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LIBRARY
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ADVERTISING:
COMMUNICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT

Advertising:
BOSTON, 1960
JOHN W. CRAWFORD Head, Depart-
ment of Advertising, Michigan State University.
Formerly Vice President, Kenyon & Eckhardt, Inc.
Communications for Management
ALLYN AND BACON, INC

LOAN STACK
© Copyright, 1960, by ALLYN AND BACON, INC., 150 Tremont Street,

Boston. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in
any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in
writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number : 60-8655

TO LEO BURNETT
whose contributions to the stature of advertising

are reflected throughout this book
423
PRE FA CE
The business of advertising, if it is to grow in stature

and in responsibility and service to our society, needs
an increasing number of able people with increasingly
competent critical judgment. This need exists not only

in the creative phases of advertising, not only in the
administration of corporate advertising departments
or in the selection and sale of space and time. Informed
critical judgment is important at all levels of man
agement, where people not immediately and intimately
concerned with advertising must evaluate, judge, and
approve advertising plans, budgets, and campaigns.
This book is intended to lay the foundations of critical
judgment and of of responsibility to society for
a sense
the men and women of management, as well as for those

who will be working actively in some aspects of advertis-
vi
ing.It provides a basic knowledge of what advertising is, what it does, and how it
works. It presents the basic criteria for the evaluation of advertising, with the neces
sary bench marks for the sound application of these criteria. With a consciousness
of the limitations of time, it attempts to do all this for the student of advertising,
for the active practitioner of the art, and for the consumer who wants a greater
awareness of the effect advertising has upon daily living in our society.
Selecting the essential elements of advertising to be thus emphasized has not

been an easy task. Answers to questions about elements to include (and elements
which might be safely left out) are very likely to represent one man's opinion —
in this instance, mine. The selection has come largely out of my own personal ex
perience on a newspaper, in the advertising department of a large corporation, and
in many years of agency work. Yet no man's opinions are entirely shaped by him
self alone, and in forming mine, I have been aided and guided by many of my
former associates in the advertising business and by my colleagues in the teaching
of advertising.
vii
At the risk of omitting individuals who ought to be included in any list
of acknowledgments, I must express my deepest gratitude to: Leo Burnett,
J I Chairman of the Board of Leo Burnett Company, Inc.,
my employer
for most of my advertising career, to whom this book is dedicated; to James
Webb Young, Senior Consultant of J. Walter Thompson Company, for per
mission to use many of his ideas, which have had a profound impact in
advertising; to James D. Woolf, formerly Vice President of J. Walter Thomp
son Company, who gave me my start in advertising; and to Thomas D'Arcy
Brophy, formerly Chairman of the Board of Kenyon & Eckhardt, Inc. I am
greatly indebted to Dr. Gordon A. Sabine, Dean of the College of Communica
tion Arts, Michigan State University, who made the first suggestion that I
write this book and who has read the entire manuscript, applying his own
highly developed critical judgment to what I have had to say. Dr. Paul
Deutschmann, director of the Communications Research Center, Michigan
State University, greatly strengthened the chapters on research with his sound
PREFACE
comments and suggestions. Mr. Kenward L. Atkin, instructor in Advertising
at Michigan State, has been, as always, extremely helpful in allowing me to
draw from his wide experience in advertising and in teaching advertising.
To the authors and publishers of the books and articles I have read and to
the advertising managers and account executives who furnished me with
advertisements to reproduce, my gratitude goes far beyond the acknowledg
ment I am able to provide in a footnote or a citation in the text. Sir Isaac
Newton is reputed to have said that, if he had seen far, it was because he
stood on the shoulders of other men. So it is with all of us who attempt to
collect the knowledge of the past and project it into the future.
JOHN W. CRAWFORD
East Lansing, Michigan

January, 1960
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BACKGROUND TO ADVERTISING
What advertising is — 4. A capsule history of advertising — 6. Ad

vertising comes of age — 13. Rise of the advertising agency — 14.
-
Types of advertising 20. Summary — 35.
THE PEOPLE OF ADVERTISING
The people who work in advertising — 38. The good advertising

man — 46. Getting started in advertising — 50. Summary — 57.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF ADVERTISING
- -
Factors influencing sales 61 . How advertising works 62. The
cost of advertising - 69. Criticisms of advertising- 70. Responsi
bilities of advertising to society — 73. Summary — 79.
X
THE OBJECTIVES OF ADVERTISING
Action and attitude - 82. Basic principles -

88. Information and
persuasion — 93. Specific purposes of advertising — 99. Summary —
111.
ADVERTISING RESEARCH: Criteria and Method*
Evaluating advertising research -

114. Sampling- 11 7. Question
naires and their problems — 121. Interpretation of advertising re
search - 122. Summary - 126.
KINDS OF RESEARCH AND EVALUATION OF COPY
Market research - 130. Consumer research — 137. Product research —
142. Copy research — 1 45. Testing copy — 146. Evaluating copy

through standard instruments — 149. Audience research — 155. Sum
mary- 161.
xi
PREPARATION OF ADVERTISING (I): Copy
Producing ideas - 165. -

How to think about copy 166. Executing
ideas- 1 71. Working with headlines -
1 76. Working with copy-
186. The copy platform - 193. Reward to the reader - 194. Some ads
do — and some don't - 194. Summary - 205.
PREPARATION OF ADVERTISING (II): Graphics
Visualizing - 209. Working with layouts -213. Working with pic

tures - 222. -
Working with type 227. Printing processes 234. -
Summary - 236.
ADVERTISING MEDIA AND HOW TO USE THEM
Media selection - 240.The cost per thousand formula 247 . Mag -

azines - 244. The Audit Bureau of Circulations -
249. Standard Rate
and Data Service — 250. Newspapers — 255. Business publications —
265. -
Outdoor advertising 268. Transportation advertising — 275.
-
Direct mail 276. Advertising to opinion leaders and special interest
groups -
279. Wanted: New creativity -
282. Summary 286. -
CONTENTS
SOUND AND SIGHT: Special Problem* of Radio and Television
10
The importance of programming — 290. The essential element of time-
buying— 297. Co-sponsorship and spot advertising — 302. The in
escapable commercial -
303. The creative broadcasting man — 315.
Summary - 320.
BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER (I): The Marketing Plan
11
The Marketing Plan — 326. Objectives of the Marketing Plan 327. -
Organization of the Marketing Plan -
329. Check list for Eldridge
-
Marketing Plan 332. Summary 347. -
BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER (II): Advertising Campaigns
12
Implementation services: merchandising - 363. Implementation serv
ices: sales promotion - 366.
Implementation services: publicity —
-
368. Implementation services: public relations 369. The manage
ment view of advertising today -
375.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
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BACKGROUND
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All good textbooks seem to start with precise defini

tions of the subject to be covered, but there are almost
as many definitions of advertising as there are people
who have been concerned enough about advertising to
write definitions.
These definitions range all the way from the classic
of John E. Kennedy —possibly the shortest on record,
and certainly the one which has survived the longest —
"Advertising is salesmanship in print"
to long, involved, legalistic definitions of advertising
which attempt to cover every one of its functions in a
single sentence.
Some of these definitions concentrate on a single
aspect of advertising, attempting to relate it to other

aspects of business and society without, in turn, defin-
2
10 ADVERTISING
ing them. Thus, advertising has been called: the handmaiden of the mass distri
bution system; the underwriter of the free press; the accelerator of mass sales;
the improver of products; the expander of markets; and a channel of mass com
munications in its own right.
While all of these aspects of definition have some truth in them, they are, at
a
one and the same time, both too sweeping and too limited to be of real use to us in
trying to define what advertising is and what it is all about.

In the same way, those people who would find fault with advertising — and ad
vertising, being the creation of people, has some of the faults and partakes of some
of the errors of its creators — call attention to those aspects of advertising which
they wish to decry and disparage. Thus, advertising has been labeled: an eco
nomic waste; a promoter of mass conformity; a trader on the baser (even though
basic) human emotions; a debaser of the mass intellect; a leveler of the mass
taste to mediocrity; an arbitrary dictator of what we see and hear on television;
and even some sort of mysterious black magic which can force people into buying
3
habits and patterns of thought beyond their control and is thus po
tentially dangerous to the structure of society as a whole.
While we need not accept such disparaging remarks as being any
more than opinions without much foundation in fact, we should not
go forward blindly believing that advertising can be all things to all

people under all circumstances all of the time. Advertising is not a
science with laws, rules, and prescriptions which if followed precisely
lead to predictable results each time they are applied. Advertising
is not a panacea which can cure all business ills and correct all the
errors of poor business judgment merely by following a simple for
mula. Nor is it a substitute for sound business management that can
pull the chestnuts of unsound management decisions out of the fire

of economic failure. Advertising is not yet a profession, in the sense
that medicine, the law, the church, and engineering are professions,
even though many of its most forward-thinking practitioners would
like it to be one some day.
If advertising is none of these things, what is advertising?
WHAT ADVERTISING IS
For our purposes, in trying to take advertising apart and find out
what makes it tick, we can think of advertising in this way. Adver
tising is people communicating with other people about products or

services which one group provides in order to supply the needs or
desires of a larger group. Advertising is the art of persuading people

to do with frequency and in large numbers something you want them
to do. People invented advertising in order to accomplish this— to
create a channel of communication from seller to buyer, from loser
to finder, from the man who has a job to fill to the man who wants
to fill a job, from maker to user, from the man who has an idea to the
man who can be influenced to accept that idea. Advertising is not
words alone, or pictures, or magazines, or outdoor billboards, or
television, or psychological research into human behavior. Adver-
The Un-hidden
persuaders
draw your conclusions from the
led experts in the field these days,
advertising and selling are pretty sneaky

stuff.
To hear these boys talk, you'd think
g was one part psychiatry to

parts brainwashing, with a couple
dashes of henbane and dragonwort
thrown in.
We happen to think that most people

buy things because they need, want, and
can use them.
And that these people, regardless of
their libidos or ids, like the kind of ad
vertising that shows arresting pictures of

these products and delivers fresh, truth
ful, interesting words about them.
k heavens, that's the kind of

our clients seem to like, too.
We work for the following companies: Ai-imtatrInhiiranckCompakikn. amhaicanMinimumSpirit* Co. . Appointmrnt

Hosirky Miijn, Inc. . Atchwon. IWfU * Santa Kr Hailway Co • Biowm snur Company • Camprki.i BoUpCompany
R
Cmnui Corporation . Commonwealth Koi-on Companyand Purijc SrrvicR Company• Thr Ckackkr Jack Co. . Thk
Blmotrjc AimuciatiomfChieftgo'■CiRRtmOiamtCompany• Harrm Trukt andxavinor Hank • Tnk IIoovrr CuMnrTI • Kki looo
CompaMY. THK KkMOAM.COMPANY. T'NRMATTM CompaNY• MtPTOROI.A. INC • PHILIP MorRIP Inc. • CltA". PPWRRA Co . IMC.
Company
Tnk rillRllRI Company . Tnk PkocYVRa Camri r CompaMY• Tnk Purr Oil Company . Tnr Pcrk Furl Oil
Star Ki t Pooo*.Imc • Suuar Inpormation. Inc. • Swift » VampaMV• Tka OtWMMtor thi II. S. A , Itm.
LEO BURNETT CO., INCCHICAGO, Prudential Plaza • NEW YORK - DETROIT • HOLLYWOOD • TORONTO
PLATFORM FOR ADVERTISING from a leading adver

tising agency. (Courtesy Leo Burnett Company, Inc.)
tising is people using these tools of communication to get other peo
ple to do something about products or services or ideas. This is ad
vertising in its broadest sense.
In a somewhat more limited context, advertising is the spokesman
for business. It is, if you will, applied communications for manage
ment. It is that means of communication which enables business to
deliver potential customer at the lowest possible cost.
a message to a
It provides the kind of information the customer needs to make a

buying decision. It is a tool for business to use in creating public
acceptance of its products and brands and in creating a climate in
which business can operate, not only for its own sound and healthy
growth but also for the benefit of the kind of society and the economic
system in which we live, in which business growth is considered
necessary and desirable. By enabling management to reach markets
again, people communicating with people —with frequent and eco
—
nomical messages, advertising can help to accelerate the process of

mass distribution, which has been the problem created when the
problem of mass production was solved.

And this is the frame of reference within which we will look at
advertising in this book.
A CAPSULE HISTORY OF ADVERTISING
Although advertising know it today is comparatively young,

as we
the principles of advertising have their roots deep in the history

of man. The mechanical wonders of high-speed printing, the elec
tronic miracles of radio and television, the accuracy of modern color
reproduction, and the new findings of the social sciences about man's
behavior, individually and in groups, are technical developments
which have been applied to advertising to enable it to spread its in
fluence more widely and more effectively in recent years. But the
principles of human behavior which enable advertising to work are

almost as old as man himself, and the history of human civilization
contains examples of advertising almost from the first page.
DLWRETL
SATRI'vALENTIS ■fLAMINIS • NERblMIS-
PERPETVI CLADIATbRVM PARIA XX ET D LVCRETIO VALENTIS ILlAD

CAESAR1S AVo - fjjjCELER
f
glad ■paria - x •r vg • r o m r i i s - vi - v - iv • 111•m - i d vs •ap ft - v i n ati6 - legitima-
SING
LV N A
ET-VELA- EftVNT
ROMAN IMPRESARIO advertises entertainment — a gladiatorial combat.

( From Corpus Inscriptionem Latinarum. )
In ancient Thebes, three thousand years ago, a scribe wrote on

papyrus an advertisement for a runaway slave. To our knowledge,
this is the oldest piece of advertising which has survived to the pres
ent time.1
parallels to contemporary advertising are scratched and

Close
painted on the walls of the houses and buildings of the ancient city
of Pompeii. Preserved for us to see today just as it looked nearly two
thousand years ago when this Roman resort town was buried in vol
canic ashes from Mount Vesuvius, the advertising of the year 79 a.d.
is in many respects close to advertising as we know it. These adver
tisements are included by scholars in the graffiti, a word used to cover
all the casual writings, rude drawings, and markings on ancient build
ings, as distinguished from deliberate carvings intended to be perma
nent and called "inscriptions." The graffiti were scratched into the
plastered exterior walls with a stylus or other sharp-pointed instru
ment or written boldly and sometimes in considerable size with red
chalk or black charcoal.
1
Advertising in Public (Boston, John Donnelly & Sons, 1950). See also the
classic history of advertising, The History and Development of Advertising
by Frank Presbrey (Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1929).
Many of the graffiti are, of course, merely scribblings —messages
like Samius Cornelio, suspendere ("Samius to Cornelius, go hang
yourself" ) .2 Even the Pompeiian equivalent of the G.I.'s Kilroy made
his mark — Paris haec juit ("Paris was here").3 But by far the largest
number of graffiti fall into the classification of political advertise
ments, notices urging the election of a particular candidate for a
specific office. These advertisements had a standard form: the name

of the candidate, followed by the office he was seeking, then the in
dividuals or groups who were supporting him, and finally a polite
formula urging the public to elect him. Thus, the Pompeiian voter
could read:
HOLCONIUM PRISCUM II VIR

FULLONES UNIVERSI ROC4
which we translate as: "All the fullers [the Pompeiian equivalent of
dry-cleaners] urge Holconius Priscus for the office of duumvir [one

of the two chief magistrates of the town]."
The scriptores who painted these advertisements, thus combining
the functions of bill-poster and copywriter, appear to have been us
ually in a hurry. They abbreviated as much possible, just as a news

as
paperman today abbreviates afl-cio, nam, fdr, Ike, sunfed, and

even usafrotc. So, when the voter saw:
P . FVR . II . V . B . 0 . F .6
he mentally read:
Publium Furium duumvirum, virum bonum, oro vos, facite,
or, as Mau translates for us:
"Make Publius Furius duumvir, I beg of you; he's a good man."6
2
Carol Zangeraeister and Richard Schoene, Corpus Inscriptionem Latinarum
(Berlin, George Reimer, 1871), Vol. IV, 1864, and cited in August Mau,
Pompeii, trans. F. W. Kelsey (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1902), p. 493.
Used with permission of The Macmillan Co.
3 Mau, 4 C1L,
Pompeii, p. 493. IV-Suppl., 7164.
5 CIL, IV, 67. 8 Mau,
Pompeii, p. 487.
CKGROUND TO ADVERTISING
In our own time, of course, we have been able to carry on this
process of abbreviation in political advertising, as in
9
"I LIKE IKE."
And if you have traveled in Mexico, you have seen the names of
political candidates painted on the sides of towering mountains or
scrawled in red on the walls of buildings — a vivid reminder that peo
ple, politics, and advertising have not changed very much in nearly
two thousand years.
From the advertisements included in the graffiti we learn the kinds
of business that went on in Pompeii — the dry cleaners, the fruit
sellers, the perfumers, the bakers, the goldsmiths, and even an early
tycoon, Scaurus, who made a fortune out of selling fish sauces. There
were also political figures and businessmen who sponsored enter
tainment, just as businessmen sponsor a television program today:
D. Lucreti Satri Valentis flaminis Neronis Caesaris Aug(usti) fili per-

petui gladiatorum paria XX, et D. Lucreti Valentis fili glad(iatorum)
paria X pug(nabunt) Pompeis VI V IV III pr{idie) Idus Apr(iles).
Venatio legitima et vela erunt. Scr (ipsit) Aemilius Celer sing (ulus) ad
luna(m). "Twenty pairs of gladiators furnished by Decimus Lucretius
Satrius Valens, permanent priest of Nero, son of the emperor, and ten
pairs of gladiators furnished by Decimus Lucretius Valens his son, will
fight at Pompeii April 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12. There will be a big hunt and
awnings [to keep off the sun]. Aemilus Celer wrote this, all alone by the
light of the moon."7
If you see and translate a bullfight in Spain

poster advertising a
today, you will recognize the direct heir of this kind of advertising.
Even the pose of the matador on the poster is a reminder of the pose
of the gladiator, scratched on the walls of an ancient Roman town.
On one of the gladiatorial advertisements,3 the seriptor apparently
misjudged the amount of space the line he was writing would take.
7 Mau, Pompeii, pp. 222-223. CIL, IV, Suppl., 3884.

3 CIL, IV, Suppl., 3882.
He ran out of room and simply continued around the corner to finish
on the door jamb of the adjoining wall — which indicates that in early
advertising as in current advertising there was a need to
PLAN AHEa
d.
Also from Pompeii come the earliest trademarks. The bakers all
identified their loaves of bread, and we find grade labeling in its
earliest form, since Scaurus, the fish sauce tycoon, marked his jars of
three different kinds of fish sauce with an indication of their quality.
Then, with the collapse of the Roman Empire, throughout the
period of the Dark Ages, advertising and its uses disappeared from
common everyday life. Advertising had to be rediscovered when the
common man learned to read again and when the skill of certain
talented workmen made it possible for them to produce more goods
than they and their immediate families could consume, goods which
could be offered for sale. These craftsmen learned to mark their goods
by brands or stamps, which enabled the buyer to differentiate be
tween branded merchandise, usually of good quality because you
could identify the maker and complain to him if it weren't, and un-
branded merchandise, the maker of which was not known. Later,
when craftsmen joined together in guilds, the guild mark was added
to the brand mark as an additional guarantee of quality.
But the problem that advertising could solve went beyond the
branding and trademarking of goods. Advertising could be used to
bring buyers and sellers together. Advertising was needed to inform
buyers what goods were available and where the seller of those goods
could be found.
Thus we find the great French essayist, Montaigne, writing "Of a
Defect in our Government" in 1580:
My late father, a man that had no other advantage than experience and
his own natural parts, was nevertheless of a very clear judgment, formerly
told me that he once had thoughts of endeavouring to introduce this prac
tice: that there might be in every city a certain place to which such as
KGROUND TO ADVERTISING
stood in need of anything might repair, and have their business entered
by an officer appointed for that purpose.
11
As for example: I want a chapman to buy my pearls; I want one that
has pearls to sell ; such a one wants company to go to Paris ; such a one
seeks a servant of such quality; such a one an artificer; some inquiring
for one thing, some for another, every one according to what he wants.
And doubtless, these mutual advertisements would be of no contempt
ible advantage to the public correspondence and intelligence ; for there are
evermore conditions that hunt after one another, and for want of know
ing one another's occasions leave men in very great necessity.9
And while Montaigne conceived of the function of advertising

as one which the government might well provide for its citizens, to
day the media of mass communications — newspapers, magazines,
radio, television, and the rest — deliver this service to the public with
out adding to the burden of the cost of government.
About the same time that Montaigne was writing in French, the
words advertise and advertisement began to assume their present
meaning in English. Advertise in its sense of call attention to or give
notice of is fairly common in Shakespearean English:
"We are advertis'd by our loving friends

That they do hold their course toward Tewksbury."
(Henry VI, Part III, v, iii, 18)
Yet we also find Shakespeare using advertisement in 1599, in the

knowledge that his hearers would think of the street-criers and their
wares, almost with the connotation we give the word now:
"My griefs cry louder than advertisement."

(Much Ado About Nothing, v, i, 32)
As the use of placards and notices in newspapers for purposes of
9 Michel de Montaigne, Essays (published first in 1580), translated by

Charles Cotton, 1685. This translation has been amended and added to by
William Carew Hazlitt (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902). I am
indebted to Mr. Barrett Brady, Senior Vice President, Kenyon & Eckhardt,
Inc., for this citation.
information and public announcement grew, the words gained their
current meanings. Pamphlets and posters, circulars and cards joined
the signs, the journals, and the public criers to bring advertising into
greater and greater public notice.

By 1759, Dr. Samuel Johnson could write, "The trade of advertis
ing is now so near to perfection that it is not easy to propose any im
provement." But being Sam Johnson, he went right ahead to propose
several improvements concerned with truth in advertising and the
evils of exaggerated claims.
Advertising came to America with the early colonists. In fact, the
colonists of Pennsylvania were largely recruited by William Penn's
use of advertising in newspapers and pamphlets in northern Europe.
This early use of "foreign language advertising" on large scale is
a
often given as the reason why the so-called "Pennsylvania Dutch"

were attracted to Penn's colony and why Germantown developed as a
suburb of Philadelphia before the American Revolution.
Colonial Williamsburg used advertising extensively, as a visit to
this restored colonial capital amply demonstrates. Benjamin Frank
lin was one of the earliest proponents of advertising and broadened
its use in his newspaper, founded in 1728. Paul Revere of the famous
ride used advertising to sell the products of his silversmith's art and
his sensational and sensationally popular engraving of the Boston
Massacre. He also made engravings to illustrate almanacs and maga
zines as well as the trade cards and advertisements of other Boston
merchants. Even George Washington, first president of the United
States, believed in the power of publicity to support the infant indus
tries of his country, consenting "to lend the prestige of his name and
office to a gesture which today might be called a publicity stunt. The
Hampshire Gazette of January 20, 1790, tells part of the story, as
follows:
"President Washington — when he addressed the two houses of Congress

on the 8th instant, was dressed in a crow coloured suit of clothes of
ND TO ADVERTISING
—This elegant fabric was from the manufactory
American manufacture:
in Hartford."10
13
ADVERTISING COMES OF AGE
Three sweeping changes of the early nineteenth century, changes

which affected the lives of everyone in the western world, brought the
development of modern advertising to the point where we know it
today. These changes are :
1. the Industrial Revolution and the rise of the system of mass pro
duction;
2. the resulting need for and development of the system of mass
distribution to dispose of the products of mass production on an ever-
increasing scale; and
3. the development of a system of mass communication which has
made it easy for the producer of goods to reach the people who
needed those goods and who could be persuaded to buy them.
Advertising marked time, so to speak, in its development until the

specific needs of producers pointed out a definite role for advertising
in the economic scheme of things. Communication was at first limited
by the human voice and how far a cry could carry, and advertising in
the voice of the crier was limited to a simple description of wares for
sale — "cockles and mussels, alive, alive-oh.1" Pictures and images of
goods in the form of signs indicated the places where merchandise

could be purchased, visual communication at the point of sale at a
time when most people could not read. And then, as the mass of the
people became literate, newspapers and magazines began to supply
man's hunger for news and knowledge, and advertising became a
way in which man's equal hunger for material things to improve his
standard of living could be satisfied. Thus, as in architecture, "form
10
H. K. Nixon and Thomas R. Carskadon, The Story of Selling (New York,
The Crowell-Collier Publishing Company, 1946), p. 5.
follows function," so in advertising — the form of this means of com
■£ ^ munication from people to people followed the function assigned to
advertising and the available means to carry it out.
In the beginning all selling was local, and so all advertising be
gan by using the medium of mass communication that was, and is,
primarily local in character— the newspaper. Local manufacturers,
importers, and retailers, selling locally, turned to the local newspaper
to broaden the market for their goods. But production soon out
stripped the ability of local markets to consume all the goods that
even a small business could produce, and producers began to reach
out to find new markets. The newspapers in those markets were, quite
obviously, the easy and economical way to reach the people who
could be persuaded to buy, and the man who had merchandise for
sale could make arrangements for the publisher of a newspaper away
from home to print his advertising just as he did with the publisher
of the newspaper in his own city; that is, provided he could get to
him. This was not always easy. The barriers to face-to-face com
munication — time, distance, poor roads — meant that the placing of
advertising put a considerable burden upon the manufacturer, whose
function as he conceived it was primarily the production of goods. So
he turned to the captain of the wagon train, to the postmaster in the
distant city, to the proprietor of the best inn or tavern to negotiate
with the publisher in the new market for the placing of his advertis
ing.
RISE OF THE ADVERTISING AGENCY
Human ingenuity found in this situation a new opportunity, and a

in Phila
it,
man named Volney B. Palmer was the first to capitalize on
delphia in 1841. In conjunction with his real estate, wood, and coal
business, he solicited advertising for various newspapers in Pennsyl
vania and New Jersey. As his business grew, and the number of
papers he represented increased, "Palmer's stout, pompous figure,
brass buttons, and gold-headed walking stick became a familiar sight
to publishers and merchants, not only in Philadelphia but in other
^
cities as well. In 1845 he opened a branch in Boston; about the same
time he opened another in New York; and for a short time he main
tained a third in Baltimore."11
Palmer's business spread, his methods were imitated by rising
competitors, and, in particular, the relationship he initiated with pub
lishers and the way he was compensated for his services set a pattern
which still exists. "Palmer stated explicitly that the publishers — us
ually they were editors and printers combined —were his principals
and that, as their agent, he was authorized to make contracts with
persons who wished to advertise in their papers. ... It is true that
Palmer pointed out the trouble and expense which he could save the
advertiser. He also kept a large file of newspapers for inspection, as
sisted advertisers in selecting the particular papers to be used, and

offered to help them with the writing of their advertisements. He
made it plain, however, that he was working for the newspapers and
stated that, if an advertiser dealt with his agency, the rates charged
would be the same as those charged by the publishers."12
This arrangement survives today. Advertising agencies still receive

their primary compensation, not from the manufacturer whose prod
ucts they advertise, but from the publishers of magazines and news
papers and the owners of broadcasting stations and outdoor bill

boards as a commission on the sale of the publication space and
broadcast time involved. In spite of some confusion arising out of
this antiquated method of payment, it has persisted, although the
modern advertising agency now represents the interest of its clients
— the companies for which it prepares and places advertising — as
much as or more than it represents advertising media in which the
advertising appears.
11
Ralph M. Hower, The History of an Advertising Agency (Cambridge,
Mass.. Harvard University Press, 1949), p. 11.
12 Ibid.,
p. 11-12.
A new dimension was introduced about 1865 by George P. Rowell
of Boston. Rowell set himself up as
wholesaler of newspaper space,
a
buying it in large quantities at reduced rates, and reselling it to ad

vertisers, piecemeal, at higher rates. Two years later, "Carlton &
Smith (subsequently the J.
Walter Thompson Company) and other
agents began to contract annually with the publications they repre
sented, to pay a lump sum and take over most of the risk and manage
ment of the entire advertising space in the papers"13 and in the rising
number of magazines which began to make their appearance after
the Civil War. It became apparent, however, that the needs of the
advertiser could not be served by limiting his choice to one publica
tion or to one kind of publication. It also became apparent that the
true function of the advertising agency would be two-fold: (first, to
assist the advertiser in the selling of his merchandise by preparing
better advertising for him more skillfully than he could prepare it
himself, and second^ to help him by placing it in the advertising
media reaching the greatest possible number of prospective custom
ers at the lowest cost. This second function involved making choices
between various competing media, so that, again gradually and over
a number of years, the advertising agent began to represent a variety
of media, and eventually all media, recommending each on its merits
in a specific advertising situation.
This dual nature of the advertising agency function has led to an
increasing amount of speculation in recent years on the subject of ad
vertising agency compensation. The advertising agency today repre
sents a limited number of advertisers, known as clients, and acts as
their agent in preparing advertising copy and layouts for their prod
ucts and in placing these advertisements in various advertising media.
But for this service, the typical large agency receives no compensa
tion from the client. Instead, the agency gets its income in the form
of a commission on the sale of space and time for which it acts as the
agent of the publisher or broadcaster, just as it did in Volney Palmer's
13 Ibid., p. 16.
ND TO ADVERTISING
day, more than hundred years ago. The commission allowed by
a
most advertising media for this service has been customarily fifteen
per cent of the cost of the space or time to the advertiser, and hence
this method of agency compensation is known as the "15% commis
sion system."
Over the years, a number of customs have grown up in the adver
tising business in regard to this system. The commission has been
granted only to advertising agencies recognized by media as having
certain financial standing ("good credit risks," in other words). The
commission thus granted to agencies could not be shared with or re
bated to the advertiser. An advertiser could not place his own ad
vertising and receive the commission. An advertiser could not form

an agency of his own (or hold a financial interest in an agency osten
sibly owned by others) and receive the commission, and so on. Com
pliance with these customs was in the hands of various trade associa
tions — the American Association of Advertising Agencies, the Peri
odical Publishers Association, and others. To some, including of
ficials of the U.S. Department of Justice, this appeared to be a com
bination in restraint of trade and hence a possible violation of the
federal anti-trust laws. Agencies and media strongly disagreed. The
result was a series of consent decrees signed in 1956 by the various
associations by which the associations agreed to refrain, among
other things, from
entering into, adhering to, promoting or following any course of conduct,

practice or policy, or any agreement or understanding:
1. Fixing, establishing or stabilizing agency commissions, or attempt
ing to do so ;
2. Requiring, urging, or advising any advertising agency to refrain

from rebating or splitting agency commissions;
3. Designed, in whole or in part, to deny or limit credit or agency com
mission due or available to any advertising agency;
4. Establishing or formulating, or attempting to establish or formu
late, any standards of conduct or other qualifications to be used by any
media or association of media to determine whether media should or
BACKGROUND TO ADVERTIS
should not do business with, recognize or approve any advertising
agency;
5. Designed to cause any media not to do business with, not to recog
nize or not to approve any advertising agency ;
6. Fixing, establishing or determining advertising rates to be charged
advertisers not employing an advertising agency, or attempting to do so;

7. Designed to have media adhere to published advertising rates or
rate cards.1*
However, it is also quite clear that "the decrees do not prevent any
company from doing the things listed, on its own initiative and de
termination. Many activities that a business may lawfully engage in
by itself may become illegal if done as the result of agreement, con
cert or joint program with one or more other companies. The de
crees in no way affect the relationships between an agency and an
individual publisher, between an agency and its individual clients,
or between a publisher and individual advertisers."15
Thus, while the consent decrees were looked upon as the break
down of the "15% commission system," they have not as yet af
fected it to any great extent. They did, however, provide the stimulus
for an exhaustive survey of the relationships between advertisers and
agencies, under the sponsorship of the Association of National Ad
vertisers, by Professor Albert W. Frey and Kenneth R. Davis of the
Amos Tuck School of Business Administration of Dartmouth Col
lege. From this study, The Advertising Industry ( usually referred to
as "The Frey Report"), we learn a great deal about what business
today includes in its definition of advertising and the functions of

advertising that business expects the advertising agency to perform.
For example, we find included under the heading of advertising:
Radio program production Direct mail

TV program production Catalogs
Copy research Premium selection
14
Albert W. Frey and Kenneth R. Davis, The Advertising Industry (New
York, Association of National Advertisers, 1958), p. 11-12.
« Ibid., p. 12.
Media research Dealer aids (point of purchase)
Product tests Salesmen's aids
Market research Sales meetings
Package design Wholesaler aids
Publicity Shows and exhibits
Public relations Trade paper copy16
—a miscellany of functions and services all having to do with the

way in which business communicates with its customers. But these
services are all collateral to the main stream of communication of
—
advertising through the mass media magazines, newspapers, radio,
television, and outdoor — and above and beyond the advertising
agency's primary function of rendering basic services to advertisers.
Thus the basic services provided by the typical advertising agency
now are:
Selection of advertising media

Preparation of copy (including print, radio and TV)
Preparation of layouts and artwork
Mechanical production of print advertising
Checking insertions, accounting and paying the bills.17
Basic function or collateral service, the important thing to remem

ber is that advertising is concerned today with the movement of
goods from the people who make them to the people who use them
through whatever channels of distribution (and this again is people)
are necessary to this process of distribution. The function of ad
vertising is to accelerate and help to accomplish this movement of
goods by creating the greatest possible awareness of the goods,
spreading the greatest possible information about the goods, stimu
lating the greatest possible demand for the goods, creating the
greatest possible acceptance for the goods, promoting the greatest
possible public belief in the honesty and integrity of the maker of
the goods — and doing all this at the lowest possible cost so that
" Ibid.,
" Ibid., p. 88.
p. 82.
BACKGROUND TO AD
tne processes of mass production and mass distribution operate with
^0 service and benefit to the buyer of the goods and with profit to the
maker of the goods. Thus advertising is, in substance, a means of
communication in its own right, using the established media of mass
communications to deliver messages to people who want to buy from
people who have goods and services to sell. Advertising reached this
stage only within the past fifty years. Before advertising could "come
of age," mass production of goods in quantity was a first essential.
Transportation had to be developed to carry those goods from where
they were made to where they could be used. Channels of distribu
tion to the retail level had to come to make goods readily available.
And the economy of the nation had to develop to a point where an
ever-increasing number of people had discretionary buying power,
money to spend for goods beyond those needed for subsistence
—
food, clothing, shelter. While it is true that advertising helped to ac
celerate this process of the expanding, dynamic economy, it is also
true that advertising as we see and hear it today is more a result of
this economy than its creator. Advertising is a product of our indus
trial economy and our mobile society, and its basic contribution is in
speeding up the process of the exchange of goods.
TYPES OF ADVERTISING
To carry out its function, advertising today falls into certain cat
egories which have to do with the way in which its messages are
presented. Although these categories mingle and overlap, they can
be useful to us in classifying the various kinds of advertising mes
sages we see and hear. They give us a way of classifying the end
product of the creative phase of advertising, the advertising message
itself and its placement in the medium where we can read it or listen
to it.
Thus, national advertising is advertising designed to reach as
many people as possible within the geographical limits of the nation
Wonderful Dial Soap?
You bet! Dial works wonders for your complexion.

Just as it does in your bath! The very same formula that destroys
odor-causing bacteria also sweeps away skin bacteria
that make complexions misbehave. Wonderful Dial!
[don't you wish everybody did?)
NATIONAL ADVERTISING at work for Dial Soap. (Courtesy Armour &
Company and Foote, Cone & Belding.)

| "[[||PO|| ||PPERS"
No experience necessary!
...just
the desire to save 10¢ on a package of
-
the best-tasting Graham Crackers ever baked!
Hekman Graham Crackers, of course.
Apply -
000000000000. TAKE WHis coupon To Your GRocER 000
now...
THIS COUPON wo RTH # =
* * -* *
Present on THE PURCHAs E OF =
this coupon 1-lb. Hekman Graham Crackers
* * mustpro-b*e ~=
=
-
to your * Company.
*Box1076,Clinton,lo-Coupon-
--
":
o-
-> H-an Biscuit
pre-nted
byJuly20, * ofthisoffer
They payyou10-plus handline,
1859. will
---
grOcer youandyourcustomer
vided havecompliedwiththeterms
In-Proving youpurchased sufficient toco-recupon-presented
:
mustbeshownuponrequest
only coupons
pre-nued byretail
distributors
-n - oth-ill
ofourmerchand Coupon-
willbehonored pre-d. not
--
b-hon andwill - The e-mer must
payanysale-taxinvolved.
Thisoffervoid taxed,re-tricted.
rohibited
orlicense C-lue 1/20of 1* Hekman
required. Bi-uit
•
ompany,GrandRapids,
Michigan
[. OFFE.R. Ex-Pir ES MAY 15, 1959 W000000000 MBBH
REGIONAL ADVERTISER uses a coupon to attract readers of newspapers,
the “action” medium. (Courtesy Hekman Biscuit Company, Division

United Biscuit Company of America, and George H. Hartman Company.)
in which the advertised product is for sale. It assumes that national
distribution for this product is available — that it can be purchased
23
almost anywhere in the country, easily and conveniently. Therefore
the broadest media of mass communication can be used to deliver
this advertising message to the greatest number of people who may
buy the product: magazines, network television programs, network
radio programs. The speed of modern transportation and the uni
formity of modern printing and reproduction processes also make it
possible for the same advertising message to appear on the same day
in newspapers all over the country and on outdoor billboards through
out the length and breadth of the land.
Regional advertising, on the other hand, is limited by geography.
A product may be distributed only in certain states or in certain
regions. Climate and the living habits of people — the kinds of foods
they eat, the clothes they wear, the homes they live in —make for a
wide variety of geographical product distribution in a country as big
as the United States. Some products widely used in the North may
be less needed in the South — anti-freeze,
for example. Outdoor
cookery and the backyard barbecue moved slowly from the West and
Southwest to the East. Some companies, by the nature of their bus
inesses, concentrate their distribution and sales within a regional
pattern influencedby the geography of transportation. To deliver ad
vertising messages within these regions, we find a limited number of
magazines edited specifically for the people of these regions, but
we will rely on newspapers, on local radio and television, and on out
door as our primary media.
Local advertising seeks primarily to reach only those people within
a given marketing center, a city and its suburbs, or a county seat
town — the people who are prospective customers not so much for
goods as for services (to differentiate this category from the next
one Here, the bank, the garage, the local insurance man, the funeral
) .
home, the restaurant, the contractor, and the real estate agent will
advertise in newspapers, over local radio and television stations, with
signs, and with home-delivered fliers and broadsides.
Hurry! It's not too late for new savings
accounts to earn 3% interest from July 1st!
You knowthe savingshabitis a goodone. If you withustoday.Don'tmittsout onthisimerest- bonus !
haven'talreadygot it, Th« First NationalBankof How doyouopenan account?Easy. Fill out the July 14th earn 3s Inter**! from
Chicagoww givesyouevenmoreincentive to getit. couponbelow, aslittleata dollar,andmailitin.
enclose July let. Savins;* Department opto
On savingsaccounts openedon or beforeJuly 14th, Or,stopby.In minutes,
wellseethatyougetyourRav
yourmoneyearnsa full 1% interest for Uu rix-montk ingspassbook.A passbookthatputsallof thespecial Friday 9 a..m.to I p.m. T*l*pbon-
pmodlhalbegi71*
Jul- I*1-Sohurry—open youraccount of ourSavingsDepartment
services at yourdisposal.
9»t 1iikb Department

THIS COUPON TO OPEN YOU* 3^° SAVINGS ACCOUNT NOW!--1
j--SCNO
I enclose savings
dollarsV openmySave-by-Mail account.
□ In mynamealone.
□ As■jointaccount
with_
The First National Bank NAM I
of Chicago
Dearborn A ClarkStreets- Building
Monroe since1303
withChicago
LOCAL ADVERTISING in newspapers reaches prospec

tive depositors. (Courtesy The First National Bank of
Chicago. )
"HIGH FASHION" photography and artwork combine to display nation
ally branded merchandise for retail customers in newspaper advertising.

(Courtesy Marshall Field & Company.)
the city suit: an elegant look

in -ilk li\ David Crystal.
Here,ihrw withn
adaptabletotowniftrmoontortravel
agendae. Thc\ followMipplrtilbou-
■ iIn cardigan jacketa laChanel.
daqr
■era
elegantlookyourown.Stan10to 30,
fromthe poitrdcollection* in Thr
SuitRoom —SixthFloor,NorthState.
Alao E'au*lou. Oak Park. I
ronat,ParkFoffMandOkl Orchard
Retail advertising, quite obviously, is a form of local advertising,
and uses the same means of delivery of its messages. Yet it differs
in that retailers usually have kind and variety of goods for
a greater
sale, and the greater part of these products will be merchandise not
produced locally. Thus retailers often advertise nationally -branded

products, uniform in quality throughout the country and between
stores in the same community. Retailers back up this nationally-
branded, nationally-advertised merchandise with their own reputa
tion for service, honesty, and fair treatment of their customers. In
this category we find department stores, hardware stores, appliance
stores, grocery stores — all the different kinds of merchants who are
involved in the complex process of getting goods from manufacturer
to consumer. Here we find heavy use of local newspapers, radio, tele
vision, and great emphasis on point-of-purchase advertising: the
signs, posters, placards, banners, displays in windows, aisles and

counters designed to attract attention and influence buying right at
the point of sale.
Trade advertising focuses its attention not on the ultimate con
sumer but on the man who buys for re-sale. This man is more often
than not a retailer, but he may be a wholesaler, a jobber, a distribu
tor, someone who is one step removed from the ultimate sale to the
consumer. Trade advertising has as its objective the selling of the
man who sells— influencing a store to stock and sell a given brand
of merchandise; and trade advertising appears in "trade papers" —
scores of publications, in newspaper or magazine form, carrying bus
iness news about products, prices, and promotions to merchants who
buy to re-sell.
Industrial advertising — sometimes called "business paper adver
tising" — is designed to reach the man who is buying not for himself
and his own use but for his company and his company's use. Here
again are scores of publications — in newspaper and magazine form

— classified for us by the kinds of business readers they reach, with
a range all the way from automotive and aviation, through chemical,
electrical, milling, mining, to welding, wire products, and wood
To a,ll grocers
Hekman. "Coupon-Clippers" are heading your way!

