Asan example, simulation may involve a model that inchides a number of cells (ex. grid cells) that may exceed fone million cells (eg, consider 2 model with 100,000,000 cells) such a model may take considerable time and com- Ptstional resources to output a soluion that characterizes reservoir. AS such, a simulation can represent an amoust of | time and resources expended whore a solution is desired 19 be accurate Whore a simulation can be of preter accuracy, confidence may be increas in solution at characterizes sareservoir, panicularly where decisions are to be made a 10 injection, prxduetion, equipment development, dilling, ee ‘Asan example. method may be implemented to improve convergence ofa simulator operating according to spatial ‘model For example, the method 800 of FIG. 8 may increase the ability of simulator fo converge on solution (sim Jaton rest) at one of more times. Such an improvement can result ina more accurate solution (or even a solution where previously a solution is not found) and do so in lesser ‘computational time (eg. lesser demand on computational resources). As an example, dynamic reservoir simulation can inchide modeling water injection as may be esociate with surfactant flooding as a chemical EOR operation. Such an Approach may involve one or more cells of grid cell model of a reservoir trnstioning into, for example, a thee phase region ofa ternary phisediggram. As an example, a salinity praicat may exist 3 pat of u physical reality that can deve 8 transition. As explained, @ reservoir simlator can be improved by inclusion of operational instructions for deci son making as o physical phenomena that eat occur in @ reservoir being subjected to «ne oF more BOR operations For example, where fro of fronts exist, simblator can ‘nchide dynamic aridding where, for example, a region in advance of a font is dynamically gridded via ped refine ment. In such an example, the nate of the front may be taken into account, for example, the types of phases that may exist athe region may be taken into account (e.., where & ‘ore complex region is expected phase-wise, the pridding may be refined andor time-step decreased) FIG, 6 shows examples of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) 610 and 680. A graphical user interface (GUD is a type of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through various graphics and graphical controls, which can inclide graphical icons and visual Indieators such as secondary notation. A GUT can be struc- tured to perform operations of other types of physical input devices. For example, a GUI can include graphical controls for Keys such as keys of a QWERTY keyboard. such GUL is « physical device that allows for human-machine interactions. typewriter can be built via componcals such as keys, ibbons, ec. AS an example, a GUI ean be built using hardware and software components. For example, specialized instructions executable by a processor {eg @ CPU, GPU, core, microcontroller, ete) ean be execute 10 cause a rendering of graphics 10 2 display. Such a display may be a touchscreen display with associated touch input circuitry (eg, viaa stylus, a finger, et.) As an example, a computing system can iachude a human-machine input device such as mouse, a touchpad, a trackball, a microUS 11,550,974 B2 27 phone (Foe voice input), ete Such input deviees may interact ‘with the computing system 10 navigate a GUT andor to Select one or more feutures of the GUI, which may be Sclectvely actuate for purposes of controlling the computing system. In FIG. 6, the GUls 610 andr 630 can be rendered to show values or representations of valies of subterranean region of the Earh, which can include a reservoir AS an example, a GUT display ean be operatively coupled to Simulator such that values (eg. spatially diseibuted values) fiom the simulator can be wilized to generate visual repre scaations of physical conditions of field andor pica PPhenomens of a field andlor operational contol of field fequipment. For example in the GUI 630, various wells are labeled where the GUI 630 shows conditions atthe wells Such conditions ca inchade saturations, relative permeabil es, flow rates, Mui compositions, miervemulsions, ete. As shown, examples of gas saturation ol saturation and water saturation ae shown. Sub-regons are shown inthe GUI 680 ‘with rexpost to grid mode of the subterranean region, Such sub-regions comespond to saturations, per valves fom a simulator ‘As an example, @ controler can be instructed to contol fone of more fckd operations based on saturations, which ‘may be matched fo real-time for operations in the fel. In such an example, a controller ean instruct a pump to adjust | pump flow rate of fid. which may include one or more chemicals i a manner to alter saturations in the subter ‘ea region. controller can issue an instruction toa pump ata wellsite of one ofthe wells Ibeled in the GUL 630 0.3 thereby cause the pump to adjust its how rate of fad, which can include one oe are chemicals, The simulator m Updated responsive to such an adjustment, automatieally andor via user inpet In such a workflow, the scm determine vals fora past present and/or future time. In such an example, one or more values may be utilized 19 revise the GUT 630 andor to issue one of more additional contro instrtions, As an example, @ controller may issue one or more insretions hase onthe location ofa font or Foats, In sch fan eximple, a controller can be a field controller that is ‘operatively coupled 1o simulator such that data generated by the simlator tha represents actual physical conditions ia 1 region of the earth ate received and processed by the ontrller to make one oF more contol decisions, issue one ‘or moe insrctions, ete. As an example, where a simulator Includes a dynamic grid conteller that makes predictions 2s to where front is to be within a region ropesented by the sid, that data may be received by a fleld controller. For ‘example, fel controller may operate based on ouipa rom fr simblator's controller that i= aot yet fully informed by a ‘mulation ata next time step. In such an example, the out ‘may bo given a confidence level a it may not he actval simulator results forthe next time step. Where te simulator tenerates the actual simulator results for dhe next time step, those resulls may be received by the field generator, for ‘example, witha higher confidence level. Such an approach tay he refered tas a multctiened approach as fist ter ca be based on a dynamic grid controler of the similator and the second tier can be based on results output by the Simulator (e., simulator er simulation results) FIG, 7 shows an example of 4 system 700 that includes various types of equipment for performing various types oF ‘eld operations. The system 700 may be operatively coupled to a computing system that includes a simltor and that includes a display or displays that can reader one or more CGUTssuch as, for example, one or more ofthe GUIs 610 and 28 630 of FIG, 6. As an example, the system 700 may be controllable and contol by such a computing system, optionally via various GUL inp Inthe system 700, various pieces of equipment ae shown, which cam inclode electronic equipment such as sensors, actuators, controllers, ansmitters, roosivers, ete. AS an exaniple «computing system can he operatively coupled 19 ‘one oF more pisces of equipment via wire andor wireless ‘communication crcuty. AS an example, a computing sys tem can include @ simulator as & specially’ programmed compaterizd framework that can calculate varens valves for purposes of eontrlling one or more pieces of Held cquipment. For example, a simulator can caleulate a Bow rate, an emulsion type, an emulsion formation time, an emulsion formation region, an interfcial tension, a compo: sition of fluid, ef. Such types of values cat be utilized in controlling an injetion process tht injets chemicals into a subterranean formation that icles reservoir with oil. Ak fn example, one or more methods ean improve recovery of oil roma reservoir by utilizing a simulator that can sinh ‘underground conditions, Asan example, sucha method may make a tertiary recovery process (eg, an FOR process) tore effective as 10 amount of oil recovered, rate of oil recovery, amount of el in produced Mud), andor amount of water andor chensieal wilized The system 700 of FIG, 7 can be utilized for purposes of ctiemical Hooding to add a material (chemical) to water being injected into «reservoir to increase theo recovery by fone or more of (1) increasing the water viscosity (eg. polymer andor surtactant floods). (2) docreasing the roatve permeability to water (rosslinked polymer andlor surlac~ tant floods), or () increasing the relative permeability 0 oil and decreasing residual oil saturation (Sor) by decreas the interfacial tension betwoen the ol and water phases (62, ‘microemulsion and/or alkaline ods). FIG. 7 shows an example of micthod that includes

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