Look out during April! Hekman'B circulating 7.065,864 valuable 10*off coupons
on Hekman Grahams in 46 Michigan and No. Ohio newspapers Plus saturating
the TV and Radio airwaves with spots announcing when the coupons will ap Honey
pear. Your Hekman cracker department 1bcertain to be invaded by these people.
Cr*ham$
Be prepared Do not resiBt. Give them what they want - Hekman Graham Crackers!
i ■'I
There's always a fresh idea from
[§SS5
ALERTING THE GROCERY TRADE to promotion coming up, through

a
advertising in trade publications. (Courtesy Hekman Biscuit Company,

Division United Biscuit Company of America, and George H. Hartman
Company.
)
OO working. Advertisers who sell to business anything from an electrical
generating plant to a box of paper clips use industrial advertising
to carry their messages to the men who will make the decision to buy.
Professional advertising is a slightly broader classification than
industrial advertising, because it is used in a broader way. Members
of the professions — medicine, dentistry, architecture, among others
—buy many items for their professional use. They also recommend,
to their patients and clients, products for the patients and clients to
use, and such is the status of the professions in our society that this
recommendation carries great weight. Many advertisers, wishing to
secure the approval of one or more of the professions for the product
advertised, use advertising in the professional journals and maga
zines to see that the members of the professions are kept informed.
These rough classifications of advertising are, of course, neither
complete nor all-inclusive. Ideas seldom fall into rigid classifications
and set patterns, and, in advertising, the man (or woman) who has
29
the courage to break the pattern very often finds that he can cut
across all classifications, extending the influence of his idea with
profit to his company and himself.
Institutional advertising, for example, may and does use all the
preceding classifications to inform all kinds of people of the advan
tages and benefits of doing business with a given company, not only
by buying its products, but also by using its services. A company's "■?
reputation for quality, or for speed of delivery, or for honesty and

reliability, or for attention to detail in the filling of orders, or for its
bigness or its smallness — all these, in our kind of economy based on
a system of free competition, can influence the sale of its products and
services. All of these ideas about a company deserve attention on the
part of the purchaser, and the more favorable ideas the purchaser
has the more likely he is to want to buy. Institutional advertising
about a company, rather than about product, takes this
a specific
into account. Unfortunately, the early efforts in this direction con

sisted, in many instances, of advertising that was marked less by any
real information and service and more by sheer bragging about size
and quality and reputation. Much of such institutional advertising
was abstract to the point of being meaningless to the buyer. This at
titude of "look how good we are" was sometimes carried to the point
of being ridiculous or even offensive, when some advertisers forgot
that the reader of this kind of advertising needed as specific informa
tion in this area of advertising as in any other. Dealing in meaning
less generalities was carried to extremes, particularly during the pe
riod of the Second World War when there was a scarcity of products
for sale and advertisers used space to talk about themselves and how
good they were. "Institutional advertising" came to have, in certain
advertising circles, a connotation of braggadocio and dullness, not
inherent nor implied in the original meaning of the term. "Institu
tional," applied to advertising, became almost a dirty word. To
as
avoid this unfortunate connotation, two new terms were invented and
"Warning to Vodka lovers! Don't
dilute the stuff with anything but Schweppes!"
"Schweppes Tonic gives Vodka taste. A curiously refreshing
bittersweet taste," says Commatu&.T Whitehead.
U'nfM \ , Vvdkj-imiUmu: nklltheraijc

.Mmflvfkvlt And onlySchwt|'pci lanK ha Srhwtppwnevtnce-
O wmkble
in\rw V*t. jikl 1jfi.lon,jmi Parii.Kvrry :IcIk-kjui
htrlcIniMitciif* Ua tm/ruJuwrJrrn-r7»Mii;A
:iviliMitcapital. 1bwiif ittrgrwi rih"«oip"I \«n1ka-jncl-
humn ih«
1jximrarnicr VVhitciit*d.Schweppej AililimtW in t'i quw-ti *nj cj*ytomake- jitMnttxICC,Vodka,
iml
Amtnrj. i*y*th» alarmihc ik(* mfcriMtuma1 irj/i Schwepiio m J tnjr1ifull
pliv. Amitherevimlute-it
'.Schwcppr* Iibik-give*VMkl MHt.A uilvk.rartnustv Nurhinpn*iM Iwwinpkr.m mnnJc1khhb.
np.faorrroyrr
rcfrtthi 1Mr.Qnkcdifficultto iloctilw P.S.1Mcmirw,Se-hwxppcs mjtwithe'xilvmixer1or
'.f' inipuwUrto iniirjit"
jtul .'■-. f/m-jikl I.xik \\ H hashctn.qik■c the-dawnnl tone.
BUILDING BRAND IMAGE around a personality— in

this instance, the bearded Commander Whitehead.
(Courtesy Schweppes [U.S.A.] Ltd., and Ogilvy, Benson
& Mather, Inc.)
now have come into fairly general use— brand image advertising and
3j?
corporate image advertising.
Brand image may be denned as the sum total of all the impressions
one may have in his mind about the qualities of a product. While
product advertising seeks to inform the prospective customer about

how the product is made and the specific uses to which it may be put,
brand image advertising may seek to add to the favorable impression
of
it,
product by describing the people who make
a the people who
it,
sell the people who use it. Or the product may be the kind of an
item which differs very little from other competitive products of the
same class, and its brand image advertising may concentrate simply
on the appearance of the product or of its package, so that will be
it
easily recognized on the shelves of supermarket.
a
Similarly, corporate image may be defined as the sum total of all

the impressions about company which one may bring together men
a
tally in deciding how he feels about doing business with that com
pany. Corporate image advertising therefore seeks to create favorable
impressions about company as good one to do business with, and
a
this very close to the original purpose of institutional advertising.

is
Creators of this kind of advertising are now, however, very careful

to screen out of their work any of the elements of bragging that gave
the words "institutional advertising" such an unfortunate connota
tion. Corporate image advertising, like all sound and effective adver
tising, seeks to create as specific a picture as possible, in terms of the
reader's own self-interest, of what company and what
is
company
a
does, of how the products and services of this company are of benefit
and service to the public and how the attitudes, opinions, and poli
cies of the management of this company relate to our society in
general and our economy as whole.
a
In much the same way, another category of advertising cuts across

all of our previous classifications. This category sometimes known
is
as public service advertising. This kind of advertising not con

is
cerned primarily with influencing people to buy. concerned with

It
is
getting people to accept ideas and to develop attitudes toward matters
which are generally considered to be in the public interest. For ex
ample, conservation of our natural resources is a matter of wide pub
lic interest. Many square miles of forests —a very important natural
resource — are destroyed by fire every year. Some of these fires are
caused by carelessness with matches, cigarettes, camp fires. When ad
vertising brings this carelessness to widespread public attention and,

through an appealing character, Smokey the Bear, implants the idea
of stamping out forest fires by preventing them from starting through
carelessness, a very considerable public service has been performed.
Again, one of the basic principles of our form of government is the

right of every citizen to participate in the government by voting. Yet
usually less than half of the eligible voters go to the polls in an off-
year congressional election, and even in a presidential election year
only about sixty per cent of the eligible voters will take the trouble to
cast a ballot. If advertising can be used to make the idea of participa
tion in government through the act of voting more widespread, this
is again an activity in the public interest. In the same way, public
service advertising is used to raise money for various charities and
public causes, to convince people that slum clearance is a desirable

neighborhood or city-wide project, to recruit nurses for hospitals and
teachers for schools, and, because religion is an important part of
our heritage and culture, to get people to go to church on Sundays.
We could thus set up another system of categorizing advertising
in terms of its objectives. Short term objectives for advertising might
have such specific and immediate purposes as producing leads for
salesmen, or providing a stimulus to immediate sales in the form of
a contest.Long term objectives might seek to reverse a public at
titude toward a whole classification of products, as the American
Meat Institute helped to change public opinion toward the eating of
meat from something that was bad for you to something that was
it,
good for you. Or, as one observer has put some advertising seeks
to make sales — a short term goal — while some advertising seeks to
make customers who will keep coming back to product or store
a
time after time.
PUBLIC SERVICE advertising helps increase voter turn
out on Election Day. (Prepared for The American Herit
age Foundation, in collaboration with The Advertising
Council, Inc., by Leo Burnett Company, Inc. )
is your name
in the book?
You can't vote

if you're not
registered
you graduate from high school, they
put your name in the school-yearbook.
When you have a telephone installed, they
put your name in the telephone book.
But you and only you— can get your name
in the most important book of all— the roll
of Registered Voters of your precinct— the
"Election Book."
And if you're not in the book, you ought
to be.
Because, if you're not registered,you can't
get in the polls come Election Day.
You can't even vote for dog catcher-
much less mayor, rouncilrnan, congressman,
senator, or president—unless your name is
in the book.
You don't even have the right to complain
—unless you're registered and vote.
So don't cut yourself out of this year's key
elections. Get your name in the book. A lot
of your frienda and neighbors are already
IF YOU'VE MARRIED, MOVED, listed there. If you know of one who isn't,
take him with you when you go to register
COME OF AGE SINCE THE LAST on this "Roll of Honor" of Americans. And
then— we'll see you at the polls!
ELECTION . . . read this
BRIDES1 Kvenif youhadpre FIRSTVOTERSI If you have
viouslyr*gialerodunderyour celebratedyour 21ki birth
maidenname,you have to dayaincethelaatelection:or
ceciMiT again under your
"new" name.Re sure your
if you will be31by Klection
Day), get your namein the
Be sure
"married name" ia in the book.
book!
MOVERS!ITyouhavemoved
MEMBERSOF THE ARMED
Voting you're registered!
fromthe precinctwhereyou
you have la
Make *ur*yournew
GOING AWAY ELECTION
DAY? Voteflrnt—byAhaen-
(Dates, Times
i>in the book!
and Places)
SPONSOR'S NAME
COUNTER
REVOLUTION
Millions of wise motorists buy
auto insurance over the counter
at Sears or at an Allstate
Insurance Center
And they often save

more than 20%
It is no accident that Allstate Insurance can

be bought at Seai&. Allstate was founded
by Sears —on the same low-overhead, big
volume, quality-for-less principle that made
Sears famous for better values.
Better value with no fuss and feathers
characterizes everything about Allstate.
For instance, we cut red tape in paying
claims. Our adjusters all over the United
States and Canada often write checks right
"on the spot"
Our policies are printed in large type
and plain language. You know exactly
what you're buying.
Our streamlined op
eration results in lower
rates to you. Savings
of 22% are common,
and some folks save
as much as 38%. In
Texas, Allstate charges
standard rates, but has
always paid a divi
'
dend (currently 15%)
to eligible policyholders. ance Center. Or an Allstate Agent wilt be us the first words you hear are "Allstate—
With insurance rates rising, why not com glad to call at your home. Just look up how can we help you?" That's how we feel
pare an Allstate policy with your present Allstate in your phone book. about our customers all the time . . . not
one? Visit a Sears store or Allstate Insur One Anal thought: When you telephone just when we sell you a policy.
You're in good hands with

AUTO■
■*'
HOMEOWNERS
pitRSON*LTHfPT
- -i•-oarata
" tnagtrtni,Sa«ra.ajoaouck
andCo.Homa
Offlea.Bhohi
A BIG FEATURE of the company's service to its customers helps to build

the corporate image here. (Courtesy Allstate Insurance Companies and
Leo Burnett Company, Inc.)
Summary
35
This brief look at the background of advertising sets up for us a
frame of reference for use as we go forward to try to find out what

advertising is all about.
We know that there are many definitions of advertising, but the
ones most useful to us for our immediate purpose are:
Advertising is people communicating with other people about

products or services which one group provides to supply the needs or
desires of another group.
Advertising is the art of persuading people with frequency and in

large numbers to do something you want them to do.
Advertising is the spokesman for business.
We realize from the history of advertising that it serves a basic and
fundamental human need — the need of human beings to communi
cate with each other as a means of fulfilling human wants and desires
which arise almost as soon as man rises above the level of mere sub
sistence and which require the exchange of goods and services when
a society grows beyond the stage of self-sufficiency with each man
producing all that he needs by himself.
We can see that as people grow in numbers and as the variety of in
dividual desires, tastes, and living patterns increases, the process of
supplying people's desires for material goods to maintain the standard
of living they would like to enjoy becomes more complex. Similarly,
the channels of communicating with people have multiplied, so that
in attempting to classify the ways in which advertising uses these
channels of communication, we have produced a number of categories
which overlap and meld and, at best, produce a kind of crisscross
pattern. We have seen, as the business of advertising has grown, that
more and more activities to support it as a means of communication
it,
have sprung up within and around adding to its complexity.

Yet the principle very clear. Advertising people communicat
is
is
ing with people. This where advertising starts.

is
THE PEOPLE
Advertising begins with people and ends with people.

Somebody wants somebody else to do something
about something, and he chooses advertising as the
means of communication that will help him do it. And
this involves more people, for the job of creating an
advertising message and getting it to the people for
whom it was intended requires a specialized kind of
knowledge, skill, and training which not everyone has
or wants to acquire. Therefore the business of adver
tising involves three kinds of people:
1. Those who have something to communicate — a
product to sell or an idea or attitude to be adopted;
2. Those who help them communicate it — by con
tributing to the creating of the message or by helping

prepare it for the mechanical process by which it will be
36
OF ADVERTISING
communicated or by providing the channel through which to communicate it;

3. Those who are going to receive the communication and act upon it —by pur
chasing the product or by accepting the idea.

it,
You can visualize you will, in this way. Advertising bridge, spanning
if
is
a
the gap of time and space and geography, between somebody who has something
that somebody else wants. Bridges are created first in the minds of architects and
engineers, who formulate their ideas on paper as sketches, engineering draw
ings, and blueprints with the help of draftsmen. Then contractors and their hosts of
skilled construction crews actually transform stone and metal into physical bridge
a
linking two distant and widely separated shores. In the same way, advertising has
many different kinds of people participating in its creation and construction as
a
bridge between those who make and sell and those who buy and use.
starts with the man who has something to sell — some product, service, or
It
idea. We call him the advertiser. He may be manufacturer, an industrial giant,

a
producing more than a million automobiles year; or, he may be small and close-
a
a
37
Q O knit workshop creating unusual designs in ceramics for a limited
group of select and definite tastes. He may be a retailer — a great de
partment store in a big city, or a small shop importing a limited num
ber of products from a far-off land. He may have a service organiza
tion — one which takes care of your money, or one which barbers your
French poodle. Or he may join with others in the same line of busi
ness in an association to promote the kind of product which all the
members of the group produce or process and sell, as in the case of

advertising for sugar, tea, coffee, meat, which promotes the sale of
a whole class of products rather than an individual brand. He may be
a man with a single idea which he wants others to adopt — or he may
join with a group of like-minded people to urge others to accept an

idea, a candidate, a policy, a platform, or a plan of action.
Whoever and whatever he is, the advertiser wants to communi
cate information, ideas, concepts, recommendations, about the
benefits of what he has to sell to people who can buy it or accept it
and make use of it. He could — and did, at first — tell other people
by
by
it,
about but he was limited the range of his own voice and his
own ability from block to block and city to city, finding people indi
vidually and in groups who would listen to what he had to say. He
could, did, and still does to some extent, write letters to people —
by
limited only the time takes to write, the difficulty of determining

it
whom to write to, and the cost of preparing and mailing individual
messages. And, most important of all, this man — this advertiser —
producer of goods and seller of goods. His function
is
primarily
a
in society fulfilled and his personal satisfactions are obtained as

is
a
producer and seller, not as communicator. His first need, then,
is
a
for someone to help him take over the job of communicating so that
he can concentrate on producing.
THE PEOPLE WHO WORK IIS ADVERTISING
He finds this help in those people who own, create and operate
those channels of mass communication which comprise what we

ADVERTISER addresses market personally in this strong
message from a corporation president to his prospective
customers. Courtesy American Motors Corporation and
(
Geyer, Morey, Madden & Ballard, Inc. )
Do You Own Your Car. . .

Or Does Your Car Own You ?
by GEORGE ROMNEY — and still have all the room and com
President fort of a big car — think what that extra
American Motors Corporation money could do for your family. It
If you of the budg would pay a good share of a year's col
are losing the battle
et, the culprit may be sitting in your lege education ... or renovate your
driveway. kitchen with new appliances ... or help
For the average American family buy a trip to Europe, Hawaii, or South
-< spends 10% of income
America ... or, if you are one of the
after taxes to keep the millions of suburban families who des
big family "bus" going, perately need a second car, you could
according to surveys. afford two Ramblers for what it now
Some actually spend a costs you to keep one big car.
full half of income for Intelligent buyers make Rambler
the questionable privi in sales gains
first
lege of driving a big, Rambler sales are up 69% over last
chrome-plated, gas-hungry car. Over year, because thoughtful buyers realize
weight, expensive cars are keeping mil that Rambler savings can make possi
lions of families "broke," because the ble more of the good things of life for
car owns the family, instead of the their families. Rambler gives the high
family owning the car. est gasoline mileage and depreciates
Look at your car budget less than any other American car. Fur
Have you totaled up the expense of thermore, our customers are discover
running your car? Many motorists are ing its modern single unit construction
shocked to discover that their big cars makes it more fun to drive and superior
are costing them as much as $1500 a in its basic values. Drop in and see your
year, counting gasoline, oil, deprecia Rambler dealer today. Prove to your
tion and other incidentals. self that it's not only easier on your
pocketbook, it's lots more fun to drive
Rambler can cut car expense in half
a Rambler.
If you could cut your car expense in
two — as many Rambler owners report
Rambler 6 Cross
Country Station
Wagon at left is one
o f 1 9 models, 3
wheelbases: 100-
inch, 108-inch, 117-
inch. See your
Rambler dealer.
American Motors Means More /or Americans

know as advertising media.1 These are the people who provide us
with newspapers and magazines to read, radio programs to listen to,
television programs to outdoor posters and signs to look
see and hear,
at as we drive on streets and highways, car cards to study as we ride

on bus or subway, and even mile-long letters traced across the sky by
smoke-trailing airplanes. While all these means of communication

differ in physical form and in the mechanics by which they are organ
ized and distributed, they have one thing in common. They attract a
large audience of readers or listeners or viewers —a vastly large
audience, seeking information, relaxation, or entertainment, who
can be attracted to a message from the advertiser (providing the mes
sage can be made sufficiently interesting of itself ). And because this

audience is so large, the advertiser can deliver messages to it through
an advertising medium for extremely low costs per individual reader
or listener or viewer —costs which are measured in fractions of a cent.
The people we think of as providing us with media in which to ad

vertise are the editors, the authors, the police reporters and foreign
correspondents, the Washington columnists and the advice-to-the-

lovelorn experts. They are also the typographers and stereotypers and
pressmen. They are dramatists and directors, producers and sound
engineers, stagehands and musicians, actors and singers. And they
are the people with whom the advertiser has the most contact — the
salesmen of advertising space and time, hundreds of them, seeking
out advertisers, wherever they may be, to tell the story of how a par
ticular advertising medium can help to reach the kind of audience
which represents a market and therefore a potential sale for the ad
vertiser's product.
Advertising media provide the channels through which the adver
tiser distributes his message. The next thing he needs is help in
preparing the message itself. The advertiser could, and did, and
sometimes still does, prepare his own messages, his advertising copy.
1 Note that the
word media, as used in advertising, is a plural noun. It means
more than one advertising medium. Newspapers, individually and collectively,
are an advertising medium. Newspapers and magazines, considered together,
are advertising media.
PEOPLE OF ADVERTISING
Also, of the advertising media— the sales
as we have seen, the people
men of space and time — can prepare the advertiser's messages for
him, and they do, particularly for the smaller advertisers in news
papers and on radio and television and in some of the technical busi
ness publications. But, for most advertisers today, a greater degree of
specialization and skill is required, and these special skills and tech
niques are concentrated in the people who form the organizations we
know as advertising agencies.
The advertising agency brings together a number of different kinds
of people, men and women with specialized interests and talents to
create the ideas and to prepare, execute, and implement the messages
which enable the advertiser to communicate, through the advertising
media, with the people he wants to reach. Working here are the copy
writers, who combine a skill with words and a talent for writing with
the ability to create ideas and to visualize them so that they can be
pictured. Here are the art directors who translate ideas into photo
graphs or drawings or paintings, and the layout men who arrange
the advertising message so that it is easy and inviting to read. Here
is the advertising agency's media department —men skilled in com
paring and evaluating the audiences of the various advertising media
so that the advertiser can reach the greatest number of prospective
customers at the lowest possible cost. Here are men skilled in mar
keting and merchandising to advise the advertiser, and men en

gaged in research into the size and composition of markets and audi
ences and into the kind of human behavior that makes us buy what
we buy. Here are specialists in radio and television programming
and in writing the specialized kind of spoken messages and the com
bination of sight-and-sound known as "commercials."
Supplementing and adding to the skills of the advertising agency
are other people who work together in advertising research organiza
tions of many kinds. Some are specialists in market research — in find
ing out where people are who can buy the advertiser's product. Some
are specialists in media research — in finding out the things people
read, what they watch on television, and what kind of people they are.
THE PEOPLE OF ADVERTIS

Theirs is the most
complicated simple business

in the world
Television advertising is a very simple What you cannot see is the truly remarkable Plus the instinct for thoroughnessin handling
business.It's nothing but showingpeoplewhat breadthand depthof experiencethat lie behind the hundred-and-onedetails that often makes
you have to sell, and telling themabout it. thosetitles. the differencebetweenaverageand great.
It's the businessof themenand womenabove Onemanhashad30yearswith a majorHolly
- the Television Commercial Department ol wood studio. Another had his own orchestra.
When you add it all up, you can seewhy a
teachers, grouplike this hasa better-than-averagechance
Young & Rubicam. Thereareex-editors,authors,actresses,
salesmen,illustrators,song-writers,fashion-writ of turning thecomplicatedbusinessof television
But why are thereso manyol them?
ers,and a bewilderingassortmentof otherback into the simple,sound,sales-producingmethod
To do that simple businesswell is probably
groundsrepresented. of advertisingit can be.
the most complicatedbusinessin the world. It
calls lor more differentabilities than any other Result: a wealthol experiencethat can come
part of advertising.
So, what you seeaboveare writersand super
up with the answersto almostany problemof Young & Rubicam, Inc.
words,music,pictures,or production. ADVERTISING
visors, artists and art directors,him producers,
musicians,"live"directors,stylists,colorexperts, Plus the specializedability to expressthose MrmYork• L"hu»tu ■Detroit
• SanFrwobro• LaaAngalM
and researchers. answersin fresh,exciting,dramaticways. Kail7wood• U ... • Toronto■Holts CM* • UsSMi
A FEW OF THE PEOPLE needed by a single department of a large advertis
ing agency, in this case the television commercial department. (Courtesy

Young & Rubicam, Inc.)
Others specialize in the testing and the evaluation of the content of
advertising messages and their effect on those people who see and
hear them. Still others add to our store of human knowledge by in
vestigating why people do what they do, why they buy what they buy,
using the investigative techniques developed by the social and be
havioral sciences.
Once the advertising message is created, whole new groups of
people are needed to prepare it in a form through which it will be
carried to the reader or viewer.
If the message is to appear in print, those people who are skilled
in the graphic arts will prepare it for publication. Photographers
will take the pictures to be used for advertising illustrations, or the
pictures will be drawn or painted by artists, working individually or
through organizations known as art studios. Skilled engravers will
transform these pictures into the millions of tiny dots we know as en
gravings, through the magic of the engraver's camera and the highly
developed skills of using etcher's acids and burnishing tools. Typog
raphers will change the words from a typewritten manuscript into
lines of letters cast from molten lead. Electrotypers will combine pic
tures and type into a metal mold for reproduction of millions of
copies on paper through the printing processes.

If the message is to be broadcast by radio or by television, the
specialists in broadcasting take over. Actors speak the lines. Singers
and musicians make music. Sound engineers control the transference
of voices and music in the form of electrical impulses over miles of
space to mechanical contrivances which turn electricity back into
sound. Cameramen do the same for motion — be it human mobility,
or the form of suspended animation we call "stop motion," or the
transfer of drawings on sheets of gelatin into the form of motion pic
ture film process we call "animation."
Still more people help deliver the advertising message. Some of
them are concerned with the form of commercialized news we call
publicity, the association of a product with a news event or news
personality to the point where the public interest in the event or the

THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN ADVERTISING2
of
Number
media or
of
Area establish Supervisory Creative
employment ments personnel Promotion Circulation Sales and other Total
Radio 3,675 3,675 3,675 00,255 00,255 00,0

000 000
representatives
Television 475 475 475 1,005 1,005 3,8
:
Newspapers
Daily 1,824 1,824 1,824 9,000 100768
representatives 1,000 1,000
Weekly 9,494 9,494 4,000 00,004
:
Periodicals 7,000 7,000 7,000
Business (1,000) 1,000 9,000

papers
:
Magazines
mass circ. (44) 00 10000
other (583) 1,200 1,200 00,400
Outdoor 1,200 1,200 000 1,200 00000
Agencies 5,.0 00,000 00,000
Manufacturers 200000 200000 00,000 000,000
Wholesalers 26,000 26,000 26,000
:
Retailers
4
or more units 00,000 00,000 00,000
2-3 units 5,000 5,000 5,000
unit 00,000 00,000 00,000

Single
Miscellaneous 25,000 25,000
G.nd .tal 3■,"2

6,
;How work in P.nter■ December 88.

p.
many people azertising?. '■, 1957,
1
personality breaks the conventional barrier separating advertising
from news. Others are concerned with the public relations of the ad
vertiser — in creating a public attitude toward the product or the
it,
company producing so that favorable climate exists in the public
a
mind for, among other things, the advertising message.
All these and many more are the people who build the bridge that
advertising. How many are there and what exactly do they do? No
is
one has precise answer for this question, since the United States
a
Bureau of the Census, the official organization for counting people,

does not list advertising as an industry for occupational classifica
by
tion. The most recent and probably the best estimate provided
is
the magazine, Printers' Ink, which gives the breakdown on page 44.
Large and impressive as this total is, is not all-inclusive, for, as

it
Printers' Ink points out, "our estimate includes those who create
or sell advertising for an advertiser, medium, or service, but not the
thousands behind the scenes such as printers, sign painters, or clerical
help."
Seen thus, the business of advertising personal service busi
is
a
ness, which has, as its objective, helping the producer of goods and
services communicate ideas and information about the usefulness,
the advantages and benefits, of his wares. But there another aspect
is
of service to this business of advertising, and this service to the

is
buyer — the consumer on the far shore, to whom our bridge built.
is
Every successful advertisement reaches out and touches some respon

sive chord in the mind of consumer, planting an idea about which
a
someone can be persuaded to take action. Every successful advertise

ment built on this premise — that must deliver enough informa
is
it
tion, enough suggestion, or enough reminder value to the reader to

make him want to do something about the product or service or idea
contained in the advertising message. This premise puts upon adver
tising people the responsibility to keep faith with the consumer. To
fulfill its function, advertising must tell the truth, give information,
help in the process of the buying decision — and do in such
it
way
a
that the self-interests of the consumer are served. With few excep

A /T tions, nearly all of the hundred million people in this country over
the age of twenty-one — and millions of teenagers and youngsters who
have money to spend or who can influence the buying decisions of
their parents — depend on advertising for information about how to
spend their money, what standard of living they desire to achieve,
what customs and patterns of living are acceptable and desirable,
what luxuries of today become necessities of living tomorrow. This
is an awesome responsibility indeed.
THE GOOD ADVERTISING MAN
A lively sense of this responsibility is one of the attributes of a
good advertising man. What are some of the other traits that make
for success in this field? From hundreds of advertising people, a pat
tern of characteristics emerges. First, and probably foremost, is an

almost overwhelming curiosity about almost every possible kind of
thing, an avid desire to learn all there is to learn about people and the
way they live and the things they use to live with. This range of in
terests extends to all kinds of human behavior, and a good advertis
ing man is studying people all his life. He wants to know what they
do and why they do it. He wants to know how things are made, how
they are used, and how they benefit the people who acquire them. He
wants to know what the trends are, in politics, fashions, sports and
games, eating habits, and how people spend their working day and
their leisure time. He wants to know who sets these trends and why a
good part of human behavior in a society like our own is devoted to

copying the behavior of other people. In the newspaper business, we
call this kind of curiosity a "nose for news." Every good reporter has
it. So does every good advertising man.
Next, the good advertising man has the ability to communicate
with people, both as individuals and in the mass. He is able to trans
late his curiosity into words and pictures that persuade people to take
action in their own self-interest. He has the ability to express himself

in words, written and spoken, and the ability to think in pictures that
reinforce his words and make them more meaningful and more mem
^
orable. James D. Woolf, one of the great creative men of the advertis
ing business, long-time copy chief of the Chicago Office of J. Walter
Thompson Company, whose column, "Salesense in Advertising," is
read by thousands of advertising people every week in Advertising
Age, once said that no one could succeed in advertising without the
ability to write, and that this applied across the board, for even those
people not directly concerned with the writing of advertisements
themselves would be writing reports, memoranda, letters, and instruc
tions on which action would have to be taken and decisions made.
Radio commercials are written for announcers to read into micro
phones, and even television commercials without words, telling the
story entirely in pictures (and there have been some of them), re

quire a written description of the action on which the director can
base what the camera sees.
The requirements of advertising today — in terms of what manage
ment men expect advertising men to be able to do for them — demand
that the good advertising man be more of a business man than were
his predecessors in years past. The "creative genius," who found his
inspiration at odd hours and whose clients had to adapt themselves
to his working conditions, has almost disappeared. As all business
has tended to become more marketing-minded, the advertising man
has become more marketing-minded, too. While he will still specialize
in some one area of advertising — in creating or in managing or in
planning — the advertising man now adds what we might call a mar
keting dimension to his other talents. In order to plan how advertis
ing can serve a business more efficiently and effectively, the advertis
ing man needs to know almost as much about production as the pro
duction manager, as much about marketing as the marketing man
ager, as much about the aims and objectives and policies of the or
ganization as the president and the board of directors. Only when he
it,
has this information or can be given the opportunity to acquire

can he bring the full measure of his skills and talents to bear in help

ing to solve problems of the business by effective use of advertising.
48 Because there is so much for him to learn, so much to know, so
much to do, the good advertising man works hard. He puts in long
hours, perhaps longer than those spent by workers in other phases of
business. This is partly because of the great variety of matters he
wants to inform himself about. It is also partly because of the rapid
increase in the volume of advertising in recent years. Advertising
tripled its volume in the ten years following the close of the Second
World War without any corresponding increase in the number of
people working in advertising, particularly at the executive and crea
it,
tive levels. As Martin Mayer put in his fascinating and quite reli
able picture of the largest advertising agencies, Madison Avenue,
U.S.A.:
This where advertising in real life departs most radically from the
is
public image of the trade: the best people in advertising work terribly
hard. There literally no limit to the amount of information — about mar
is
kets and products, people and their habits, the past and the future — which
ought to be in the advertising man's head, ready to be pulled out for ex

amination when questions are asked. The learning process continuous,
is
and the material to be digested often difficult; and, once the advertising
is
man has learned all there to learn, he cannot sit back and admire his
is
accomplishments. He supposed to do something which will somehow

is
change the situation. He gets paid for doing, not for learning.3
Even when he relaxes, the advertising man alert. line of dia

A
is
logue in play or movie may suggest new twist for

A
headline.
a
chance glimpse from a commuter train window of boys playing sand-

lot baseball may suggest picture. And neighborly conversation
a
over backyard fence has often been the springboard to an idea for
a
an advertising campaign.
Since advertising has so few rules and since the rewards for the
willingness to pioneer new idea are great, advertising men are also
a
Martin Mayer, Madison Avenue, U.S.A. (New York, Harper Brothers,

3
&
1958), p. 10.

characterized by willingness to venture. They want to try the new
a
ideas to see if they will work. They want to pioneer. The ruts of set
ways of doing things are more uncomfortable for them than they are
for most people. Perhaps the unkindest words to an advertising man
are, "Let's do the same thing that we did last year." But this does
not mean that the good advertising man will advocate change merely
for the sake of change. Sometimes what a business did with its adver
tising last year is supremely right. But before he commits himself to
it,
the good advertising man wants to know that right,
is
repeating
it
that there no better, no newer, no more effective way of reaching
is
the advertiser's objectives.

good advertising man blessed he has sense of relationships.
is
A
if
a
He as much interested in the editorial policy of or
is
newspaper
a
magazine as the editors themselves, because he knows that the edi
torial contents of publication are what provide the readers, the
a
audience for the advertising messages. He weighs the pros and cons
of the entertainment television program, the ability of
value of
a
a
star to attract and hold an audience, for the same reason. He knows
that change in design
—to raise the height of an ironing board few
a
a
inches, because American women today are taller than their mothers
—can increase sales because puts the product in relation to the
it
physique of the women who are going to use it. He knows that a
change in materials — in the metals in the sole plate of an electric
iron, for example, reducing the weight a woman's arm must lift and
push —can change the sale of the product from downturn into an
a
upswing.4 He knows that the ideal of every American family two

if
is
cars in the garage something has to be done about the senseless

slaughter of highway accidents. The ability to see and recognize these
one of the prime attributes for advertising.
is
relationships
Finally, since advertising people, like everyone else, have to live
with themselves, they need what Leo Burnett has called "sense of
a
For fascinating excursion into the relationships of industrial design to

4
people and to advertising, read Henry Dreyfuss, Designing for People (New
York, Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1955).

fitness of things." They need the saving grace of humor. And they
^0 need a good, healthy dose of humility — the realization that unless
they, their ideas, and the products they advertise are of real service
to the mass of people who buy, they have no function at all. As long
as advertising serves, it has reason for being. When it ceases to per
form a useful service, the public is quick to act. The page of the mag
azine is turned, the television dial is switched to another channel. As
Lincoln said, "You cannot fool all of the people all of the time." In
advertising, it is better not to try to fool them at all, because the pub
lic is smarter than you are.
GETTING STARTED ll\ ADVERTISING
With this common denominator of characteristics, how do people

get started in advertising? The answer is that since advertising, as
an organized business, is still so young, there is no set pattern of
training, no particular ladder automatically set to be climbed, rung
by rung, from the bottom to the top of a stratified advertising hier
archy. Formal education has not always been considered necessary
or desirable training for advertising —many of the top people in ad
vertising in the recent past and even today finished their formal edu
cation in high school and did not go on to college or university.
Today, the picture has changed, and a college education is almost
(but not quite) demanded by personnel managers in considering ap
plicants for jobs in advertising. And here a very lively debate has
been going on for a number of years. One rather large and very vocal
group of advertising people insists that the best educational training

for advertising is the traditional liberal arts education, that a solid
foundation in English, history, philosophy, foreign languages, the
physical sciences and the social sciences is the best preparation for
advertising, and the techniques of advertising can be readily acquired
on the job. On the opposite side of the fence are those who advocate
a great amount of training, at the college level, in the techniques of

advertising, even to the point of considering education in advertising
almost as vocational education.
Here, perhaps, a middle ground is the best answer. The student
who wants to go on in advertising as a career is well advised to take
enough courses in advertising — up to, say, one-fourth of the total
number of hours required for a degree — to give him a running start
into the business, while he spends three-fourths of his time in educa
tion for advertising, in the courses which will help him to become a
well-rounded, well-educated person with a store of knowledge and a
zest for learning, realizing that the end of his college career is desig
nated as a "Commencement," a "beginning" of things to come.
In actual fact, it is a Where you start depends to
"beginning."
some extent on where you want to go, but not many people, fresh out
of college, know exactly where they want to go. In any event, the
start is made at the start, which in most cases means at the bottom.
In the advertising department of a corporation this may mean the
fairly menial kind of office-boy job, keeping track of printing plates
and engravings, shipments of catalogs and folders to wholesalers and
dealers, recording budget figures and other minutiae of departmental
operation. In an advertising agency, it generally means the mail

room, receiving, routing and dispatching the mail, running errands,
and the like. In a research organization (or the research department
of an agency it can mean coding and tabulating, analyzing, doing
) ,
library research, and perhaps even making interviews as part of a

survey.
With advertising media, and, in fact, for almost any job in adver
tising, actual selling experience is extremely beneficial. Selling adver
tising space or time, particularly if you can also write the copy to fill
it, is an excellent training ground for any advertising job because
there is no faster way to learn about people than the actual face-to-
face job of selling. The classified advertising department of a big
newspaper, the local sales staff of a radio or television station are ex
cellent places to get your feet wet in advertising — and a beginning
made here often leads to a successful career not only as a cracker-jack

&
Kenyon Eckhardt Inc.
ORGANIZATION CHART
BOARDOF DIRECTORS
ExECUTIVE COMMITTEE
I I
PRESIDENT
I
ExECUTIVE
VICE PRESIDENT
E
-K
OFFICES
PERSONNEL
SERVICES
BUSINESS
DEVELOPMENT
T
—- –l- - -
A
R.
CCOUNT MANAGEMENT M.A. KETING SERVICES CREATIVE SERVICES CORPORATE SERVICES
-
—T- —T-
—T
SENIOR SENIOR SENIOR SENIOR FINANCIAL

VICE PRESIDENT VICE PRESIDENT VICE PRESIDENT WICE PRESIDENT VICE PRESIDENT
|
|
ACCOUNT ACCOUNT PRINT FINANCIAL
l
SUPERVISORS RESEARCH TV-RADIO COPY CONTROL --

supervisors PRODUCTION MINISTRATION
Account ACCOUNT l-commercial OFFICE

ExECUTIVES MEDIA MERCHANDISING ART
EXECUTIVES PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
of
a
ORGANIZATION CHART large advertising agency. (Courtesy

&
Kenyon Eckhardt, Inc.)

salesman of space or time, but also as an account executive in an ad
vertising agency, and as an advertising manager.

Creative people — writers of advertising — often begin in some
other form of journalism. They start on newspapers as cub reporters,
or on magazines in the editorial department. One of the favorite re
cruiting grounds for advertising writers has long been among news
paper reporters, because they know people and they know how to
write. The big mail order houses, who employ many beginners as
writers for their catalogs, provide an excellent starting place, and two
or three years of training here often lead to a job in the copy depart
ment of an advertising agency.
The beginning opportunities in advertising for women are usually
stenographic or clerical. Many a woman copywriter got her start in
advertising because she could take shorthand and run a typewriter.
There is always a shortage of good proofreaders, and women seem
especially adapted to this kind of painstaking detail work. Others
apply their college training in home economics and retailing, with a
talent for writing, to professional work as home economists with ad
vertisers in the food and home appliance fields and in the test kitch
ens of advertising agencies. Fashion coordinators are in demand
particularly for products sold to or used by women. And while the
opportunities for women are not as great in advertising as those for
men, many successful women now occupy some of the top jobs in ad
vertising with advertisers, agencies, and media. There is at least one

woman copywriter who can explain the workings of complicated elec
trical equipment far better than the professional engineers who de
signed it. Your opportunities are where you find them.
Perhaps the best advice is the adage frequently cited, to "take the
first job available, and then look around." Recognition for ability in
advertising comes fast, perhaps faster than in other forms of more
highly-organized, more rigidly-structured business. Hard work can
get you far, and hard work plus talent can get you farther. To men
and women who believe in the power of advertising and who can
make a contribution to the business organizations they serve, oppor
tunities are wide and financial rewards are quick in coming.

ADVERTISING DEPARTMENT
Vice President
Marketing
Advertising Agency Director of Advertising Agency

Consumer Products Industrial Products
Advertising
Assistant Director
of Advertising
Advertising Manager Advertising Manager Advertising Manager Advertising Manager

Consumer Products Budgets— Exhibits— Industrial
Accounting Displays Products
Manager
Brand Manager Brand
and Specialist Manager
Catalogs
A
Product
D
Films Product
Promotional Literature
Brand Manager Brand

Manager Manager
B
Product
E
Export Advertising and Product
Foreign Language
Translation
Brand Manager
C
Product
a
ORGANIZATION CHART of the of

advertising department large corpo
—
a
ration of several such

composite departments.
In our modern society, which is characterized by mobility, adver
tising people are among the most mobile. Moving from organization
to organization, from job to job, carries with it little of the stigma at
tached to mobility in other professions and in some other businesses
— as long as the moves are made for good reason, and as long as evi
dence of increased opportunity and increased ability can be demon
strated by the moves. Mere "job-hopping" is a form of personal insta
bility in the advertising business as it is anywhere else.
It is only fair to point out that, even with the great expansion of
advertising volume in recent years and the consequent need for more
people in the advertising business, more people want to get into ad
vertising than there are jobs for them to fill. Advertising, in recent
years, has become a "glamor" business. By its nature it lives in the
spotlight of publicity. Advertising has become a
socially acceptable
business, just asbrokerage firms and financial houses were socially
acceptable to the point almost of being ridiculous before the Black

Friday of 1929. These factors have led to increasing competition for
the available advertising jobs, particularly at the beginner level. It
also means that those who get in have to work harder to stay in. But
it does not mean that there is any less opportunity for those who want
to rise in the business and who have the talent and the ability to go
forward. Even though advertising as a satisfying and rewarding
career attracts many more people than can be hired, there is no over-
supply of the right kind of people — men and women who can write
clear, clean English, who have a consuming interest in people, and
who really want to make a contribution to the success of the organiza
tions they work for. If you are this kind of person, the advertising
business will make a place for you.
Some of the men who have contributed a great deal to the nature
of the advertising business it is today have furnished a record of
as
their lives, triumphs, and defeats for us in books. Claude Hopkins,

who might well be called the father of modern advertising copy, de
scribed himself and his work and his beliefs about advertising in My
Life in Advertising ( New York, Harper & Brothers, 1927 ) . Earnest
THE PEOPLE OF ADVERTISI

Elmo Calkins provides a fascinating account of scaling the heights
of advertising under the handicap of deafness in "and hearing not"
(New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1946). The story of F. Way-
land Ayer, whose advertising agency, N. W. Ayer & Son, Inc., of
Philadelphia, has stood for leadership and integrity in advertising

for almost century, is told by Ralph M. Hower, in The History of an
a
Advertising Agency (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press,

1949). Frank Irving Fletcher, the brilliant writer who worked by
night and slept by day, discoursed on many incidents, satirically and
scintillatingly, in Lucid Interval (New York, Harper & Brothers,
1938 ) . The wit and wisdom of one of the greatest minds in advertis
ing are compressed between the covers of James Webb Young's Diary
of an Ad Man (Chicago, Advertising Publications, Inc., 1944). And
these are only a few of the books the advertising man should have.
Yet the list of those advertising men of the past who left their mark
on the advertising business — but who did not write about themselves
and whose record of contribution is in the dusty files of the back is
sues of the advertising trade press — is even longer. Students of ad
vertising owe a great debt to Julian L. Watkins, a star copywriter in
his own right, for his remarkable book, The 100 Greatest Advertise
ments (New York, Dover Publications Inc., 1959). In this book are
not only Mr. Watkins' discriminating selections of advertisements he
considers worthy of the adjective "great," but also his comments
about the men who wrote them, so that the work of Theodore Mc-
Manus, J. Stirling Getchell, 0. B. Winters, Arthur Kudner, and scores
of other advertising men and women who contributed so much to the
honesty, believability, sincerity — yes, and excitement, too — of adver
tising can be held more permanently. The advertising man, as Martin
Mayer notes, "works in black anonymity. Everybody in America may
know his ad, but not one citizen in a thousand will know so much as
the name of the agency which prepared the ad, and within the agency
only handful of people will know that this individual advertising

a
man had anything to do with the ad."5 Probably the best advertising
5
Martin Mayer, Madison Avenue, U.S.A., p. 31.
PEOPLE OF ADVERTISING
men today would say that this is deservedly so. They would say that
they ought to be anonymous, that they ought not to call attention to
themselves, for their work achieves its highest usefulness not in pro
moting itself but in promoting the product or the idea that the ad
vertisement is written about. However much we may regret not know
ing more about the lives, ideas, and contributions of living men like
Stanley Resor, Leo Burnett, Fairfax Cone, and Thomas D'Arcy
Brophy —to name only a few of scores of names that deserve to be
remembered — we should also be aware that this is the way they want
it. Nonetheless, there is a place for more books like that of Julian
Watkins. Perhaps he will write another one. Or maybe you will.
Summary
1. Advertising involves three kinds of people:

a. Those who have something to communicate — a product to sell
or an idea or attitude to be adopted;
b. Those who help them communicate it —by contributing to the
creating of the message or by providing the channel through

which it will be communicated;
c. Those who are going to receive the communication and act
upon it —by purchasing the product or accepting the idea.

2. The communicator is the advertiser.
3. The people who help him are employed by
a. Advertising media
b. Advertising agencies
c. Advertising research organizations
d. The graphic arts industries
e. Specialists in broadcasting, publicity, public relations.
4. The strength of advertising is built on the service it renders to
those who receive the communication — the consumers.

is your name
in the book?
RESPONSIBILITIES
Over the years, business in general and the business

of mass communications in particular have developed
an uncodified system of certain standards of behavior
which is loosely known as "business ethics." This rather
peculiar development of western culture was late in
coming, considering the long history of business in
the west. As Nixon and Carskadon describe it:
Up in Bethel, Connecticut, a sharp-eyed boy stood be

hind the counter of his father's retail establishment and
absorbed the basic training which later stood him in good
stead in his career as the "Prince of Humbugs," for whom
a sucker was born every minute. Years afterward in his
autobiography P. T. Barnum gave a vivid picture of the
practices prevailing in the country store, circa 1825:
"Our cottons were sold for wool, our wool and cotton for
58
OF ADVERTISING
silk and linen ; in fact nearly everything was different from what it was represented to be.
The customers cheated us in their fabrics; we cheated the customers with our goods.
Each party expected to be cheated, if it were possible. Our eyes and not our ears had to
be our masters. We must believe little that we saw and less that we heard."
Throughout the settled areas there were such crossroads emporiums where strug
gling storekeepers — by courtesy called merchants — were learning the difficult art of re
tailing. Tradition tends to stress the trickery — the sand in the sugar, the chicory in the
coffee, the dust in the pepper — that flourished in many of these establishments.1
The man who produced superior goods was likely to find them copied, shoddily,
by his competitors. The honest merchant could be ruined by the sharp practices of
those who were not quite so honest. Labor was to be sweated. Customers were to
— "let
it,
be fleeced. The Romans had two words for caveat emptor the buyer be
ware" — and these words described single standard of business morality which
a
Nixon and Carskadon, The Story Selling, p.

1
of
15.
59
prevailed into the middle period of the Nineteenth Century and be
yond. And it still prevails in many parts of the world, where the cul
ture pattern differs from that in the English-speaking western world.
Only within the past hundred years or so, and particularly during the
latter half of this period, have American businessmen as a whole be
come concerned with their moral and ethical responsibilities to each
other and to the consumers who buy their wares.
In similar way, the ethical standards of the mass communications
a
industry are a development of modern times. The concept of the free

dom of the press was interpreted by some editors to mean the un-
trammeled license of the press, and the period of "yellow journalism"
in American history is today remembered as remarkable for the way
in which editors and publishers violated what we now consider to be
the laws of libel and the canons of good taste. Under the leadership
of such distinguished men in journalism as Adolph S. Ochs of The
New York Times, Cyrus H. K. Curtis of the Curtis Publishing Com
pany, and his editors, George Horace Lorimer of The Saturday Even
ing Post, and Edward Bok of the Ladies' Home Journal, all of them
crusading editors in the best sense of the words, the press in America
developed standards of courage, truth, and integrity which have made
it responsible as well as free. With the introduction of radio and,
later, of television, the emphasis on the necessity of the media of mass
communications to serve the public interest has been even more in
tensified.
We need to understand the nature of the responsibilities of adver
tising — or, if you prefer, the responsibilities of the people who create,
use, and promulgate advertising, since, after all, advertising is a tool
in the hands of people. These responsibilities include, in part, those
of the advertiser who uses advertising to promote the sale of a prod
uct or the acceptance of an idea. They also include those of the ad
vertising media, through whose facilities the advertisement comes

into millions of American homes, and those of the creators of adver
tising who determine what the content of the advertising message is
going to be. Each of these areas of responsibility is determined by the
nature and the structure of the society in which we live.
61
FACTORS INFLUENCING SALES
In the western world today, we live and work in a democratic, capi

talistic society. To oversimplify this premise, we live in a society in
which all men are created equal and in which all these equal men
have certain rights to life, liberty, and (in the words of the resolu
tions of the First Continental Congress of October 14, 1774) prop
erty. In this society, we encourage the development of business. We
recognize it competitive enterprise, with many of the rights
as a free,
and privileges of the individual. Again oversimplified, this means:

1. if you have an idea for a product or service, you have a wide
it,
it,
opportunity to make sell and profit from it;

2. other people have equal rights to do the same thing, so long as
they do not interfere with your rights;

and, thus, those who wish to buy have a wide choice of products
3.
and services from which to choose, and they have free choice be
a
tween products and services of the same kind.
Nobody compelling you to make and sell — these are risks you
is
undertake for yourself. Nobody compelling you to buy, and, as an

is
adult, you are presumed to be able to discriminate as to what you

will buy and whether or not you will buy at all.
you wish to undertake the risk of marketing product or service,
If
you must see need for that product or service; create product or
a
offer service to fulfill that need; manufacture it; put into distribu
it
a
known to — and desired — the

by
tion; and make greatest number of

it
it,
it,
people who can use benefit from and afford to buy it.
These factors are all interrelated. No one of them more impor
is
tant than any of the others. While would appear on the surface that
it
advertising concerned with only the last of these factors, advertis

is
ing can in fact play part in all the steps of the process.
a
êt advertising plays only a part in the process, and it is extremely
important not to overemphasize the part that advertising plays. Fail

ure to recognize — or unwillingness to admit — that advertising is only
one of many, many elements in the commercial success or failure of
a product often leads to gross overestimation or underestimation of
the uses and the power of advertising. Advertising is only one ingre
dient in the modern concept of "the marketing mix,"2 which includes
product planning and research, marketing planning and research,
pricing, branding, the channels of distribution, packaging, servicing,
display, and the physical handling of the product through warehous
ing and transportation — as well selling, promotions, and
as personal
advertising. Martin Mayer quotes two leaders of advertising:
"You can run a bad advertising campaign," says Rosser Reeves [chair
man of the board of Ted Bates & Company], "and sales go up. You can
run a brilliant campaign, and sales go down. Why?
A. your product may not be right
B. your price may not be right.
C. your distribution may not be right.
D. your sales force may be bad.
E. your competitor may be outspending you five to one.
F. your competitor may be dealing you to death with one-cent sales
and premiums and contests and special discounts to retailers."
"I once made a list," says Garrit Lydecker of the [J. Walter] Thomp
son Company, "of all the factors that can influence sales. I had forty-five
I I'm sure there are more.
it,
of them written down before got bored with

Advertising was one of the factors."3
HOW ADVERTISING WORKS
Once these relationships are understood, advertising can do su

premely well the job marked out to do. This job to aid the
is
is
it
For more about this concept, see Neil H. Borden, Advertising-Text and
2
Cases (Homewood, 111., Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1949).

Mayer, Madison Avenue, U.S.A., p. 45.
3
What's being loaded into that Car? Potash— a mineral so precious
nothing can grow without it.
Where is it from? The mines at Carlsbad, New Mexico.
Where is it going? To plants all over the country where it will be processed into the
latest scientific plant foods that produce more and belter crops.
How is it getting there? On the Santa Fe— America's longest railroad. As many as
60,000 carloads of potash a year are moved by the Santa Fe. Santa Fe also has an im
portant part in moving steel, wheat, frozen foods and all the other
basic things America needs every day.
let us be o partner in handling your freight, too

Santa Fe
SANTA FE SYSTEM LINES
Sonla Fe hoi 73 Traffic Officas in principal citiei of the,United State*.
See Closured TelephoneDirectory for local addreu and telephonenumber.
DEMONSTRATING RESPONSIBILITY in service to cus

tomers and the national economy. (Courtesy Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System. Agency: Leo
Burnett Company, Inc.)
processes of mass production and mass distribution by accelerating
the process of selling. Advertising does this by speeding up the trans
formation of basic human needs and desires for goods and services
into demand for specific products and services. The more complex the
human society and the higher the standard of living and the greater
the excess disposable income ( which enables a great many people to
buy things beyond the necessities of life — food, shelter, clothing), the
more apparent this process becomes. At base, it is very simple. Ad
vertising accelerates sales because it reaches more people with a sell

ing message than any other form of selling communication, and de
livers the selling message more quickly and at lower cost than any
other form of selling communication.
Let's look it this way.
at
Let's say your Aunt Mary makes the best mincemeat you ever
tasted in your life. You know she makes the best mince pie. Her
friends keep telling her that her mincemeat is better than any they
can buy, and they wish she would make up enough to sell. So your
Aunt Mary decides to help pay off the mortgage on the old home
stead by selling mincemeat. How can she let folks know it is for sale
so she can sell enough of it to make it worthwhile?
She can run around the neighborhood and tell people, but if she
spends too much time out of her kitchen, she can't make enough
mincemeat to fill the orders and make enough money to show a profit.
She can tell her friends and have them spread the word — which is
elementary word-of-mouth advertising. She can make up a label and

paste it on the jars and try to get the corner grocer to handle it. A
sign painter could make a sign for her house and showcard signs for
the store. She could have some handbills printed and hire some boys
to distribute them from house to house. She could send post cards or
direct mail letters to list of people in her town. Aunt Mary's post
a
cards would cost her around 4M,0 a card to reach one home. A hand
bill with picture of her product would run about 4'/20— folded,
a
sealed, addressed and ready for mailing — to reach one home. Aunt
Mary finds that these costs are not excessive in her neighborhood
PONSIBILITIES OF ADVERTISING
market. She uses direct mail, handbills, post cards, letters, and signs.
Soon the word gets around that Aunt Mary is the person to see for
^5
mincemeat. This is advertising at work, and soon Aunt Mary is ready
to market on a larger scale.
As Aunt Mary's Mincemeat gains wider and wider acceptance
among more and more people, she can use advertising which reaches
more people at lower cost per person to reduce her unit cost of ad
a
vertising. For example, she can buy a small advertisement in the

newspaper in her town. If she uses an advertisement 1 column wide
and 100 lines deep at a cost of 24 cents a line, she will pay $24.00 for
her advertisement, and if the paper has a circulation of, say, 56,000,
Aunt Mary will pay only .00428 — about % o of a cent — to reach one
home. Eventually, she may want to market her mincemeat on a na

tional scale, using a magazine like The Saturday Evening Post. Here,
a single page of advertising in black-and-white will cost $18,145, but
since the Post reaches more than 5,000,000 homes, Aunt Mary's cost
to reach one home through the Post will be .00339— a little more
than % o of one cent per home.
Aunt Mary thus uses advertising to increase the demand for her
mincemeat, to create a market for a product once limited to her own
neighborhood and immediate circle of friends. Aunt Mary can also
use advertising to increase the supply of her mincemeat, as the de
mand for it grows, by using advertising to hire people to help her

make the product, to acquire the additional facilities and equipment
to make her mincemeat in ever-increasing quantities. And, as her
sales increase and her profits grow from increased sales stimulated by
additional advertising, her selling costs per jar will be reduced. She
can pass this saving on to her customers in the form of a lower price,
or she can improve the quality of her product, or perhaps she will de
velop and put a new product into distribution, if she thinks her cu
cumber pickles can win customers just as her mincemeat did.
Aunt Mary and her mincemeat are hypothetical, but this situation
is not exaggerated. It has been repeated many, many times in Ameri
can business in the past half-century.
For example, in Chicago, not too many years ago, a man named
J. L. Kraft sold cheese from door to door, from a wagon pulled by a
horse named Paddy. Soon he became known for the quality of his
cheese. More and more people wanted to buy from him. He saw that
there was an increasing market for a fine cheese product, if he could
standardize the quality, package the cheese to protect that quality,
and offer more variety of cheese. He did these things, and through
advertising, he taught the public the food value of cheese. In 1916,

Mr. Kraft's little company sold about $100,000 worth of cheese, in a
total market of 315,000,000 pounds of cheese annually.4 Today, the
annual sales of Kraft products run to many millions of dollars, and
the American people make a total market for more than one billion,
three hundred million pounds of cheese per year.
Another classic example is the orange. You may not remember,
but your grandparents surely will, that the orange was once a golden
bauble. It was a luxury food, a treat to be slipped once a year into
the toe of Christmas stocking. At holiday time, when demand was
a
brisk and distribution limited, a single orange might sell for fifty
cents. With a limited market for oranges and spotty distribution,
communities near the orange groves wallowed in oranges, while other
population centers were lucky to receive a few cars of high-priced
fruit a year (fruit that might be half -spoiled en route).
Then the California orange growers got together. They formed a
marketing cooperative. They put methods to work on production and
distribution. They chose a brand name: SUNKIST. They put adver
tising to work to popularize oranges and to make more people aware
of the nutritional value of oranges. The way people ate oranges then
was the way we eat grapefruit today — cutting them in half and eating
them with The Sunkist growers offered special orange
a spoon.
spoons, with tiny bowls to fit the segments of an orange, as premiums

to get people to buy more oranges. Then someone discovered the vir
tues of drinking orange juice, and the Sunkist growers promoted the
4 Brookings Primer of Progress Illustrated (New York, J. Walter Thompson

Company, 1936).
POSSIBILITIES OF ADVERTISING
SUNKIST advertising today. (Courtesy Sunkist Growers,
Inc., and Foote, Cone & Belding.)
They're here now! NEW CROP...
Sunkist
Valencia Oranges
Intownbythecarload Wonderful flavorand Fixbigglassesof TrySunkistValencias Loadup.Thisis the
...SunkistValenciesout-of-this-world freshorangejuiceI forbig,coolingsalads, fooddealin
biggest
fromsunnyCalifornia prices!
are being
Many neannc\kitni
today by the makersof
made
juice and pow
ttoien orange
synthetic orange$ubst\-
dered
Make no mistakeNone
tutes.
products can match
of these
andorange
wholefreshoranges
for eitherhealthruInessif
\u\ct meansyou
flavor Wholefresh
important
get ill the
orange.Nothing
valuesin the
added,nothingtaken
has been
away.Insiston fresh.
orange juice squeezer to make drinking orange juice easier.5 Within
a few years, the growers achieved national distribution. The railroads
had to build the special refrigerator cars and run the
"fruit-type"
famous "fruit express" trains to carry the oranges to market— a mar
ket largely created by the power of advertising to stimulate sales. As
a result, you can now buy oranges anywhere in America, any day in
the year, not for fifty cents apiece but for fifty cents a dozen. The cost
of the advertising which helped to make this possible is %e of one
cent per dozen.
The growers and their employees, the railroads and their em
ployees, thousands of wholesalers and grocers

— as well as the millions
of us who enjoy a brimming glass of orange juice at breakfast — have
all benefited. The citrus fruit industry has become a major factor in
our national economy. And advertising has been deservedly given a
major share of the credit.

Almost every industry — many, many companies — can cite similar
examples. Although A. D. Lasker, when he was chairman of the
Lord Thomas agency, is reputed to have said that advertising never
&
helped any company succeed which would not have succeeded with
it,
out most advertising men disagree. Even the often-cited instance

of Hershey chocolate bars, which have had no formal advertising,
bears on this point. Hershey has gained from the informal, word-of-
mouth advertising as one person recommended this bar to another.
What advertising does for most products to accelerate dis
is
tribution, consumption, and acceptance so that selling costs and

the prices to the consumer can be reduced in very short time.
a
The Minnesota Valley Canning Company in its early years packed

less than two hundred thousand cases of Niblets brand corn year
a
with an advertising appropriation of \Vi$ per case. Within seven

years, nearly million cases per year were being packed and sold,
a
with the advertising costs reduced to of one cent per case — and
%
it
o
The brand name, Sunkist, and the orange juice squeezer are credited to Mr.
6
Don Francisco, whose contributions to the advertising business have not

ended, although he "retired" from active service in 1956.
POSSIBILITIES OF ADVERTISING
was the proud boast of the management that the floors of the ware
house could be painted every year because all of the previous year's
69
pack had been sold before the new corn ripened on the stalk.
THE COST OF ADVERTISING
In figures like these — in fractions of a cent per can, per case, or

per copy — is
advertising's answer to those who say advertising costs
too much. You understand, of course, that as a consumer you pay for
the cost of advertising, just as you pay all the costs in producing a
product and making it available to you. Advertising enters into the

cost of goods, just as do raw materials, machinery, transportation,
labor, the salary of the fourteenth vice president, and repairs to the
roof of the factory. The objective of advertising is to reduce the cost
of selling to the smallest possible amount. In most instances, the sav
ings made possible by low-cost advertising are passed on to you in
lower prices for the goods you buy.
Yet we must not overstep the bounds. Even as students and vigor
ous proponents of advertising and its benefits, we must remember
that the American brand of the people's capitalism furnished the
climate in which advertising has been able to work.
Elsewhere in the world this has not been true. Many people who
come here from the lesser-developed areas of the world — now right
fully interested in developing for their own countries a standard of

living comparable to ours— ask how they can apply the techniques of
advertising in their own situations. They look on advertising as some
kind of a miracle worker, convinced that it can wave its wand and
produce for them the same kind of material comforts and conveni
ences that they see around them when they visit the United States.
Advertising alone cannot do this. Trying to superimpose the methods

of American advertising upon subsistence-level agricultural econo
mies is to disregard the fact that the Industrial Revolution had to
occur and mass production industry had to evolve before advertising
could take its place as part of the process of mass distribution in our
70 economy.
The facilities of mass production must be devoted to producing
consumer goods before advertising can play a part in their distribu
tion. In Soviet Russia at present, there is no advertising as we know
it, controlled the state for the benefit of the
by
because production
is
state, and the limited amount of consumer goods produced not
is
adequate to meet existing consumer demand. In the People's Repub
lic of China, on the other hand, advertising still exists and to
is
a
degree active, because, under the Chinese Communist system, cer
tain businesses have been allowed to retain their pre-Communist,
capitalistic character and produce and sell for profit with the state
as partner sharing in the profits of the enterprise.
a
CRITICISMS OF ADVERTISING
Much of the current criticism of advertising comes from people

who find advertising at odds with value system they have created for
a
themselves and would impose on others, value system that sees the
a
world not as but as its creators think ought to be.

it
is
it
Thus, some advertising with being too sensational in

is
charged
its claims and in its presentation. Certainly this true in some in
is
stances. Yet books and plays and sermons are — or can be— sensa
tional. Martin Luther, nailing his theses to the door of the church in
Wittenberg, and Harriet Beecher Stowe, whose book, Uncle Tom's
Cabin, credited with having helped to precipitate the War between
is
the States, put forward sensational ideas and used the same methods
of communication that advertising uses to reach large numbers of
people.
by
Some critics say that advertising confuses people giving them

bewildering choice of items and claims. This true — yet almost
is
a
every human situation has in what Dr. Ernest Dichter calls "the
it
misery of choice." Part of maturity being able to make choices,

is
and one of the functions of advertising is to provide the kind of in-
formation necessary to help make a buying decision. Our lives are
full of situations confronting us with bewildering choices of items
and claims. To cite only one example— politics and the art of rep
it,
resentative government, as we know present the citizen with bal
a
lot or voting machine on which hundreds of political offices and
a
a
multiplicity of candidates for each office may be listed. We demand

that the citizen make up his mind about the conflicting claims of
rival parties and candidates. Political scientists and psychologists
tell us that many an average voter simply withdraws from this con
fusion not participating in elections, and this protective psycho
by
logical behavior also an escape valve for those who find product
is
claims and advertising claims confusing. They can withdraw from the
taking themselves out of the market —
by
by
situation not buying.

Others say that advertising tends to create monopoly, although
there are few true monopolies in our economy today, except those
providing certain basic services to communities as a whole and
deemed to operate in the public interest within certain areas and
by
subject to certain regulations established representatives of the

public. Certain other monopolies are encouraged for limited periods
by
of time patent rights which our kind of society has seen fit to
grant to inventors in order to encourage the process of mechanical
invention. Within these limits, however, our economic system de
is
signed to encourage competition. As product of this system, adver

a
by
fosters competition and thrives on

It
tising nature competitive.

is
it.
Still others say that advertising makes people want things they
shouldn't have. All this position does, of course, to substitute one
is
set of values for another. One man's meat another man's poison.
is
In free society who to say what one shall have, other than the
is
a
individual himself, up to the point where his desires transgress the

moral and ethical boundaries that society sets up for its own self-
a
protection and self -perpetuation?

We hear said that advertising moves people to buy against their
it
will. Certainly, it is true that advertising seeks to persuade people to
buy, but advertising succeeds only if it can demonstrate to the con
sumer why it is in his own self-interest to buy. A man cannot be
persuaded to do something he is fundamentally unwilling to do. You
cannot be hypnotized against your will, and even under hypnosis, you
cannot be "ordered" to do something not in accord with your own
personal moral and ethical standards. Advertising's persuasive

powers are of a much lower order than this. Advertising has not been
able, in many instances, to resist long-term declines for certain types
of product —cigar-smoking, for example. Advertising can slow down
the decline in the purchase of cigars, but it has been unable to re
verse the long-term trend from cigars to other forms of tobacco.
Again, we hear that advertising makes people want things they

can't afford. This statement carries with it the connotation that cov-
etousness is wrong, that one should be content with the station in life
to which he is born, that overspending one's income for material
things leads only to debt and disaster. Taken alone, all these things
are true. Yet if a man can be encouraged to work and increase his
earnings with a view to satisfying more of his material wants, a posi

tive good can result.
More to the point, critics say that a great many advertisements are
false, misleading, deceptive. Here the critics are possibly on more
solid ground. Much advertising in the past was false, misleading, de
ceptive. Some advertising still is. No one deplores this more than the
good advertising man. No group has led the fight for truth in adver
tising more strongly than the people of advertising themselves. And
at this point in the history of advertising we can begin to differen
tiate between advertising which is deliberately false and misleading
and advertising which has other faults. Deliberately untruthful ad
vertising is rare in these times. However, advertising which is blatant
is not so rare. Advertising which overstates the value, the usefulness
of the product advertised is still with us. Some of this advertising is
offensive to many. To many more people, it is merely unbelievable,
and they shrug it off as "just advertising." Advertising people who
indulge in this form of advertising are defeating their own purpose.
The consuming public has too much common sense to be taken in 73
for long.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF ADVERTISING TO SOCIETY
What then is the responsibility of advertising to society today?

To its users, advertising must deliver a believable sales message at
the lowest possible cost per unit of sale.
To its readers, advertising must deliver a believable sales message
that helps make a buying decision.
Out of this process comes low-cost selling, with such continuity and
in such quantity that products can be made in volume at low costs.
As volume production and volume selling increase, prices can be
lowered and products improved. New products can be developed, in
the knowledge that markets can be created for them with the help of
advertising. Existing markets can be expanded as product benefits

are made more widely known.
Neil H. Borden, one of the leading authorities in the field, puts
it this way:
Advertising's outstanding contribution to consumer welfare comes
from its part in promoting a dynamic, expanding economy. Advertis

ing's chief task from a social standpoint is that of encouraging the de
velopment of new products. It offers a means whereby the enterpriser

may hope to build a profitable demand for his new and differentiated
merchandise which will justify investment. From growing investment has
come the increasing flow of income which has raised man's material wel
fare to a level unknown in previous centuries. . . .
Advertising ... is an integral part of a business system in which entre

preneurs are striving constantly to find new products and new product
differentiations which consumers will want. . . . Advertising and aggres
sive selling provide tools which give prospect of profitable demand.6
6Neil H. Borden, The Economic Effects of Advertising (Homewood, 111.,
Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1942), p. 881.
Sorn«of PUREi iilondwelli in rheGulf of Maxhco
Pure Oil builds islands in the sea

to keep you cooking with gas
PURE's 252nd natural gas well ups our production
to 300,000,000 cubic feet a day
Our newestgas well was drilled from a man-made island nine much: at an annual rate of more than 100 billion cubic feet,
mites out in the Gulf of Mexico. Twenty-two gas wells have enough to supply the yearly needsof well over a million homes.
been brought in from drilling platforms like this in the Eugene Even so, natural gas is only a part of PURE's operation.
Island and Rollover Fields, off the Louisiana coast. Oil production and refining of petroleum products represent
Constantly pioneering new production techniques, like off the major portion of our business.And we handle every phase
shore drilling, has brought us a long, long way since 1914. of it, from exploration under the sea to marketing through
Back then, PURE began as a producer and seller of natural service stations. This completely integrated operation is, we
gas 1even before we got into the oil business). By 1944 we feel, one more reason why you can be sure with PURE.
were producing 17 billion cubic feet a year. It seemedlike a
lot in those days, but today we are producing six times as the pure on. company, 33 E. Wacker Drive, Chicago 1, 111.
BE SURE WITH PURE
ADVERTISING to an expanding economy. (Courtesy The Pure Oil Com

pany and Leo Burnett Company, Inc.)
Advertising has a further responsibility to live up to. The growth
and the strength of the media of mass communications in this country
have been to a very large degree dependent upon advertising for
financial support. Advertising, which looks to these media to provide
an audience for sales messages at a cost of a fraction of a cent per
copy and per household reached, has contributed greatly to the edi
torial vigor of communication and the freedom of communication
by this financial support. In this country, the press is not dependent
upon government subsidy or upon sponsorship by political parties.
It owes its responsibilities not to individuals, families, or interest
groups, but to the public at large, and this independence has been
made possible largely by advertising revenues. Without the financial
support of advertising, the press could not produce a daily newspaper
and sell it for a dime or less. Magazines would cost at least twice as
much per copy. The number of publications would be far less than
it is now. Editorial features — the reporting of international affairs
by correspondents and photographers from the scene, nation-wide
news coverage, reproductions in true and accurate color of master
pieces of art in distant galleries — would be severely restricted.

Radio and television, in countries where advertising does not pro
vide the financial support of the broadcast media, tend to be govern
ment monopolies, controlled by the political power of the moment or
by bureaucracy. In the United States, we have a
a self-perpetuating
choice of many stations to dial and many programs to see and hear.
The freedom to choose is in our own hands. If we want to hear fine
music, opera, drama, we may choose programs of this kind. More
people saw the distinguished actor, Maurice Evans, in Macbeth on
television on one Sunday afternoon than the total number of people
who had ever seen a play by Shakespeare from Elizabethan times to
that moment — and this program was sponsored by an advertiser.
More people listen to church services on Sunday mornings on radio
and television than there are seats in all the churches in the country,
and while these religious broadcasts are not sponsored by advertising,
the broadcast industry which presents them as a public service is
RESPONSIBILITIES OF ADVERTISI
enabled to do so because of the advertising revenue supporting the
industry.
Many people have expressed concern lest the advertisers, who pro
vide the financial support for these media, come to dominate their
editorial policies and thus subvert the freedom of the press which is
so important a part of our western heritage. This seems unlikely to
happen. The code of the professional journalist —which extends to

radio and television — requires that he keep his ideas and his presen
tation of them undominated, free from influence by anyone, responsi
ble only to his own ethical standards and to the public interest. Re
porters, writers, and editors jealously guard this freedom. They can
see through the motives of an advertiser as easily as they can those
of politician. Rare indeed is the advertiser in these times who at

a
tempts to influence what a reporter says or what an editor prints, on

the ground that the advertiser makes his job possible and provides
his income. The press's own concept of the freedom of the press is
the best guarantee against attempted advertiser domination.
It is sometimes apparent that in the handling of certain kinds of
news — some political campaigns, some reporting of activities in the
labor movement — the attitude of the medium is the same as the at
titude of business management. However, this does not usually come
from any attempt by management people to influence the way a news
story is written or presented. It is more likely to arise out of the situ
ation that exists today in which the people of media management are
very like the people in business management. They have the same
kind of education, they move in the same social circles, they live in
the same communities — and hence they are very apt to share the
same kind of thinking and the same prejudices. This has little or
nothing to do with the amount of advertising placed by a business
with a medium but is part of the structure of the society in which we
live.
Advertising is rapidly becoming a medium of mass communica
tions in its own right. People have become accustomed to and de
pendent on advertising for the news about products and product de
They like to receive this kind of news through advertis-
velopments.
ing. People are becoming more and more accustomed to and de
77
pendent on advertising which promotes the support of ideas and
causes in the interest of the public as a whole— support of the United
Nations, slum clearance and neighborhood rehabilitation projects,
better schools, wider support for higher education and church attend
ance, fund-raising activities for research in the cure and prevention of
disease. As a medium of mass communications, growing in size and in
influence, advertising has the responsibility to devote its talents to
those ideas and those causes which are truly in the public interest and
to the benefit of society as a whole.
Only as advertising fulfills its responsibilities to the advertiser

and to the public at large can it contribute to the growth, develop
ment, and stability of our society. Advertising people must meet
their responsibilities and make a contribution to society if advertis
ing is to live up to its potentialities as a means of communication
over and beyond the acceleration of the distribution and sale of
goods and services. Even if advertising were nothing more than
"huckstering," it might have a place, albeit a lowly one, in a capital
istic system based on free enterprise and voluntary competition. But
advertising men have frequently demonstrated their ability to de
velop advertising beyond mere huckstering, beyond gimmicks, be
yond the mere crying of wares for sale. They need to make more of
these demonstrations more frequently.
In these times, our economic system is under attack in one third
of the world. It is open to serious question in another third of the
world as the new and uncommitted nations attempt to work out their
destinies. Advertising, if it is to survive, depends upon the survival
of the free enterprise system. Under this stress and faced with this
challenge, advertising people and the management men who employ
them must be constantly alert to root out shoddiness and trickery, to
deal openly in honest competition, and to reach for the greatness
that even business can occasionally touch.
How to be
younger than
your years
When you meet a grandfather like this who's still

"young," vigorous and active . . . even 1houghhe's nearly
65 . . . you're likely to exclaim, "He certainly doesn't
look his age!"
The truth is he's what he should be . . . and what most
of us could be when retirement draws near. Belter still,
anyone who has reached this age in good health can
usually look forward to many more useful years.
Although there is no definite point at which one slips
into old age, some of us may begin to feel the "wear and
tear" of life around age 40 to 43.
So, the time to start taking care of your health is
before you get along in years. A thorough check-up every
year is the surest way to uncover any chronic disorder,
such as high blood pressure or arthritis, at its start.
Even if your retirement may be 30 to 33 years ahead,
here are some things you should do:
1. Keep your mind open to new ideas. If you always
have something to do tomorrow . . . something you
want to do . . . your mind will be alert, active. Working
with and for others — in community, church and fraternal
organizations— can also be a deep and lasting source of
satisfaction at any age.
2. Select your foods carefully. Your diet should pro
vide proteins for body upkeep and repair, carbohydrates
for energy and foods that supply protective vitamins
and minerals.
3. Control your weight. Overweight makes your heart,
kidneys, lungs, liver and arteries work harder all the
time. Overweight also tends to increase your chances of
developing diseases of these organs.
4. Try to keep your emotions on an even keel. It is
unhealthy to keep emotional tensions "bottled up."
Instead we should look for ways to work them out. For
some of us just talking over problems with a friend or
advisor helps to clear the air.
5. Plan early for your financial security. Get com
petent advice about your future finances— to avoid
"money worries" during retirement.
Metropolitanlit* InsuranceCompany
1 Madtton Av.nu., New York TO,N. T.
PleasesendmeMetropolitan'sfreebooklet,
Metropolitan life " Your
FutureuttclYou," 000-X.
Co mpany
Citr-
PUBLIC SERVICE advertising — one of a series of distinguished advertise

ments related to public health. (Courtesy Metropolitan Life Insurance
Company and Young & Rubicam, Inc.)
Summary
79
1. Some of the factors influencing sales include:

a. product
b. distribution
c. price
d. selling effort, including advertising
e. competition.
2. Advertising aids the processes of mass production and mass dis
tribution by accelerating the process of selling.
3. Responsibilities of advertising to society:
a. to deliver a believable sales message at the lowest possible
cost per unit of sale.
b. to deliver a believable sales message that helps make a buying
decision.
c. to promote dynamic, expanding economy.
a
d. to support freedom of communication in all media.

e. to devote its talents to those ideas and those causes which are
truly in the public interest and to the benefit of society as a
whole.
4
THE OBJECTIVES
The beginning of wisdom in advertising is a plan. It

They re here now' NEW CROP... starts with a clear definition of an objective, and that
Sunkist objective is usually what you want the reader or listener
Valencia Oranges to do as the result of having read or heard your adver
tisement. Then, step by step, you create individual ad
vertisements and, usually, weld them into an advertis
ing program in a planned series of moves against a
planned timetable, the moves being designed to en

able you to reach your objectives within a previously
determined time period.
As William T. Young, Jr., president of Leo Burnett
Company, Inc., one of the highly successful advertising
agencies of recent years, has said: "We plan the sale as
we plan the ad."
What this means is that the advertising plan must in-
80
OF ADVERTISING
elude an awareness of every element that will cause a sale to be consummated.

It starts with the product itself, the features of the product that differentiate it from
other products of the same class, the way the product is distributed and the ease
of its availability to those who want to buy

it,
the price of the product and its re

lation to the price of other products of the same class. The plan will also include
knowledge of what competitors are doing to induce the prospective buyer to take
their brands rather than your brand. The existing state of mind toward your prod
uct on the part of the consumer must be taken into account. He may be predis
posed toward your product because of long familiarity and previous satisfaction
with the product itself. He may have been almost persuaded to buy through years
of previous advertising and need only one more reminder to push him over the
brink. On the other hand, in the case of new product, the prospective buyer may
a
need complete information on what the product is, what does, and how fills
it
it
a need (recognized or unrecognized) in his life before he can make the decision
to buy. Where the prospect receives this information important. Will he read
is
it
81
in a letter, a newspaper or magazine? Will he hear it over the radio?
Or will he see and hear it on television? The situation at the point of
purchase must be visualized — whether the consumer will make the
buying decision by taking the product off a shelf, as in a supermarket,

whether a salesperson will help guide the decision between competi
tive brands, as in a department store, or whether a salesman will fit a
ready-made decision to buy in terms of model, price, and method of
payment, as in the case of an automobile dealership.
In short, as James Webb Young, senior consultant of J. Walter
advertising knowledge consists of
it,
Thompson Company, has put
these five elements:
Proposition: what are we selling?
2. 1.
Market: to whom are we selling?

what are we going to tell them?
3.
Message:
4. Carrier: where are we going to tell them?
5. Means delivering the proposition: what are the channels of
of
distribution?
When we build advertisements and advertising campaigns with full
knowledge of these elements, we are long way toward capturing the
a
share of the market we want for our product.
ACTION A1\D ATTITUDE
Share of market follows share of mind. important in forming

is
It
by
the advertising plan to start defining sharply two critical points

which must take place in the mind of the prospective buyer as the
result of having read or heard your advertising:

the action you want him to take, and
2. 1.
the attitude you want him to have toward your company and
your product.
Action-producing advertising has as its objective the production of
an immediate sale or the immediate acceptance of an idea. This idea
by
reduced to its barest elements Wroe Alderson, in his important

is
study, Marketing Behavior and Executive Action:

Advertising in one of its aspects is simply an economical means of
transmitting information. Consumers cannot respond to prices unless
they know what the prices are. Complete reliance on visits to retail stores
would often be an excessively costly way of obtaining the needed in
formation. These considerations hold with even greater force with respect
to special features of a product. The consumer must be informed about
these features in order to take them into account in a buying decision.
Advertising can make price competition more effective, but product com
petition of the intensity known today simply could not exist without it
A fairly satisfactory theory of advertising could be evolved based on its
informational aspect only. The flow of information is obviously vital to

the flow of goods. Much information about price and product is general
in nature rather than applying to a single transaction. Information of
general application can be transmitted through mass media far more
cheaply than through individualized messages. It is wholly natural that
the seller should take responsibility for transmitting this information,
since he is the only one in full possession of the data, since he should be
it,
able to make a valid judgment as to who wants and since he has clear
a
incentive for bearing the cost of transmission.
The informational theory of advertising raises some issues as to the
capacity of consumers to receive and react to information. There are
limits on the time and attention which the consumer will give to advertis
ing messages and on the ability to retain message long enough to act
a
upon it. There are conditions which determine awareness and receptivity,
such as some previous knowledge of the product advertised or sense of
a
intended to serve. well-attested

It
urgency concerning the need

is is
is
it
psychological fact that message picked up and understood much more

a
readily the recipient expecting it. An informational theory can take

if
is
account of the efforts of the buyer to acquire information as well as the

efforts of the seller to transmit it. At the beginning of shopping trip or
a
in the preshopping consideration of need to be filled, the buyer may be

a
searching primarily for information. The degree of knowledge increases

as the shopper responds to advertising, merchandise displays, or other
sources of information. sale takes place when the consumer feels suf
A
ficiently well-informed to make choice.1

a
Wroe Alderson, Marketing Behavior and Executive Action

1
(Home wood,
111., Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1957), pp. 276-277.
THE OBJECTIVES OF ADVERTIS

Attitude-producing advertising, by contrast, may and often does
have a dual objective. It may try for the immediate sale or the imme
diate acceptance of an idea, but it may also have an objective of
longer term in time. This kind of advertising takes into account the
fact that on any given day, only a limited number of people may be
actively in the market for the product advertised, but that tomorrow,
next week, next month, next year, many more people will come into
the market and be ready to make a buying decision about that par
ticular kind of product. Alderson notes this in elaborating his dis
cussion on the purpose of advertising:
The informational theory of advertising is not wholly adequate, since

advertising is concerned with persuasion as well as information. Adver
tising experts are inveterate theorists, and most advertising is sold on the
basis of some theory of how it works. Practically all of these theories
hold that advertising does not merely inform the consumer but motivates
him by transforming his attitudes and eventually his way of life. An in
terpretation of advertising and selling as persuasion raises issues about
the plasticity of consumers — that is, their potentiality for being remolded
and responding in a new way thereafter. The term "plasticity" suggests
an enduring change as compared to the immediate but transient response
designated by the term "elasticity of demand." Making consumers change

their minds is a costly process and scarcely worth while for the adver
tiser unless the effect carries over beyond a single transaction.2
This dual nature of advertising — information plus persuasion, ac

tion-producing plus attitude-producing — leads to the kind of thinking
that David Ogilvy, president of Ogilvy, Benson & Mather, Inc., an ad
vertising agency distinguished for the superb execution of sound and

unusual advertising ideas, has expressed in this way:
"Every advertisement is part of the long-term investment in the

image of the brand."
Since advertising is the spokesman for business management, the
creator of action and attitude toward products that mean the long-
2 Ibid., p. 277.
OBJECTIVES OF ADVERTISING
f BE REm REFRESHED !
GET THE REAL THING... ALWAYS BUY COKE!

Enjoy the cold crisp taste
and lively lift of Coke . . .
for the Pause that Refreshes!
GET SEVERAL CARTONS
FOR THE WEEK-END!
THE IMAGE of refreshment. (Courtesy The Coca-Cola

Company, Inc., and McCann-Erickson, Inc.)
--
----
How fresh can a pea be? The 1951 version of
the Green Giant's pride and joy-his flavor
ful, tenderful peas—were whisked out of the
gardens at their fleeting moment of perfect
flavor and sealed into cans less than three
hours later. And here they are-at-your
grocer's, right now. Right now? Let's go!
BRAND IMAGE and corporate personality combine in the Green Giant.

(Courtesy Green Giant Company and Leo Burnett Company, Inc.)
term success or failure of the products and the businesses which make
them, Ogilvy continues:
"The manufacturers who dedicate their advertising to building the
most favorable image, the most sharply defined personality for then-
brands are the ones who will get the largest share of these markets at
the highest profit — in the long run."3
The brand image and the corporate personality, as we have said,
are the sums of the total impressions produced in the minds of people
about the brands they buy and the companies which make those
brands. Some of these impressions may and must be favorable ones.
Others may be unfavorable, and they cancel out some of the favorable
impressions received. These impressions come from all kinds of
sources—from news stories in the paper, from corporate financial
statements, from conversations over the back fence about how a com
pany treats the people who work for it and about how the product
and the company service that backs it up have operated in the ex
perience of a neighbor. The managers of a business have little con
trol over this kind of impression. This places an even greater burden
upon the company's advertising — which management does control
—to see that every advertisement correcdy represents the kind of
people they are and the kind of products they make.
When advertising does this kind of job of communicating with
people, the returns in favorable impressions can go far beyond the
immediate sale. Not too many years ago, a small company in Minne
sota — The Minnesota Valley Canning Company — began to pack and
market high quality brand of canned peas. These peas were
a very
grown from a special seed, which produced peas which grew very
large in size while they were still young and tender. They were given
the brand name, Green Giant. Advertising told the story of how care
fully these peas were grown, how carefully and scientifically they
were watched as they neared maturity, how sometimes they were even
picked at night, by moonlight, to "protect the fleeting moment of per

fect flavor." The Green Giant himself, the trade character of the
' Speech by David Ogilvy, quoted in Mayer, Madison Avenue, U.S.A., p. 36.

no brand, not only appeared on the label of every can but also was
brought into the advertising, personified with the warm and friendly
qualities of a human being. Gradually, the giant as the personification
of the brand image grew beyond the confines of a label on a can of
peas. He made his appearance on the other major product of the
company, canned corn in a number of varieties, adding the strength
of his personality to help in the sale of the corn. On one variety of
corn, the original brand name Del Maiz was changed to Green Giant.
Finally, the strength of the brand image thus formed over a period of
years took over the company. The name of the corporation was legally
changed to The Green Giant Company, because the brand image was
so strong and the good qualities the giant stood for in fine foods had
become so firmly and so favorably impressed in the minds of women
who buy peas and corn that this company was, in fact as well as in its
brands and in its advertising, The Green Giant Company.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
How can advertising be used in this way as the spokesman for

business management?
Advertising has the simple function of making the fact that prod
ucts exist known to as many people as possible and, by the process
which psychologist would term "aided recall," making people re
a
member something they already know. In many buying situations,
people tend to favor the known product against the unknown brand,
and this in itself is enough to make the sale. Certainly this is the case
when you buy things for your home which your friends and neighbors
may see and talk about. Certain material things

— automobiles, tele
vision sets, refrigerators, washing machines — connote many things
about us and the way we live to people who come into our homes. At
least, we think so or persuade ourselves to think so. These material
possessions become "status symbols," in the terminology of the psy

chologist and the sociologist. We buy well-known brands, which, by

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Green Giant hasn't fully mastered. But you
fresh-pickedcorn right on-plate

Nible-
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Brand The
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Gree-i-
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what's the bi-cret? well, the ier"
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REEM (IANT
hold-the-peed
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THE GREEN GIANT, the advertising

of
on
the label and Niblets Brand

in
Corn. (Courtesy Green Giant Company and Leo Burnett Company, Inc.)
their presence in our homes and by the fact that our friends recognize
them as well-known, connote a certain standard of living.
Favoring the known against the unknown becomes even more im

portant when the actual purchaser is spending somebody else's
—
money. The professional buyer the purchasing agent, the member
of the school board, the county public works official— wants to buv
the brand that is best known to the people of his company or his com
munity when he is spending their money. When he buys the brand

that is best known to everyone, for quality, durability, long life, or
good service, his professional judgment is rarely open to question. He

can appear before his board of directors or a public meeting with a
clear conscience. He can sleep better at night because, in a position
of trust, he has not taken a chance on the unknown. He has bought
the brand that has become known, often, through advertising.
Originally, the simple repetition of the name was enough to make

brand names and companies known.
Tiffany & Co.

Pearls
Pearl Necklaces
As Julian Watkins wrote: "Tiffany! Probably no name in America

inspires such recognition and acceptance."4
Then simple claims were added to the reiteration of brand names:
"SALADA"
Is Delicious
TEA
The success of this simple phrase, repeated over and over again un
changed, is a tribute to the power of continuity in advertising.
In this way, getting a name before the public and keeping it there
is the simplest and probably the commonest form of advertising. But
4
Julian Watkins, The 100 Greatest Advertisements, p. 169.
to produce the degree of public awareness necessary for this form of Q7
—
advertising to be effective in influencing people to buy, the name
with or without selling phrase added —must be repeated over a long
a
period of time. This can be a slow process, and the benefits are conse
quently long-term benefits.
The weaknesses of this simple kind of advertising must not be over
looked. First and foremost, the name must apply to your product and
to your product alone, not to a product of the same kind or of any
other kind. There must be no possibility of doubt in the reader's or
listener's mind, no possibility of confusion with a competitive prod
uct or with an entirely different product. For example, a quick look
at the Standard Advertising Register' discloses that Kellogg is a
trade name for household brushes, nursery stock, and telephone
equipment, while KeUogg's is a trade name for paper and envelopes,

tasteless castor oil, and cereal products. Yet to the public at large,
the name Kellogg or the brand name KeUogg's means breakfast cere
als — a state of awareness arising in great part out of years of advertis
ing by Kellogg Company of Battle Creek, Michigan. By way of con

trast, the Standard Advertising Register lists Royal as a trade name
for whiskey, cough syrup, flush valves, gas heating equipment, loung
ing robes, baking powder and gelatin desserts, pancake syrup, type
writers, vacuum cleaners, and waterless cleanser — such a variety of
products in such variety of product classifications that the name
a
Royal must be associated with a particular kind of product for the

trade name to produce "aided recall."
While it is perhaps impossible for a name to acquire too much
awareness in the public mind, the way in which it is presented can
pose a problem in advertising technique. The important point to re

member is that the public becomes familiar with how an advertising
campaign looks in its physical presentation much less quickly than
do the people who are producing and sponsoring the advertising —
the advertiser and the staff of his advertising agency. Many an effec-
5 Standard Advertising Register (New York, National Register Publishing

Co.. 1956).

Why doctors prescribe
extra protein for expectant mothers
While still right as rain, the old saying Doctors are putting this new knowl
that the prospective mother must eat edge to work by prescribing diets call
for two has acquired a new meaning. ing for at least V> more protein.
Doctors are now agreed that a preg To help meet this need, Kellogg's
nant woman should not greatly in got together with two leading universi
crease the amount of what she eats. ties. The result is Special K — a ready-
Of vital importance however, is the to-serve, unusually appetizing protein
kind of food she eats. cereal. Now the expectant mother can
This newer knowledge of nutrition satisfy a good share of her daily pro
for mothers-to-be recognizes her step- tein needs at breakfast from a cereal
ped-up need for protein. Her own sys that's inviting to eat and easy to digest.
tem requires protein at all times. And She can do this because a bowl of
her baby must have additional protein Special K with milk gives her more high-
, to build strong quality protein than any other leading
bones and tissues. cereal — hot or cold. The kind of pro
If herbaby cannot tein that builds, maintains and repairs
obtain these ele body tissue. With this kind of protein,
ments from the she and the baby should be healthier,
mother's blood her spirits higher, and chances much
stream, he drains better that after the delivery she'll re
them from her tis gain those cherished slim lines.
sues. With obvious
- injurytoherhealth. OF BATTLE CREEK
O 1939BY KELLOGGCOMPANY
THE "KELLOGG" everybody knows is "Kellogg's," of course. (Courtesy

Kellogg Company and Leo Burnett Company, Inc.)
tive advertising campaign has been discontinued or changed too soon,
because it became too well-known to the advertiser before the cam
93
paign had reached its greatest point of effectiveness with the public,
or because the agency felt it could only demonstrate that it was earn
ing its money by coming up with campaign. The story is often
a new
told of the company president who oversaw every detail of his adver
tising himself. He looked at his advertising campaign in copy and lay
out form, at sales meetings, in type proofs, artwork, finished proofs,
and trade announcements. One day, he said, "I think the public is
getting tired of this campaign. It's time to change it." And his ad
vertising manager had to take his courage in both hands and tell him
that the public had never seen a line of the campaign — that it was
just now ready to run! The story may be exaggerated, but it has this
basis of truth — it takes a far longer time to penetrate the public mind
and achieve awareness than most advertisers think it does. It takes a
much longer time for a good advertising campaign to wear out its wel
come with the public than many advertising people ordinarily credit.
To keep a campaign running unchanged is often the best advice to an
advertiser who wants to achieve a high degree of public knowledge
about his product.
INFORMATION AND PERSUASION
Part of this problem is the almost insatiable appetite of people for

news. Recognition of this desire for new knowledge is an essential.
Many informed advertising people consider this the most important

element of advertising, the real reason why advertising fulfills the
function it has in our kind of economy. People have become accus
tomed to getting the news about new products and product improve
ments through advertising. It is almost impossible to over-estimate
the interest people have about new things or how much they can be
come interested in new approaches to well-known products. And,
most important for advertisers to remember, news about products is

news to new people most of the time. When you are not about to buy
aproduct, news about it may be of little significance to you. For ex
ample, news about a refrigerator today may not be important news to
you, because you are not going to buy a refrigerator. News about a
refrigerator a few years from now— when you are married and about
to buy a new home — may indeed be very important news to you.
What this suggests is that we need to understand the news function
of advertising very clearly.
First comes the news inherent in product or in a product in
a new
novation — news that is news because of its freshness, newness, and

general The first filter-tip cigarette, a really striking new
interest.
model of an automobile, the combination washer-dryer, automatic
defrosting for refrigerators, the first cake mix to come in a package,
complete frozen dinners packaged with their own plates, a new jet
airplane placed in regular service by an airline — these are all ex
amples of news, in which the vitality is inherent in the product itself.
A second source of news may be in the way the product is used by
the people who buy it. Scotch Tape, for example, began its career
sealing packages and mending torn pages in books, but the people
who bought it for these purposes were quick to find other uses for
this versatile material. The makers of Scotch Tape were alert and
quick to spread the news about these new and different uses of their
product in their advertising.
An allied source of news can often be uncovered in the way the
product is made — a way which may be common practice in the in
dustry but which has never been talked about publicly because it was
so common. Claude Hopkins gives dramatic illustrations of how he
used this source of news in his pioneering work for Schlitz Beer and
Van Camp Pork and Beans. By recognizing the news value of the
processes used in making these products
— which the brewer and the
canner considered unnewsworthy because they were standard operat
ing procedures— Hopkins created great advertising campaigns which

put these products out in front in sales."
6
Claude Hopkins, My Life in Advertising, Chapters 7 and 9.
BUILDING ANOTHER HIGHWAY THAT STARTS AND ENDS AT YOUR HOME
All ilir prat new Inlcr*tate-IMeusc Highways hi*tor). I -! year it jumped almost '. million. ta*k of de\eloping qualitv machines that work
MM to home. )"Ur home. Ecery road in the More people mean more cars. Since I" 16, the • economically toward* the goal* of human belter-
nation e\entually connrrt* with the street in ear- we ha\e addedto our auto imputation, when ment. But preparing for our nation'* future
kjf
front of your house. For rach of us, every new put hnmprr to buBBfler,are 5.00*1miles longer need? is a joh for all us. After all. ur don't
if
highway *tjtt- anil endv where we li\e. than the miles of lanes wr ha\e added to our do ... who will?
it
road system. And coming up iti thr ne\t 16

That's why we all ha\e such u log *takc in the Caterpillar Tractor Co., Peoria, Illinois, L.
year* is an bxnMC of 12million vt-hicles.
CATERPILLAR
nation'* hig. imaginati\e highway building pro
■
gram. It will directly affect the li\es of Hut now you can begin to see kigns of prog-
Americank . . . present ami future . . . than any ress. In the past 3*1months, construction men
thing we ha\e eper built. and their lug, fast-mo\ing Caterpillar machines DIESEL ENGINES - TRACTORS • MOTOR
The plan is to huihl ami modernije hundred* have completed tin- building and improvei
■
GRADERS EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT

of thousand* of miles of roads to handle IQT.Vs of thousand*of i
traffie . . . inehiding the big 1t, 000-mile Inter
state-DefenseSystem, a nation-wide network of
broad, safe super-highways.
NEWS ADVERTISING in the public interest for better highways. (Courtesy

Caterpillar Tractor Co.)
Your simplest recipe
may win *25,000 at
Pillsbury's BEST Bake-Off!
competein the Baking Contest,plus a cashprize of
WOMOO Grand National Recipe & Baking Contest 1100each.Pillabury will provide the sametrip for
parent or approvedadult for each of the 30
First Grand Prize SecondGrand Prize

Anniversary J
,000 SENIORS '4,500 BRIDES '4,500 JUNIORS
W.OOOFimt Prize $3,000First Prize
11,000
SecondPrut 11,000
SecondPrize
third
ShOOO % 100Third Prize 3 000Third Prue
100 GE Keyboard Ranges 100 All-Purpoee Mixer»
Htra'i all H hakasto wint New brides, experienced markedsacksof Pillsbury's BEST Flour. Or write
homemakers,teen-agers— there'sa specialdivision Grand National Entry Blanks, Box 41fi, Minne
for each of you so you competeaccordingto age apolis, Minnesota by June 16 for your free entry
and baking akill. Juet aendin a blanks.Do it now.ContestclosesJune 30, 1958.
fancy—onethat'sall your own. Dinner of the Waldorf Astoria 1Bake-Off head
a familiar one you improved with quarters)is just oneof manytreatsin storefor con
haaan equalchanceto win. testantson their all-expensepaid trip to New York.
Sight-seeingand fabulousentertainmentareall part
■
of the fun you'Uhaveduring threewonderfuldays.
12FreeOld WorldRecipe*From
Ann Pillabury't RecipeExchange
This year marksthe 10thAnniversaryof the Grand

National Bake-Off. . . Pillsbury's way of exchang
ing America'sfavoriterecipeawith you. In honorof
ina j the anniversary, 13 unique, exciting Old World
alwaysa highlightof the Grand National Bake-Off Recipes will be sent to
for thecontestant*.Howexcitingit isto beannounced everypersonwho enters
This t«y cookiewon $25,000 for Mra. Gerda E. a winnerand awardeda checkby a celebrity.This the 10th Anniversary
Rodererof Californiaat last year't Bake-Off.Called yearyou could be a winner!Enter Pillsbury's 10th Bake-Off. Each recipeis
"Accordion Treats," Mra. Roderer achievedtheir AnniversaryBake-Oft* now. printed on a sepsrate
uniqueshapeby baking the cookiedoughbetween card with a full-color
pleatsof aluminumfoil.Think of little cookingtricks photographof the food
or addedtoucheato food that you know and be a Plus 120 Free Luxurious Trips plus a historyof the rec
winnerin this year'scontest, To the 65 Senior Recipe Contest Winners, the 15 ipe.Sendin onerecipeto
Bride Recipe Contest Winners and the 30 Junior the Grand National now
f«y woytoarrterf Pick up a freeentry blankat your Recipe Contest Winners—a two-day stay at the and get 13 Old World
grocer.You'll alsofind freeentry blanksin specially fabulousWaldorf Astoria, New York, in order to Recipes you'll treasure.
Fret entryblankatyeargrocerandin speciallymarkedMet* if Pillsbury'sBEST Floor
PILLSBURY'S Grand National Contest has attracted entrants for more

than ten years. (Courtesy The Pillsbury Company and Campbell-Mithun.
Inc.)
Similarly, a little digging in the laboratory may uncover a new
use for a product or a new approach to the way people think about a
product that have been waiting for a laboratory scientist and an ad
vertising man with a nose for news to discover them.
News can be made to happen in such a way that it is legitimate
news. This is manufactured news — an artificial process, of course, but
it can be legitimate news, nonetheless. It is no news that every woman
has a favorite recipe. These recipes are passed on from mother to
daughter and become family treasures. But when a contest is spon
sored to bring these prized recipes out of old cookbooks and recipe
files so that more people can use and enjoy them, this is legitimate
news for the advertising of Pillsbury Mills, Inc. And when Pillsbury
brings a hundred women to the ballroom of the Waldorf-Astoria
Hotel in New York for the "bake-off" of its Grand National contest,
and when the cakes and cookies and pies are judged by prominent
people whose very names make news, this advertising idea makes the
front page of nearly every newspaper in the country.
Finally, we, as advertisers, must recognize that people buy many
products, not for what they are, but for the results that they produce.
These results may be subjective, existing in the mind, constituting a
kind of psychological overtone to the product. Women want to avoid
the rough, red hands that come from washing dishes three times a
day; advertising for liquid detergents tells them how to satisfy this
desire. Boys want to be star athletes; advertising tells them how the
nutritive value of a packaged food can contribute to strong bodies.
To an engineer, perhaps, an automobile may be merely a convenient
form of transportation — a body, a motor, and four wheels — some
thing that gets us from place to place with reasonable efficiency. But
to people in general, an automobile is far more. You have heard it
said, "You can tell the kind of man he is by the kind of car he drives."
An automobile can be a status symbol — an outward and visible sign
of how far up the social ladder its owner has progressed. A well-
designed automobile can be a thing of beauty. An automobile can be
an invitation to adventure and romance. Or it can be a symbol of

even beginners cant miss!
Libby's Pumpkin assures velvety-rich, custard-like filling every time
Hunor, for pumpkinpie" Thensetvourselfa can of Libby's

-- - |
-
Pumpkin.No ordinarypumpkinwill do Libbya wousee is
madefrom speciallyceltivatedin pumpkins with 1...bby
*
vouresureto havevelvet,rich co-ard smoothhlun-ru
-
Nevera "drypar Nevera runny or "lump, filling
Not with 11/1 Pumpkinandlib' v- recipe
-
Mike the trust in vour favoritewav But for the filling.
followtheprivedrecipeonthe1"-Pumpkin label it cave
11blv- Purup-n
--
wouthe exact trop-ion- ul case ausar spices milk and
tru
-
"...
With and11", Peerlin woucant miss Even

*
|-
turnoutpictureperfectp-very time
beginners
M-1 Ill
&
C
1
ATTRACTING new generation buyers for long established product.

of
a
a
(Courtesy Libby, McNeill Libby.)

&
man's mastery of the machine in a machine age where our lives tend to QQ
be dominated by the mechanical contrivances with which we live and
by which we make our living. Leading psychologists have even given
Freudian overtones to the symbolism of the automobile. All these
different approaches are some of the things that influence our buy
ing an automobile, and they have a great deal to do with the kind of
advertising we read when we are in the market for a new car and with
the kind of car we buy.
This basic use of advertising points up the difference between "de
sire" and "demand," as these words are used in connection with ad
vertising. It is sometimes said that advertising "creates desire." This
does not seem to be true; "desire" is the want inherent in every hu
man being. What advertising does is to transform basic human de
sires into "demand" for a particular product which the purchaser

has some reason for believing will satisfy a desire in some particular
way. The desires are there. It is the function of advertising to find out
what they are and provide people with a way of fulfilling them.
SPECIFIC PURPOSES OF ADVERTISING
While these basic and overlapping uses of advertising apply gener

ally to all kinds of advertising situations, advertising has, in addition,
a great variety of specific purposes, which change with time and cir
cumstance according to the specific needs of the advertiser.7 Let us
examine some of these objectives and the way in which advertising
can help to meet them.
A good starting point is with the introduction of a new product.
Here the value of advertising is obvious and the essential function of
advertising very clear. People have to know what the product is, what
it will do, what wants it satisfies, and what problems in their lives it
7
For further reading and useful checklists on this subject, see Otto Kleppner,
Advertising Procedure, 4th Edition (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1950), Chapter 3, and Hugh G. Wales, Dwight L. Gentry, and Max
Wales, Advertising Copy, Layout, and Typography (New York, The Ronald
Press Company, 1958), p. 21.

NEW MEATS from SWIFT
lelp make every day an easy day !
BRINGING A FAMILY of products together under one signature and slo

gan. (Courtesy Swift & Company. Agency: McCann-Erickson, Inc.)
can solve, before they can decide whether or not to buy it. They need
to become familiar with it. The idea of blowing your nose into a piece
of paper was unheard of before the invention of Kleenex. The fact
that farmers could bring hogs to market weight faster by using ani
mal feeds to which minute amounts of a "miracle drug" had been
added was unknown before the discovery of Terramycin. The idea
that a fine cake could be made out of ingredients which came ready-
mixed in a box was brand new with the introduction of cake mixes.
Similarly, new features of products, and the improvement of exist

ing products offer important objectives for advertising. Light bulbs
that give more light with less glare, light bulbs that come in color and
can add to the color harmony of a room, heat bulbs that help bake out
aches and pains, photoflash bulbs that make indoor picture-taking
easy —these are all new product developments of the original electric
light bulb which advertising can demonstrate and explain.
Increasing sales of an existing product is, of course, the most com
mon purpose assigned to advertising. Advertisers try to accomplish
this objective in many ways. It can be done by increasing the fre
quency of use —new recipes for rice, for example, featured in adver
tising to get women to serve this kind of food on their dinner tables
more often. We may want to increase the frequency of replacement
by demonstrating that a new kind of vacuum cleaner does a faster
pick-up job than the old one which still runs but has been outdated.
We can increase sales by increasing the variety of uses for our prod
uct, as Campbell's Soup has recently done in suggesting soup for
breakfast, soup on the rocks, eggs scrambled with soup. We can in
crease sales by increasing the units of purchase — an advertising ob
jective which ranges all the way from the idea of purchasing soft
drinks in handy six-pack cartons to the idea of how a family benefits
from having two Fords in the garage. We may know that our product
has peak sales in hot weather, lower sales in cold weather, so we may
want to extend the length of the buying season and eliminate seasonal
fluctuation in sales as the Tea Council has endeavored to make hot
tea as popular a drink in winter as iced tea is in summer.

INCREASING frequency of replacement by a special promotion built on
the public interest in retirement plans. (Courtesy The Hoover Company
and Leo Burnett Company, Inc.)
(OR ANY OTHER OLD CLEANER)
AND GET TWO ALLOWANCES DURING OCTOBER!

Regular trade-in allowance plus Special Retirement Allowance
During October, your old 2) Special Retirement

cleaner is worth a lot more Allowance
than you think!
In most cases, this will
Sure, your old cleaner is still
amount to 20% to 25% of the
running. Hut you don't know
the neu efficiency, new light
original purchase price of
ness, tivu easy cleaning that your old cleaner.
new Hoovers now have — and For the exact trade-in and
we want to bring this new Retirement Allowance you'll
cleaner into your home. get — get your old cleaner out
So. for a limited time. Hoover and call your Hoover dealer!
dealers offer you two allow
ances : HOOVER
1) lt««ular "trade-in" FINK UMM.IANCES
allowance, plus ...■round the houne, around th« world
Enjoy the ease of Power Cleaning with
THE HOOVER DELUXE 63

1rets the dirt that other cleaners miss, because
it beats, as it sweeps, us it cleans, on a cushion of
air. Power-driven cibrators loosen deeply em
bedded dirt. Rotating brushes sweep it up
along with the surface litter. Powerful suction
carries it all into a throw away bag. Keeps
colors bright, prolongs life of rugs and carpets.
The tremendous population increase in the United States in recent
years has made many advertisers aware that they need to attract a
whole new generation of buyers. Young people, with the same desires
and wants as their fathers and mothers, respond to advertising in the
same way — providing the advertiser realizes that these potential new
customers need to be told of the uses, advantages, and benefits of a
brand of pumpkin as a pie filling, even though we like to think that
pumpkin pie is as old as the first Thanksgiving of the Pilgrims.
Often a company makes more than one product and finds advertis
ing a desirable way to bring a family of products together so that the

reputation of each supports that of all of the others. Thus we see ad
vertising for many cheeses and cheese products made, imported, or
processed by Kraft, advertising of individual Kraft brands.
as well as
The Ford Family of Fine Cars, advertised together, helps Ford, Mer
cury, Falcon, Lincoln and Continental cars to increase sales because
of the reputation of each of these products brought into focus through
the Ford Family campaign.
Frequently a company finds that it needs to talk about itself. As

consumers, we may know a great deal about products but very little
about the companies that make those products. Thus advertising can
be assigned the objective of making the company known. Companies
and corporations, large or small, are not "soulless" legal entities —
they are people working with other people to provide something
somebody else wants. However, in these days of large companies and
big corporations, there are those who will attack a business on the
ground of "bigness" alone, conveniently forgetting that size may be

an essential in bringing together the facilities to produce and sell at
low cost something of benefit to many. Companies that provide em
ployment in interesting jobs for workers, a steady and assured mar
ket for the products of smaller companies making component parts-,
widely beneficial programs of scientific research, exploration for new
resources, new products, and new markets can use advertising to make
these aspects of a corporation's good and responsible citizenship more
widely known.

B
CHANGING public opinion about pork, with news about vitamins, pro
tein, iron, and easy digestibility. (Courtesy American Meat Institute and
Leo Burnett Company, Inc.)
Big
Pork Crop...Big Pork Values!
---
---
-
Nuurishing
B
VIIAMINS COMPIHE PROTEIN
\_FOOD IRON HIGHW DIGESTIBLE

to
America's biggest pork crop since the war gives new break
in
housewives. Look for special pork values your meat-man's case.
e- chop
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forthepopular-1 forthe
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1-hole, half
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Sometimes this can be done most effectively by advertising which
primarily performs a public service. The continuing campaign of
J_0^
Caterpillar Tractor Co. in bringing public attention to the need for
better roads and highways has been distinguished public service ad
vertising for many years. Many companies donate a part of their

print advertising space and their radio and television time to adver
tising in the public interest through The Advertising Council, Inc.
Over a period of years — a period of generations, in fact— a host
of wrong impressions can be built up in the minds of people about a
product, impressions which were never true and which new informa
tion and new scientific knowledge has disproved. Advertising can be
used to help dispel wrong impressions like these. For example, in at
tempting to uncover reasons for a long-term decline in the per capita

consumption of meat, The American Meat Institute found a collec
tion of veritable "old wives' tales" about meat present in the minds
of many people. People were eating less meat because they thought
it made them fat, that "eating too much meat is bad for you," that
"to eat pork is to eat death." These existed despite the fact that work
of nutritionists like McCollum and others at Johns Hopkins Univer
sity had demonstrated the great nutritional values of meat, that dis
tinguished scientists like Elvejhem and his associates at the Univer
sity of Wisconsin had shown pork to be one of the finest natural
sources of Vitamin Bj. The campaign of The American Meat Institute
to dispel these wrong impressions and increase the consumption of
meat by telling the truth about this valuable and important food is
one of the great advertising case histories of all time.
Very often we find advertising whose purpose is not to reach the

individual who actually makes the purchase but to reach the person
who influences the purchaser. This is true of many industrial buying
situations, where a purchasing agent does the actual buying, but a
design engineer, a plant foreman, or even askilled workman may
specify the item to be purchased and the brand to buy. Company
executives and members of the board of directors will have a voice
in the buying decision, particularly if the amount of money involved

Sometimes this can be done most effectively by advertising which
primarily performs a public service. The continuing campaign of
J_0^
Caterpillar Tractor Co. in bringing public attention to the need for
better roads and highways has been distinguished public service ad
vertising for many years. Many companies donate a part of their

print advertising space and their radio and television time to adver
tising in the public interest through The Advertising Council, Inc.
Over a period of years — a period of generations, in fact— a host
of wrong impressions can be built up in the minds of people about a
product, impressions which were never true and which new informa
tion and new scientific knowledge has disproved. Advertising can be
used to help dispel wrong impressions like these. For example, in at
tempting to uncover reasons for a long-term decline in the per capita

consumption of meat, The American Meat Institute found a collec
tion of veritable "old wives' tales" about meat present in the minds
of many people. People were eating less meat because they thought
it made them fat, that "eating too much meat is bad for you," that
"to eat pork is to eat death." These existed despite the fact that work
of nutritionists like McCollum and others at Johns Hopkins Univer
sity had demonstrated the great nutritional values of meat, that dis
tinguished scientists like Elvejhem and his associates at the Univer
sity of Wisconsin had shown pork to be one of the finest natural
sources of Vitamin Bj. The campaign of The American Meat Institute
to dispel these wrong impressions and increase the consumption of
meat by telling the truth about this valuable and important food is
one of the great advertising case histories of all time.
Very often we find advertising whose purpose is not to reach the

individual who actually makes the purchase but to reach the person
who influences the purchaser. This is true of many industrial buying
situations, where a purchasing agent does the actual buying, but a
design engineer, a plant foreman, or even askilled workman may
specify the item to be purchased and the brand to buy. Company
executives and members of the board of directors will have a voice
in the buying decision, particularly if the amount of money involved

To the Millions of Americans
Who Helped Design the 1959
Ford Family of Fine Cars
A message from Henry Ford II, Benson Ford, and William Clay Ford
on the philosophy behind Ford Motor Company's 1959 models
— now being shown by 8,972 dealers all over the country
For 55 years our family has been in the How do we find out what people
business of making automobiles for the want— and what their ideas are? At
families of America. Ford Motor Company we consider car-
First in our grandfather's and our owner research one of our most impor
father's time, and now in our own, we've tant assignments. We do our best to find
been associated with the whole evolu- out what you like, why you like
it,
what you need and want, what you take
for granted in car, and what you don't
a
care about.
by
We ask questions mail, in person,
by
and We get suggestions

telephone.
from farmer in Arkansas and house
a
a
wife on Long Island, salesman in
a
Henry Ford 11, President of Ford Motor Company,

talks about the '59 Ford with foreman Nicholas
Metropoulos at assembly line of Rouge plant.
tion of the American car. We've watched

our cars and our American ways of liv
ing change each other.
Through all the years we've tried to
learn the secret of success in the car busi Benson Ford, Vice President ond Chairman of
Dealer Policy Board, gets local picture from
ness: Give the people what they want. Lincoln-Mercury dealer Fred Jones, Tulsa, Okla.
Arizona, and a teenager who just got his $7,000. When you add up all the models
driver's license in Ohio. in these 6 makes, you get a total of
60 different cars.
A host of new ideas We believe you will find somewhere
Our dealers across the country are now in the 1959 Ford Family of Fine Cars
showing the completely new 1959 Fords, the car designed for you. In a sense, it
Edsels and Mercurys. Together with was designed by you — designed by you
the improved 1959 Lincolns, Thunder- and millions of other Americans.
birds, and Mark IV Continentals, we
believe they're
the most beautiful ears
we've ever made. Their styling is crisp,
functional and well proportioned —every
line with a purpose.
Our '59 cars are designed around
people.
You'll find, for example, such things
as wider doors to make our cars easier
to enter, even for ladies in the new
tighter skirts; more leg room for the per

son in the middle, with the hump in the
floor cut way down; and you'll find all
William Cloy Ford, Vice President, Product
our new cars — both V-8's and 6's — are Planning and Styling, workj here with Edsol
stylist Deno Tagiioii on 1962 designs.
more economical to operate.
You'll notice all kinds of ideas to Speaking for the entire Ford Motor
make riding safer and easier, more com Company — its 273,457 stockholders, its
fortable and convenient — from
greatly 150,000 employees and its 8,972 dealers
enlarged window areas to bigger trunks. all over America — may we invite you
stop in today and inspect the Ford
6 different makes —
to
Family of Fine Cars?
60 different models
In the 1959 Ford Family of Fine Cars,

we offer 6 different makes — the Ford,
Thunderbird, Edsel, Mercury, Lincoln,
and Mark IV Continental. They range
in price from about $2,000 to over <^^tt-*»t <^^ty / VICE PRESIDENT
FORD MOTOR COMPANY • The American Road, Dearborn, Mich.
THE FORD FAMILY OF FINE CARS

KOKD • THUNDERBIRD . EDSEL • MERCURY . LINCOLN . MARK IV CONTINENTAL
ESTABLISHING family identity for the six different makes in the Ford
Family of Fine Cars. (Courtesy Ford Motor Company and Kenyon &
Eckhardt, Inc.)
7
7/] is large one. In buying for the family, too, a parent may do the ac
a
tual purchasing, but children have a great deal to say about the choice
of brands. Thus, in children's shoes, for example, the child is inter
ested in style. The mother is interested in the fit of the shoe and its
wearing qualities. The advertising of the shoe manufacturer must

reach both mother and child. In breakfast cereals, the desire of the
child for the premium toy in the package can be the deciding factor
in which brand the mother reaches for on the supermarket shelf. Ad
vertisers who fail to recognize the importance of children in influenc
ing purchases for the whole family can miss out on great chunks of a
potential market.
Often a manufacturer does not make a complete product, but fur
nishes some part or component or material to other manufacturers to
use in making their products. We call these people "suppliers." Very
frequently the reputation of the supplier may be as well-known or

even better known than that of the manufacturer of the finished prod
uct. Advertising to secure greater acceptance for the subordinate
part or to enhance a process used in making the finished product can
make the sale of the finished product easier.
In a similar way, advertising will often be used to dramatize a part
of a product, particularly if the dramatized part has greater news
value than the product itself. For example, when Ford introduced its
"Hideaway Hardtop"— the convertible with the steel top which dis
appeared into the trunk of the car
— advertising was used to bring this
exciting new development into sharp focus.
Sometimes the leader of an industry will choose, as one of his ad
vertising objectives, to strengthen the entire industry of which his
company is part. His reasoning will be that if he can increase sales
a
for the industry, he will get as the leader his share of the increase, or
more. More often, all the producers or processors in the same indus
try will band together in a group to increase the market for their par
ticular kind of product through association advertising. Campaigns
by The American Meat Institute, the Tea Council, Inc., Sugar In
formation, Inc., are examples of this kind of association advertising.
Usually, a campaign of this nature is followed by individual brand

advertising in which the leader capitalizes on the all-industry cam-
J_ J_ J_
paign by converting the new strength of the industry to new strength
for his own product.
Part of the problem of any manufacturer is the distribution of his
product. Thus part of his advertising will be devoted to getting deal
ers to handle the product by advertising in the trade papers read by
dealers for information and news about their own businesses. He will
want to keep these dealers informed on news about his product and
his advertising and promotional efforts, and he uses trade paper ad
vertising for this purpose. If he is in a business, like life insurance,
which relies on salesmen, the immediate purpose of his advertising
may be to get leads for salesmen to use in canvassing through a cou
pon in the advertisement which leads to a sales call.
Summary
This brief look at some of the specific reasons for advertising is

not all-inclusive. It is a sampling of some of the objectives which an
advertiser may assign to his advertising program. The important
things to remember are:
1. Every specific advertising objective should be part of an over
all plan, in which the role of the advertising program and what it is
supposed to accomplish are clearly defined.
2. The basic uses of advertising need to be understood, so that
the nature of the advertising program runs with and not counter to
these basic principles.
3. Advertising to a specific objective is more likely to be effective
than advertising merely for the sake of advertising. The sharper the
objective and the more clearly it is defined, the greater the opportu
nity for the success of an advertising campaign.
4. Every advertisement, in addition to its immediate objective,
should have the underlying purpose of building identity for the brand
and for the company behind the brand.

ADVERTISING
RESEARCH:
It has been well said that a man's judgment is no bet

ter than his information. Developing standards of criti
cal judgment in advertising is a never-ending search
for information — information of all kinds and natures.
New Rllsbury Cake Mixes The specific applications of this search for information
in the advertising business — gaining the kind of knowl
edge to help us solve problems of advertising and with
advertising — we lump together in a loose classification
which we call advertising research.
Since, said, advertising begins and ends
as we have
with people, almost all research in advertising is con

cerned with people — what kind of people they are,
it,
where they are, what they do, why they do and what
they are likely to do within given set of circumstances.

a
This the purpose of advertising research — -to tell us

is
112
Criteria and Methods
more about people, and how to inform and persuade them through advertising.
In the advertising business, research is not an end in itself. Research is a guide,
and only a guide, to what is likely to happen if you can build on its findings the
kind of advertising that gets people to do what you want them to do.
Research in advertising reveals the status quo. It can tell you what people have
done, or what they say they have done. It can tell you what people are thinking as
of the moment the research is conducted, not what they think a moment later after
the questionnaire has been completed and the interviewer has turned away. But the
purpose of action-producing, attitude-changing advertising is, as James Webb

it,
Young puts "to disturb the status quo. Advertising must be creative, and in
it
volves the creative use of knowledge to bring about new combination of circum
a
stances. The only man entitled to the title advertising man one who can see in
is
of
a given set circumstances a sales opportunity and can devise an advertising

of
means to grasp it."

Advertising research has its roots in the behavioral sciences —in psychology,
113
A social psychology, and sociology. It uses the techniques of acquiring
■£
information about people which these sciences have developed, as
well as those of other academic disciplines, such as economics and
statistics. In years past, advertising relied heavily upon the findings
of psychology for a store of information about individual behavior.
More recently, the trend has been to turn more to social psychology
and sociology, as these newer disciplines have developed the study of
group behavior and the changes in human behavior in the mass from
time to time and place to place. In turn, to evaluate advertising re
search, the advertising man must be able to put it into a perspective,
and for this he needs to know history and anthropology as well as
economics and marketing.

He must also be careful not to use the findings of advertising re
search as a crutch, as a substitute for the creation of advertising that
moves people to action. The process of research and its findings are
often so interesting in themselves that we forget that these findings
must be creatively applied to an advertising problem before they can
be useful. Too often, we forget that advertising is an art and not an
exact science. We want — we desperately want — exact, precise, and
definitive answers to advertising problems, and since the presenta
tion of the findings of advertising research often appears in the form
of neat and precise tables, graphs, charts, and columns of figures, we
can easily fall into the trap of believing that all findings can always
be applied literally to obtain an exact and predetermined result.
Sometimes —but only sometimes — this is possible. More often, it is
not. The advertising man who makes the greatest contribution to the
public, to his company, and to himself is the man who realizes that
findings are findings — not conclusions. It is the creative application
of findings that takes us in the direction we want to go.
EVALUATING ADVERTISING RESEARCH
Nearly all the methods and techniques of advertising research are

based on research techniques developed by the behavioral sciences.
ADVERTISING RESEARCH
Many of these techniques have been taken over directly by advertis
ing research people, trained in the techniques in college classes in
these sciences and by research work under the sponsorship of various
universities. Other methods represent variations on the standard
techniques to adapt them more or less specifically to advertising pur
poses.
The first and foremost consideration in any research project is to
determine, in advance, and with as much precision as possible, ex
actly what you are trying to find out through the research. In other
words, research starts with defining the problem. It is surprising,
it,
sometimes, how hard this is to do, how long it takes to do and how
difficult group of people to agree on precisely what they

to get
is
it
want to learn. But the failure to think the problem through and agree
on precise set of objectives "hypotheses for investigation," in the
a
behavioral science vocabulary the greatest single cause of waste

is
)
in advertising research today. You can save yourself great deal of

a
by
time and your company great deal of money insisting that the
a
problem be defined before, not after, the investigation has started

and the interviewers are out making house-to-house calls in distant a
city.
Second, we need to know about the reliability and validity the
of
measuring instruments used in solving the problem. "Measuring in

struments" here mean questionnaires, or experiments, or shelf audits
actually counting boxes of products, or telephone interviews, or what
given instrument reliable,should produce the same
If
ever.
is
it
a
used again under the same conditions. an instru

If
answer when
is
it it
ment valid, provides answers which have to do with the problem

is
— in other words, the answers must relate to what we say we were

measuring, and they must not relate to anything else, no matter how
fascinating that may be. We must learn to check our measuring in
struments with trial run, or pilot study, testing to see that they are
a
both reliable and valid.

Third, we must determine that the measuring instruments were
used in a satisfactory manner. We will want to know something about
the qualifications of the persons who administered the questionnaires
or conducted the experiments. We will check the sampling method
used. Did it have biases? Did it tend to exclude certain parts of the
population under study? Did it over-represent other parts of the

population? It is possible, of course, to obtain useful findings from
biased samples, if the biases are known. The danger is to have sup
posedly unbiased data which are in fact biased.
Finally, we need to
establish for ourselves how precise we need to be, for this decision
determines not only how large a sample we must measure but also
the application of our findings.
Once the problem is defined, we can see what materials related to
the answers have already been published. In many instances a great
mass of material applicable to advertising research problems is avail

able from various departments of the Federal Government and state
governments, from chambers of commerce, trade associations, pub
lishers and broadcasters. The professional journals in psychology
and sociology offer much interesting information. Most large adver
tising agencies have made investigations for their own use or for
the use of their clients- — and, while these studies are not usually mat
ters of public information because they contain data of a confidential
and competitive nature, the general findings are sometimes made
available.
But, too often, "facts" in advertising have of aging rap
a way
idly. Published materials become out-dated. One of the chief char

of our society is its mobility and the speed of its rate of
acteristics
change. When you cannot find published answers to the questions

you want answered, you then go to the people themselves in an at
tempt to get answers. This procedure is called "making a survey."
Obviously, it is impossible for any single advertiser, agency, or re
search organization to interview the entire population of the United
States. Only the Bureau of the Census can tackle a job of this magni
tude, and the Bureau does it only once in ten years. Nor is it neces
sary for us to do this in order to obtain answers which are generally
satisfactory for advertising purposes.
In general, we can put two principles to work for us here:
The principle of the alikeness of characteristics —which says
1.
J_]_7
that people, like wheat in a grain elevator or peas on the vine, have
certain general and measurable characteristics that tend to make one
very much like another; and
2.The principle of sampling — which says that a limited number
of people (or wheat grains or peas) selected randomly from the mass
of the people is very likely to represent the mass of the people with
a greater or less degree of accuracy, depending upon the opportunity
that every person has of being represented in the sample.

In order for these principles to work, we must agree that the ob
jective of research is to arrive at fact, or as close to fact as we can get
within the limitation of the method, regardless of whose toes get
stepped on in the process or how uncomfortable the facts may be.
We must be honest and unbiased in gathering our material and in
reporting our findings. We can make comparisons only between
things and situations which are capable of being compared. We must
define our terms, as the first great investigator, Socrates, urged. We
must leave out irrelevant items, but we must be sure to include every
thing that needs to be included. As the priest says, in the delightful

novel, The World, The Flesh, and Father Smith: "It's no use con
fessing that you stole a rope if you forget to mention that there was a
horse tied to the other end of it."1

Above all, we must not distort our findings merely to support some
body's previously conceived opinion.
All of this places a considerable burden upon those who conduct
research and those who try to use its findings.
SAMPLING
Much of this burden is involved in the structure of the sampling

operation. It is a perfectly simple matter for a writer to call on
1 Bruce Marshall, The World, The Flesh, and Father Smith (Boston, Hough
ton Mifflin Co., 1945).
twenty housewives and talk to them about soup. It is even simpler for
him to go to a county fair and talk to farmers about tractors in the
farm machinery exhibits. If he is a good reporter he will uncover
dozens of ideas and approaches he might never think of while sitting
in his office. Indeed, there is no substitute for talking to people for
the writer who wants to get the "feel" of the product and the "feel"
of the market. But this kind of "haphazard sampling" —talking to
anybody who happens to be available — lacks the rigor of scientific re
search. At its best, it stimulates the imagination (which may be all
that you expect a given project to do ) . At its worst, it stifles creativity
(when somebody says, "That approach is all wrong because my
mother-in-law never does it that way").
In an effort to bring more precision into the structure of samples,
social scientists and statisticians have developed three basic sam
pling methods.
1. Unrestricted random sampling. This is defined as the "selection
of units from an unrestricted population in such manner that every

a
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected."2

The terminology is confusing here, for "unrestricted" and "random"
do not have their ordinary meanings but rather the reverse of what
we usually think of these words as meaning. "Unrestricted," in this
sense, means that every name on the sample list (for example, the
telephone directory or the list of subscribers to a magazine) has as
good a chance of being selected for the study as any other name, and
"random" means that the selecting will be done by the statistical
practice of using a table of "random numbers" or by arbitrarily tak
ing every fourth name or every tenth name on the list. This is the
relatively quick and inexpensive method used for surveys by tele
phone or by mail. To get rough answers to general questions, without
too much precision, it is a useful method. It runs the risk of not being
representative of all the people as a whole — not
everybody has a tele
phone or is willing to answer questions over the telephone; suburban,
2
David J. Luck and Hugh G. Wales, Marketing Research (Englewood Cliffs,
N.J., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952), p. 200.
small town, and farm areas are likely to be excluded because of the
cost of long-distance telephone calls; and most people will not take
the time and trouble to fill out and return a mailed questionnaire.
2. Quota sampling (sometimes called "judgment" sampling). The
key idea here is to construct a miniature representation of the total

population on the basis of characteristics we know to be in the popu
lation because of census data. In this method, "the sampling areas
and final sampling units are selected, in successive stages, not by
random selection. Instead, they are deliberately selected on the basis
of control factors or criteria."3 These criteria are generally sex (so
many men, so many women), age (so many 20—25, so many 25-30,
and on up), occupation (so many lawyers, so many laborers), mari
tal status (so many married, so many unmarried), residence (so
many from big cities, so many from small towns, so many from
farms ) , and the like. Interviewers are instructed to make their inter
views with people who meet these criteria in proportion to the way the
criteria occur in the total population, but the selection of the actual
people to be interviewed is left to the judgment of the interviewer.
As Professors Luck and Wales point out, "Pity the interviewer who
is seeking a man aged 30 to 35, who owns a Packard, lives in an
apartment house, has five children and subscribes to Newsweekl"*
To be truly representative, the sample must be almost impossibly
large. The possibilities for error and interviewer bias are great, and
it is doubtful that an ideal quota sample has ever been attained.
3. Area probability sample. This highly accurate method "em
ploys rigid mathematical procedures for drawing from the population
strata each county, locality, block, street, household and individual
to be interviewed,"5 rigidly observing the laws of statistics and leav
ing nothing to the judgment of the interviewer. As applied by Alfred

Politz Research, Inc., to the 1950 studies of Life magazine, the steps
taken to select that sample were as follows:
8 Ibid.
* Ibid., pp. 204-205.
5 Alfred
Politz. A Study of the Accumulative Audience of LIFE (New York,
Time, Inc., 1950) , p. 13.
Before any sample selections were made, the total United States
1.
was classified into 55 major compartments or "strata," on the basis of

such important characteristics as: metropolitan or non-metropolitan
population, degree of mechanical refrigeration, percentage of non-white
population, and so forth.
2. Some of the 55 strata contained only metropolitan areas; others
were composed of non-metropolitan counties. With a table of random
numbers, one area or county was randomly selected from each stratum.
In this selection, each area or county had aprobability of being chosen
that was proportionate to its estimated population. In all, the metropoli
tan areas and non-metropolitan counties selected comprised 110 counties.
3. Each selected area or county was then divided into smaller com
partments, or "sub-strata." The area of land within each of these sub
strata was then divided into small segments that could be defined ob
jectively in terms of streets or natural boundaries. In urban areas and
towns, these segments are blocks or groups of blocks. In rural and farm
areas, they are larger areas of land which could be defined in terms of
obvious boundaries such as roads and rivers.
4. From each sub-stratum, one segment was randomly selected in a way
which provided each segment with a chance for selection proportionate
to its estimated population. This process resulted in the final selection of
496 segments spread over the 55 major divisions.
A special map was drawn up for each segment showing its boundaries
and how to approach it. One corner, or intersection within the segment,
was chosen at random as a "point of departure" for the interviewer, who
was then instructed to count a randomly determined number of house
holds until he reached the first household to be visited for an interview.
An interview was made with a randomly selected individual in this house
hold. Thereafter, the interviewer visited consecutive households, inter
viewing one randomly selected person per household, until his assigned
number of "people-interviews" had been obtained.6
While no sample is completely unbiased, the area probability

sample appears to have eliminated the biases which have important
8
Alfred Politz, A Study of the Household Accumulative Audience of LIFE,
(New York, Time, Inc., 1952), pp. 8-9.
influence upon survey findings. In addition, the sampling tolerance,
or "margin for error," in the Life studies for example, is at the 19 J 21
in 20 probability level, which means that "the chances are 95 in 100
that this estimate is within 1.2 percentage points of the value that
would have been obtained from a complete census using the survey
procedures."7
QUESTIONNAIRES AND THEIR PROBLEMS
Of equal importance with the sampling procedure is the structure

of the questionnaire itself. We can ask our questions by mail, by tele
phone, or in person, but we first have to know what questions we are
going to ask. This is more complex than it appears to be on the sur
face, and it requires a good deal of training to be able to formulate
questions so that the answers received will be the ones that truly
answer the problem assigned. Individual differences are such that
questions which seem perfectly obvious to you (with your individual

bias and background ) are completely obscure to somebody else. The
very way in which a question is framed can elicit a different kind of
an answer on the same subject. As Goode and Hatt point out:
Minor differences in wording sometimes create major differences in

meaning, and the answers of respondents will reflect these differences
because of the simple fact that a different question has been asked. ... To
take an extreme case, let us compare some positive and negative forms of
a question :
1. Do you approve of spanking children?

2. You do approve of spanking children, don't you?
3. Don't you approve of spanking children?
4. You don't approve of spanking children, do you?
There are other possible variations, but the point is obvious. Forms 3
and 4 are highly suggestive. If accompanied by a sincere, earnest nod
of the head, form 2 would cause many respondents to agree, and corres-
7
Alfred Politz, LIFE Study of Consumer Expenditures (New York, Time,
Inc., 1958). Vol. 2, p. 150.
pondingly, if form 4 or 1 were accompanied by an unbelieving look,
many individuals who do approve of spanking would deny it8
This is why the construction of the questionnaire and the instruc

tions to the interviewer that go with it is a job for the expert, and the
real expert will not release a questionnaire for a survey until he has
actually tested it in a "pilot study," designed to bring out weaknesses
in the questionnaire so that it can be corrected and improved before
the main survey is begun.
INTERPRETATION OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
After the answers to our questions have been tabulated, we face

up to the problem of interpretation — what do these answers mean?
One of the best attempts to analyze this problem and its pitfalls is
represented by these excerpts from a bulletin by Grey Advertising
Agency, Inc.:
People say it! But do they always do it?

Right facts —Wrong conclusion —
Poor research has stifled many a good product, good selling plan, good
advertising campaign — because wrong conclusions were drawn from in
adequate data. Many a toothpaste was born to blush unbrushed because
somebody made a booboo.
Let's dismiss the type of research which flourished for a generation,
that was conceived to make a point rather than determine the facts.
There was a time, only too recent, when research was used deliberately
or perhaps innocently to support a point of view in order to sell an idea
to management. Questions were asked not to penetrate the mental proc
esses of the public, but to provide impressive charts to convince the men
who had to make decisions. Perhaps some useful purpose was achieved
in focusing executive attention on a problem — but this wasn't research,
it was selling.
8
William J. Goode and Paul K. Hatt, Methods in Social Research (New
York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1952), p. 155.
What are some of the pitfalls of research that lead astray instead of
leading the way?
1. The fuzzy survey. This is the survey that hasn't been prepared with
a crystal clear objective. It is likely to be vague in its planning and un
certain in its findings. Surveys cannot be dependable unless their purpose
is well thought out — and the techniques, questions, samples are all made
human-nature proof.
2. The survey that tries to cover too much ground. Too many variables
can make research collapse — for instance, comparison of several adver
tisements each with a completely different technique, layouts, copy appeal,
and text matter — or comparison of selling campaigns with different prod
uct features and different prices and different methods of distribution.
You've been in the meetings when someone says, "As long as we're spend
ing all this money for testing, let's get the answers to all the questions
that are worrying us." Simplicity in research is essential. A sharply de
fined questionnaire with the fewest possible variables evokes the most
decisive answers.
3. The "Pilot" study that becomes gospel. You have seen it happen.
The inadequate sample which was designed as a trial run of a research
project comes up with an answer everyone likes. Bingo — someone de
cides, this is it — no use to go any further. This "Pilot" can pilot you
right on the rocks of the wrong conclusion.
4. Questions that respondents can't answer. Sometimes researchers

seem to have an almost childlike faith in the public's ability to answer
questions. Here are just a few factors that help the public confuse the re
searcher :
a. The respondent gives you the answer he thinks you want.

b. The respondent answers not as a typical consumer but tries to be an
expert. For instance, he'll give you an opinion of an advertisement based

on what he has heard about advertising.
c. The respondent answers as a non-buyer very differently from the
way he would answer at the actual moment of purchase. A consumer's
report on the brand he proposed to buy next is frequently quite at vari
ance with what he finally does buy. The advertisement that seems quite
dull when he is not in the market may prove fascinating when he is mak
ing up his mind about a purchase.
d. Respondents do not always tell what they think. Certain questions
which probe people's secret attitudes may evoke misleading answers — or
sometimes superficial answers, because the respondents wish to avoid
exploring their own minds.
e. What the respondent states he likes or dislikes may be directly op
posite from what motivates him to buy. A man may scoff at testimonials
or at low calorie claims for beer, or at throat ease claims for cigarettes —
yet he may have bought the brand he is using
— motivated by the very-
claims he rejects when asked the direct question.
f. The respondent's reaction may change overnight due to an unfore
seen influence. Presidential polls have frequently gone astray because of

swiftly shifting attitudes.
g. People don't always know what they think. Men and women fre
quently act on impulse, often are influenced by emotions rather than
logic. Research tends to get the logical answer rather than emotional
response.
5. Surveys that mistake attitude for behavior. (Attitude is only one
determinant of behavior.)
6. Surveys that transpose behavior from one situation to another.
(The meaningfulness of the situation can change despite the outward
similarity. Madam might choose package A rather than package B when
she sees them in her home— yet she might reverse her choice when she
sees them on a supermarket shelf. )
Trends can die in infancy —

Of course, there are many other monkey wrenches that can get into
the research machinery, including faulty conclusions which are some
times drawn from research which itself may be sound. Sometimes the
temporary trend is interpreted as a frozen fact. Women may tell you that
they prefer their tablets white. "White stands for purity. White means
health —no harmful ingredients." Suddenly tablets go pink, green, and
yellow — with astonishing success.
For years, advertisers and agencies were taking without serious ques
tion figures on readership of advertisements. "Cut copy, put in pictures,
make ads more exciting —we must get higher ratings," became the edict
of the era. And substituting the fascinating for the dull was a great boon
for advertising. But then came new incisive questions: Whom do these
interesting advertisements interest — prospects or non-prospects, buyers or
non-buyers? Do they convert this interest into a sale? Do folks remember
125
the interest factors and forget the product? Does the baby product ad
vertisement that does a tremendous job in trapping the eyes of all women
prove equally efficient in winning the confidence of all new mothers?
So much for the pitfalls of research ! There is no doubt that the better
research of today is aware of these pitfalls and successfully avoids them.
But the research of tomorrow will make some of the research of today
seem sketchy in retrospect.9
The foregoing discussion points up the position in which we find

advertising research today — a position of experiment and change. We
are beginning to understand that we need research into the nature of
research itself and what it can teach us. In this area, colleges and uni
versities are doing much fundamental work. We need to realize that
research can teach us a great deal —providing its methods are valid
and its findings reliable — but that not every survey bearing the title
of "research" meets these two basic criteria. We must learn to evalu
ate what the findings of any piece of research are trying to tell us, to
separate the wheat from the chaff, to screen out the irrelevant and
focus on the relevant.
Today we are merely on the threshold of what we can learn about

human behavior. Some day we will know a great deal more than we
know now about why people respond to advertising as they do and
what can be done to improve the effectiveness of advertising. In a
recent speech, Thomas D'Arcy Brophy, then chairman of the board
of Kenyon & Eckhardt, Inc., said:
The future literally bristles with promise as we team up the advertis

ing man and the researcher. Our ability to get at the tap roots of con
sumer motivation, our ability to increase people's emotional and rational
response to advertising will increase progressively as our studies continu
ally develop methods for communicating to the essential areas of con
sumer response. This does not mean that the basic "building blocks" of
9 Grey Matter (New York, Grey Advertising Agency, Inc.), vol. 26, no. 4,
April, 1955, pp. 1-3.
human response to advertising will be completely laid out in a formula
for all time. What it means instead is that we are arriving at a near-
scientific and orderly process in exploring the areas in which advertising
can produce most effectively. And because people do change as conditions
change, we can rest assured that no problem will be permanently solved.

[But] this rational exploration into the real dynamics of consumer de
mand will permit advertising to rise to full maturity as a tool of business.
If you want to take part in exploring this new frontier of adver

tising skill and human knowledge, the door is wide open to you.
Summary
1. Research in advertising is
guide to creative activity "to disturb
a
the status quo" based on more information about people.

2. Research generally takes these steps:
Defining the problem: what are we trying to learn? how are

a.
we going to acquire this information?

b. Investigating materials already available: what can the pub
lished sources tell us? how reliable are they?
c. Gathering additional information: do we need to make our
own survey? what sampling method will we use and is it valid for our
purposes? will the questions we ask produce reliable answers?
d. Tabulating our findings: what have we learned?
Reaching conclusions: what is significant about what we have

e.
learned?
f. Applying our new knowledge: what are we going to do with
it now that we know it?
3. We can help ourselves keep out of trouble if we avoid these pit
falls:
a. Always remember that a "finding" is not a "fact" just be
cause it is presentedin figures. See the delightful book by Darrell
Huff, How to Lie with Statistics (New York, W. W. Norton & Com
pany, Inc., 1954).
b. Check the method of the research, its validity, and its relia
bility before you try to translate findings into conclusions.

People will try to answer your questions the way they think
c.
you want them answered. People will try to answer questions in a way
that makes them "look good." Make sure your questions bring out
the true answers.
d. People can tell you, with reasonable accuracy, only what they
have done, not what they are going to do. Often they don't know why
they did things; and if they do know why, they may be unwilling
to tell. It takes a highly trained interviewer to get accurate answers.
e. Research is not for judgment but should be in
a substitute
tended to present information that will sharpen judgment.

f. Research is a guide— not a crutch.
6
Germs Ride the School Bus
with your youngsters every day!
KINDS
OF RESEARCH
We have noted that advertising research is a loose
classification — a kind of umbrella-term that covers a
variety of information-gathering activities. For easier

understanding, we can break this loose classification
into five slightly tighter groupings, which tend to define
the nature of the human behavior each seeks to investi
gate:
1.Market Research — which helps to measure sales
potentials for products by uncovering the vital statis
tics about people (applying the principles of "demogra-
phy").
2. Consumer Research — which tries to find out what
it,
people do and why they do both in their general be

havior and in their approach to products, brands, and
companies.
128
and Evaluation of Copy
3. Product Research — which wants to uncover not only what materials products
are made of and what processes are used to make them but also to find out about
the people who make the products and how these products are used by the people
who buy them.
4. Copy Research — which seeks information on how peoplerespond or are
likely to respond to various techniques of advertising presentation in print or on
the air.
5. Audience Research — which tries to learn what people see, read, and listen
to in order to determine that combination of advertising media which will most
effectively reach the greatest possible number of prospective buyers of a product
at the lowest possible cost.
These categories overlap somewhat, and each of them may be called by a dif
ferent name (depending on the advertising agency, advertising research organiza
tion, or advertiser to whom you are talking), but in general these classifications
cover most of the activities of advertising research.
129
Within each of these groupings, the people engaged in advertis
130 ing research are trying to find the answers to questions much as the
newspaper reporter tries to answer your questions in the first para
graph, or "lead," of his news story. The who, what, where, when,
why, and how of the newspaperman are who buys, what do they buy,
it,
it,
where do they buy when do they buy how do they buy, and
why do they buy of the researcher. In advertising, research also
it
tries to find the answer to another question: what the competition?
is
what are we selling against?
MARKET RESEARCH
Generally, we start to find the answers to our questions in some

form of market research. market generally a locality — a city,
A
is
a
county, state, or a geographical region. In recent years, with the
a
great expansion of our cities and the movement of many families out
of the cities and into the suburbs, we have had to revise many of our
previous concepts of marketing patterns to include marketing areas
— city, its suburbs and the surrounding territory — where the
a
strength of selling organizations, department stores, wholesalers,

dealers, chain stores, and shopping centers influences the buying
habits of people far beyond the city limits. Time has moved so fast
and population has grown so fast that the limited concepts of "sub
by
urbia" and "exurbia" have been replaced the new marketing idea
of "Interurbia." "Interurbia," as conceived
by
the originators of this
concept at Walter Thompson Company, visualizes the growth of

J.
our cities and their suburbs to the point where, for marketing pur
poses, theywill meet, touch, and overlap. This concept foresees the
time when we will no longer have marketing areas but will work with
marketing belts — broad strips of territory within which marketing
will disregard state lines and political subdivisions and follow the
movements of our mobile population even more than does now.
it
Thus "Great Lakes Marketing Belt" may extend from Buffalo, New
a
KINDS OF RESEARCH
York, on the east; through Cleveland and Toledo, Ohio; Detroit,
Lansing, Kalamazoo, in Michigan; South Bend in northern Indiana;
to Chicago and around the end of Lake Michigan northward to
Kenosha, Racine, and Milwaukee in Wisconsin. A "North Atlantic
Marketing Belt" may run from Boston, Providence, and Hartford,
through New York, Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore, to
Washington, D.C. Instead of considering six or seven hundred mar
keting areas in our plans, as we do now, we may in the future devote
our attention or fewer great marketing belts, with
to seventy-five
sweeping changes in distribution patterns and buying habits forth

coming.
Village, area, or belt, the problem of market research for adver
tising purposes is people. We want to know how many people there
are in the market. We want to know how old they are, because we
have, for example, a greateropportunity to sell washing machines
to couples under forty with young children than to couples over forty
whose children are beginning to leave home to start families of their
own. We need to know what sex these people are, how many men,
how many women; because, even if our product is exclusively mas
culine, like a man's shirt, we have learned that more women buy
shirts for men than men buy shirts for themselves. We need to know
what race these people are and what their national origins have been,
because different races and ethnic groups have, for instance, different
eating habits that make it possible to sell more rice in one city than
in another. We want to know where these people are economically,
how much income they have, and how much of it is disposable income
(money left over after food and shelter are paid for) , so that we can
get some idea of how many people can afford to buy our product. We
want to know how our product is going to be distributed and where
people are accustomed to find our kind of goods. Have people been
accustomed to having to make a special trip to the shoe repair shop
for shoe laces? How quickly can we get them to make a change in
this buying habit and how much do we think we can increase the
sale of our shoe laces if we can shift the place of purchase to a super
KINDS OF RESE
market? Will people still buy shoe laces one pair at a time when the
old ones break — or will they buy more if we package them three pairs
to a pack so the buyer can have two spares?
Specifically, we want to learn how much people buy of our kind of

product and what share of this total sales volume now comes to our
brand. We call this activity determining our "share of market," or
our "brand share." When we know the total volume and our share of
market, we can try to estimate how much selling activity, including
advertising, we will need to apply against the market to increase our
brand share. We can also estimate, on the basis of our own experience
in other markets, how much this increased sales activity will cost us
and whether or not we can increase our brand share with a profit.
Thus, market research tries to bring together facts for us to analyze
in relation to the sale and use of products or services, primarily in
terms of people. We need to be sure that what we gather are facts
— that our figures and statistics are reliable and as up-to-date as we
can get them — and not just somebody's opinion about the market.
How do we accumulate these facts? Where do we start to look for
them? First of all, we have available to us a great mass of published
materials to give us some of the answers on the size and composition
of markets, the sales possibilities, the state of the industry we are in,
and the direct competition we have for our product.
These published materials start with the publications of the United
States Bureau of the Census. The framers of our Constitution pro
vided that the people should be numbered every ten years in order to
provide a basis for determining the number of Representatives each
state sends to Congress, and from this beginning the Bureau of the
Census has expanded its services to provide us with a great mass of
data useful for market research.
The census figures themselves are what we might call "raw" data,
and they are compiled in a way that reflects their original political
purpose, on a political subdivision basis — city, county, and state. But,

as we have already seen, markets and marketing areas do not always
conform to political subdivisions. Many hours of compilation are re
KINDS OF RESEARCH
quired to rearrange the Census data to cover specific markets. For
tunately for us, the J. Walter Thompson Company does this, and its
monumental publication, Population and Its Distribution,1 puts the
Census material into its most useful form for market research. This
book, now in its seventh edition, is brought up-to-date with each
Census and is available for public sale about two years after each
census year. It arranges the census data by 162 metropolitan markets
and 436 smaller urban markets and provides basic material on every
town in the United States with a population of 2,500 or more. It is
the cornerstoneof every library on market research.
Other publications of the departments of the Federal Government
help us find out what we want to know. In addition to the Census, the
Department of Commerce compiles and makes available much valu
able information, particularly through the publications of the Bureau
of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.
Reports of the Department of Agriculture give us statistics on the
major farm crops, including meat and dairy products. From the De
partment of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics come the figures on
employment, income, and price indices for various markets and for
the nation as a whole.
In similar way, the state governments publish reports on condi
a
tions within their boundaries. Chambers of Commerce study condi

tions within their cities and report on them. Newspapers and maga
zines, and radio and television stations, provide much specific mar
ket data, with considerable emphasis on retail activity. The Consoli
dated Consumer Analysis, growing out of the pioneering work of
The Milwaukee Journal in this area, now "brings you a nation-wide
picture of shopping habits with 22-market comparisons in 125 dif
ferent product classifications and thousands of brands, a three year
trend in product use and median product use. This 130-page digest
1
J. Walter Thompson Company, Population and Its Distribution, Seventh
Edition, 1951 (New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1952). Similar pub
lications have also been prepared by J. Walter Thompson Company, cover
ing Australia, Canada, Latin America, and Western Europe.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
showing the competitive situation, consumer acceptance, and sales
potentials in 22 markets also includes basic data on population,
households, income and retail sales."2
Excellent sources for market data, particularly on competitive situ
ations, are the numerous publications in the trade, business and in
dustrial fields. The work of Sales Management magazine and of In
dustrial Marketing magazine in this area is well known. Trade associ
ations collect much information for their members. Colleges and uni
versities and foundations make studies for companies and industries,
often publishing their basic findings with confidential, competitive
information removed.
In fact, there is so much data available that you will need a guide
to locate the kind of material that is of immediate application to your
problem. You will soon find that your best friend is a good librarian,
and you will never cease to be amazed at the way these devoted
people will help you find out what you want to find out. Usually, they
have the information at their fingertips, or their wonderful memories
If
it,
recall where it is stored. the library doesn't have the librarian
can make shrewd guess as to where you can find it. Cultivate librar
a
ians — they are worth knowing as people as well as for the help they
can give you.
The following newspapers participated in the 1958 Consolidated Consumer

2
Analysis, and each paper provides data in greater depth for its own market
area
:
Chicago Daily News Newark News

Cincinnati Times-Star The Omaha World-Herald
The Columbus Dispatch-Ohio State Oregon Journal (Portland, Oregon)
Journal Phoenix Republic and Gazette
Denver Post The Sacramento Bee
Duluth Herald and News-Tribune The Salt Lake City Tribune and
The Fresno Bee Deseret News
Honolulu Star-Bulletin The San Jose Mercury and News
The Indianapolis Star and News The Seattle Times
Long Beach Independent and Press- St. Paul Dispatch and Pioneer Press
Telegram The Washington Star
The Milwaukee Journal Wichita Eagle
The Modesto Bee
KINDS OF RESEARCH
The major obstacle in relying upon published sources is the tend
ency of facts and figures to age rapidly in the times in which we live.
Changes in marketing come so fast and with such frequency that once
reliable statistics become outdated with great speed. This is particu
larly true of the packaged goods field — the food and drug products
which are among the most competitive items of modern business. For
up-to-date reporting manufacturers in this field rely more and more
upon commercial research services.
The Food-Drug Index of A. C. Nielsen Company reports to its sub
scribers every two months the findings of its actual physical store
audits of the merchandise moving in and out of a sample of approxi
mately 1,600 grocery stores and 750 drug stores across the country.
(The 1,600 food stores serve some 2,500,000 consumers, or more
than 700,000 family units. The 750 drug and proprietary stores serve
about 3,200,000 consumers, or more than 800,000 families. The
STORES SELECTED for inclusion in store audits are chosen by area probability methods
to cover each territory, each county population range, each store size, and each class of
neighborhood in its proper proportion. (Courtesy A. C. Nielsen Company.)
FOOD STORE REPRESENTATION*

BASED ON U. S. CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION AND OUR OWN CONTINUING STUDIES
TERRITORIES
NEW METRO. MIDDLE EAST METRO. WEST
ENGLAND NEW YORK ATLANTIC CENTRAL CHICAGO CENTRAL SOUTHEAST SOUTHWEST PACIFIC
♦ DRUG STORE REPRESENTATION follows identical principle!.

(*00 stores. 3.300,000 consumers, or over *00,000 family units)
order of sampling accuracy is thus very high.) From the Nielsen
figures, a company can learn, among other things, the extent of its
distribution, and that of its competitors, and determine its gain or
loss in brand share for the sixty-day period. Response to advertising,
point-of-sale promotion, store and counter display, and the efforts of

the company's own salesmen can be measured.
While the Nielsen service measures actual sales, Market Research
Corporation of America is measuring actual purchases by families
across the country. A time sample of family shopping habits is col
lected from a master sample of approximately 25,000 families, with
weekly data obtained every week throughout the year from a sub-
sample of 10,000 households. These families can be classified on any
one social or economic criterion or by a combination of interdis
ciplinary systems. Purchasing behavior can be studied in relation to
individual family members' attitudes as well as on the basis of their
TYPES OF DATA determined from store audits. (Courtesy A. C. Nielsen Company.)
COMPLETE LIST OF DATA SECURED EVERY 60 DAYS IN FOOD STORES *
1. SALES to CONSUMERS 7. OUT-OF-STOCK

2. PURCHASES by RETAILERS *. PRICES (Wholesale and Retail]
3. RETAIL INVENTORIES 9. SPECIAL FACTORY PACKS
4. DAYS' SUPPLY 10. DEALER SUPPORT (Display!. Local Adv.. Coupon Redempt.)
5. STORE COUNT DISTRIBUTION It. SPECIAL OBSERVATIONS (Order Siie. Reorders. Direct vs.
6. ALL-COMMODITY DISTRIBUTION 12. TOTAL FOOD STORE SALES (All WH'»-I
Commodities)
13. MAJOR MEDIA ADVERTISING (From Other Sources)
BRANDS TERRITORIES YOUR OWN COUNTIES STORES PKG. SIZE PROD.

TERR. POP. RANGE TYPE
YOURS NEW ENS. 1 10 MET. NEW YORK
A MET. NEW YORK 2 11 SUPER SMALL
MET. CHICAGO X
B MID. ATLANTIC 3 12
OTHER MET. CHAIN
o
--■ C EAST CENTRAL 4 13 19 Neit Largest Mats
LARGE MEDIUM
ui
o- D MET CHICAGO 5 14 Ottier Counties&
Y
2 B Mat Aran Over
O
o WEST CENTRAL 6 15 100.000
MED. LARGE
ALL Other Counties INDE-
SOUTHEAST 7 16
OTHERS 30.000-100.000 PEND
ENT
SOUTHWEST * 17 Z
RURAL SMALL GIANT
TOTAL PACIFIC 9 1* Other Under 30.000
' Substantially the same types of data are collected in DRUG stores.
exposure to various advertising media. Reports are available to sub
scribers to this service on
weekly basis, providing high-speed com
a
137
munication from the consumer back to the manufacturer. Adapting
processing techniques to the capabilities of large scale electronic
computers makes sequence analysis of consumer purchase data feasi

ble, to maximize its value in the short-term prediction of consumer
purchasing.
For its own clients, the J.
Walter Thompson Company has main
tained a Consumer Purchase Panel for many years. Families who are
members of this panel report their purchases to J. Walter Thompson
Company each month and, in addition, serve as a nation-wide testing
ground in being ready to respond to the probing kind of questions
for which there may be no published answers.
CONSUMER RESEARCH
This kind of question leads us to the area we call consumer re

search. Here we are interested in finding out not only who buys and
what they buy but, even more, why they buy it. And at this point we
leave the area of clearly observable human behavior and enter the
area of attitudes, beliefs, and other psychological phenomena, tread
ing lightly as we go. For while you can count packages of cake mix
and pounds of cheese on store shelves and in kitchen cabinets, you
are on very different ground when you attempt to find out why a
given brand of cake mix or cheese moves more rapidly from store
shelves to kitchen cabinets than any other given brand.
People rarely stop to analyze why they buy what they buy. They
have little reason to do so, until we come along with our questions
and ask them to think back and try to uncover the reasons why they
bought particular thing. Often their buying reasons are not indi
a
vidualistic at all but deep-seated in the culture patterns of the

country. Thus we find that different kinds of human behavior are
subject to different rates of change.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
7 OO Many of our behavior habits are so deeply rooted in racial and re
ligious beliefs that they are not readily susceptible to change. Soci
ologistscall these behavior patterns the mores of a culture. In
Western society, for example, we believe that a man should have only
one wife at a time (monogamy). Other cultures, by contrast, permit
and encourage having more than one wife (polygamy ) , and there are
even some in which the agricultural facts of life are such that several
men must work together to support one woman and her children
which results in the practice of having more than one husband at a
time (polyandry). Such behavior we have previously referred to in
the discussion of people's attitudes toward meat. This is one of the
successful examples in which advertising has influenced a change in
the mores of a people, when the American Meat Institute was able to
change the idea that "to eat pork is to eat death" by giving wide
spread dissemination to the new scientific findings of the nutritional
values of pork.
The folkways of slowly, too, but somewhat more
a people change
rapidly than the mores. Women in America, for example, occupy a

unique cultural position, because in colonial society and on the fron
tier there was a scarcity of women and great economic opportunity
for the independence of women. Thus there has been a readier ac
ceptance in this country for all kinds of household appliances to make
the work of women easier, as opposed to the situation in other cul
tures where the position of woman in the home is less highly re
garded, and it is in the culture pattern for her to go on being the same
kind of drudge her grandmother was.
The customs of a people change with greater rapidity, usually in
response to some kind of major event that influences the lives of a
great many people at once. Thus, it took a major world war (the first
one of the Twentieth Century) to get watches out of men's pockets
and onto their wrists. The great rise in cigarette smoking stems from
the same period — because there wasn't time for men to smoke cigars
and pipes in trenches and dugouts. Although "emancipated" women
had smoked for many years, it was not until 1926 that society was
KINDS OF RESEARCH
IN COLONIAL TIMES, women were put "on a pedestal" because there were
so few of them. Today, Pillsbury puts cake on a pedestal-plate to recognize
the position of women in America and the place of cake on the American
table. (Courtesy The Pillsbury Company and Leo Burnett Company, Inc.)
ready for a woman to appear in cigarette advertising in Chesterfield's
famous poster, "Blow Some My Way" — and even then she wasn't
smoking but merely enjoying the aroma of the cigarette.3
The fastest changing kind of human behavior is in the area of the
fashions. The hemline of women's skirts moves up and down, and the
silhouette of women's dresses changes in response to influences al
most beyond the ability of a mere man to comprehend. (It took
World War II to make men's vests disappear, and men still have but
tons on their coat sleeves because, we are told, the Duke of Welling
ton wanted to prevent his early Nineteenth Century troops from wip
ing their noses on their sleeves.) Food fads and game fads move
across the country in a wave motion. The first successful "shoot 'em
up" program on television is followed by a whole rash of "westerns,"

until this particular fashion runs its course. "Bop" music is suc
ceeded by "rock 'n roll" which is in turn succeeded by something else.
The advertiser with a sense of timing who can get out in front of a
trend and stay there, changing as the trends change, is a lucky man
indeed. He is likely to be the kind of man who studies people con
stantly through consumer research. He wants to know what makes

his product acceptable to people now and what can be done to it to
make it more acceptable. He wants to know why people do what they
do, why they think what they think, and what they are likely to do
and think in response to changing circumstances. He is aware that
the group pressures and the economic and social mobility of our kind
of society make the patterns of change more rapid now than at any
other time in our history. The new body of knowledge and the tech
niques growing out of psychology and sociology are at his disposal

to help get some of the answers.
Fashions change in research methods, too. Currently, the much-
abused term "motivational research" has been broadly used to cover
investigation of the reasons why people buy products and use them
and of their attitudes toward specific brands. John Coulson, vice
3 Watkins, The 100 Greatest Advertisements, pp. 76-77.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
president in charge of research for Leo Burnett Company, Inc., has
defined motivational research in this way:
141
Motivational research involves one or more of the three following
elements :
1. It is the kind of research that probes beneath the surface of objec

tive fact and description — and into the realm of people's feelings, atti
tudes, and desires. It reaches for an understanding of the consumers' mo
tives for their activities, particularly of their buying behavior, and of
some of the reasons behind the reasons that are likely to influence their
choice of brand, frequency of use, or what have you.
2. Motivational research makes use of different techniques from the
more traditional types of research. The unstructured 'depth' interview,
sentence completion, word association, Thematic Apperception test, role-
playing, semantic differential, and other 'indirect' approaches are all part
and parcel of motivational research as we understand it. These techniques
are all designed to get a better understanding of the consumer's reasons
and attitudes.
3. Frequently, motivational research brings expert social scientists in
to help analyze some of the more complex problems in motivations.
Sociologists and psychologists, looking at the problems from their par
ticular frames of reference, often offer new, fresh, and yet sound bases
for copy appeals.
As Mr. Coulson and others are careful to point out, none of this is
particularly new. What is new is the more widespread use of the
techniques. Some critics have interpreted this growing use of tech
nique to mean that the findings of motivational research can some

how be used to make people act, buy, and think against their will. If
we believe that all things are possible, then this too is possible, but
so far, on the basis of verifiable evidence to date, it seems highly un
likely. Motivational research is expensive. It requires highly trained

interviewers. It is time-consuming, both in the amount of time re
quired for the interviews and in the amount of time required to ana
lyze them. Because of these factors, applied motivational research
deals with very small numbers of people, and its findings are circum-
KINDS OF RESEARCH
by the size of the sample. Its findings are very seldom conclu-
■£ /^ty ^6ribed
/ sions, and here again the chief value of this form of research is in its
use as a guide and as a stimulus to the creative solution of an adver
tising problem.
[ The astute Martin Mayer believes that the fashion has already
changed, and that the new trend will be toward what is called "opera
tions research." This new idea, he says, "assumes that all marketing
problems can be reduced to mathematical formulas which can then be
solved by mathematicians and their faithful servants, the electronic
calculators."4 The pioneering work in this field is being done by mem
bers of the staff of Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., who have
put forward a simple differential equation for the analysis of adver

tising campaigns:
— XS
"dS/dt = tA (t) (MS) /M
where S is the rate of sales at time t, and A (t) is the rate of advertis
ing expenditure. This equation has the following interpretation: the
increase in the rate of sales, dS/dt, is proportional to the intensity,
r, of the advertising effort, A, reaching the fraction of potential cus
tomers, (M—S)/M less the number of customers that are being lost,
AS."5 From the experimental use of this formula have come a num
ber of tentative findings in the areas of pretesting, duration of cam
paigns, allocation of advertising dollars, and the size of total adver
tising budgets. If continued testing develops the validity of this
method further, advertising may indeed become a science rather than
an art, but that day has not yet arrived.
PRODUCT RESEARCH
Product research for advertising purposes seeks to uncover what

Leo Burnett has called "the inherent drama in the product." This
4
Mayer, Madison Avenue, U.S.A., p. 255.
5M. L. Vidale and H. B. Wolfe, "An Operations Research Study of Sales
Response to Advertising," Operations Research, June, 1957.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
Germs Ride the School Bus
with your youngsters every day!
PRODUCT RESEARCH combines with sound knowledge of mothers and

children in this effective advertisement for Listerine. (Courtesy Warner-
Lambert Pharmaceutical Company and Lambert and Feasley, Inc.)
How to make your summer-weary lawn
look like spring again
USE GOLDEN VIGORO

The Foolproof Lawn Food
• Won't burn grass thai'- green and growing— Keeps lawns clear up till frost,
wen in tummer and fall heat. And you don't Builds thick. turf that can
have to water it in becauseGolden Vigoro is a ll-fed and
non-burning lawn food protected bv U. S.
Patent No. 1,H17,36H.
* Completediet of everythinggram needsexcept
For Fall-Planted Bulbs
sun, air and water.
Bring spring hack to your summer-weary lawn
with a feedingof New Golden Vigoro right now.
It's the foolproof lawn food that's 100% aafe to
un evenin hot tummerweather.
"VIGORO
It won't burn. It's really complete.And ita long- BULB FOOD
lasting benefit* will help your lawn go into the • gpmalHolland
Formula
winter dormant seasonwell-fed and vigorous for a
fastergreen-upnext year.
Economical,too! You savemoney,timeand water •rJTh^M
rasa
when you use long-lasting Golden Vigoro Lawn
Food.
My, how things grow with
vic.VIG...VIGORO
SEASONAL PRODUCTS, like Golden Vigoro Lawn Food, rely on heavy
seasonal promotions. (Courtesy Swift & Company. Agency: Leo Burnett
Company, Inc. I
quality may be in the materials the product is made of and where they
come from. The processes used in making the product may be of
145
great interest. Many successful advertising campaigns have been built
around the people who make the product. Many more campaigns have
been developed from new uses for the product brought to light
through research. The inherent drama, Mr. Burnett has written, "is
often hard to find, but it is always there, and once found it is the most
interesting and believable of all advertising appeals."
COPY RESEARCH
Clopy research may be divided into two parts. First, we want to

learn what we can put into an advertising message that will make
people respond to it. Second, we want to try to measure our advertis
ing messages for effectiveness, to find out, if we can, how many people
looked at or listened to our advertising and what they got out of it.
Again, these two areas overlap —what we are able to measure in eval
uating the effectiveness of past and current advertising, we can apply
to make future advertisements more effective. Often a truly creative
advertising man, working from his own knowledge of people backed

by that unmeasurable force we call "intuition" or "copywriter's
hunch," will throw the rule book away and come up with a new idea
or technique of presentation that broadens our whole conception of
what advertising is able to do. Here again, research findings are to
be used as guides— not as a straight-jacket to creative activity.
Many people in advertising take the position that the only true
measurement of advertising effectiveness — or the greater influence of
one appeal over another — is actual sales. Many more people would
like to take this position if it were not for the fact that the specific and
immediate influence of a given advertisement on the sale of the prod
uct is often almost impossible to measure. Too many other factors, as
we have seen, can influence the sale of a product through its ordinary
distribution channels of retail stores and dealers. This is an area in
KINDS OF RESEARCH
which, in the mass, we can actually measure very little, because exist
ing techniques of measurement and evaluation simply cannot cope
with all the variables which enter into the sale.
In one part of this area, we can of course deal with accurate meas
urements. This is when we sell direct to the consumer, and the selling
transaction is made by mail. Here the "pulling power" of an adver
tisement can be directly translated into orders received and products
shipped. Much of our store of information about copy appeals and

the effectiveness of different kinds of headlines derives from research
in mail-order advertising. Differences of the order of three to six
times the "mailpull" between one headline and another are not un
common in the experience of advertisers who sell by mail. Will add
ing color to the advertisement increase sales enough to justify the in

creased cost of the color? The mail-order advertiser finds out in a
hurry. Will increasing the size of the advertisement increase its pull
ing power? Should the headline be in ALL CAPS

or in Caps and
Lower Case? Is a photograph better than a drawing for the illustra
tion? The mail-order man knows, from years of testing, from con
stantly trying to improve. More often than not, he learns by trial and
error that one single appeal, one single advertisement, is the right one;
it,
and when he finds

it,
he uses unchanged, again and again. One

— How
by
advertisement to Win Friends and Influence People, Victor
0. Schwab — sold million books for Dale Carnegie in three years.8
a
The most famous mail-order advertisement of all time — Do You

by
Make These Mistakes in English? written Maxwell Sackheim for

the Sherwin Cody School of English — has been making people clip its
coupon for more than forty years.7
TESTING COPY
by
Even though we may not sell our product mail, we can use the
techniques of mail-order advertising to obtain some measure of ad-
Watkins, The 100 Greatest Advertisements, p. 93.
8
Ibid., p. 69.
7
KINDS OF RESEARCH
vertising effectiveness. Sometimes we call this mail-order testing, but
more frequently we call it measuring inquiries and coupon returns.
_Z 47
Here we include in our advertisement an offer of something to the
reader — a booklet, more information about the product, sometimes
a free sample. The offer may be displayed in a coupon, an open invi
tation to solicit inquiries. Or we may have a "buried offer" in one of
the closing paragraphs of type — which makes it harder for the reader,
because he has to go through the entire advertisement before he gets
to the offer, but is often more useful as a measurement to the adver
tiser because he can learn how many people were willing to read the
whole ad in order to get to the offer. We may use a "key number" in
our coupon to identify which publication produced the greatest num
ber of inquiries from which copy during which month. When you see
"L—9" in the corner of coupon, it means the advertiser is probably
a
attempting to measure the response from an ad appearing in Life
magazine during September. (Similarly, HG-4 may mean House &

Garden, April issue). We may use different street numbers as our
code — "481 Main Street" to identify one advertisement in one publi
cation, "483 Main Street" to identify a second advertisement in a
second publication. Or we may ask readers to mail inquiries to "De

partment RD" (as a code for Reader's Digest) and to "Department
F" ( for those reading Fortune during the same month. The greatest
)
amount of work in this field has been done by John Caples, of Batten,
Barton, Durstine & Osborn, Inc., who has published his findings in a
number of books, notably the classic Tested Advertising Methods?'?'

Retail sales inlimited market are frequently used to test the ef
a
fectiveness of advertisements before a campaign is released nation
ally. A community will be selected "test market" — and every re

as a
search director has his own favorite "test cities" which he studies
again and again to reduce the number of variables with which he has
to contend; and advertising campaigns and their components — ap
peals, headlines, illustrations, text, price displayed in big type, price
3
John Caples, Tested Advertising Methods (New York, Harper & Brothers,
1932).
KINDS OF RESEARCH
1 AO displayed in small type, no price at all — will be tested in the news
paper in this community in an effort to find the winning combination
which will then be used to ring up sales on cash registers all over the
country.
Sometimes this is done by a method known as split-run testing.
Many newspapers and some magazines will stop printing and change
an advertisement in the middle of a press run. Some large metropoli
tan newspapers, notably the Chicago Tribune, have special sections
which, on a given day, are folded in with the regular edition of the
paper, but the contents of these special sections differ by areas of the
city, each containing neighborhood news of interest to the area of the
city in which it is circulated. An advertiser may run different adver
tisements for the same product in each of these sections of the paper.
In smaller papers he will "split the run" by changing advertisements
during the press run, so that half the copies of the publication will
contain one advertisement and the other half a second advertisement.
When the geography of split-run circulation and other variables can
be isolated and accounted for, actual sales at retail can provide a
reasonably reliable indicator of which advertisement did the best job

in stimulating those sales.
More often, we are (or we think we are) in too big a hurry to get
the answers to take the time for a mail test, a market area test, or a
split-run We want to avoid the delays and the expense of getting

test.
the answers in this way. Then we indulge in a form of copy research

which goes under various names — "opinion polling" and "consumer
jury" being the most common. The usual practice is to produce a
number of advertisements for the product, mount them in a portfolio,
and then ask a number of easily reached consumers which one they
like best, or which one would be the most likely to influence them to
it,
buy. Or we may let them look at the portfolio, close and then ask
them what selling ideas they may have received. Sometimes we
merely want to test headlines, or copy appeals, and we type them up

on cards and ask people to arrange the cards in order of effectiveness
in form of research which its detractors call "shuffle-card testing."
a
KINDS OF RESEARCH
Given proper controls and reasonably clear-cut choices, this form of
copy research can produce interesting and sometimes valuable in
J 49
formation. More often, as one well-known research director has said,
"quick and dirty research gives youquick and dirty answer." Here
a
again, we are best served when we use this kind of research as a

guide, not using research as a substitute for creative activity.
EVALUATING COPY THROUGH STANDARD INSTRUMENTS
The most widely used forms of copy research and the ones that
give the most reliable answers when properly used over a period of
time are studies of readership and listenership conducted by a num
ber of independent research organizations. These organizations send

out interviewers with copies of current publications to attempt to find
out which advertisements people have actually seen and read and to
deduce from this what techniques of advertising make some adver
tisements more effective than others.
Oldest of these in time is the Starch Advertisement Readership
Service, conducted by Daniel Starch and Staff, of Mamaroneck, New
York. In a recent bulletin, this organization described readership
studies in general and its own services in particular as follows:
What are readership studies?

It is impossible to properly use research findings unless the user knows
and understands the objective of the research. All too often we find con
clusions being drawn from readership scores which extend far beyond the
scope of the data, clearly indicating a failure to understand the objectives
of the research. Readership cannot provide answers to all print advertis

ing problems. A good deal of criticism of readership studies grows
the
out of attempting to make readership data do more than it is capable of

doing. When results seem implausible the party at fault chooses to criti
cize the research rather than himself for mishandling the data.
A basic part of advertising's scheme of operation depends upon reach
ing masses of people. It is this fundamental element of mass exposure
that the Starch readership studies are measuring. The plain and simple
KINDS OF RESEARCH
purpose of a readership survey is to obtain a measurement of the first
objective of any advertisement, i.e., to be seen and read. Obviously, only
those people who see or read your advertisement can be directly influenced
by it. Dr. Starch concluded that the extent to which an advertisement is

seen and read is a very important and fundamental element of advertising
effectiveness. Accordingly he started to conduct continuing research
studies. It soon became apparent that readership studies could be con
ducted on a sound and practical basis. Always keeping in mind the
readership survey objective, Dr. Starch found that the recognition tech
nique using quota sampling and moderate-size samples gave reliable and
valuable readership information, provided enough examples or case his
tories were obtained.
What is Starch Doing?
Starch asks the following question of readers, "Did you see or read
any part of this advertisement?" The responses are percentaged for the
number of readers in the sample who :
"Noted" — saw any part of the advertisement.
"Seen-Associated" — saw or read anywhere in the advertisement the
name of the product or service being advertised.
"Read Most" — read half or more of the written material in the
advertisement.
What these three readership levels mean
"Noted," "Seen-Associated," and "Read Most" scores have their own
individual significance, first as to the actual size of each score, second
as to the sizes of the scores in relation to one another, and third as to
their importance in relation to differing advertising objectives.

"Noted" measures the gross size of the audience that remembered see
ing the advertisement. This is important since it is within this audience

that the message can exercise its influence.
"Seen-Associated" measures those who look at an advertisement long
enough to learn what product is advertised. The decline in the score from
"Noted" to "Seen-Associated" indicates the number of observers who
did not look long enough to discover the name of the product or service.
A large drop in the score from "Noted" to "Seen-Associated" usually in
dicates that the attention-getter was irrelevant or meaningless or that the
name or picture of the product was inconspicuous.
"Read Most," particularly in relation to the "Noted" or "Seen-Associ-
ated" scores, indicates whether the interest-gainer was strong enough to
pull the reader through the rest of the advertisement and/or the text itself
had appeal.
These three scores are of differing importance to individual advertisers
depending on the objectives of the advertising. Sometimes advertisers
have a message which can be expressed visually or in few words. When
this happens the advertiser's purpose is to get the reader to take in the
illustration and headline. This is not thorough reading, but it has signifi
cance for the advertiser. "Noted" and "Seen-Associated" are the most
important readership measurements for him.
On the other hand, an advertiser's message may be more complicated,
requiring more extensive reading. In this case, "Read Most" as well as
■"Noted" and "Seen-Associated" are significant measurements.
How to use readership reports
The readership data contained in the Starch reports are actually the
"working tools" with which an advertiser or agency can build better ads
in the future. These "working tools" must be accumulated and related in
some way before the performance of the ads and campaigns can be de
termined. If the data on a single advertisement is merely taken out of
the report and compared to the results of another ad, the research find
ings can only serve the function of a "score sheet." Figures for indi
vidual advertisements should not be used for sharp comparisons, but
should be regarded as broad indicators subject to modification with the
addition of more data. The Starch Readership Service is designed to
provide continuous surveys on a large number of ads in almost all the
major publications. Thus, it is possible to accumulate, study and analyze
a large mass of readership data.
As a general practice, anyone about to analyze readership data should
always keep these thoughts in mind, in order to realize the greatest po
tential use of readership findings:
/i (1 ) Average figures for several insertions rather than use figures for
\single advertisements, (2) look for recurring factors so as to establish
/trends and principles, and (3) season judgment with common sense.9
9 Starch Tested Copy (Mamaroneck, N.Y., Daniel Starch and Staff), Number
86, July, 1958.
KINDS OF RESE
The Starch readership studies measure, by what is known as the
"recognition method," how many people saw and read specific
advertisements. They do not, in the raw, measure "why" one cam
paign or series of advertisements attracts more readers than another
campaign, nor do they measure "what" the reader retained in his

mind from having seen or read the advertisement.10
To probe the whys and the whats, advertisers have available
to them the "Impact Studies" of Gallup & Robinson, Inc., of Prince
ton, N.J. Using the techniques of "aided recall" in a modified form
of the "depth interview," these studies present their findings in terms
of what readers remember about specific advertisements. From this,
the Impact Studies have derived a number of principles as to why
people remember what they remember and why they remember some
advertisements more than others. From thousands of advertisements
studied, arbitrary scores are computed and assigned, first, to produce
an average score of all the advertisements for the kind of product
under consideration (the "product group average") , and, second, for
the individual advertisement under consideration. By comparing
these scores, the advertiser can evaluate the performance of his own
advertising in terms of the product group average, and get some in

dication as to whether his campaign is doing better than, as well as,
or not as well as the advertising of his competitors. The reports fur
nished to each advertiser cover competitive advertising as well as his
own advertising.
The Gallup and Robinson "Impact" method involves fairly long
interviews with a minimum of 200 readers of the issue of the publi
cation being studied. In order to "qualify" as a "reader," the person
being interviewed must be able to establish the fact that he has seen
the publication by identifying one or more articles in the magazine
when it is shown to him, closed. Then he is shown a series of cards on
10 In addition to the basic readership studies, the Starch organization also

offers a new "reader impression" service, using depth interviews with a small
sample of readers in an attempt to gain further insight into the penetration
of the advertising message into the minds and memories of the readers.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
which are written the names of the products and companies adver- 7 C O
tised in the issue (plus a number of products not advertised in this
particular issue ) . He is asked to identify those he remembers as ad

vertisers and further to describe as much as he can recall about the
specific advertisements he remembers. He is asked what he saw, what

the advertisement said, what he thought while he was reading it.
Everything the reader says is recorded, verbatim, and furnished to
the advertiser in the final report as a direct "playback" of what the
reader got out of the ad — and even more important, what he didn't
get. If
high proportion of the total sample of readers can play back
a
one or more sales points or salient features of the advertisement, the

ad is obviously doing its job. These "playbacks" of actual recall of
sales points and reactions to the advertisement as a whole can be of
great value in improving the effectiveness of future advertising and
in stimulating a flow of new ideas from the people who create the ad
vertising.
Here again, the findings should be used less in comparing single
advertisements with each other (for the findings are not that defini
tive) and more with learning the trend of advertising effectiveness
over time and in relation to competitive advertising for other prod
ucts in the same classification. This is where the Impact Studies are of
great service to advertisers.
Certain general principles have been evolved by Gallup and Robin
son out of the study of thousands of advertisements, and these are
the greatest contributions of the service to advertising as a whole.
Four of these principles have immediate application to the evaluation
of advertisements:
1. Consumer Benefit. When the specific benefits to the consumer of

the product or a feature of the product play through clearly in headline
and illustration, interest in the advertisement goes up.
2. Validation. When product claims are validated and made believable
by demonstration pictures, reports of tests, specific examples, or believ
able testimonials, interest ranks high.
3. Mental Work. When the advertisement requires the reader to do
KINDS OF RESEARCH
mental work in order to understand what the advertiser is saying, when
154 the reader has to stop and figure out the meaning of a headline or a
complicated illustration, or when headline or illustration are irrelevant

and the reader is forced to make the mental bridge to his own interests,
interest in the advertisement drops sharply.
4. Repetition. When the principal consumer benefit is repeated in
headline, main illustration, body copy, and supporting illustrations, in
terest in the advertisement goes up.
The Impact Studies have demonstrated, for example, that white

type on a black area (the printer's term for this is "reverse") is hard
to read and can actually repel readers, as can printed text matter over
a color ("type on tint block," in the Impact Study terminology ) . The
reason why reverse printing leads to low efficiency advertisements is
that it requires mental work, which people do not wish to perform.
Sketchy drawings are not as effective as realistic drawings or photo

graphs; "addy sketch art" is to be avoided because it frequently in
volves mental work and carries a suggestion to the reader that there
will be little in the advertisement to reward him for his time.
Advertising which contains news and looks like news usually rates
high in the Impact Studies. The reason is that people are interested
in the world of new products, and they find reward in reading about
new products, new uses, new features that may make life more in
teresting. Advertisements using a sequence of pictures, in the style of

the news magazines Life and Look, tend to rank high because this
simple layout style means less mental work and because we associate
this style with news. However, many other types of layout can be
used to purvey news. The appeal of news is primarily in its content,
not necessarily in its execution. The research teams at Gallup and
Robinson have found instances in which a reverse plate advertise
ment scored high because it announced an important piece of news.
The main point for the advertiser, they say, "is to recognize product
it,
news when he sees understand that he doesn't have to announce

the atomic bomb before he has news, then play the story as product
55
'
news.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
Again, advertising illustrations which tend to become standardized 55
lose their effectiveness. These stereotypes, or "cliches," of illustration
("woman-opening-door-of-well-stocked-refrigerator" and the "bottle

and glass" school of beverage advertising ) deserve to be singled out
for the ridicule that the Gallup and Robinson research teams have
heaped upon them. Cluttered layouts with many elements competing
for attention, long paragraphs of solid type, changes of type face
within headlines — these are some of the other things the Impact
Studies have taught us to avoid.
Gallup and Robinson methods have been applied with some suc
cess to television commercials, to the pretesting of television pro
grams through a Gallup organization called Audience Research, Inc.,

and of magazine advertisements through
dummy magazine.
a
Much of our knowledge about television commercials and their

effectiveness has come from the work of Schwerin Research Corpora
tion. This company uses, as laboratories, theatres in New York and in
other U.S. cities, in Toronto and Montreal, and in London. The peo
ple composing the audience, invited by mail, are asked to choose se
lected merchandise which will be offered as door prizes during the

evening. Then a half-hour television program is shown, complete with
the commercials being tested, which are about products in the classi
fication being offered as prizes. The audience rates the commercials
and is then asked to reselect the choice of prizes. The differences in
the preselection and the postselection of brands is used to measure the
effectiveness of the commercial. This method can also measure the
differences in commercial technique, the differences among the effec
tiveness of different announcers, and whether one program is better
than another as a vehicle for the advertiser's commercials.
AUDIENCE RESEARCH
Audience research, sometimes called media research, has as its
objective the determining of how many people read print advertising
KINDS OF RESEARCH
in magazines and newspapers, how many people see outdoor posters,
how many people listen to given radio stations, how many people see
and hear television broadcasts. It is the cornerstone of attempting to
find out how much audience the advertiser gets for his money and
how much it costs to deliver an advertising message.
The basic work in this field for print media is done by the Audit
Bureau of Circulations, an independent organization which actually
audits the number of copies of magazines and newspapers printed,
sold, given away, or returned.11 But any given copy of a publication
is likely to have more than one reader. More often than not, it goes
into a home and is read by the family; and finding out what those
families and their homes are like, what kind of people they are, how
they live, and what they read is the job of audience research.
Much of this information is furnished to advertisers by associa
tions of publishers.
The Magazine Advertising Bureau provides a great deal of useful
data on how many people read magazines, divided by sex, age, geo
graphical location, economic and educational levels.
The Bureau of Advertising of the American Newspaper Publishers
Association provides comparable information about newspaper audi
ences.
The Advertising Research Foundation, supported by advertisers
and agencies, has done noteworthy work on the audiences of maga
zines, farm papers, and business papers, in addition to its long-term
project, The Continuing Study of Newspaper Reading.

More information is available from individual publishers. In par
ticular, the work of Alfred Politz Research, Inc., for Life, Look, Bet
ter Homes & Gardens, Reader's Digest, and The Saturday Evening
Post has been of value not only in determining who reads and what
they read but also in helping to uncover why they read it.
The outdoor advertising
industry supports the Traffic Audit
Bureau to measure the audience for outdoor posters.
11 A description of the work of the Audit Bureau of Circulations is given

in Chapter 8.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
The National Association of Transportation Advertising has made
a study of the people who see and read advertising on street cars,
buses, elevated trains and subways, and commuter railroads, through
the Advertising Research Foundation.
Most of these studies, involving large to very large samples of the
population, rigorously selected, and with interviews rigidly con
trolled, are considered valid in the presentation of their findings.
It is in the area of the measurement of the audiences of broadcast
advertising — radio and television that we find the greatest amount
—
of competition among various independent research services, samples
widely varying in size and structure, and findings that, to some, pro
vide more heat than light. This is the area of the "television rating
services" — a controversial and seemingly contradictory area because,
although the "ratings" are often sweepingly applied without qualifi
cations, the competing rating services actually measure different
things by different methods. ( Some of the leading services, what they
measure, and how they measure it are explained in the table on pages
158—159.) There is no one standard measurement of audiences in

broadcasting (performing the kind of service the Politz studies have
done for magazines ) . Each advertiser wants and needs to know how
many people there are in the audience for his program — indeed, with
the cost of television programming what it is, he desperately needs to
know this. The rating services try to tell him this in different ways —
with substantial accuracy in some cases and the possibility of sub
stantial inaccuracy in others. Even the most accurate service can tell
you only that the television set is turned on — it cannot tell you pre
cisely how many people, if any, are looking, or how many people step
out to the kitchen for a snack during the commercial.
Nevertheless, the measurements we have are the only measure
ments available. Some critics with some justification complain that
the "good" programs and the "good" talent are forced into the dis
card by the failure of these programs and their performers to win the
"battle of the ratings." This is sometimes true — although the "good"
programs I like may not be the "good" programs you like, and the
KINDS OF RESEARCH
SOME TELEVISION RATING SERVICES AND WHAT THEY MEASURE
A. C. Nielsen Co.
National Television American Research
Index (NTI) Bureau (ARB) Trendex Pulse Videodex
:
Audimeter an elec Diary of Telephone coinciden Aided recall: Diary of
programs per programs
tronic device attached seen during one week tal: at least 600 sonal, house-to-house seen during one week
to TV set in about each month in 2000 homes in interviews, about each month in 9200
telephoned
Re-
;
1000 homes; plus homes new group each of 15 large mul 7800 homes, checking homes; new group of
Method
a
a
cordimeter: diary each month. ti-station cities be previous day's listen homes four times
8
of listening kept in an Arbitron: meters on tween AM and 00 ing against list of 70 cities.
year;
;
added 1000 homes. sets in seven cities PM listener asked programs broadcast,
is
a
wired to central what program he in 100 cities.
headquarters. seeing at time of

phone call.
1.
1.
Total U.S. Total U.S. No national rat National ratings. National ratings
1. 2.
1. 2.
No regional rat ings. 100 cities coast-to- based on 00 city sam

Multi-city region
1. 2. al
2.
:
14 multi-station ings. 15 large multi-sta coast. ple.
3.
3.
cities eastern and Local tion cities. Local for cities
by
in ratings Multi-city.
Area
3.
2. 3.
central time zones. hours sta No local studied. Local for cities
by
quarter ratings.
surveyed
3.
Local quarter-hour tions. studied.
by
ratings programs.
Total Audience: total Quarter hour rating: Popularity per pe Total audience and Total audience: audi
share audience
of
number of homes number of homes riod: average per for ence composition;
with sets tuned to the with one or more of all TV 200 cities, plus audi reactions
centage qualitative
6
for at least viewers watching the homes in "local ence composition. to programs and com
program
minutes of the broad zone of sta mercials in 00 cities.
program during any phone"
cast. 15-minute period. tions the
Audience carrying
audience: program in 15 large

data Average Program rating:
number of of the cities, tuned to the
average average quar
homes with sets tuned ter hour ratings for program during any
to each 15-minute minute of the 30-min-
program during pe
minute of the riod in which this ute period of the
any pro
broadcast. gram was broadcast. broadcast.
Multi-city period av Viewers per set. Total program popu
erage: Average num larity: of
average
ber of homes with index for
popularity
sets tuned to the "nor all half-hour
Audience periods
mal" local affiliated of the broadcast.
data
station of the origin
ating TV network, in
(cont.)
14 Eastern and Cen
tral time zone multi
station cities, during
average minute of
each 15-minute pe
riod of the broadcast.
Quarter-hour rating:
number of homes
1
with or more view
ers watching the pro
6
gram minutes or
more during 15-
any
minute period.
Fixed, carefully- Low cost of diary Speed in reporting Large sample. Large sample.
selected method. (overnight when nec Low cost of diary
sample.
Mechanical record Accuracy of mechani essary) gives quick method.
ing not dependent on cal recording plus check on perform

Strengths
human memory. speed for Arbitron ance and production
7
Continuous study. method in cities. treatment.
7
Small sample. measures only Does not claim to Measures Measures only days
Diary only pro
7
Data takes at least days listening per measure national au grams people remem listening per month;
two weeks to
;
process, month presence of dience size. ber having seen and presence of diary
Weaknesses three to five weeks to claimed to af Limited sampling in will admit to having claimed to affect lis
diary
deliver. fect habits; large cities only; no seen. tening habits; human
listening
High cost. human failures of suburbs; no rural lis Large cities only; no failures of memory in
memory in keeping tening. rural. keeping diary.
diary.
1,
;
;
Sources: Sp.r ■gazine (J.zi ■ziz """azzing ■..zine (■0000h 250 ■00z ■00'n ■00r, 57d0.n A■e■e, US■ p. ■5p■.
"good" programs we both like may not be ones that the thousands of
160 people who make up an audience are willing to sit through. In par
ticular, this may not necessarily be a justifiable criticism of the ad
vertiser or his agency, who may be quite satisfied with their program
and the audience they think it gets. Program changes are more often
likely to be function of the competition for audience between broad

a
casting stations and networks, which is a different subject altogether.

The important things to remember are:
1. the audience for the commercial is what the advertiser pays his
money for;
2. each rating service tells you something about this audience
with a different approach and differing findings for each service;
3. the service that can give you the most reliable answer to a spe
cific question is the one to use in answering that question;
4. but you cannot make comparisons from service to service;
5. and no single program rating is completely accurate.
RESEARCH AND THE EVALUATION OF ADVERTISING
Our most frustrating problems arise when we attempt to fit the

bits and pieces of advertising research into a single, definitive an
swer that enables us to evaluate the effectiveness of a given adver
tisement or advertising campaign. The trap that lurks for the unwary
is to attempt to force an answer, to make the findings of one instance
apply to other instances of a different nature. Here again, research
should be a guide to judgment, not a substitute for it. When we are
able to determine, with precision, how many people had a chance
to see or hear an advertisement, how many of them actually read it

it,
it,
or listened to how much attention they gave and what action
they took as result, then we can begin to evaluate advertisements.

a
Until then, we can only use the tools we have to sharpen the crea
tive process, to make our judgment more skillful and our criticism
more informed.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
Summary
161
1. Five kinds of advertising research:

a. Market Research
b. Consumer Research
c. Product Research
d. Copy Research
e. Audience Research
2. We can attempt to measure the effectiveness of an advertisement
if we can measure:
a. actual sales;
b. inquiries and coupon returns;
c. split-run tests;
d. the amount of time and attention given to the advertisement as
indicated by readership studies.
3. A major problem, still largely unresolved in attempting to evaluate
advertising, is the determination of how many people had a chance
it,
to read or see a specific advertisement, how many actually saw
it,
how much attention they gave and what they did about it.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
Can eating between meals
help control your weight? PREPARATION OF
In the advertising business, the word "copy" is one

of those words which have acquired additional mean
ings over a long period of time.
Originally, "copy" was a piece of paper on which
words were written by hand which was given to a
printer to copy, literally, by setting the words in type.
This meaning still survives — the piece of paper on
which the words to appear in an advertisement are
written is the "copy" for the advertisement. (Some
times, in an even more specific throwback to the days
of hand writing, it is called the "manuscript.") The
printer still copies the words on this piece of paper
when he sets the type for the advertisement.
Thus, "copy" has the additional meaning of the
words of the advertisement, and particularly the words
162
ADVERTISING (I): Copy
of what the printer calls the "text matter" — the words or paragraphs of informa
tion and persuasion intended to single out prospects for the product advertised and
turn them into customers. When these words appear together in a unit as the main
reading matter of the advertisement, they are often called "body copy," or "body
text," a "block of copy," or a "copy block."
While all the words in an advertisement are copy, some of them have special
names. Headlines are words in larger or more distinctive type or lettering to attract
the attention of the reader. Sub-headlines (often shortened to sub-heads) elaborate
the ideas contained in the headlines and lead the reader on to the body copy. A
outline is single line of type under a picture, usually in small type, acknowledging
a
the source of the picture with the name of the artist or photographer (and there
fore often called a credit line ) . A caption is a line or paragraph of type under a pic
ture, describing what the picture is about or elaborating the sales point made by the
picture. A signature is the name and address of the advertiser. A logotype (often
shortened to logo) is the name of the product, boldly displayed, sometimes as a
163
word alone, sometimes as a trade mark, sometimes the product itself
or the package it comes in, on which the name of the product is
readily identifiable.
But copy is more than this. Most advertising today does as much
of its selling through pictures, either in print or on television, as it
does through its headlines and text. The instructions, in words, on
what the ideas contained in the picture will be and what the picture
may look like when it is translated into visual form —by art directors,
artists, and photographers, or television directors, actors, and camera
men —are also part of the copy. In radio and television, the words of
course will not be printed but spoken, and the words the announcer
reads and the lines the actors speak are also "copy."
The person who lays all these words end to end so that they make
sense is the copywriter. But just as the word "copy" has acquired
additional meanings over the years, so the copywriter has acquired
responsibilities beyond his primary function of working with words.
Basically, the copywriter today is responsible for the ideas con
tained in the advertisement. He is responsible for the way these ideas
will be expressed, both in the words he writes and in the pictures he
suggests to illustrate his ideas and give them more forceful impact
and meaning. This means that
copywriter today must learn to organ
a
ize his ideas in two ways, visually as well as verbally. Whether or

not he can draw pictures (and most copywriters cannot), the copy
writer must be able to think in pictures. He should be able to visualize
in his mind the way his finished advertisement will look on the printed
page or television screen, and he should then be able to communicate
this mental visualizing of his ideas to an art director or a television
producer-director who will be responsible for translating this mental

process into pictures or action.
The copywriter's job divides itself into two coequal and commin
gling parts:
1. a never-ending search for ideas — the "what to say" in an ad
vertisement that provides the brilliant solution to an advertising
problem, and
2. a never-ending search for new and different ways to express
ARATION OF ADVERTISING
those ideas — the "how to say it" and "how to show it" techniques of
preparing an advertisement that provide the brilliant execution of
165
the ideas the copywriter wants to convey.
PRODUCING IDEAS
How does copywriter get ideas? How can he come down to the
a
office every morning, facing a blank piece of paper with an equally

blank mind, and produce ideas that provide the brilliant solution and
the brilliant execution? This is the problem copywriters have to learn
to live with and — let's face it — some copywriters solve the problem
better than other copywriters do, and all copywriters have some days
that are better than other days.
But there is way to help improve your batting average on ideas,
a
a way to train your mind so that it becomes conditioned to search
for ideas and alert to an idea when it comes, so that you get "the wood
on the ball," players say, more frequently.
as baseball
This method has been described in detail by James Webb Young,

in his exciting and beautifully written little book, A Technique for
Producing Ideas.1 It is a short book. It takes only about thirty min
utes to read. But most good copywriters have read it — and reread it.
it,
And once you have read you cannot help but use the method your
self to the vast improvement of your own technique for getting ideas.
Briefly, what Mr. Young says that there habit of mind that
is
is
a
can be cultivated to lead to the production of ideas. Out of lifetime

a
of producing ideas and of thinking about the production of ideas,

Mr. Young has distilled five-step process:
a
Gather the raw materials from which ideas come. In advertis

1.
ing, these raw materials are thorough study of the product you have
a
to sell and of the people whom you hope to persuade to buy it. You
can never study products or people too thoroughly. These are the
specific materials with which you work. In addition, you can cultivate
James Webb Young, Technique for Producing Ideas (Chicago, Adver

A
1
tising Publications, Inc., ninth edition, 1949).
PREPARATION OF ADVERTISING
a general source of raw materials — all sorts of information about all
sorts of things. These general materials, put together in your mind
with the specific materials you have gathered about your immediate
problem of product and people, become the source for new and strik
—
ing combinations of elements which are ideas.
2. Digest these materials in your mind. This is the hardest part of
the process, because it forces you to think, always the hardest part of
any process. Turn the facts over. Look at them in different ways, from
different angles. Let the ears of your mind listen for new combina
tions, new relationships between old facts. Don't stop. Don't give up
until your conscious mind is completely exhausted, until you have a
jumble of half-formed ideas but no clear solution — yet.

3. Then let your subconscious mind take over. Put the whole
problem aside and do something else. Take a walk. Play a game of
golf. Go to the movies. Let the creative process go to work.
4. Suddenly, out of the blue, the Idea comes. It may come when
you have done your work well
it,
you least expect

If
but comes.
it
in the first three steps, you need have no doubts about the fourth.
Shape, polish, and develop your idea to fit the practical situa
5.
tion in which to be used.

is
it
This digest of what Mr. Young has to say about the care and feed
ing of ideas only digest. You will be missing too much you fail
if
is
to read his book. ought to be available in your university library

—
It
or you might even break down and buy a copy. It's worth owning.
Of these five steps to producing ideas, book about advertising
a
can be concerned only with the first and the last. The other steps take
place not in books, but in the mind of the individual — your mind. In
structuring piece of copy, we are concerned not so much with how
a
to think as with what to think about.
HOW TO THINK ABOUT COPY
Think about what you are going to write about. In most cases, what
you will write about a product. What do you need to think about?
is
You need to think about what makes this product different from all
other products and especially what makes this product different from
all other products of the same kind. What you are looking for is a
— —
statement of product difference a basic selling idea the basic
it,
it,
promise of the product that makes people want understand re
member it.
Think about how the product looks. round, or oval, square
Is
it
with sharp corners, or oblong with rounded corners? lean, and
Is
it
—
slim, and trim or rugged and massive for strength and long life? Is
its surface smooth —or nubbly? Does come in colors? What does its
it
color suggest about the product?
Think about what the product feels like. Does have texture you
it
a
can take in your hands and crumble between your fingers? Would
it
feel smooth or soft against your cheek or lips?
if
it
you placed
the product you are concerned with to eat, think
If
is
something
about how tastes. smooth and bland— or sharp and pungent?
Is
it
it
What the flavor like? What do you feel when you savor and the
it
is
taste buds go to work on it? there new way to eat —or new
Is
it
a
a
way to serve
— or new way to combine with other foods for
it
it
a
greater appetite appeal?

Think about how the product made. What are the materials that
is
go into it? Where do they come from? What are the processes used in
making the product? How tested for quality? Who are the people
is
it
who make this product? What special skills do they have which con
tribute to making the product more satisfying?
Think most about people and the ways they are going to use this
product. Think most about what this product going to do for the
is
who buy — the and benefits and satisfactions

it
people advantages
they will get from owning it. The vacuum cleaner took the broom and
the carpet beater out of women's hands and a lot of aches and pains
out of their backs and arms. Automatic defrosting of electric refrig
erators eliminated sloppy kitchen chore. The right shoes and the
a
right purse can give woman whole new feeling about herself.
A
a
television set on Saturday afternoon makes your living room chair

a
seat on the 50-yard line. A box of soft tissue papers, first marketed
as an aid to removing cosmetics, now has dozens of uses beyond its
original purpose. How are people going to use the product you want
them to buy?
Think about the people you are going to write to —the people who
will read or hear your advertising message and act on it. This calls
for considerable skill. Ifyou think of them in the mass — 23,950,000
readers for a single issue of Life magazine, say, or the millions of
men and women, boys and girls, watching a television program — you
may find yourself writing far wide of the mark. Writing to this great
If
it,
mass audience as a mass is almost impossible. you attempt you
find that you cannot be direct and specific. You have trouble even
visualizing the people you are trying to sell, trouble trying to put
a
message together for them, simply because there are so many of them.
you think of them as individuals, the problem becomes easier.
If
Pick out some one man or some one woman in this vast audience —
some one person who the most likely prospect for what you have to
is
sell. Think about this person you were going to write letter to
if
as
a
friend — with all the warmth, sincerity, and believability you would
a
put into letter to friend you were recommending your proposi

if
a
tion to him (or to her). Think about what he wants to know about
this product you are trying to sell him. Think about why in his
it
is
self-interest to do what you want him to do.
This the key to good copy — telling the prospective customer why
is
in his own self-interest to buy what you have to sell— not in terms
is
it
of your interest as writer, not in terms of your interest as manu

a
facturer of products or seller of goods, but in terms of the very real,

a
personal self-interest of the man or woman who going to buy.

is
People want results not things. Women want beautiful legs —

—
not nylon hosiery. Men want smooth running cars — not gasoline. Boys
want to be big league ball players — not eaters of breakfast foods.
Girls want romance — not phonograph records. These are the self-
interests that make them buy the things that promise results. These
are the self-interests we call "appeals" in advertising, and the next
problem of the copywriter is to select the appeal with the greatest
amount of self-interest in it for the people who are most likely to
169
respond to it.
Psychologists classify these appeals for us in a number of arrange
ments. Dr. Daniel Starch lists forty-five such appeals.2 Dr. Albert T.
Poffenberger groups his arrangement under twelve headings:
1. The desire to drink (to relieve thirst).

2. The desire to eat.
3. The sex desire.
4. Desire for rest and comfort.
5. Desire to escape from danger (the "fear" appeal).

6. Desires resulting from interaction with other people ("group be
havior" appeals) .
a. Desire for success (overcoming obstructions).
b. Desire for independence (resisting domination by others).
c. Desire for power (over material things).
d. Desire for domination (over other persons).

7. Desires of self-assertion and submission (the desire to be different
in conflict with the desire to conform to group standards) .
8. Desire of parenthood.
9. Desire to play.
10. Desire to be with people (group acceptance) — and its opposite,

the desire to be alone.
11. Desire for the new and strange — and its opposite, the desire for the
familiar.
12. Desire to collect things.3
James D. Woolf lists eighteen such desires in his first book4, but
in his second he groups them into five:
2
Daniel Starch, Principles of Advertising (New York, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., Inc., 1923), pp. 260-261.
8
Albert T. Poffenberger, Psychology in Advertising (New York, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc., 1925), pp. 45-76.
4
James D. Woolf, Writing Advertising (New York, The Ronald Press Com
pany, 1924).
"It appears to me now that such long lists as these, while they may
be suggestive, make man seem a complicated creature indeed. . . .
I think there are five great basic human urges, urges that were as
compelling to the cave man of five thousand years ago as they are to
the man of today.
"They are: (1) the biological urge; (2) the fear urge; (3) the
play-and-fun or 'escape' urge; (4) the parental urge; (5) the self-
preservation urge ( food, drink, shelter, etc. ) ."8
The point is that this is the stuff of which human beings are made.
Much as we may wish that men and women would be rational, that
they would at all times and under all circumstances use the reason
with which their Creator has endowed them, the fact is that men and
women act emotionally. They act in accord with these basic emo
tions, these fundamental desires of the human race. They act to
satisfy these basic desires. And advertising, which is engaged in the

business of selling products and services and ideas which help people
fulfill basic wants, must start with people as they are, appealing to
the basic desires in us all.
This places a great responsibility upon the copywriter — and on the
man who must approve what the copywriter writes. As H. A. Over-
street points out, in the book that many advertising men consider the
most useful book on psychology for advertising:
The appeal to wants, then, presupposes, first of all, an understanding of

the fine, worthwhile wants that can be aroused . . . ; and, secondly, an
intelligence capable of opening up opportunities and devising situations

which will arouse those wants. . . .
No appeal to reason that is not also an appeal to a want is ever effec

tive. That ought to dispose of a good deal of futile arguing. It ought to
put an end to most of the angry denunciation and bitter sarcasm where
with we infuriate each other. It ought to mend the ways of the preaching
parent, the expostulating, scolding parent. It ought to indicate to the
arid pedagogue a way of escape from his aridity. And finally, it ought
5
James D. Woolf, Advertising to the Mass Market (New York, The Ronald
Press Company, 1946), p. 9.
to suggest to the earnest political reformer more effective techniques for
capturing and holding that difficult but psychologically quite normal
entity called "the people."
Thought (reason) is, at bottom, an instrument of action; and action,
whatever it may be, springs out of what we fundamentally desire. There
is, indeed, a place in life — a most important place— for pure thought —
thought, that is, which has no interest in immediate action. But for the
most part, thought (reason) is, for us, an instrument of exploration; it
enables us to see more clearly where we are going, and how we may best
go. But where do we actually wish to go? If we are sure of that, then we
gladly enough busy ourselves to find ideas which point the path and clear
the way.
Hence, as we have seen, the arguer must first arouse in his respondent
a real want to know what is argued about, a real wish to understand, or
his argumentation is only words. The trouble with most arguers is that
they are too much in a hurry to unload themselves. They quite forget
that, preliminary to the unloading, there must be awakened in the re
spondent an eagerness to want.8
An eagerness to want! — this is the art of the copywriter —to find

a chord in human experience and by touching that chord to awaken
the eagerness to want in people to the point where they act upon it.
Somewhere in the product is the means of satisfying a want; other
wise the product has no reason to exist. Somewhere in people is a
want to be satisfied, satisfied by the purchase of this product or ac
ceptance of this idea. The job of the copywriter is to bring the two
together. It is at once that simple — and that complex.
EXECUTING IDEAS
How does the copywriter do it? He starts with ideas, shaping his
ideas with words and pictures. He does it with his mind, with his skill
in the handling of words that are honest, forthright, believable, with
4 H. A. Overstreet, Influencing Human Behavior (New York, W. W. Norton
& Company, Inc., 1925), pp. 48-49.
his ability to project in pictures, both verbal and visual, the satisfac
tions that come when a human want is fulfilled. He does it by con
stant study of products and ideas and how they are used, by a con
stant study of people, the way they respond to ideas, the way they use
products.
Leo Burnett once gave a prime example of the way this works in a
memorandum to his writing staff. This is what he said:
Charles Postl, of Postl's Physical Conditioning Service, recently

showed me an example of his own advertising which greatly impressed
me and from which I learned one of the greatest lessons I have ever
learned in advertising.
For years Mr. Postl has been running small ads in Chicago papers
with indifferent success.
He recently got good and mad, fired the advertising man who had been
helping him, and decided to write his own ads.
His first attempt was a small display ad in the News for the promotion
of his Women's Salon on South Michigan. It cost him about $35, but
brought him more than 100 new —
customers more than $5,000 worth of
new business.
On the face of of others which
it,
the ad looked exactly like dozens he

had run and which proved to be duds — photo of a graceful, slender
a
woman with dotted lines showing her former bulk. In previous ads he had
run this same cut with such headlines as, "Reduce this easy, healthful
way," "Lost 18 pounds in 30 days," etc.
For this particular ad, however, Mr. Postl went to the testimonials he
has received from women and ran across the following quotation, "/ used
to wear a size 48 dress — now wear size 74."
I
to him and he made the headline, followed

It
instinctively appealed
it
by very short copy and with exactly the same cuts as in previous, unsuc
cessful ads.
By interpreting weight in terms of dress sizes rather than pounds, or
generalities, Mr. Postl accidentally found way of hitting at woman's
a
a
pride as he had never done before.

suppose the women who read this ad and acted on have often
it
I
yearned to go into a store and ask for size 14. It spoke the language of
women and "hit them where they lived." 173
That is about all there is to successful copy or successful advertising.
It is not clever phrases. It is not slogans. It is not fancy writing. It is all
a matter of presenting the story in terms of the greatest self-interest of
the consumer.
Is there a basic formula for doing this? Is there some kind of yard
stick against which we can measure how well the copywriter has done
his job in a given advertisement or commercial? Those of you who
will some day be copywriters want to know. Those of you who will be
in management positions, called upon to criticize and approve copy,
need some criteria, some standards of measurement as a basis for
judgment.
The answer is not an easy one.
Of course, there are certain principles by which the copywriter
shapes his ideas. One formula, which has become part of the folklore
of advertising, is the AIDA formula — that every advertisement
should attract Attention, arouse Interest, create Desire, and stimulate
Action. Certainly, every advertisement should do these things —but
how it does them and how well it does them depend on the skill of the
writer and his art director.
If we want to expand this formula, with a single word to help us
remember what an advertisement ought to do, we might create the
S-I-M-P-L-E formula. This might say that it is the job of every ad
vertisement to
Stop the reader — keep him from turning the page or the dial;
Interest him in what your proposition will do for him;
Make him want
it,
intensifying desire he already has;

a
Persuade him that it's right for him to want this product;
by
Lodge the argument; rationalize the desire giving logical

a
reason to act;
Ease him into the sale; ask for the order; make easy to buy.
it
Simple, isn't it?
w
+Awaak
the
When you care enough to send very best

do
soME GREAT ADVERTISEMENTS with picture.

it
(Courtesy Hallmark Cards, Inc., and Foote, Cone

&
Belding.)
Yes, perhaps it is simple. But it isn't easy at all, even though the
best advertisements make it look easy. You can try this out for your
self. This afternoon, over a cup of coffee, or tonight, after dinner,
leaf through the pages of a magazine. See how the copywriters have
used — or failed to use— this simple method to get the elements into
an advertisement that belong there.
You will, of course, look for the elements that Stop you in the idea
the advertisement is trying to convey. You will find these elements
primarily in the headline and the main illustration of the advertise

ment. Interest may be in the sub-headlines, certainly in the first para
graph of the body copy, or in of picture situations and the

a series
captions under them that describe what is going on in the pictures.

it,
Making people want Persuading them that it's right, Lodging the
argument are all elements usually found in the body copy, and the
last paragraph usually does the job of Easing into the sale. Try for
it
yourself. See whether or not advertisements actually do this. It's sim
ple
— and it's fun.
You will find some great advertisements that can do all this with
a
—
picture and almost no words at all.
Here an advertisement for greeting cards. An eight-year old boy,
is
in Cub Scout uniform, printing scraggly letters on an envelope.

is
a
He has chosen a card for his mother. You have to look at the picture
— it's that good. You cannot help yourself. You get chuckle — or
a
a
lump in your throat — depending on the kind of person you are. All
the advertiser has to say (and all the copywriter had to write)
is
a
slogan — "When you care enough to send the very best. Hallmark
Cards."
Here an advertisement for catsup. What can you say about cat
is
sup? Everybody knows what is. Everybody knows how to use it.
it
How can you deliver message to people about catsup? Hunt's Cat
a
sup does picture. An egg

with breaking into
is
a frying pan.
it
Scrambled eggs are sliding from the frying pan onto plate. Catsup
a
on the eggs on the plate. The picture looks good enough to eat,
is
right off the page. The words tie right in to the action. "What do eggs
scramble for? Hunt's —of course." That is all. The advertisement
176 needs nothing more.
Admittedly, such opportunities are rare.

More often, the products we are assigned to write about are not so
well known, not so universally used as greeting cards and catsup. Our
brand may not have been brought to so many people's attention by so
many years of intensive and successful advertising as Hunt's or Hall
mark. We have to face up to a more specific task of selecting our audi
ence and choosing the appeal that will get these prospective custo
mers to stop and read (or stop, look, and listen on television).
This task starts with the idea — an idea that promises the reader
some reward in return for his time and attention. Now we are going
to give the idea expression in a headline and in an illustration. We
used to think that headline and illustration were two different and
often widely separated elements. Copy research has taught us that this
is not true. What the headline and the illustration must both do is
work to the same idea —the fundamental idea of the advertisement.
They must work together. They must re-inforce each other. The words
must say what the picture shows. The picture must show what the
words say.
WORKING WITH HEADLINES
How to say it gives us more latitude, for headlines can be of dif

ferent kinds.
News headlines. The surest way to a reader's interest is a headline
that delivers some news about the product or how it is used. One of
the basic reasons why people read advertising is to get the news — to
inform themselves about new products and new ways to use existing
products. Write a headline with real news value, and you almost auto
matically get readers for your advertisement. In addition, news head
lines select out of the great mass of readers those who are in the mar
ket for your product right now, people who are ready to be persuaded
THE WORDS make the point of the picture. (Courtesy
Hunt Foods and Young & Rubicam, Inc.)
to buy right away. Look through any copy of Life, or Look, or The
Saturday Evening Post — and spot the news headlines:
New color brilliance

now so easy
with color enriching DU PONT No. '7' POLISH
(E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.)
Once again Kraft makes an important improvement in margarine flavor !
NEW SWEET CHILLED PARKAY

(Kraft Foods, Div. of National Dairy Products Corp.)
Wesson Oil takes the smoke out of frying !
(Wesson Oil & Snowdrift Sales Company)
3 new ideas in an easy-to-fix summer supper
(H. J. Heinz Company)
At last! A safe dry chlorine bleach that beats any liquid bleach
(beads-o'bleach, Purex Corporation, Ltd.)
Now ! Chocolate Chiffon —sheer pie delight

Make it in 9 minutes with Jell-0 Chiffon Pie Filling
(General Foods Corporation)
New Medicated Powder!

Stops more irritations
. . . more effectively
(Johnson & Johnson)
Entirely new kind of dog food . . .
NEW FRISKIES CUBES

6 colors, 6 flavors — nothing to add, not even water!
(Carnation Company)
Now! Chocolate Chiffon-sheer pie delight
Make it in 9 minutes with Jell-0 Chiffon Pie Filling
i pie star of the dessert world—now You can't fail. Thousandsof test*madein the
CMfonfte
comesto you in that most popular of flacors ck-neral Foods Kitchens proveyou can't make
—chocolate. a mistake.Wc guaranteeit.
No cooking! ju*t add milk and sugar to Jell O Enjoy Lemon and Strawberryjell -O Chiffon
Chocolate Chiffon Pie Killing. And beat. Pie. loo. At your grocer.s—Jot ptnmrs.
NEW PRODUCT — instant success. (Courtesy General

Foods Corporation and Young & Rubicam, Inc. )
Each of these headlines takes a slightly different approach to news.
For some, the basic idea is product news. Some offer product-in-use
news. Some are concerned with news which is of service to readers,
and the product is a part of the service. But all have news — legitimate
news — as their foundation.
"How to" headlines. Closely allied to news headlines are those
which tell the reader how to use the product, or how to benefit from
the copywriter's idea. Often these headlines start with the words,
"how to," whence their name. Sometimes the words, "how to," are
understood or implied. Some examples:
How to help yourself to better bread
(Avisco Cellophane — American Viscose Corporation)
How to be younger than your years
(Metropolitan Life Insurance Company)
How to feel cool,

comfortable
and almost
light as air
(Hart Schaffner & Marx)
Case history headlines. Again, closely allied to news, are headlines

which telegraph the idea that here is an advertisement which is going
to tell you how somebody else uses the product so that you, too, can
do likewise. This kind of an advertisement is usually well documented
with facts and figures of an actual case history. Some examples:
320 Miles on Four Blown-Out Tires!

No Swerve! No sway! No forced stops!
(The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company)
Cincinnati Housewife Comes Out of Hiding

(Stauffer Reducing, Inc.)
Pure Oil builds islands in the sea
to keep you cooking with gas 181
(The Pure Oil Company)
Questions. Many headlines ask an intriguing or an audience-select

ing question. The answer to the question is, of course, in the copy,
and to be effective the question must be exciting enough, interesting
enough to get the reader to want to know more about the problem
raised by the question. Some examples:
Have you had your soup today?

(Campbell's Soups)
What if you have an accident a thousand miles from home?
(National Association of Insurance Agents, Inc.)
Which is the best way to air condition a new house?

(Carrier Corporation)
Does she or doesn't she?

Hair color so natural only her hair dresser knows for sure!
(Clairol, Inc.)
Imperatives. Often headlines are simply direct commands to do
something or to try something. Examples:
Drink Coca-Cola
(The Coca-Cola Company)
Try the Thunderbird magic of a Cruise-O-Matic Ford

(Ford Motor Company)
"Good advice" headlines. Sometimes headlines take the disarming

approach of offering a service to readers, in terms of advising them
about a purchase, or about a situation or problem that may confront
them. Examples:
Things you need to know before you buy a mattress
182 (The Englander Company, Inc.)
Why it makes sense to trade in your old refrigerator —now !

(General Electric Company)
Germs ride the school bus

with your youngsters every day
(Listerine—The Warner-Lambert Pharmaceutical Company)
"Story-telling" headlines. Many headlines promise to tell the

reader a story. They provoke curiosity, intrigue the reader into read
ing on, just as a good question does. The danger here, of course, is
that a writer can get so involved in intriguing the reader, so in
volved in telling a story, that he forgets the main purpose of the head
line. When a story-telling headline is good, it is very, very good.
When it fails in its job of arousing the reader's curiosity, it is simply
so many advertising dollars down the drain. Here are some good
ones:
The Man in the Hathaway Shirt

(C. F. Hathaway Company)
"At 60 miles an hour the loudest noise in this

new Rolls-Royce comes from the electric clock"
(Rolls-Royce, Inc.)
"She even took the trouble to remember my name!"

(American Airlines)
America's 10 Happiest Women
(Stauffer Reducing, Inc.)
Fun on a cat-ketch with Coke
(The Coca-Cola Company)
Things you need to know before
you buy a mattress
Facts for mattress buyers which may lead them to buy the Englander Airfoam* Red-Line** Ensemble
A good mattress ought to last you

at least 20 years-7,300 nights,
plus a few extras for Leap Years.
A so-called "expensive" mattress

will often cost far less in the long
run than the one labeled "bargain";
The secret of a good night's sleep is a
mattress that keeps your spine level

all night long— regardless of how
unevenly your weight is distributed.
Any amount of money you spend for a mattress The Ei Airfoam Mattress is a purr What about the ticking?
is s lot of money to you. 1Maybe you even wish white of millions of air bubbles, trapped
in tiny latex cells. Airfoam is denser, firmer, with Even the ticking is special, beautiful and durable,
people were like hones and could sleep standing yet allowing the mattress to "breathe" freely.
up.) more cells to the cubic inch. Cushions your body Ticking is held in plsce with inner taping, will
If you are going to buy wisely, you need to for comfort, conforms to every contour, supports
every muscle. nevershift or turn. Edges stay straight and troe.
know as much as possibleabout mattressesbefore In fact, twenty years from now, this mattress
you lay your money on the line. It sleepsyou cool on the warmest night. It is will make up just as smooth, look just as inviting,
We think we are just the people who can help odorless,constantly ventilates itaelfwith freshair.
and give you the same good sleep as it did the
you. Here at Englander, we make not just one A boon to allergy sufferers,it hasno dust or lint. first night you had it.
type of mattress, out all types —and not just at While somemattressesstart getting old as soon
one price, but in all price ranges.We build quality as you lie down on them, Airfoam never lumps, How much doea an Englander cost?
and value into all our mattresses, and we have never humps, never even needsturning. There is The famous Englander mattress of Airfoam by
been doing it for fi0 years. no "roll -to-the-middle" in the double-bed size. Goodyear sells for $79.73. Englander's exclusive
We pioneered and developed the foam latex Red-Line Foundation sells for $69.75. Together
mattress and foundation, which, to our way of What it the Red-Line Foundation?
at $149.50, they give you far more value than
thinking, is your "beat buy" in mattressestoday. ' ~ML any other combination.
It is a tremendous value becauseit sleepsyou so A good foundation is
part of a good mat- When used together, they are guaranteed
well and lasts you ao loiig. against structural defects for 30 years.
They are made
That is why we have written this ad. By the for esch other, work For about two cents a night, you can get all
time you finish reading it, we hope you will have with each other. the advantages of this Englander ensemble and
decided to buy, or at least look at, an Englander sleep better than you ever dreamed you could.
Airfoam Red-Line Ensemble. But whether you The "Red-Line Foundation" was specifically
developed by Englander to give the firm support All we ask is a chance to prove it. Leading
do or not, we guarantee you'll know a lot mora furniture and department stores will deliver an
about mattresses and get a lot more for your doctors rrecommend for healthful sleep.
Englander ensemble to your home for a 30-day
money when you buy. Spring together at top or home trial —free!
They are held at the center by strong, Why don't you take us up on it? Start sleeping
Why do tome mattrcssca r
flexible ribbons of steel. Each coil acts inde — on an Englander Airfoam Red-Line Ensemble
sleep you better than others? pendently. This exclusive Englander principle — tonight!
eliminates sagging.
You know some mattressesgive you better sleep
—
than others but why? No matiw how you sleep,
How do mattrett and foundat
The secretof a good night's sleep is a mattress you'// deep better
work together?
that keeps your spine level, regardless of how on an Englander
unevenly your weight is distributed or how you An Englander Airfoam
tl SB
stretch and turn in your sleep to relax tired Mattress combined
muscles. with Englander' - ex
The Englander ensemble knows that secret clusive Red-Line
better than any other mattress. You get more Foundation give."vou
benefit from the hours you sleep. It's easier to comfort three layers
J
get up in the morning, easier to keep going all deep. 11) The bottom layer
-"_^_ day. Here's why. springs gives firm support. ;3
upper spring layer ;above the Red-Line)
yields to body movements and weight, '
What it Airfoam?
coodAur
1 1 ;3) the Airfoam mattress cushions your body,
Kv«>
^■ 1 1L-'■
1 Airfoam is the commercial yielding only to its contours.
^ name for foam latex by All three layers combine to keep your spine
Goodyear, the greatest name in robber. level —and. as we said, that's the secretof a good
Only Englander makes mattressesof Airfoam. night's sleep!
GOOD ADVICE in a news-format service advertisement.

(Courtesy The Englander Company, Inc.)
--
The man in the Hathaway shirt

A' MIN are beginning to re trousers. The buttons are mother-of great deal quiet satisfaction out
of
of
alize that it is ridiculous to buy good pearl. Even the stitching has an ante-bel wearing shirts which are such impec
in
suits and then spoil the effect by wearing lum elegance about cable taste.
it.
11
by
an ordinary, mass-produced shirt. Hence Above all, ATH away make their HATH Away shirts are made small
a
the growing popularity of HATHAway remarkable fabric, collected from company

of
of
shirts dedicated craftsmen the

in
shirts, which are in a class by themselves. the earth-Vivella, and Waterville, Maine. They
of
the four corners

it, of
little town
H - I H \w vy shirts wear infinitely long Aertex, from England, woolen taffeta man and boy, for one hun
at
have been
er—a matter of years. They make you from Scotland, Sea Island cotton from the dred and twenty years.
look wounger and more distinguished, be West Indies, hand-woven madras from At better stores everywhere,
or
write
cause of the subtle way bi \r H \w \Y cut India, broadcloth from Manchester, linen Aria Away, Waterville, Maine,
H.
c.
F.
collars. The whole shirt is tailored more batiste from Paris, hand-blocked silks
of
for the name vour nearest store.

In
generously,and is therefore more comfort from Fngland, exclusive cottons from the New York, telephone OX 7-5566. Prices
able. The tails are longer, and stay in your America. You will get
to
best weavers from $5.95 $20.00.

in
ONE OF THE CLASSIC advertisements of our time.

(Courtesy Hathaway Company and Ogilvy, Benson,
C.
F.
Mather, Inc.)
&
Most strong headlines will fall into one of the classifications or
some combination of them. So, for that matter, will most weak head
lines. The major difference between a strong headline and a weak one
is simply this:
Strong headlines concentrate on attracting and involving the reader
through some appeal to self-interest.
W eak headlines don't.
Here are some of the traps that lie in wait for the unwary copy
writer (and the unwary advertiser who has to approve the copy
writer's headline ) :
Selfish headlines. These are headlines written from the point of

view of the advertiser rather than the point of view of the customer.
These are headlines which say what the advertiser wants to have said
instead of what the customer wants to hear. They are written, as
Edwin Cox, long-time copy chief and now board chairman of Kenyon
& Eckhardt, Inc., has said, "looking through the factory windows at
the product rather than looking at the product through the consumer's
eyes." This is not to say that the maker should not take pride in his
work. Of course he should. This is not to say that the men who sell
the product don't know how and why it should be sold. Of course they
do, and some of the best natural headlines ever to appear on a printed
page or a television screen turn up first in the notes of an alert copy

writer who keeps his ears open for the apt selling phrase when he
talks to production men, engineers, and salesmen in the advertiser's
organization. Good headlines, like good salesmen, talk the customer's

language.
H eadlines that try to cover too much ground. Sometimes a headline
that tries to talk to everybody ends up by talking to nobody. The job

of the headline is not to cover the entire audience of the magazine or
TV program but to select out from that audience those people who
are the most likely prospects for the advertiser's proposition. The
more specific the headline the more likely it is to do this job and do
it well. Steer clear of generalities. Be specific — specific — specific.
"Ciai'm and boast" headlines. These are headlines which proclaim
their own virtues so blatantly that no reader is going to waste time
186 on them simply because they are unbelievable. The designation is
Dr. Claude Robinson's. Dr. Robinson, studying thousands of adver
tisements in the Callup-Robinson Impact Studies, finds this to be one
of the most common headline faults — the unsubstantiated claim, the
big boast, the "look-how-good-we-are" approach that readers just do
not accept and do not believe.
"Show-off" headlines. These are headlines written to show how

smart and how clever the copywriter is, how many big words he
knows. These are headlines that indulge in tricks for the sake of
trickery, headlines that force the reader to work and work hard to
get their point. Avoid them like the plague.
Headlines that don't do anything. These are the headlines that
come when the copywriter stops thinking too soon. These are the
dull headlines, with their tired, overworked words — "dependability,"
"quality," "reliability." These are the meaningless generalities. These
are the headlines that promise no benefit, no advantage to the reader.
These are the headlines that don't get read. There are far too many
of them in advertising today. Make it part of your job to root them
out.
WORKING WITH COPY
The headline and the main illustration get your advertisement a
reader (or a viewer).

The next thing to do is to hold him (or her).
This is the job of the copy — sub-headlines, body text, and sec
ondary illustrations and their captions— and you may have one or
two of these elements without having the third.
In general, the kind of idea you start with and the kind of head
line and main illustration you choose for the first expression of this
idea determine the style of copy you are going to write.
If you are creating a news ad, with a news headline, you are likely
we does the job
%th": Simoniz
the
by
all
Illustrated: A 1915 overland, preserved there years original Simonix Park Wax.
“PosTER STYLE” advertisement—supremely simple, su.

premely effective. (Courtesy Simoniz Company and
Young Rubicam, Inc.)
&
Can eating between meals
help control your weight?
Yes— if it's a before-meal
snack, and especially if it
contains sugar
Controlling weight is mainly a
matter of controlling appetite
No other food satisfies
appetite so fast as sugar
Something sweet before meals

holds down your appetite at
mealtime, helps you stick
to your diet
Why today's active women need more sugar. You

won't find the modern woman rocking on the porch.
She's out bowling or golfing on weekends, and join
ing in the children's activities in between. This strenu
ous life requires lots of extra energy. A good way to
get it is sugar, Nature's fastest energy source.
Why do they put sugar in the pickle jar? It's not just
to sweeten the pickles. Sugar also brings out natural
flavor. Pickles taste "picklier", vegetables taste
brighter when prepared with sugar. New findings show
that sugar releases hidden vapors in food which help
you get the real flavor message.
18 CALORIES
SUGAR INFORMATION, INC. ... in a level tea- ,
New York 5, New York

spoonful of sugar \ T.-
(some people have
All statements in this message apply to both guessed as high
cane and beet sugar. as 600) .
No other food satisfies
appetite so fast with so few
"REASON-WHY" COPY can be used effectively in small space. (Courtesy

Sugar Information, Inc., and Leo Burnett Company, Inc.)
to follow the headline with a sub-headline, newspaper style. You will
probably write a "news lead" for your first paragraph, telling the
whole story quickly as a good newspaper reporter does. You'll break
up the copy block with sub-headlines, to make a long text easier and
more inviting to read. If you use the "picture and caption" technique,
following the style of the news picture magazines and using a se

quence of pictures to tell your story, you will again be working with
a news style, one which many advertisers have found to be highly
successful.
If you start with a question, obviously the copy must answer the
question raised by the headline. Imperative headlines and good ad
vice headlines call for an explanation of what the headlines says,
always in terms of the reader's self-interest, always in terms of the
advantages and benefits of the product. Story-telling headlines
must be followed by copy that tells the story, living up to the intrigue
provoked by the headline, satisfying the curiosity of the reader.

How you do this is a matter of individual writing technique for
each individual advertisement. Again, in general, there are three
basic copy techniques in widespread use:
1. Poster style — in which the idea can be so well expressed in a
picture that only a headline and a few words of copy (if any) are
needed;
2. Picture sequence style — in which the selling idea is executed
largely by pictures (photographs, drawings, or cartoons), reinforced

by a main headline and captions under or in the pictures;
3. "Reason-why" style — in which the writer takes the reader by
the hand, so to speak, leading him through a set of exciting words
it,
about the product, to make him want persuade him it's right, lodge
the argument, and ease him into the sale.
Whatever the style, the idea the important thing. In the final
is
what you say more important than how you say it. But
is
analysis,
how you say makes the difference between copy that communicates
it
with the reader and copy that falls short of completing the circuit be
tween the mind of the advertiser and the mind of the reader.
Cincinnati Housewife Comes Out of Hiding
Overweight all her life, France* Schuerman uncover* a beautiful figure and a new lease on life
Even as a child, Frances Schuerman was plump. In a matter of weeksthe "real" Frances began to
By 18 she had accumulated 10 pounds for every come out of hiding. As her figure grew more lithe
year of her life, to tip the scales at 130 pounds. and attractive, the world around her grew more
After she was married, the Cincinnati housewife exciting. She began to take greater part in social
continued to fight the "battle of the bulge." She activities, to have more fun with her children. Her
tried one way after another to reduce, including proud husband, a successful auto dealer and
many starvation diets. She only emerged raven- real estate investor, insisted she go everywhere
ously hungry to eat her way back to the original with him.
mark and past it. Strenuous exercises also left her Today at 33, the girl people once said was "born
exhaustedand hungry. to be fat" has proved her prophets wrong ! As a
Frances had little energy for social activities slender lightweight ;123 pounds) Bhehas found a
those days. Even her naturally lively personality new world of activity, pleasure, and admiration.
seemedto be hiding in a fortress of pounds, like a For more information about this plan that is
sleeping beauty waiting to be aroused ! changing lives all over America, drop a postcard
Then after years of reducing trials and failures, lo : Stauffer Home Reducing Plan, Dept. FAS, 1919
she discovered the Stauffer Home Reducing Plan. Vincbum Avenue, Los Angeles 32, California.
With theCincinnatiskylinein ihe background,Mel andFrancesSchuermancelebratehei diningit theTerraceHillO!

Alwaysa plumplittle girl, FrancesSchuermanateand
gainedher wayto 130poundsat ageIS. Somepeople Todaya trim 133pound-,FrancesSchuennanstepsout in oneof her new
•aidshewas"born to befat." Sevenieen yearslatershe size 11 dresses.Francescompletelyreproportionedher figure with the
had leveledoff at 160,had tried manydifferentwaysto StaufferHomeReducingPlan of effortlessexerciseand caloriereduction.
reducewithoutsuccess. Whethera womanneedlosea few poundsor many,theStauffertechnique
is ideal,for it trim*awayhar(tto-loseinchesI whichdietalonecannotdo).
ni
Asked to 1odel at a PT.A. Francesand hu*bandMel i TheSchuerman* pausealteran Sunday is a family day, and the
fashion*ho r, Francesattends for lunch.He trimmedhis * eveningon the town.Stauffer Schuermans attend church with
modeling 100I.Her newfig- four incheswith Mr. Stauf Home Reducing Plan also Wayne11.Debbie3. Francesenjoys
ure brough a desirefor total "Magic Couch"—the motoi gaveFrancesa beautifulnew cookinga big familydinner,hasnew
Poslurr-Reslfcunit. ful carriage. energyfor playingwith thechildren.
Relaxing on the "Magic Couch," heart ■Ii Ik■ Mel gelsreadyto takehi* turn on the
Staufferplan. Francesmaintainsher new figure, "Magic Couch" whichis portableand
whilemuscletissueis firmed,toned,Shefou id diet lightweight.Like manymen,hefind*it
alonedoesn'tgivea lovelyfigure.It lakese terciae ideal for easingnormaltensionsthat
whichthe"MagicCouch"supplieswithoutf iiigue. buildduringtheday.
A StauffercounsellorchecksFrance*'progress,givingimportantassist'
ancetoherslimmingprogram. To findhowStauffercanhelpyougetand
keepa lovelierfigure,writeStaufferHome"ReducingPlan, Dept. F-43.
1919Vineburn Avenue.Los Angeles33. Calif., or Dept.F-48.1500N.
OgdenAve.,Chicago10. 111., or Dept. F-43.3939RiverdaleAve., New
York 71,YY. No obligation. Cwim 19*4. stsssw*
ubo'*ionn.
A FINE EXAMPLE of picture sequence style. (Courtesy

Stauffer Reducing, Inc., and Foote, Cone & Belding. )
Start withlist of the selling points you want to make. Rank these
a
points in the order of their importance to the particular piece of copy

you are going to write. You will seldom find it possible to include
them all. Having such a list in front of you, with the points ranked in
the order of their importance, helps you make sure you will include
the most important selling points that must go into your copy. It also
helps you decide, in advance, the minor selling points you can safely
omit. Knowing the ground you have to cover gives you more freedom
to work on how you are going to cover it.
Then write your story logically. Validate what your headline as
serts, in terms of benefit to the reader. Get a head-nod of agreement
from your reader at the start. Keep to the point. Avoid analogies —
the long-winded "just as ... so too" comparisons, the far-fetched
historical references. Use homespun words. Steer clear of superla
tives and generalities. Remember that nouns and verbs work harder
than adjectives and adverbs, active verbs work harder than passive
verbs, and the most important word in the copywriter's vocabulary
is "you."
Specific. Specific. The fact-packed, telegraphic sen
Be specific.
tence communicates. Keep it short and to the point. Give your reader
the information he (or she) needs to make a buying decision. This is
the function of copy.
Remember, you are to tell the truth — and nothing but the truth.
But truth need not be dull. It is the copywriter's art to make the truth
exciting and worth remembering. You can do this by writing specif
ically, personally, enthusiastically. To communicate enthusiasm, you
have to be enthusiastic yourself. As David Ogilvy has said, "We can
not bore people into buying our product. We can only interest them
in it."
Let your copy flow. Don't be afraid to write long copy, when what
you have to say calls for long copy. People will read everything you
have to say — as long as you make it in their interest to do so. People
will stop reading as soon as you stop being interesting to them. Write
as much as you need — no more, no less — but don't give up too soon.
RATION OF ADVERTISING
Write to make friends. Write as if you were writing to a friend.
Make it easy. Four specific things to say:
193
1. This product benefits you,
2. because it has these features,

3. which work to your advantage in this way,
4. and see how easily you can get it.
Be honest and sincere. Don't argue. Keep it simple, so that anyone
can understand it. Keep hammering away at the basic idea, vividly,
with movement. Keep expressing the basic idea, again and again, in
different ways at different places in the advertisement, exploiting the
power of repetition within the copy itself.
Don't forget to ask for the order. Make it easy for your reader to
make the buying decision.
Write — and rewrite. When you have finished a draft, edit it vigor
ously. Cut out the unnecessary words, the over-ornate phrases. Make
every piece of copy you write the best piece of copy you can write.
You owe nothing less to your boss, the advertiser, and to your greater
boss, the reader.
THE COPY PLATFORM
Let one single selling idea come through clearly — the basic prom
ise of the product advertised in terms of what it will do for the man
or the woman who buys it.
The basic promise and the relevant supporting evidence of prod
uct benefits are the heart of the copy platform, a device to make sure
that effective selling arguments are marshaled in clear and logical
order before the copy is written and to evaluate it afterward. In most
instances, a copy platform consists of four statements or definitions:
1. Basic promise: one simple, short sentence that puts into a few
words the key selling idea about the product.

2. Basic audience: a definition of the customer we are trying to
reach, so that we may beam copy directly to the customer's interests.
Basic execution: word description of the spirit and tone of
194
3. a
the words and pictures used to express the basic promise.

4. Basic features: a list, in order of importance to the customer,
of the product features that prove out the basic promise.
REWARD TO THE READER
Every advertisement, because it is perceived by the human sensory

apparatus of eye and ear, must compete for attention with all the
other sense impressions we receive every day. These impressions run
into the hundreds of thousands, even on a quiet day, and perhaps
into the millions on a "busy, busy, busy day" (as the Jell-0 com
mercials once put it ) . Even more, each advertisement competes with
every other advertisement for that brief portion of our daily lives
that we are willing to spend in receiving advertising impressions.
Mr. Edward Ebel, Vice President of General Foods Corporation, once
made a computation showing that the average American family of
four received more than 1500 advertising messages, print or broad
cast, every day ! One of the secrets of meeting this kind of competi
tion in copy is the principle of involvement, making the advertise
ment so believable and so compelling that the reader actually wants
to involve himself in the advertisement to learn how he, too, can
benefit. Involvement must be followed by a reward to the reader in
return for his time and attention, as the Gallup-Robinson Impact
Studies put it. The most effective advertisements are those which
reward the reader with a promise of benefit, with specific product
information, and with clear, memorable, exciting expression so that
the advertisement will be believed, trusted, and acted upon by the
person who see or hears it.
SOME ADS DO— AND SOME DON'T
What does copy sound like when it is written to this kind of a
platform?
Some examples of how to do it are presented here in the color in
sert pages immediately following. There are more specimens on
pages 198 to 204, each with an example of the way a copywriter sets
up his manuscript for approval and for typesetting. Here is good
copy for you to analyze with your mental microscope, looking to see
how each of these examples carries out the principles of basic prom
copy structure we have been discussing.

ise and
Why aren't all advertisements this good?

There are several answers to this question. One of them is that all
too many advertising people today confuse thoughts and ideas with
techniques and gadgets. Techniques have taken possession of adver

tising. When you run short on ideas, the temptation is always to see
how clever you can make it — in other words, to resort to techniques
and devices which supply the glitter rather than the gold. Remember,
a small idea produced in full color still won't live.
Another thing that happens is that ideas get drowned in a sea of
words, in waves of superlatives, in the weird expressions which occur
nowhere in human speech or writing except in the ads. Never mistake
glittering jargon for brilliant writing. Brilliant advertising is written

in the simplest words. Its touchstones are sincerity, believability, and
warmth. It says what it has to say — and stops.
Another reason is the obsession some advertising people have that
every ad must be a new ad. Obviously, this is foolishness. Every good
advertisement is worth repeating. No one really knows how many
times an ad can be repeated before it wears out its welcome. Maxwell
House Coffee used virtually the same ad, same copy for five years —
with sensational results. When you get a good advertisement, don't be
afraid to repeat it.
Finally, some copywriters work harder than others. Some copy
critics are more astute than others. As Leo Burnett once said :
"I have learned that any fool can write a bad ad, but that it takes a
real genius to keep his hands off a good one."
When they bring good copy in for you to okay, take your stand on
the side of genius.
ADVERTISEMENTS IN COLOR (I): Copy principles illus
trated in color
CANADA DRY GINGER ALE. Pictures and captions make for

high readership, as this advertiser knows. (Courtesy Canada
Dry Corporation and J. M. Mathes Incorporated.)
RCA VICTOR TV. Combination illustration, in four-color and in

black-and-white, demonstrates the difference color TV makes.
(Courtesy Radio Corporation of America and Kenyon & Eck-

hardt, Inc. )
GENERAL ELECTRIC REFRIGERATOR-FREEZER. Dramatizing a
feature makes a selling point by means of demonstration. (Cour

tesy General Electric Company and Young & Rubicam, Inc. )
JOHN HANCOCK LIFE INSURANCE. One of the finest pieces of

copy in a series of advertisements distinguished by fine copy.
(Courtesy John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company.)
(Continued on page 197)
196
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1 '4i
x 4
AN ADVERTISEMENT FOR CAMPBELL SOUP COMPANY
Display at top:
"To make the best, begin with the best — then cook with extra care."
Main illustration:
(Woman cook measuring spices into scale)
Caption :
The woman in the picture is precision-weighing the seasoning for
CampbelFs Soups.
Main headline:
Not a grain too little not a pinch too much
Sub-headline:
Campbell has a careful way with spices
Main copy:
Not by spoonfuls or cupfuls, but by grams and ounces — that's how the
seasoning for Campbell's Soups is measured.

This way the chefs assistant can follow each recipe exactly, right
down to the light whisper of the spices.
A light hand does it

What the weighing machine doesn't tell, of course, is the "how" and
the "when" and the "where." Campbell chefs must know the quirk of
every spice and herb — and
how they get along together.
They know how to bring forward the gentle spices like paprika, how to
handle with care the strongly aromatic spices like cayenne.
They know the light overtone that sweet basil can give to tomato
sauces, the freshness that thyme gives to clam chowder.
They know which seasonings, like bay leaf, release their flavor slowly
in the simmering.
They know the precise moment to add curry powder so its delicate
overtones don't perish on the fire.
Cooking with a conscience

This is the kind of subtle spicing that the Campbell chefs use to lift
so many flavors from the Campbell Kitchens. And it's a pretty good ex
ample of the pains that Campbell takes to live by this demanding tradi
tion : "To make the best, begin with the best — then cook with extra care."
Logo:
(Campbell's Kid, assortment of Campbell products, trademark "Camp
bell's Quality")
198
frr Camfkr,
x fa tinpttuvru ^muiri-vi(tiiii tkttemfmwg
Not a grain too little. ..not a pinch too much

Campbell has a careful way zvith spices
Not by »1..k ■■lnls ur cupful*, but by gramsor
nonce*—that'show Hit -i i. m toi l m They knowthelight c lone thatvwi
Andran unfit
Soapi U - .■■■(.1 can give to tomatotau the freilin
Tnii wiy. thechef'sassistantcan followeach thymegive*to clamcho
recipeexactly,right down lu 1helight wlns|wr They know which se
ui iiic IptcCa. rc1ca»ctheirHatomblow
Around her is a \irtual "United Natiousn of They know the precis
herbsand spices; cinnamonfromCeylon,mare jiowder so ilk delicateo\
from 1heftandaIslands,and clone*from Mada- thebre.
gakcar— 33 in all. This h the kind of subtle spicing that the
Tlte "how," "when" and "where" of using Campbell ;hcf* like to lift mi manyflavorsfrom
themis an art. Campbellchefsknowthequirk* wll kitchens.Ami il'a a pretty good Soups ■ TomatoJuice * Pork & Beans
of eachoneand how theygel alongtogether. exampleof the pain* thatCatuplwlltakesto live v-8 Cocklad Vegetable
Juices
They know how to bring forwardthe gentle b\ this dcuiandiugtradition:"To maketherVk/, Franco-American Products
*pice*like paprika,him in handlewith CIre the /n"gu*mth thehit— tkrn M0J extratarc." Swonton Products,including"TV" Brand Dinners
"CAMPBELL has a wonderful way with spices" — and a
good copywriter has a wonderful way with words.

(Courtesy Campbell Soup Company.)
AN ADVERTISEMENT FOR JOHNS-MANVILLE
Main illustration:
(Husband fitting acoustical panels to ceiling as wife looks on)
Caption :
Fibretex Acoustical Panels quiet noise, cover up unsightly ceilings.

Main headline:
This new ceiling has 100,000 noise traps!
Sub-headline :
Johns-ManviUe Fibretex Acoustical Panels quiet noisy rooms . . . cost

as little as $28.56 for an average ceiling . . . New booklet tells you
how to "do-it-yourself
Main copy:
Put a ceiling on noise with Johns-ManviUe Fibretex Acoustical Panels.
Each panel is drilled in uniform or random patterns with hundreds of
noise-trapping holes that absorb up to 75% of room noise that strikes
them.
These panels come pre-painted in white, ready to use; provide a hand
some, finished ceiling. You can get them from your Johns-ManviUe
Building Materials Dealer.
A new 12-page illustrated booklet shows you how easy it is to install a
noise-quieting Fibretex ceiling. Send for your copy today.

Secondary
illustration :
( Acoustical Panel and noise-trap diagram )
Caption :
When noise strikes ordinary ceilings, it bounces back undiminished.

With Fibretex, unwanted noise is trapped in the holes and absorbed.
Logo:
(J-M trademark) JOHNS-MANVILLE
Coupon :
Send 100 (in coin) for booklet

"How to build a Fibretex Acoustical Ceiling"
Address Johns-Manville, Dept. L-4, Box 60, New York 16, N. Y.
In Canada, Port Credit, Ontario
Name .
Street
City County__ State
200
Mrs. America* installsJohns-Manvillettleftone,thenewacousticalpanelwith deep-fissured
design
Johns-Manville presents-
The famous ceiling with 100,000 noise traps

in new deep-fissured design!
Now — your choice of three beautiful acoustical panels
Rbre-one _ Kit**™ for os liHle a$ *2856 for average room-imfafl them

yourself in a weekend — new booklet shows howl
Hundreds of tiny sound traps in e\ery J-M acoustical

panel absorb up to 75°„ of the room noise that strikes
them . . . give you new peaceand quiet . . . new beauty,
' too! Choose from three distinctive patterns—new rich-
f
looking Kleftonc with deep-fissureddesign,Fibretonex
in popular standard and random-drilled patterns and
Sand10/tor booklet
onhowto builda 1
smart, perforated Decrotone Panels in printed fissure
Addren1ohm-Manvilk.Dept.S-2.
116New Montgomery Sirott,Sunf ranciKO5 design. 13-pagebooklet shows you how to put up your
own ceiling step-by-step.Send for your copy today!
Name 'Rep.U.S.Mn. America, Inc.
—.
Street -
JOHNS-MANVILLE JjJ]
ANOTHER ADVERTISEMENT in the "100,000 noise traps" campaign com

bines "reason-why" copy with a testimonial. (Courtesy Johns-Manville
and J. Walter Thompson Company.)
AN ADVERTISEMENT FOR BUICK
Display at top:
SEPTEMBER 19, BUICK PRESENTS FOR '59
Main illustration :
(Down-shot photograph of new car)

Main headline
superimposed
on photo:
THE
CAR
Main copy:
A new class of fine cars within reach of 2 out of 3 new car buyers . . .
the most beautiful Buicks ever built . . . with performance quality that
belongs to Buick alone . . . the most exciting car you will see this year!
Logo:
BUICK '59 Le SABRE INVICTA ELECTRA
the thriftiest the most the most
Buick spirited Buick luxurious
Buick
AN ADVERTISEMENT FOR LIFE SAVERS
Main illustration:
(An arrangement of 5-flavors Life Savers)
Main heading:
Please do not lick this page!
Copy:
P. S. Get 'em in the handy roll — anywhere
Logo:
(Package of 5-flavors Life Savers)
the candy with the hole — 5t
202
NEW CAR gets new advertising format as short copy replaces the long
copy traditionally used by Buick. (Courtesy Buick Motor Division, Gen
eral Motors Corporation, and McCann-Erickson, Inc.)
19.
SEPTEMBER BUICK PRESENTS FOR '59
new class of fine cars within reach of out of new

3
A
car buyers... the most beautiful Buicks ever built... with

performance quality that belongs to Buick alone .
.
.
the most exciting car you will see this year!
BUICK '59 L'8S3R[ INVICIA EliCIRA

please do not lick this page!
THE WHOLE STORY— short and sweet. (Courtesy Life

Savers, Inc., and Young & Rubicam, Inc.)
Summary
205
1. The copywriter's job: (a) to seek out ideas, and (b) to find new
and different ways to express them.
2. James Webb Young's "Technique for Producing Ideas":
a. Gather raw materials — specific product information plus gen
eral information of all sorts.
b. Think about it until your conscious mind is exhausted.
c. Let the subconscious mind take over.
d. The Idea arrives —
e. shape and develop it for practical use.
3. Advertising must appeal to the fundamental wants of human be
ings. The copywriter has the responsibility of seeing to it that the

wants appealed to are worthwhile — basic, not base, human desires.
4. The S-I-M-P-L-E formula for copy:
Stop the reader.
Interest him in your proposition.
Make him want it.
Persuade him it's right.
Lodge the argument.
Ease him into the sale.
5. Kinds of headlines
a. News, including "how to" and "case history."
b. Questions.
c. Imperatives.
d. "Good advice."
e. "Story-telling."
6. Styles of copy: Poster; Picture-sequence; "Reason-why."
7. F our specific things to cover in copy:
a. This product benefits you,
b. because it has these features,
c. which work to your advantage in this way,
d. and see how easy it is to buy.
PREPARATION OP
Words are not the only way in which ideas can be

given expression. Even before people learned to create
words as a device to communicate their ideas to other
people, they had learned the usefulness and the power
of pictures as a means to spread one man's ideas to
many men. We can see before we learn to talk. A kin

dergarten child can get an idea out of a —
picture he can
tell you what the picture means and what ideas the pic
ture suggests to him — long before he learns to read.
Pictures communicate ideas so powerfully that the old
Chinese proverb is no fortuitous phrase. One picture is
indeed often worth a thousand words.
Pictures and their uses in advertising come under the
heading of "the graphics of advertising," but the term
"graphics" includes more than this. When we talk about
206
ADVERTISING (II): Graphics
"graphics," we are referring to the following three aspects of the advertisement:

1. the pictures which give our ideas meaning — which we call advertising illus
tration;
—
2. the appearance of the words in our message which leads us to lettering and
to typography; and
3. the arrangement of pictures and words so that they work together to deliver
a unified message about a complete idea — a process which we call advertising lay
out.
When one person is given the responsibility for all of these things in connection
with an advertisement, we call him (or her) an art director. Art directors bring to
their work their basic talent for self-expression in drawing or painting, developed
to a high degree of technical skill through study in an art school or through ap
prenticeship in an art studio. The art director's job is to create ideas (just as a copy
writer does) which will move people to action, to give expression in graphic form
to the ideas created by a copywriter, and to manage, oversee, and supervise the
207
production of advertising in its finished form for print or broadcast
media. The art director does his job, with drawing board, T-square,
sketch pad, pencil, and brush, when he
1. visualizes the idea as a whole and the total appearance of the
finished advertisement as a whole in his mind as he starts to work;
2. arranges the elements to be included in the advertisement as he
makes his layout on paper;

3. creates or selects the pictures to be used in illustrating the ideas
he is working with;
4. decides on the method or technique of illustration to be used,
selecting from the many art forms, including photography, available
to him;
5. chooses the type faces and lettering styles that express the basic
idea best; and
6. supervises the work of mechanical production so that the idea
can be communicated to many people.
The small advertiser may find that he does all these things himself,
without assistance from anyone else. Or, if he is advertising in a
weekly newspaper or small daily paper, he will have the help of the
advertising solicitor, who sells the space, writes the copy, and makes
the layout. But the graphics of advertising are so important that most
newspapers of any size will provide a professional art director and a

staff to help advertisers make the most of their ideas by giving them
expression in graphic form. Many printing companies offer the serv

ices of an expert art director to advertisers for the creative work of
layout, illustration, and type selection in connection with direct mail

folders, booklets, and brochures of all kinds. As the advertiser grows
and his use of different kinds of advertising grows, he is well advised
to employ the services of an art director, either full-time as a member
of his own staff, or part-time, securing the services of a free-lance art
director or of an art studio who will work for a number of advertisers
in the community.
One of the major reasons for using an advertising agency is, of
course, to secure the services of the agency's art department, one of
the basic services which an agency provides. Here you will find
people skilled in the graphics of advertising for print and for the
209
newer advertising medium of television, for the pictures of a televi
sion commercial start with an art director, just as the words of a tele
vision commercial start with copywriter. In most larger cities indi
a
vidual artists work together in art studios, employing salesmen to

represent them to advertisers and agencies while the artists them
selves work in the graphic medium they do best and enjoy most, be it
layout, painting, drawing, lettering, or photography. These are the

illustrators, the photographers, the lettering men who paint or draw
the pictures, take the photographs, and letter the words which all are
classified under the term "finished art." Closely allied with them are
the typographers who bring their creative and mechanical skills to
the appearance of the finished advertisement in type.
V1SUAUZING
As with all communication, the graphics of advertising start in the

mind — in a mental process called visualizing.
Visualizing is acreative process. It involves the conceiving, the
"thinking up," if you will, of the picture elements which can be used
to give an idea greater expression, more meaning, more vivid impact
in the transmission of the idea from the mind of the sender (the ad
vertiser) to the mind of the receiver (the prospective customer).
Visualizing takes place in the mind. It creates ideas. It may express
these ideas in words, when a copywriter and an art director talk over
ideas and ways to give them graphic form, or when a copywriter
writes a paragraph of instructions or suggestions to the artist about
the products and people in an illustration and what he has in mind
for the subject matter of picture. Or the visualizing may take
a
graphic form, as the art director "doodles" on his sketch pad while
he thinks or while he and the copywriter talk out their ideas — making
rough sketches, little miniature drawings (called "thumb-nails"),
squiggles with a pencil that indicate lines of type, broad stroke blocks
to show where a picture will go. However, the process is primarily a
mental one, a thinking out of ideas, a thinking through of ways to
express ideas.
Thus visualizing differs from its companion creative process, which
is called layout. Layout arranges the elements which are used to give
an idea expression in pictures and in words, so that these elements
form a pleasing and harmonious unit. This process of arrangement is
also a process of selectivity, to give the greatest prominence and em
phasis to those elements which communicate the basic idea most
forcefully. As he arranges, the art director will determine how large

the words of a headline are to be, how much area will be occupied by
the illustrations, what elements need to be given special emphasis by
size, color, position, or distinctive type or lettering, what action in
the illustration makes the idea "come off" best. Thus layout is the
physical creative process which puts into graphic form the end result
of the mental creative process of visualizing.
As a "management man" you are entitled to visualize with the best
of them. As a matter of fact, the better you can visualize and commu
nicate the pictures you have in your mind to artists and art directors,
the more help you will be to these professional people who are trying
to give your ideas expression graphically. On the other hand, you will
probably never create a layout. You'll leave this to the professionals,

confining yourself (unless you have some real talent) to scribbles on
scratch paper that are really rough "roughs!" But you will often be
called upon to communicate your ideas to artists and art directors, to
express yourself in their terms, to approve layouts, photographs, and
finished art work involving hours of labor and hundreds of dollars
(yes, often thousands of dollars) of your own or your company's
money. Sometimes a layout is not quite right — the idea does not quite
come off, or the execution, you think, could be improved. You need
to know how and why, so that you can help the art director produce
the effect you want. Sometimes a layout is perfect. Again you need to
know how and why, so that you have good and valid reasons for ap
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SIMPLE LAYOUT communicates with simple demonstration, promise of

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and Foote, Cone & Belding. )
HEADLINE, illustrations, text and logotype working to
gether to project the brand image. (Courtesy Bissell
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proving it "as submitted" to you. Thus you need to be able to under
stand what art directors are trying to do for you. You need some
213
standards of judgment so that you can criticize and approve a layout
intelligently. And acquire these standards of judgment you must

to
understand some of the principles with which art directors and layout
men work.
WORKING WITH LAYOUTS
Basically, the art director starts with white space in a rectangular

shape — a magazine page, an outdoor poster, an area on a newspaper
page measured in "columns wide" by "lines deep" or "inches deep."
Even a television screen is a rectangle with rounded corners. Within
the confines of this space, the art director endeavors to project ideas
by the arrangement of elements which, at their simplest, are four in

number:
1. headline
2. illustration
3. text (or "body copy")
4. logotype, trademark, product symbol identifying the advertiser,
or several of these.
Working with these elements, the art director makes an arrange
ment to give the idea forceful expression, to project the desired image
of the brand, in a well-balanced, inviting advertisement capable of
commanding immediate attention and holding the attention once
gained so that the complete message is received and absorbed by the

it,
reader. This is a large order. The art of in Frank H. Young's words,

"consists of the ability to make an arrangement so pleasantly invit
ing to the eye, so simple, orderly and easy to read that becomes
it
practically impossible for the reader to miss and the message

it
it
conveys, or the identity of the product featured."1
From Technique
by
Advertising Layout Frank H. Young. Copyright

1
of
by
permission of Crown Publishers. Inc.

by
1935 Frank H. Young. Reprinted
The art director works with certain basic principles to accomplish
this end result. ^
The first principle is that of attention value, and we rank it first in
importance because all the others depend on it. Without some way of
capturing the reader's attention, of "stopping" the reader as he leafs
through the pages of a magazine or newspaper, of transferring the
attention he has been giving to the entertainment portion of a televi
sion program to the commercial message we now want him to receive,
nothing is going to happen to turn that reader or viewer into a cus
tomer.
Attention can be attracted in a variety of ways. The words of a
headline can attract attention by themselves if they are strong enough

words, but they are more likely to attract more attention if the art
director gives the words of the headline dominant size, shape, distinc
tion through the character of type or lettering. Pictures in an adver
tisement are often more important than the words of the headline in
attention value, and it is the art director's job to select or create pic
tures with "stopping power," pictures that reach out and say to the
reader, "See! Here's something interesting for you to look at."
Strong contrasts get attention. These contrasts may be those of

size —large masses, small masses — or they may be those of color. At
this point, we must remember that to the artist black and white are
colors, and so are varying shades of gray. When an art director pleads
with you not to clutter up his layout with coupons and boxes and
little pictures — when he asks you to give the main headline or a single
picture "room to breathe" — what he is really doing is stating the
case for contrast. One of the most powerful contrasts we can achieve
is black type on white paper, and the more white space there is the
more effective the contrast with the black type.
The use of a sequence of pictures — either in the picture magazine
style of Life or Look or in the series of cartoons that tell a story as a
comic strip does — ranks high in attention value for advertising, be

cause putting pictures in sequence reminds us of the interesting
things we have seen and learned when we have looked at a series of
ION OF ADVERTISING
There's one born every minute.. . and I'm it! Could've
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THE "EXTREME CLOSE-UP" has been particularly successful as a layout

device, especially when exaggerated facial expression makes the point of
the headline. (Courtesy State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Com
pany and Needham, Louis & Brorby, Inc. )
how to
feel cool,
comfortable
and almost
light as air.
|
Now, fashion-forerunner Hart

Schaffner& Marx presentsa plus
of eleganceby adding luxurious
silk to that famous blend of
Daeron and worsted...which
was first developed and intro
duced by HS&M. The new high
lights of silk giveanalmostfrosty
look to this season's Virasil
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indicates the way you'll feel.
And you'll stay trimly tailored,
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-
throughout every summer day.
Here is a really lightweight

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Easeinto a Virasil, andwonder
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(Her suit is by HS&M, too.)
|-
The name thatmeans

so much to so many
well-dressedmen.
BLEED PAGE with copy and headline in mortise. (Cour.

tesyHart Schaffner & Marx and Batten, Barton, Dur
stine, and Osborn, Inc.)
pictures for information or entertainment in magazines and news
papers.
We are accustomed to looking at objects with borders. The frame
of a picture on the wall is a border that focuses our attention on the
picture itself. The white margin of the page on which these words are
printed is a border that confines our attention to the words. The same
principle applies to the border of an advertisement which may be a
ruled line, a decorative frame, or a margin of white space — all of
which attract attention and focus it on the materials inside the border.
But even more powerful, sometimes, is the absence of a border — since
the thing we are so accustomed to see is not there, we look extra hard
to see why it isn't. The art director and the printer accomplish this by
a technique which is known as "bleed," in which there is no margin
on the page but the picture or block of color runs right to the edge of
the paper. (In order to do this, the printing plates are made larger
than the size of the sheet of paper on which the advertisement will be
printed. Years ago, the ink dripped off these oversize plates during
the printing, and some imaginative printer said that the plates were
"bleeding." The name has stuck. )
Another principle of layout is balance, a term the art director uses

to describe the art of composing a layout so that its elements are in a
harmonious relationship to each other and the layout as a whole is
inviting to look at. The art director chooses the kind of balance he
thinks is best suited to the product the advertisement is presenting or
to the mood and atmosphere the idea of the advertisement intends to
convey. A conservative presentation calls for formal balance, he will

say, and he will achieve formal balance by dividing his page vertically
with an imaginary central line, duplicating each mass, shape, or ele
ment that appears on one side of this line with a corresponding mass,
shape, or element on the other side of the line. His layout will be
symmetrical in its use of shapes, masses, colors. Or the art director
may feel that the product or the idea of the advertisement can be
better expressed through informal balance. Again he will divide the
page vertically with an imaginary central line, but he will achieve
balance with a large or heavy mass near the central line by placing a
smaller, more intensely colored mass on the other side of the line and
farther away from it. His layout is balanced unsymmetrically, and the
art director's term for this is asymmetrical balance, or occult balance.
Always, the art director takes into account what we know about
motion, the principle of the movement of the human eye over a
printed page. In the western world, we learn to read at an early age
and keep on reading, more or less, for the rest of our lives. Since all
western languages read from left to right, our eyes are powerfully
conditioned by the reading habit to move from left to right, even
when we are not reading but just looking. Experiments with the eye
camera —a device for photographing actual eye movements over the
printed page —by H. F. Brandt and others2 provide confirmation for

the art director's judgment when he constructs his layout to lead the
eye from left to right. The tendency, of course, is that, unless we are
concentrating on our reading ( as we do when we read a book ) , our
eyes will keep on going when we reach the right-hand margin of an
advertisement. Then we turn the page and are lost to the advertiser.
This is why the art director will try to keep his elements, particularly
in the lower right quarter of the page, facing left into the center of
the page, so that they do not act as arrows encouraging our eyes to
keep on with their rightward motion and go off the page completely.
In applying the principle of emphasis, the art director realizes that
some single element must dominate the page. He works with the copy
writer to decide which single element is most important in giving ex
pression to the idea of the advertisement. Then the art director will
use degrees of emphasis to provide a logical structure for his layout,
enabling "each unit to register in its proper sequence and assist in

leading the eye from point to point throughout the arrangement. . . .
Real emphasis is obtained, whatever the means employed, through
sparing use. Only one element or thought should dominate. A ...
common error in using color for emphasis is to use it too freely, in-
2
D. B. Lucas and S. H. Britt, Advertising Psychology and Research (New
York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1950). p. 255
ff.
RATION OF ADVERTISING
FORMAL BALANCE, used in an unusual way, moving from the girl's
glasses, to the can, the heart in the headline, the Campbell's kid, and the
logotype. (Courtesy Campbell Soup Company.)
The Tender Hearted Beans!

its
Every bean is flavored clear through to tender heart with Campbell's

bright-tasting tomato sauce. Your first forkful will tell you why Campbell's
Tender Hearted Beans are the best you ever tasted. Look for the can
with the hearts on the label. YbuU lose your heart to ...
Pork Beans by G%
g>
>«from:
■
31 Uagt
'.:
;
YOU CAN PLAY IT IN 30 MINUTES.
YOU CAN ENJOY IT FOR 30 YEARS
Imagine a complete musical instru Here's what happens at your dealer

ment so simplified that you can play You'll play a
it well the first time you try it . . . complete tune
yet so richly musical you'll still with two fingers.
One finger playa
discover new possibilities in it
the melody. One
years later. finger presses buttons to play full
chords. Hammond "Picture Music"
Imagine an organ so popular that shows exactly what to do if you don't
music publishers have issued nearly read music.
3000 song titles arranged for it alone. Easy terms: about $97.50 down and
$19.30 a month at most dealers.
Imagine an organ so exciting that
owners join clubs and attend regular
meetings just to enjoy it with others. HAMMOND CHORD ORGAN
Incredible? That's only because
the Hammond Chord Organ is the
most unusual musical instrument
of our lifetime.
Best of all, it's the key to a new

enjoyment of life for you and
your family. Prove it for yourself
at your dealer.
EMPHASIS in logical sequence of elements. Note the close-up demonstra

tion picture of the keys and hands, the space for a keyed coupon lower
right. (Courtesy Hammond Organ Company and Young & Rubicam, Inc. I
stead of concentrating it upon the most important units."3 Complex
layouts, like complex ideas, can be made simple, once their parts are
put into correct sequence by means of emphasis.
A good layout will have a unity of its own — a unity of idea and a
unity of expression of that idea. The art director conceives the lay
out as a whole, with all its parts working together, because the reader
is going to see it Spotty layouts, with many elements, pro
as a whole.
duce a cluttered effect; the reader finds no focal point at which to

start, and he turns away. To achieve unity the art director strives for
simplicity. He makes many elements into a few elements. He brings
scattered elements into a few major units. He makes the advertisement
it,
define its own space, using, as Frank Young puts "the four-point
by
principle" which some element of the advertisement touches top,

bottom, and sides of the space unit.4
by
The ways the art director applies these principles are limited
size, color, and illustration. Here you, as management man, come
a
into the picture. The number of dollars you have to spend and the
way you propose to divide them up in the amount of advertising you
will have and the frequency with which you want to use specific ad
vertisements determine, to very large extent, the size of the adver
a
tisement. Will you concentrate your dollars into few large advertise
a
ments in order to achieve the dominant effect of size? Research tends

to show that two-page spread in magazine gets two-and-a-half
a
times as much recall as single page. Or will you go the route of

a
smaller space and more frequent insertions in order to get your prod
uct and its benefits before more readers oftener? Your advertising ob
jectives are going to determine the size in which your art director
must deliver your advertising message.
What about color? Adding single color to a black-and-white page
a
runs the cost up about fifteen per cent. In many publications, full-
a
color advertisement costs one-third more than black-and-white ad

a
vertisement. Preparation costs for art and engravings for color can be
Young. Technique Advertising Layout,

3
of
45.
p.
Ibid., pp. 74-78.

4
PREPARATION OF ADVERTI
many times the costs for black-and-white. But again, research shows
222 that a four-color advertisement gets two-and-a-half times as much
recall as a black-and-white advertisement of the same size. Will you
use color to get greater recall with less frequency, or will you use
black-and-white to let your advertising dollars buy more space over a
longer time? The answers to these questions are management deci
sions. Your art dirctor can guide and counsel. He cannot make these
decisions for you, however. Yours is the decision, and you stand or
fall by the results.
WORKING WITH PICTURES
Your advertising objectives will also determine the way in which

your art director will illustrate your advertisements. Pictures in ad
vertising are intended to illustrate something— a product, how the
it,
product is used, the benefits that come from using service the
a
product delivers, or state of mind the product produces.
If
the pic
a
tures don't illustrate, they don't communicate— they fall down on

their job of giving the idea of the advertisement visual expression.
Picture, headline, and text must work together. They must reinforce
each other. The words must say what the picture shows, and the pic
ture must demonstrate what the words say. They must all work to the
same idea — the idea that going to impel the reader to do what you
is
want him to do. This why the pictures your art director creates
is
the objectives of your advertising. Your re

by
must be determined
sponsibility as an art critic — as the man who pays the bills — to

is
make the decision as to whether the illustration actually carries for

ward the idea of the advertisement in the most meaningful way.
Of course the illustration must do its part in stopping the reader,
in getting his attention. But the illustration must also be relevant to
the product and to the idea of the advertisement, so that can help
it
select out of the great mass of readers those who can be turned into
customers, right now. One of the easiest ways to get attention to
is
picture a pretty girl— and the fewer clothes she is wearing the more
attention the picture gets. But if the product we are selling is spark 223
plugs, oT hammers, or house paint, the viewers we get for the pretty
girl are not necessarily converted into readers for our advertising
message. The illustration must be relevant; it must increase the
it,
reader's interest in the product, intensify his desire to own
it,
per
suade him to want and contribute to the buying decision.
Pictures do this best when they demonstrate, in some way, what
the product and what can do. They can show the product itself,
is
it
to familiarize people with and what looks like —

major adver
it
it
a
tising objective, as we have noted. They can bring a relevant part of
product into sharp focus in the reader's mind, when dramatizing
a
a
detail of the product also dramatizes product benefit. They can
a
show the product in use — in the lives of people who are using — in
it
some form of visual demonstration. They can show how the product
will
it,
it,
it,
looks in setting where the reader see touch work with
a
make use of — as means of persuading him to buy and enjoy its

it
it
a
benefits.
Pictures can demonstrate the tests of a product. They can show
why has long life. They can show how feels soft and supple to the
it
it
touch. They can make the taste buds tingle and our mouths start to
water as we see the good eating of tart apple or juicy steak. They
a
can show the benefits of using product — nice white teeth — or the
a
results of not using product — the dentist's chair and his whirring
a
drill. They can diagram for us how product works. Or they can
a
symbolize for us — very important element of illustration, since we

a
are conditioned to think in symbols — the flag, the Red Cross, the
white coat of the doctor, the space helmet that says exploration, the
cap-and-gown that symbolize Commencement Day.
The art director's job to choose these pictures for us and to have
is
by
them executed the technique that makes them most meaningful

to most readers. Our job jsjot to criticize technique but to criticize
meaning. Does this picture communicate the idea about our product
that we want to convey?
Which skin problems
do you "put up with"?
j J Ammoniadiaperraah Sharing ellaJe llchn andpriddet
f~l burning Jert Q Girdle chaje Hcatra*
Get sure relief ! Get the powder

with dual-antiseptic action!
Johnson's Medicated Powder— with
two antiseptics— offers truly effective
relief from all these skin irritations.
Johnson's "dual -antiseptic action"
destroys more kinds of harmful skin
bacteria than other medicated pow
ders—promotes healing instantly. Reg SEE HOW PHOTOGRAPHS create
ular use prolongs protection for hours.
Extra -absorbent formula. It quickly situations into which reader can
dries, soothes and freshens. Silky,
pleasant, safe even for sensitive skin. project himself, in answering ques
Be sure to get Johnson's for your tion asked by the headline. (Cour
family. Tests prove it's the most effec
tive medicated powder you can buy. tesy Johnson & Johnson.)
new Johnson's Medicated Powder

The manner in which picture communicates is its technique. Re-
a
gardless of the idea, the art director or artist presents the picture to us
225
for approval in the form that he calls "finished art." This may be a
photograph — in black-and-white or in color. It may be a cartoon, or
it may be a series of cartoons — a comic strip. It may be a simple
drawing in India ink or the combination of pen strokes and brush
strokes that the artist calls "line and wash." It may be an oil painting
in full color by a distinguished artist whose fee is several thousand
dollars.
Here again, the art director needs to know the objectives of our ad
vertising before he can decide on the technique to be used. The tend
ency today is toward realism in presentation
—real people doing real
things with real products in real situations. We try to create pictures
of situations that the reader can project himself into, because this in
creases the opportunity for the reader to understand how readily our
product can fit into his life. Here photography comes into its own.
The growing skill of photographers has meant that we use photo
graphs more and more to illustrate ideas in which realism is the key.
The magnificent collection of photographs selected by Edward Stei-
chen for the Museum of Modern Art1" has given us a whole new idea
of what the camera can do in the way of expressing and communi
cating ideas and feelings.
On the other hand, a diagram may be more real than a photograph
in demonstrating how our product works, and we will call on an artist
to draw it for us. The idea we want to convey may not be capable of
being photographed — as outer space is not — and we have an artist

paint it for us. The mood of the idea may be important, and a paint
ing may convey a mood in a more meaningful way —capturing for
us what the artist sees inDior gown, a tropical beach, or the curve
a
of a hand holding a fountain pen. A cartoon may exaggerate a facial

expression or a situation in a way that a photograph would never be
able to do.
5 Edward Steichen, The Family of Man (New York, Museum of Modern Art,
1955).
r-o-c-e-a- T-TT -
we 11
cars big
-
Why are our American - -- - - - for

and broad-shouldered? Look A-th
-livin
other-B-M-li
at
again the picture. Our cars C
station wagons
--
Ford |-11-leth
meet America's special needs. Il-11
is
-Ple andthin The -ple fact -

*-i- andfourP-T de
-- with-Well-in-li
incredible cargo -all for hel -a
meetin-the rae -es can soad deasada-ca
line-la tri-le-the -driving-hin FORD MOTOR COMPANY
|--|--|--|--
in
-
Th-i- theb |- -
bu-kyFord-lati-for-hati-led in
of
-ble
- - -M- - -
F-55-rth The Ford Family Fine Cars
-
*O-O--D-E -D-S-L --- ---

in
- of theb-f-line-ple. -
ExcEPTIONALLY FINE matching idea, illustration, and headline—all

of
all
of
in
working together one the most fascinating advertisements time.
&
(Courtesy Ford Motor Company and Kenyon Eckhardt, Inc.)

There are few rules to guide us here. Such research as we have
available tends to say that we ought to show the product in use when
227
possible, with people when possible, in photographs when possible.
Then some courageous art director teams up with a courageous ad
vertiser to produce an advertisement built around a painting, and the
result is so good we wish we had had the courage to do it that way.
Perhaps the best advice is to find a good art director and depend on
his judgment. He will very seldom let you down.
WORKING WITH TYPE
In an advertising agency, it is the art director's responsibility to

choose the type styles and the lettering styles in which the words of
our advertisement will appear. If we do not have an agency or if we
are working directly with a printer or a typographer, we may be mak
ing decisions on the selection of type faces ourselves. Such rules as
we have say that certain type faces are better than others because
they are easier to read. Yet we know that the very style of type can
convey mood and meaning, that the size and character of lettering can
influence the effectiveness with which the idea of an advertisement is
communicated. While the judgment of a good art director or printer
can be a most efficient guide, we need to know something about typog
raphy in order to communicate our own ideas more clearly and to

establish some standards by which we can judge the recommenda
tions of those who are working with us.
When we start to talk about typography with an art director, a
printer, or a typographer, we realize instantly that we have to learn a
new language. The language of typography uses many words that are
familiar to us, but it gives these words special meanings in connec
tion with the printing process. We need to understand these meanings
if we are to understand clearly what the typographer is trying to tell
us and if we are to tell the typographer what we want him to do in
carrying out our advertising objectives.
ADVERTISEMENTS IN COLOR (II): Layout principles ill
trated in color
VOLKSWAGEN. Pure poster — and a good one. The strong re

flection of the German origin of the car in the Germanic poster
art strengthens the brand image. (Courtesy Volkswagen of
America, Inc.)
WASHINGTON STATE APPLES. A fine combination of a cartoon

with photography adds spark to the headline and copy. ( Cour
tesy Washington State Apple Advertising Commission and Cole
& Weber.)
MINNEAPOLIS-HONEYWELL REGULATORS. An art director's

inspiration — ear-muffs, snow-shaped house, and the product it
self, all backstopping the headline. (Courtesy Minneapolis-
Honeywell Regulator Company and Foote, Cone & Belding. )
LIFE SAVERS. "poster" advertisement — with

A fine example of a
a sense of humor. (Courtesy Beech-Nut Life Savers, Inc., and
Young & Rubicam, Inc.)
228
It's money in the bank
n IB 1
Delicious decision . . .
does Caramel win. . .or does Mint win?
Well, you can't lose. Make your own delicious
decision between creamy milk chocolate
thick around the caramel . . . deep, dark,
sweet chocolate thick around
the mint. Next move's yours.
To the candy counter. 10^.
MARS makes them
Marsettes.
from Candyland by
©1959, Man Inc., Chicago 35, III.
\
ADVERTISEMENTS IN COLOR (II): Layout principles illus
trated in color
MORTON SALT. An animated

demonstration gets an added
spark from cartoon animals. Note that the product containers
demonstrated are actual size. (Courtesy Morton Salt Company
and Needham, Louis & Brorby, Inc.)
LEES CARPETS. A happy combination of product realism in car
pet illustration, with charming fantasy in picturing a reader's
state of mind, provides unusual graphic solution to the layout
problem. (Courtesy James Lees and Sons Company and N. W.

Ayer & Son, Inc.)
SPANISH GREEN OLIVES. "New way to eat 'em"— the serving

suggestion and recipe follow through on the illustration and
headline. (Courtesy the Commission for Spanish Green Olive
Advertising and McCann-Erickson, Inc.)
MARS CANDY. The tic-tac-toe idea brings high reader interest;

the candy makes for high reader participation. (Courtesy Mars,
Inc., and Knox-Reeves Advertising, Inc. )
229
The language of typography started with the invention of printing
some five hundred years ago. It has its roots in German, Italian, and
the Middle-English that Chaucer wrote and that Caxton, the first great
English printer, used when he set The Canterbury Tales in type in

the year 1478. The specialized meanings that the language of typog
raphy developed then have changed very little in five centuries. You
must remember, too, that only fairly recently have units of measure
ment become standardized- — in miles, yards, feet, and inches in Eng
land and the English-speaking countries, in kilometers, meters, and
centimeters on the continent of Europe and in lands colonized by the
French and the Spanish. Thus typography uses units of measurement
which are peculiar to the business of printing, and these units were
standardized not too long a time after the length of a yard in England
was the distance from King Henry I's nose to the end of his thumb.
Even today, generations after the invention of movable type, much
of the type used for advertising is put together ("composed" is the
printer's word for it ) as it was years ago, by hand, one letter at a time.
The man who does this is called a compositor. He holds in his left
hand a metal frame called a composing stick and puts into it with his
right hand the letters he selects from the type case. The type case is a
box with compartments in it for every letter of the alphabet and every
punctuation mark. The lower part of the case once held the small
letters — which is why the printer still calls them "lower case" — and
the upper part of the case once held the capital letters — which is why
the printer still calls them "upper case." Today a piece of advertising
copy, or the words for a booklet or brochure, will probably be set

mechanically, on a machine which has a keyboard like a typewriter
(only the arrangement of the letters is different). When the composi
tor presses a key, the machine casts a letter in metal from a mold
("matrix" is the printer's word) and assembles the casting, letter by

letter, into a line. This machine is called a Monotype. With other ma
chines, the compositor can compose and cast a whole line of type at a
time (the name for this line is a "slug"). These machines are called
Linotypes or Intertypes. Still another machine, the Ludlow, casts
slugs from matrices which have been set by hand in composing stick.
231
a
All type has two basic characteristics, its body and its face.
The body of a type is its size, measured by the height of the letters
(1,
that the type will print, from the top of the tallest letters k) to
h,
the tails of the descending letters . This height measured
is
g,
p,
y
)
(
in "points." of an inch. 72-point type
A
point approximately
is
Vt2
prints capital letter which about inch high; 36-point, V2 inch;
is
a
1
inch; 6-point, inch. Many types are available in sizes
*4
18-point,
from points to 144 points.
5
The face of its design character, its style, its appearance.

is
type
a
Type faces have names to identify them, just as you do. Some well-
known type names are Caslon, Bodoni, Bauer, Garamond, Goudy, and
these are the names of men, the men who actually designed these type
faces hundreds of years ago or just few years ago. Other names are
a
derived from the character of the type itself — Nubian, for example,
very heavy and black; Venus looks like an inscription on Greek
is
a
statue; Wedding Text looks like an invitation to wedding. There
a
are about six thousand type faces; typographer will have several
a
hundred in stock, good printer may have almost as many, and
a
a
daily newspaper may have twenty or more. Here are some examples:
BALLOON BOLD Century Expanded Garamond
Baskerville Cheltenham Bold Girder Medium

r^fyernliavd (Cursive Cloister Bold Italic Qoudy Bold Italic
BERNHARD MODERN Cooper Black Lydian
Bodoni Ultra Corvinus Medium
Bookman
Playbill
Caledonia flash Times Roman
CARTOON LIGHT Futura Demi-Bold Typewriter
Type faces, like people, are grouped into tribes and families. The
tribes of type have certain characteristics in common. Some types
have feet and ears, like this letter T. These feet and ears are called
"serifs," and types which have them are called "serif types."
Some types, like this letter T, do not have them and are called "sans
serif types," meaning without serifs. Sans serif types are also called
"Gothic" types, and there is a whole tribe of them. The families of
type are those faces within a tribe which have been designed to go to
gether. All the Bodoni types (and there are at least sixteen of them)
are quite obviously members of the same family. So are all the Cas-
lons (at least twenty -three members of this family).
The design characteristics of a type include its weight and its
width. Some types are blacker than others, so we say that they have
more weight. For example, here are four faces from a related type
family, all 14-point, but of greatly varying weight:
Advertising Bodoni Book
Advertising Bodoni Regular

Advertising Bodoni Bold
Advertising Bodoni Ultra
Some type faces are wider than others of the same size. For example,
this line of Cheltenham Bold Extended

is much wider than
this line of Cheltenham Bold Extra Condensed
even though both are 14-point and the second line has six more letters
in it than the first.
ION OF ADVERTISING
The width of the type face obviously determines how many letters
can be set in a line, and the width of the line determines to a large ex
233
tent how easy or how hard a given type face is to read. The printer
measures both these widths in "picas." A pica is 12 points, or % of
an inch, and a line of type 3 inches wide measures 18 picas.
What the typographer and the printer are trying to do with all
these sizes, faces, and measurements is to make advertising easy to
read. How they do it is explained in this way in a handbook published
by the Advertising Typographers Association of America, Inc.:
Easy readability has its strict laws, but it will in time become instinc
tive with its devotees.
It means first of all a good use of a very few good type faces, and
usually the use of only one face family in each job. It means an under
standing of line-width as it affects readability, of word spacing and line
spacing and paragraph spacing, and use of white areas and the exercise
of feeling for emphasis and accent.6
Here are some of the simple rules these typographers recommend:

1. The ideal line width is about 40 lower case letters of the face
you are using.

2. Experiments have shown that our eyes read in jumps of several
words at Therefore the spacing between words and the spacing
a time.
between sentences should allow the eye to read several words, with
out crowding or without being too loose.
3. Lower case letters are far easier to read than upper case (capi
tal) letters.
4. Letters with serifs are easier to read than letters without serifs.
Lines of type are easier to read if the space between them (the
5.
printer calls this "leading" ) is equal to the space between the words
in the line, and paragraphs of type are easier to read if there are two
or three points more leading between paragraphs than there are be
tween lines. When paragraphs are indented, they are easier to read.
6
Don Herold, ATA Advertising Production Handbook (New York, Advertis
ing Typographers Association of America. 1947). p. 15.
Always remember the principle of contrast
— use white space
234
6.
liberally.
Do you feel alittle confused by all this? Well, don't be. Typogra
phy is a whole profession in itself. And the old-time printer who de
voted his life to it had a simple rule-of-thumb — "when in doubt, stick
to Caslon." What he meant was that within a well-designed type fam
ily, like Caslon, he would find enough variety of style, all clean, all
highly readable, to produce a good effect on almost any job. All you
have to do is find a good printer. Then trust him.
PRINTING PROCESSES
The message of your company — in pictures and in type — is pro

duced so that thousands of people can read it by means of printing.
In the simplest terms, printing is a way of transferring
printing sur a
face to many sheets of paper through the medium of ink. There are
many processes that do this. But, as a management man, unless you

get printer's ink in your blood at an early age and make a sort of
hobby of knowing about printing (as many advertising men and
management men do ) , what you need to know is that there are three
principal printing processes, each of which produces a slightly dif

ferent effect. Your interest in them may very possibly be limited to
what they are and what effects they produce, so that you will have
some idea of how your advertising message is going to look when it is
printed. The basic processes are these:

1. Letterpress printing. In this process, ink is transferred from a
raised surface to the paper. Type, photoengravings, and electrotypes

are examples of raised surfaces. The effect is very clean, sharp, with
strong contrasts. Most books, most magazines, most advertisements

are produced by this method.
2. Intaglio printing, which will be better known to you as roto
gravure or photogravure printing. In this process, "ink is placed on
a plate, then wiped off the general area [the raised surfaces] of the
plate, but left in the depressions — then sucked from these depressions
by the paper which receives the impression."7 The picture sections of
the Sunday newspaper, some magazines, many mail-order catalogs
are produced by this method. The effect is that of softness. It has the
great advantage of economy when you want to distribute several
hundred thousand or several million copies.
3. Planographic printing. In this process, words and pictures are
laid out and drawn on perfectly level surface of stone or metal.

a
Parts of the surface which are not to print are coated with a substance
which attracts water. Water is then applied and retained on these
parts. Then greasy inks, which are repelled by the water, are used to
print the other surfaces. This method produces beautifully soft and
subtle effects. The artist uses them in lithography. You'll find them
most often in direct mail advertising, in fine catalogs and brochures,
often from the process called offset lithography. Offset is a branch of
planographic printing in which the ink is transferred from plate to an

intermediate rubber roller and thence to the paper.
Each of these methods has its own advantages, depending on the
effects you desire, and its own limitations, depending in part on ef
fects and in part on costs and number of copies to be produced.
Again, your best guides to achieving what you want are a good art
director, a good advertising production man, a good engraver, a good
printing house. And don't forget your own good taste — that sixth
sense of the fitness of things that marks the good advertising man.
7 Ibid., p. 15.
236 s»"»^
1. The term "graphics" as used in advertising means:

a. Pictures: advertising illustration.
b. Appearance of words: typography and lettering.

c. Arrangement of pictures and words: advertising layout.
2. Visualizing is a creative process of seeing pictures and advertise
ments mentally and being able to communicate these mental pic
tures to others. Layout is the art of carrying out visualizing by ar
ranging the elements of an advertisement in a harmonious whole.

3. The elements which layout arranges— in white space in a rectan
gular shape — are basically:

a. headlines,
b. illustrations,
c. text,
d. logotype.
4. In making a layout, the art director works with the principles of
attention value, balance, eye motion, emphasis, and unity, applied
to size, color, and illustration.
5. Picture, headline, and text must work together. They must rein
force each other. The picture must show what the headline says.
The headline must say what the picture shows.
6. "When in doubt, stick to Caslon."
7. The best friends an advertiser ever had are a good art director, a
good typographer, a good engraver, and a good printer.
For further reading
237
If you want to explore this field in greater depth, here are some
suggestions:
Frank H. Young, Technique of Advertising Layout (New York, Covici-

Friede, 1935).
Richard S. Chenault, Advertising Layout (New York, Heck-Cattell
Publishing Company, Inc., 1946).
E. de Lopatecki, Advertising Layout and Typography (New York, The
Ronald Press Company, 1952).
Don Herold, ATA Advertising Production Handbook (New York, Ad
vertising Typographers Association of America, Inc., 1947) .
Thomas Blaine Stanley, The Technique of Advertising Production

(Englewood Cliffs, N. J., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954).
ADVERTISING
MEDIA
The means by which one man's ideas are transmitted
to the minds of millions of people almost simultaneously
are, in this year of the twentieth century, the physical
channels of mass communications. In advertising, we
have a special term for these channels. Speaking of
them collectively, we call them "advertising media."
Speaking of them individually, we call each one an "ad

vertising medium." Newspapers and magazines, radio
and television, outdoor posters and direct mail, taken
together, are "advertising media," and each of them

alone is an "advertising medium."
These are the carriers of advertising, the physical
devices through which an audience is provided for an
advertising message. Anything that can take a message
from a man who has a product or service to sell to a
238
and Now to Use Them
prospective customer for that product or service is an advertising medium. Match-

book covers are an advertising medium, and so are calendars, blotters, catalogs,
premiums on the inside of cereal boxes, and the fronts, backs, and sides of the out
side of those boxes. Movie films and color slides can be used for advertising. So
can point-of-sale displays. And we must not overlook one of the most important
media of all — the
word-of-mouth advertising that goes on constantly when men and
women tell each other about products they like. But all these, while well worth our
serious attention, are usually considered as supporting media to the main channels
of mass communication which provide an audience for our advertising. Because
they are collateral to the major channels of reaching the mass market, they are
often called the "collateral media" or simply "collateral."
Thus, when an advertising man talks about "media," he is generally talking
about some combination of: magazines, newspapers, outdoor billboards, trans
portation advertising, direct mail, radio, television — the media of mass communi
cation.
239
Each of these media has ability to deliver an audience for
240
a proved
an advertising message. Each audience is slightly different in its
composition, and the interest of each audience in advertising is, to

a or less degree, coincidental. People buy newspapers and
greater
news magazines to become informed about events — not necessarily to
read advertisements.They buy fiction magazines to be entertained.
They read business papers to learn more about how to conduct their
businesses better and to do a better job on the job. They listen to the
radio and look at television to be amused, or entertained, or informed
— not necessarily to hear and see the advertising messages we call
"commercials." The skill of the copywriter and the art director are
required to convert the attention of the audience of the medium into
readers and hearers and viewers of advertising messages — while the
skill of the media buyer is devoted to matching up the audiences of
media to the ideas which copy and layout and illustration will present,
in order to deliver an advertising message to the greatest possible
number of prospective customers at the lowest possible cost.
MEDIA SELECTION
If every advertiser had an unlimited number of dollars to spend

on advertising, the selection of advertising media would be no prob
lem. It wouldn't be very much fun either. The excitement — and the
importance — of media selection is based on the assumption that no
advertiser has unlimited funds. Thus the advertiser (and the media
department of his advertising agency ) have to do a creative job of
media selection — a creative job that is just as important to the suc
cess of an advertising program as the creative work of copy, visualiz
ing, and layout. The true art of media-buying is the art of selecting
media so skillfully that the audience contains the greatest possible
number of prospective customers who can be influenced by an ad
vertising message — the art of selecting media so creatively that each
dollar spent for space or time will do the work of a dollar and a
ADVERTISING MEDIA
quarter or more spent by less skillful or less creative competitors.
Every problem in the selection of media is a problem in the selec
241
tion of audience.Every media buyer is constantly confronted with
"the misery of choice." Because each medium has a different audi
ence, we have to learn to make choices within each major media
grouping. We have to learn to choose among the major media. We

have to try to make creative combinations of the various media to
get the most for our investment in space, time, and talent. The more
skillfully we can do this, the farther our dollars go.
This is no easy job. We have no set formula which readily de
termines how we can do this job of audience selection. We have all
too few bench marks against which we can measure the number of
prospective customers in the total audience of any given medium and

the kind of people these prospective customers are. Here again, we
are working with judgment — judgment based in part on audience re
search, in part on experience in solving similar problems of audience
selection in the past, and in part on sheer creativity in developing a
new combination of media to deliver a new and larger and more in
tensely interested audience for our advertising message.

We depend on audience research to tell us how many people are
in the audience of any given advertising medium. We look to audi
ence research to tell us, if it can, how many of these people are likely
to be prospects for the product or service we have to sell. And we also
expect audience research to tell us what kind of people these are.

These three factors give us some basis for making a decision as to the
probability that the dollars we spend in this medium will bring us the
dollars of sales volume or the change in people's attitudes or opinions
that we hope to achieve by advertising.
THE COST PER THOUSAND FORMULA
Each of these factors must be considered in relation to how much

the advertising costs. To give us figures that are easy to use and to
ADVERTISING MEDIA
enable us to make cost comparisons of one medium against another,
J^/^^
the professional media buyers have developed a concept which is
known as cost per thousand of circulation. This is not a perfect
yardstick, but it is a basic one. It is also the best one developed to
date, and it is therefore very widely used. What the cost per thou
sand concept says is that, if we can reduce the gross costs of ad
vertising in a number of media to a kind of lowest common denomi
nator in terms of the cost of reaching one thousand readers or lis
teners or viewers, we can then make comparisons between magazines,
radio, television, and any other medium, against a common base.
The way to determine cost per thousand is very simple. Simply
divide the cost of the space ( or time ) by the total audience ( the cir
culation of a magazine or newspaper or the number of television
sets said to be tuned to a given program at a given time ) , reducing
the total audience figure to thousands by dropping off the last three
zeros. Thus, the cost per thousand black-and-white page in
for a
The Saturday Evening Post is the dollar cost of page ($18,145) di

vided by the average net paid circulation of the Post (4,650,000)
expressed in thousands (4,650), which equals a cost per thousand of
1
$3.92. Expressed in a mathematical formula, it looks like this:
Cost in dollars $18,145

= Cost per thousand, or = $3.92.
1 a ^rn
Circulation in thousands 4,650
Obviously, we could carry this out to a "cost per copy" or a "cost per
home" figure, but since it is easier to think of $3.92 as the cost per
thousand rather than .00392 as the cost per copy or per home, we
use the cost per thousand. The expression works equally well for
television. The cost of any program (the cost of time plus the cost
of talent and production) can be divided by the number of homes
reached (in thousands) to obtain the cost per thousand homes. Note
that in neither case do we obtain a cost per thousand readers —or a
1 Both
costs and circulations of most advertising media have been increasing
rapidly for the last several years. These figures may be out of date by the
time you read them, but this does not affect the principle.
ADVERTISING MEDIA
cost per thousand television viewers. Nobody is really quite sure ex
actly how many readers there are for each copy of a magazine or
newspaper. Nobody knows exactly how many people may be gathered
around a in any single home for any single program.
television set
The "cost per thousand of circulation" or the "cost per thousand

television sets in use" is about as precise as we can get with the
measurements available to us at the present time.
We also said that we are interested not only in how many people
are in the audience (the total gross circulation figures give us some
indication of this) but also in what kind of people they are. This is
a basic factor in media selection in relation to cost. We may say that
most of the management men of large construction companies are

successful business men. Successful business men are likely to read
Time. A black-and-white page in Time costs $9,680. The circulation
is 2,000,000. The cost per thousand of circulation for Time is $4.84.
Yet this circulation of Time includes successful doctors, successful
lawyers, successful retailers, successful druggists — who are never
going to buy a large and expensive piece of earthmoving equipment.
If our market is construction men only and if there are only 39,969
construction men and if all of them read Time, then the cost per thou
sand construction men for Time is about $242. This is fairly expen
sive, especially when we can reach those 39,969 construction men
through a business publication, Construction Methods and Equip
ment, devoted specifically to the interests of construction men, with
a black-and-white page cost of $760, a circulation of 39,969, and a
cost per thousand of $19. Thus, we learn very quickly that big cir
culation is not the only factor in the selection of media; the kind and
the quality of the circulation are of major importance, too.
We cannot put our media buyer in a room full of circulation figures
and give him the total number of dollars we have to spend and expect
him to do a job of media selection that makes very much sense. We
have to give him the whole story of our advertising objectives, of
To continue the example above
what we expect our advertising to do.
of advertising heavy earthmoving equipment, if we are selling a spe
ADVERTISING MEDIA
f°r
244 specific use to audience of
C'^C P'CCe °^ ^"ip™611* a a specific
construction men, the objectives of our advertising program may limit
us to one or more specific business publications. On the other hand,
we know that public works officials, bankers, corporate executives,
members of county and state governmental bodies, and even highly
vocal taxpayers can influence the purchase of a brand of construction
equipment. These people may or may not read a particular business
publication. They are very likely to be Time readers. So the objec

tives of our advertising program are going to influence the media buy
ing decision.
. The media buyer must be able to consider the prospective cus
tomers for our product in terms of age, sex, and geographical loca
tion, for these factors determine what magazines people read and
what television programs they look at. He wants to know if there is
a seasonal factor involved in the sale of our product, so that he can
follow the cold weather from north to south, with advertising in news
papers and spot radio, if our product is antifreeze, or from south to
north, if we are selling room air conditioners. He will keep up with
economic trends nationally and locally, with a careful eye on the Cost
of Living Index of the U.S. Department of Labor, which is a good
indicator of how much people are spending for the essentials of food,
clothing, and shelter, and how much discretionary buying power they
have left to buy hi-fi sets, outboard motors, and swimming pools.
Most of all, he is collecting specific information about the media
themselves and the kind of people they reach to bring his knowledge
and his judgment to bear in creating new combinations —new ways
to reach people through advertising more effectively. What are some
of the things he wants to know?
MAGAZINES
One of the major media available to us for the delivery of an ad
vertising message is the magazine. Many a great advertising success
ADVERTISING MEDIA
story has been based on the use of magazines as the primary adver
tising medium or the only advertising medium involved.
The fundamental principle involved here — and one of the basic
reasons why magazines are considered first by many astute media
buyers — is that of audience selection. Perhaps more than any other

major medium, magazines help us to select with great accuracy the
kind of audience for an advertising message that is most likely to be
turned into a large group of prospective customers for the product or
service advertised. —
People buy magazines for a specific purpose to
read about things that are of specific interest to them. Magazine
editors design and edit their publications to meet this purpose— to
provide their readers with informative and entertaining material re
lated to their specific interests. Each magazine selects its own audi
ence (or, conversely, people in the audience select the magazine that
is edited with their interests in mind ) . We can find out very easily
what kind of people make up this audience. Knowing this — knowing
what kind of audience the magazine has pre-selected for us — we can
choose those magazines that reach the greatest number of people who
are likely to be interested in our particular product or service. We can
beam our advertising to them more specifically, more accurately,
more successfully — because we know the kind of people they are
and because they are more likely to respond to advertising they see
within a familiar frame of reference, catering to their specific, per
sonal interests.
On this basis, we can begin to make some classifications of maga
zines by editorial content. Note that here we do not mean the "con
tents of the editorial page," the part of the publication reserved for
the editors to express their personal opinions, ideas, or views upon
issues of the day. When an advertising man talks about "editorial
content" he means the kind of articles, the kind of fiction, the kind
of pictures, the kind of reader service departments and features in
cluded in the total reading matter of the magazine and selected by
the editors of the magazine as attractive to and suited to the audience
the magazine is designed to seek out.
"I wish Grandma would call me today"
"I miss her a lot since she went of town? Why not call them by
back home. Mommy likes to talk Long Distance right now? You can
to her, too." talk over the family news— and
Do some of your folks live out enjoy a wonderful visit together.
BELL TELEPHONE SYSTEM

Call by Number. It's Twice as Fast.
AUDIENCE SELECTION at work. (Courtesy American

Telephone & Telegraph Company and N. W. Ayer & Son,
Inc.)
From of editorial content, we can easily recognize that
a study
some magazines select a general audience of men and women. The
big circulation "general" magazines, like The Saturday Evening Post,

Life, and Look, reach about equal numbers of men and women. The
so-called "shelter" magazines, like Better Homes & Gardens, The
American Home, House Beautiful, and House & Garden, also reach
an audience in which men and women are represented in about equal
numbers, but here we can see the principle of audience selection
coming into play. The shelter magazines select an audience of people

who are primarily interested (while they are reading these specific
magazines ) in their homes — either the homes they now have or the
homes they hope to have some day. And a study of the editorial con
tent of the shelter magazines reveals other interesting information to
us. We can see that the people who read Better Homes & Gardens and
The American Home are likely to be in the "middle majority" of all
the people in this country, interested in suburban living, back-yard
cookery, basic problems in design and color in room interiors, and

education for their children in the primary grades and high schools.
The editorial content of House Beautiful and House & Garden would
indicate to us that the men and women who read these magazines are
probably older, have much more disposable income to spend on
larger houses with more imposing grounds, have much more sophis
ticated tastes in interior decoration, and are concerned with the se
lection of colleges for their children to attend. Similarly, the "news"
magazines, among them Time, Newsweek, and U. S. News & World
Report, attract a general audience of men and women, but (because
interest in national and international news appears to be a function
of education ) these magazines select an audience with more years of
education and hence more disposable income than the more "gen
eral" magazines. Interest in these magazines is specific, too, and we
can get some indication of the different political affiliations, varying
attitudes toward governmental policies, divergent opinions about in
ternational affairs on the part of the readers of these magazines
(which helps us uncover their possible attitudes toward what we say
ADVERTISING MEDIA
about our products when we advertise in these magazines ) by a study
of editorial content.
Some magazines seek out an audience primarily of women or ex
clusively of women. This grouping includes not only the "women's
service" magazines, like Ladies' Home Journal and Woman's Day,
and the "women's
fashion" magazines like Vogue and Harper's
Bazaar, but also the women's fiction or "romance" magazines, like
True Story, the "fan" magazines of movies and television, and
"hobby" magazines that run from Modern Needlecraft to The Girl
Scout Leader. Each selects particular kind of audience.
a
So do magazines devoted to the interests of men. The men's fiction
magazines, like Argosy and True, sports magazines, like Sports Il
lustrated, hobby magazines for photography and wood working,
men's fashion magazines like Esquire, are all exercising the principle
of audience selection. In this area, even more selective are the bus
iness magazines — publications men read in order to further their
careers or professions.
Even young people's magazines are selective — from comic books,
up through the Boy Scout and Girl Scout publications, to the special
interest magazines for girls, like Charm, Seventeen, and Mademoi
selle.
Once we know what kind of people are in the audience the maga
zine has selected for us, then we want to know how many people there
are in this audience, how old they are, how much education they
have, how much income they receive annually, and where they are
geographically. We need to have this information so that we can
begin to match up the audience of the magazine to the distribution
pattern of our product and to the marketing plans we have for that
product. The publishers of magazines furnish us this information —
partly as a service to us, and partly in their own self-interest, for it
is obvious to them (as it is to us ) the more
closely we can do this job
of matching magazine audience to potential customers for our
prod
uct or service the closer we are to
transforming readers of
advertising
into actual customers. Some publishers have gone
deep into the prob
s I N G MEDIA
lem of analyzing their readers, as we learned in our discussion of au
dience researchin Chapter 5. Many publishers have pooled their
249
findings and have made them available through the Magazine Adver
tising Bureau, one of the primary sources of information about this
field.
THE AUDIT BUREAU OF CIRCULATIONS
Another primary source of information concerns itself with the

circulation of magazines (and newspapers), to tell us with great ac
curacy and complete honesty how many copies of a publication are
sold, how they are sold, and where they are sold. This source is the
Audit Bureau of Circulations, an organization sponsored by adver
tisers, advertising agencies, and publishers to bring truth in adver
tising to the circulation figures upon which all advertising rates are
based.
Telling the truth about circulation figures is now an accepted prac

tice, thanks to work of the A. B.C., as the Audit Bureau of Circu
lations is known through the advertising and publishing industries.
This is, however, a fairly recent development in business ethics. It has
taken place within — well within —the memory of living men. And it
was not always so.
A hundred years ago, when the great expansion of the circulation
of periodicals began, and the number of publications started to in
crease by leaps and bounds, a publisher's circulation was what he
said it was. Different publishers defined circulation in different ways.
There were no uniform specifications for measuring and classifying
circulation. Some publishers had no scruples about exaggerating their
circulation figures, for no one could check up on them. Others always
had a circulation of a few hundred or a few thousand copies more
than the circulation of their competitors. The honest publishers — and
there were many —-suffered from such untruthful comparisons.
Attempts to change this situation began in 1899, through the efforts
ADVERTISING MEDIA
of the Association of American Advertisers, followed over several
250 years by other groups, but these attempts were not really successful
until 1914 when the Audit Bureau of Circulations was formed. Na
tional advertisers, advertising agencies, and, above all, the publishers
themselves agreed to set standards, provide clear definitions, open
circulation figures to impartial audit by the A. B.C., and provide one
single source of information acceptable to all. The result was a change
to a single standard of unquestioned honesty in the analysis of pub
lication circulation. The symbol of the A. B.C. — a black hexagon on
which the letters "ABC" appear in white— assures every media buyer
that the circulation figures of member publications which display the
symbol have been audited and verified. The influence of the A. B.C.
has extended from the United States and Canada to most English-
speaking countries, France, Sweden, Japan, and some Latin-American

nations, but even today there are still some important markets in
which the media buyer must rely upon the honesty and integrity of
individual publishers, without benefit of audit.
STANDARD RATE AND DATA SERVICE
Nobody can possibly remember all the facts and figures about
magazines and other advertising media. Fortunately for us, it is not
necessary to try. A commercial service acts as the media buyer's
memory. This is Standard Rate & Data Service, Inc., an organization
which publishes, each month, a volume of statistical information
for each of the major advertising media (except outdoor and direct
mail). The ten SRDS publications are:
1. Business Publication Rates and Data. Lists about 2,650 U.S.
business publications under more than 150 market classifications.
2. Consumer Magazine Rates and Data. Lists more than 650 con
sumer magazines, 40 export magazines ( which circulate internation
ally), and 300 national, regional, state and specialized farm publi
cations.
ADVERTISING MEDIA
TYPICAL Standard Rate & Data page for consumer
magazines. (Courtesy Standard Rate & Data Service,
Inc.)
General Editorial —Class. 22

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(Thislistingcontinuednextpage)
TYPICAL Standard Rate Data page for spot television

&
stations. (Courtesy Standard Rate Data Service, Inc.)

&
3. Newspaper Rates and Data. Lists all U.S. daily and Sunday
newspapers, including foreign language and Negro newspapers which

are members of the A. B.C.
A. B.C. Weekly Newspaper Rates and Data. Lists approxi
4.
mately 600 weekly and semi-weekly A.B.C. newspapers in the U.S.

and Canada.
5. Spot Radio Rates and Data. Lists approximately 3,000 AM
and FM radio stations, arranged by states, cities, and station call
letters.
6. Spot Television Rates and Data. Lists all U.S. television sta
tions, by states, cities, and station call letters.
7. National Network Radio and Television Service. Rates and
data for radio and television networks in pocket-size form.
8. Films for Television. Lists television film series available and
in production, distributors of series and feature films, and producers
of film commercials.
9. Transportation Advertising Rates and Data. Lists more than
450 transportation advertising facilities in the U.S.
10. Canadian Media Rates and Data. Contains information on
Canadian media, paralleling the information in the SRDS publica
tions for U.S. media.
While the actual titles of the SRDS publications have been listed
here, few people in advertising call them by their real names. In
stead, we refer to them as the "Standard Rate for magazines," the
"Standard Rate for spot radio," and so on.
A great mass of useful material is presented in a uniform, con
densed form by Standard Rate & Data publications, permitting ready
comparisons between advertising media of the same kind. For ex

ample, SRDS gives us for each magazine:
1. The associations of which the magazine is a member: A.B.C,
Magazine Publishers Association, Magazine Advertising Bureau.
2. The publisher, place of publication, and frequency of issue.
3. The personnel of the publication concerned with advertising
and its representatives in principal cities.
ADVERTISING MEDIA
4. Mailing instructions for space orders and for copy and plates.
5. Advertising rates for all space units, including the extra charges
made for special positions, such as the back cover and the inside
front and back covers, and for color and for bleed pages.
6. Mechanical requirements of the printing process by which the
magazine is produced.
7. Issuance dates and closing dates. The issuance date is the date
on which the magazine is mailed to subscribers and appears on the
newsstand. It may be several days or a week or more in advance of
the actual date on the copy of the magazine. The closing date is the
date on which advertising materials are due to be in the hands of the
publisher. Closing dates will vary from two weeks in advance of is

suance date for black-and-white advertisements to eight or nine weeks
in advance for color advertisements. Cancellation of advertising is
not accepted after closing dates; the advertiser may be charged for
the space he has contracted for, even though his advertisements do
not appear.
8. Circulation of the magazine.
Similar information is presented by SRDS for each of the advertising
media covered by SRDS publications.
In addition, Standard Rate and Data provides its subscribers such
information as:
1. SRDS Consumer Market Data.
Population, households, retail sales, spendable income and other
significant data.
2. Media Maps.
State maps with all daily media designations.
3. Media Representatives.
Lists with names, addresses and phone numbers.
4. Special Media Data.
(a) Color printing facilities of newspapers.
fb ) Set estimates by station managers.
(c) Magazine circulation by geographic areas.
5. Metropolitan Area Definitions.
ADVERTISING MEDIA
6. Foreign Language Programming.
7. Farm Programming.
255
8. Media Contract and Copy Regulations.
NEWSPAPERS
Another major advertising medium — -an effective carrier of ad

vertising messages — is the newspaper. Historically, newspapers were
the first medium of mass communication in this country, and you
already know that one of them, Benjamin Franklin's Pennsylvania
Gazette, continues to be published to this day as The Saturday Eve
ning Post. Time was, when almost any community of any size in the
United States was served by two or more newspapers, and in many
metropolitan areas, four or six or even more daily newspapers com
peted for the attention of the people of those areas. While this situa
tion is becoming less common (because the vastly increased costs
of newspaper publishing have forced many newspapers to go out of
business or to merge with other papers), there are still more than
1700 newspapers published daily in the United States. Some 300 of
these are morning papers, and about 1400 of them are evening
papers. Some cities are served by both morning and evening editions
of the same paper, and at least one newspaper (the Chicago Sun-
Times ) publishes around the clock, with seven editions daily. About
500 newspapers publish on Sundays, and an additional number in
clude special picture sections, comics, and other feature sections with
their Saturday night editions.
A growing area of strength in the newspaper medium has come
from the weekly newspaper field, in which nearly 9,000 newspapers
are represented. This area today includes not only the traditional
"country weekly," the small town newspaper with its grist of news
about local happenings in a relatively isolated community, but also
new and growing big city and suburban weeklies which serve their
audiences with news about local communities within metropolitan
ADVERTISING MEDIA
areas, the kind of news no metropolitan paper can attempt to cover
for every community within its vast circulation area. Thus, in recent
years, we have seen the rise of:
1. the community newspaper, or neighborhood weekly, devoted to
the news ( and the advertisers ) of specific neighborhoods within the
boundaries of large cities;
2. the suburban weekly ( often published in magazine format, but
a newspaper, nonetheless), serving the suburbs of large cities and
growing vigorously in response to the great population shift from
cities to suburbs;
3. the weekly "shopper," which is not really a newspaper at all
since it contains little, if any, news, but which is printed in news
paper format to carry advertising into every home in the community.

In addition to these major classifications of newspapers, three other
groupings are important in the application of the principle of audi
ence selection to the buying of newspaper space:
1. the labor press —newspapers and magazines published by var
ious labor unions for the members of those unions. Nearly 1,000 pub
lications can be listed in this category. About 100 of them accept ad
vertising and are important media in which to advertise products
with a specific appeal to workers (and their families) with high dis
posable incomes;
2. the Negro press — about 50 newspapers, in large cities, carrying
news of special interest to the Negro community;
3. the foreign-language press — about 50 newspapers, also in large
cities, published in languages other than English. For about eighty-
five years, from 1840 to the middle 1920's, the foreign-language press
had great influence in this country, particularly during the great
waves of immigration from Europe and before new American citizens
could learn English and start to be absorbed into a new American cul
ture. When Abraham Lincoln was campaigning for public office in
Illinois, he bought a German-language newspaper, for the German-
speaking population of Illinois often made the difference between
winning and losing an election. Today, the foreign-language press has
RTISING MEDIA
greatly declined in number of papers and in influence, because the
need for news in foreign languages has declined among our people,
257
but, in certain large cities, newspapers in German, Jewish, Spanish,
Japanese, Chinese, Russian, Polish, Hungarian, and other languages
are still important to advertisers
who want to reach specific markets.
(In Canada, of course, the Province of Quebec is French in the
speech of the majority of its people. Here, the newspapers published
for the French Canadians are not foreign-language newspapers at
all.)
Within this framework, you can readily principle of
see that the
audience selection, so important to us in the magazine field, is ap
plicable to the newspaper medium only in the larger metropolitan

areas where two or more newspapers still compete for a share of the
time and attention of a large number of people. In smaller cities, with
only single daily paper, or in suburbs with only one weekly, the
a
single newspaper reaches the entire newspaper audience. This means

a greater burden is placed on the content of advertising — headline,
illustrations, copy — to select out from the total audience of the paper
those people who can be turned into customers for the product or
service advertised.
Only in the largest cities, in which a number of newspapers com

pete with each other on the bases of news coverage, correspondents,
features, and (to a degree) political party orientation, is the principle
of audience selection evident. Thus, the New York Times —with "all
print" — is edited for and attracts quite a differ
the news that's fit to
ent audience than that of the tabloid New York News which, in turn,
has quite a different audience than that of the sensation-loving New
York Mirror.
Yet newspapers — all newspapers — do perform a function of audi
ence selection for advertisers in a different way. The reader of news
paper advertising is more likely to be "in the market" — right now—

for specific products and services. In this way newspapers select out
an audience which is perhaps more interested in buying —right now
— than the audience of any other advertising medium. This is
why
ADVERTISING MEDIA
in
is
ACTION the “action medium.” This the ad
of
a
top half newspaper
vertisement, the bottom half of which listed dealers' names and addresses.
&
&
(Courtesy Paillard Incorporated and Fuller Smith Ross, Inc.)
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13,
newspapers are known as "the action medium" —because they pro
duce more directly traceable sales — more "action" — than any other
medium. Advertisers who use newspaper space and copywriters who
write newspaper advertising really know the power of the newspaper
as the action medium. If the advertisement in the paper tonight is
right, the customers flock in and the merchandise moves tomorrow.
To bolster specific market situations, to support special promotional
campaigns, to test advertisements or to test markets, to introduce
new products or new models, newspapers are likely to be the choice.
In addition, newspapers offer other specific advantages to adver
tisers. One of these advantages is speed. In most cities, newspapers
operate with very short closing dates, often 24 to 48 hours before

the paper is on the street. This is a real advantage to retailers, par
ticularly in selling merchandise of a timely or seasonal nature. It is a
great advantage to all advertisers whose products may have high
news interest or to which a copywriter can bring specific news value.
Another advantage of newspapers is flexibility. Certain product
features may have great appeal in one part of the country. Other
features of the same product may have greater appeal in other areas.
For example, some brands of automatic washing machines can be
sold with a suds-saving device as an added, extra-cost feature. This
feature permits the saving of hot, sudsy water in a standing tub while
the automatic washer goes through the rinse and spin-dry cycles and
then pumps the hot suds back into the washer for use with a second
load. Where the local water supply is very hard, this feature is popu
lar, because in addition to the costs of heating the water and supply
ing soap or detergent for each washing, a water softener must often
be added, a substantial added expense. Yet where the local water
supply is naturally soft, the suds-saving device is not particularly de

sirable, compared with some of the other features of the machine.
With newspaper advertising, a flexible schedule of advertisements
can be prepared, headlining the suds-saving device in the hard-water
localities, and headlining another feature of greater interest to pros
pective customers in other localities.
ADVERTISING MEDIA
ADVERTISEMENTS IIS COLOR (III): How media selection
and budgets influence copy and layout
S.O.S. SCOURING PADS. For dramatizing the results of using the

product, the cartoon is more effective than a photograph could
be; and in this instance, a two-color ad is more effective than a
four-color one could be. (Courtesy General Foods Corporation
and Foote, Cone & Belding. )
CARNATION INSTANT MILK. A two-color page facing a four-

color page can give the effect of a four-color spread at far less
cost, if the art director is as skillful as the one who created this
layout. (Courtesy Carnation Company and Erwin Wasey, Ruth-

rauff & Ryan, Inc.)
STRIPE TOOTHPASTE. A prime example of the influence of me

dia upon layout. When this advertisement appeared in Reader's
Digest, the advertiser was required to label his page at the top as
"Advertisement." (Courtesy Pepsodent Division, Lever Broth
ers Company, and J. Walter Thompson Company.)
260
One thing about
cleaning roasting pans,
you feel so good
when you're finished
With S.O.S
you finish faster! Only S.O.S is interwoven
to hold its shape— hold its soap. That's why
women say nothing else cleans, scours
sos and shines as fast. (And interwoven fibers
are easier on your hands.)
P. S. The fresher the pad, the faster you finish!
S.9, 3 Mm. CO. OF CANADA,LTD., TORONTO,

OUT.
In order to understand how newspapers charge for the space they
sell, we must examine the newspaper rate structure, to see the differ
ent types of rates charged.
Two general categories of space are available to the advertiser who
wants to use newspapers. One of these is called "classified," the little
hard-working "want ads" that sell houses, used cars, sewing ma

chines, used refrigerators, furniture, that match up losers and finders,
job hunters and employers. Classified advertising is sold by the word

or by the actual number of lines of type used for the advertisement.
The second general category of space is called "display," which in
cludes all advertising in the paper except classified advertising. Dis
play advertising is sold by the agate line (a line which is one column
wide and of an inch deep ) in daily newspapers and some week
rA 4
lies, or by the column inch (a space one newspaper column wide and
one inch deep ) in most weeklies.
Within the display category, many newspapers offer two differ
ent rate structures. One is the "local rate," available only to local
merchants in the newspaper's circulation area and to local service
organizations, like banks, insurance agents, utility companies. In
order to stimulate local business and because it costs the newspaper
less to serve local businesses, the local rate is often very low. For
advertisers whose products are distributed nationally or whose prin
cipal place of business is outside the newspaper's circulation area, a
higher rate is charged. This rate is designated by the newspaper as
its "general rate," more usually called the "national rate" ( although
this is not its correct name). In order to avoid this apparent discrim
ination against national advertisers, many newspapers today offer a
single rate to all advertisers, and such a single rate is designated "as a
"flat rate."
In asimilar way, some newspapers offer special rates within the
display category for certain classifications of display advertising,
such as advertisements for theatres, resorts, hotels, and business
advertisements scheduled for the financial page of the paper. Other
papers may have a flat rate for general advertising in black-and
ADVERTISING MEDIA
white, designated "run-of-paper," which means that the advertise
ment may be placed on any page selected by the paper. An additional
charge (called a "premium rate") will be made if the advertiser
orders his advertising to be placed on a specific page, such as page 3,
or the women's page, or the sports page. However, an advertiser (or
his agency ) may request a special position, without actually ordering
it. In many instances, since newspapers like to cooperate with their
advertisers, the advertisementwill be placed exactly where the adver
tiser requests it to be placed, but, since this is a request and not an
order, no premium rate will be charged.
Newspaper advertising in color — and more and more newspapers
across the country are equipping their plants to produce fine color
work — always takes premium rate — an extra charge for the ex
a
tra work that the newspaper must do in the preparation of color
advertising.
To encourage advertisers, many newspapers offer contract rates —
special low rates per line when a specified number of lines are pur
chased within a specified time period (usually one year). The cost
—
per line goes down as the number of lines goes up a form of "quan
tity discount." Some newspapers offer "frequency discounts," under
which the cost per line goes down as the frequency of use goes up.
within a specific time limit.
Many newspapers have special feature sections, particularly in
connection with their Saturday or Sunday editions. Such sections in
clude:
1. Comic sections, in color. These week-end editions of the "fun
nies," with their extremely high readership by adults as well as chil
dren, offer specific advantages to advertisers with products of strong
child appeal, like breakfast cereals, and products with strong mascu
line appeal, like razor blades and shaving creams. Advertising space
in these sections is sold by individual newspapers, by regional group
ings of newspapers, and nationally by publishers of the comic sections
who syndicate them among many newspapers. These publishers are
often known as "the syndicates," and this word sometimes appears
in their corporate names, as in the instance of King Features Syndi
cate, editors and distributors of Puck — the Comic Weekly.
2. Magazine sections, in monotone (one-color) gravure or in
color gravure. These sections, often called the "Sunday Supple
ments," work for advertisers like true magazines which happen to
use Sunday newspapers as their method of distribution. Some of
them, like This Week, Parade, and American Weekly, are actually
national magazines — nationally edited, nationally printed by a cen
tral organization — and
syndicated to subscribing newspapers. These
publications offer advertisers the advantage of very great circulation
at low cost, a better quality of paper and hence better printing and
color reproduction than ordinary newsprint can provide, and a rate

for color advertising that is much lower than that of most other maga
zines. Other supplements are locally edited and produced by the
newspaper's own staff, offering the advantages of better paper and

better printing plus editorial content specifically directed to a local
audience. These local supplements sell advertising space individually.
As a convenience to national advertisers, some of them have organ
ized into cooperative selling groups, so that space can be purchased
and scheduled for the entire group at the same time. Such groups in
clude The First Three Markets Group ( the New York Sunday News,
the Chicago Sunday Tribune,and the Philadelphia Sunday In
quirer ) ; Sunday — The Newspaper's Own Magazine, with thirty-one
member papers; and the Locally Edited Gravure Magazine Group.
with twelve member papers.
The acquisition of knowledge about newspapers as an advertising
medium is a process of acquiring knowledge about individual papers
and groups of papers. The best source is obviously the publisher of
the paper and his salesmen. It is equally obvious that only the largest
newspapers can maintain their own salesmen in all the cities through
out the country where they can inform advertisers about the advan
tages of using the newspaper. Therefore most newspapers employ the
services of sales organizations known as "publisher's representa
tives." a term usually shortened to "the reps." Publisher's representa
RTISING MEDIA
tives take over the selling job for the newspaper in distant cities. To
help them, and to help individual newspapers do a better job of sell
265
ing newspapers as an advertising medium, the American Newspaper
Publishers Association ( ANPA ) sponsors the Bureau of Advertising,
an invaluable source of information about newspapers.
In this medium, the advertiser's watchman is the Audit Bureau of
Circulations, performing the same invaluable service in the news
paper medium that it does in the magazine medium. And the media
buyer's "bible" for newspapers is Standard Rate & Data Service,
covering all daily papers and all weekly newspapers who are mem
bers of the A. B.C. For information about weeklies which are not
A. B.C. members, the media buyer looks to N. W . Ayer's Directory of
Periodicals, published continuously since 1880 by N. W. Ayer & Son,
Inc., one of the great advertising agencies of this country for nearly
a hundred years.
BUSINESS PUBLICATIONS
The advertising medium which combines the audience selection

feature of magazines ( in terms of specific reader interest in editorial
content) and the audience selection feature of newspapers (in terms

of readers actively in the market and ready to buy) is the medium
classified as "business publications."
These are the magazines and newspapers which are read by busi
ness men and women as part of their jobs. These are the publications
about business for business. These magazines and newspapers carry
the news about processes and products to help business men do a
better job on the job, new ideas to make production and plant main
tenance easier and more profitable, new ideas in personnel manage
ment, new ideas in sales promotion. These are the publications that
management people, at varying levels, read in order to advance their

business and professional careers. Often, the large sums of money
these people spend for advertised products and services is "other
ADVERTISING MEDIA
people's money" — money that belongs to the stockholders of a cor
poration or to the taxpayers of a community. The buying decisions
of this group are likely to be based on factual information, which
means that informative, specific advertisements are the key to suc
cessful advertising in business publications.
Because they are edited in terms of specific reader interest, there
are a great many business publications. In
number of specific busi
a
ness areas, two or more business publications compete for a share of

the time and attention of their business readers. Business Publication
Rates and Data, the Standard Rate & Data volume for this medium,
includes more than 2,650 U.S. business publications listed under
more than 150 market classifications.
Some of these publications are called "horizontal" publications,
because reader interest in them stretches across many industries and
businesses at certain management levels. Fortune magazines, for ex
ample, is read by top management administrators (chairmen of
boards, presidents, vice presidents, secretaries, treasurers, and other
corporate officers ) and by middle management personnel (plant man

agers, chief engineers, development and design section chiefs, direc
tors of purchasing, sales, accounting, and credit departments) in a
vast cross section of U. S. business. Almost sixty per cent of Fortune's
readers are in industry, with about ten per cent each in the retail and
wholesale trades, in business and personal services, and in financial
services, insurance and real estate. Smaller percentages are in govern
ment, school administration and education, and the various profes
sions. Similarly, Business Week magazine delivers a concentrated
audience of management men, spread horizontally across various in
dustries (manufacturing and processing, raw material and power pro
duction, transportation and communication, construction and instal
lation), across various services (finance, wholesale and retail distri
bution, business and industrial services, personal services), and in
government and education.
Other magazines and newspapers in the business publications
medium are known as "vertical" publications, because reader interest
ADVERTISING MEDIA
in them reaches down into single industry, profession, or kind of
a
business at all levels of management or professional status. For in

stance, Advertising Age, a leading business paper in the field of ad
vertising, contains each week as much interesting news and informa

tion for the beginner copywriter and the junior account executive on
the way up professionally as it does for the corporation advertising
manager and the advertising agency vice president who have already
"arrived." In the food and grocery industries, Food Processing pro
vides vertical coverage of the men concerned with growing, process
ing, and packaging food for safe delivery to the stores where it will
be sold, while a companion publication, Food Business, covers the
sales side of the industry, including packaging for sales, advertising,
selling, merchandising, distribution, and warehousing.

Still another classification of business publications is the "trade
papers," which are magazines and newspapers concerned with the
process of distribution
—read by people who work for wholesalers
and retailers of all kinds of products. The "trade papers" carry the
news about products, ideas about merchandising, style and fashion
trends (because the new dress style on Fifth Avenue in New York
this week will be in demand on every Main Street six months from
now), store and window displays, and the news of national advertis
ing campaigns designed to move products from the manufacturer
through wholesale and retail outlets to the consumer.
This specialized kind of reader interest based on editorial interest,
combined with the fact that business men read business publications
to get information about products and ideas for which they are ac
tively in the market, makes business publication advertising ex

tremely important to us as management men. If our company manu
factures products which are sold to other industries, and not to the
public at large, our advertising may appear exclusively in business

publications or be concentrated in them to a great extent. We may
use national magazines to build the corporate image of our company,
to reach potential investors in our company stocks or bonds, and to
increase the knowledge and acceptability of our brand names, but we
ADVERTISING MEDIA
W*M rety on business publication advertising to open the doors for our
salesmen as they make their calls and to put a sales message on the
desks of corporation officers who sit behind doors our salesmen never
get to open.
Information about specific publications within this grouping is
obtained from the publishers and their sales staffs. Two trade associa
tions are active in disseminating facts and figures about business pub
lications advertising medium — The Associated Business Publi
as an
cations, with 160 members, and National Business Publications, Inc.,

with 205 members. More than 350 business publishers are members
of the Audit Bureau of Circulations, which provides the same kind
of accurate, impartial audit of the circulation of business papers as it
does for magazines and newspapers. The A. B.C., however, covers
only publications which are sold or subscribed for and which thus
have a "paid" circulation. Some business publications are distributed
without charge or are included in the dues paid by members of asso
ciations, and this type of circulation is known as "free" circulation
or as "controlled" circulation. Such publications are audited by Busi
ness Publications Audit of Circulation ( formerly Controlled Circula
tion Audit), in the United States, and by The Canadian Circulations
Audit Board, Inc., for Canadian publications. The Standard Rate &
Data Service volume, Business Publications Rates and Data, provides
much essential information, which the business paper media buyer,
particularly in the industrial field, often supplements with the annual

Market Data and Directory Number of Industrial Marketing maga
zine, which contains much useful market information classified by
industries.
OUTDOOR ADVERTISING
The oldest advertising medium in point of time is the medium we

know today as "outdoor advertising." As we have noted, almost as
soon as man learned to write and draw he began to advertise with
ADVERTISING MEDIA
anti freeze with MR- 8 prevents rust clogging
POSTER PLANTS in more than 1,800 communities carried this

24-sheet poster at the start of the anti-freeze season. (Courtesy
E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc., and Batten, Bar
ton, Durstine, and Osborn, Inc.)
signs in front of shops or with advertisements scratched or painted

on the walls of buildings where they could be seen by people as they
walked or rode along the streets. The function of outdoor advertising
has not changed very much in five thousand years or so. This is ad
vertising designed to reach people when they are away from home.
Almost all other advertising ( with two exceptions which we shall soon
note is intended to reach people while they are in their homes. Maga
)
zines and newspapers, while often read on trains, street cars, and
buses, are primarily read at home. Television viewing is almost en
tirely confined to living rooms and recreation rooms. Radio listening

has moved out of the living room and into almost every other room in
ADVERTISING MEDI
the house. Automobile radios and portable radios reach people away
from home. So does transportation advertising. But the principal
medium of advertising communication away from home is outdoor.
This factor poses an unusual creative problem for copywriters and
art directors. While the people on foot, walking along the street, have
no problem in reading and absorbing an outdoor advertising mes
sage, most of the people who constitute the audience for outdoor ad
vertising are on wheels — in private cars or in some form of public

transportation. This is not only a mobile audience. It is also a fast-
moving audience. Therefore, outdoor advertising must be designed
so that its ideas and its message can be grasped in a hurry. The idea
must come across to the reader who is going by at sixty miles an hour
and looking through a dirty windshield.
This means that outdoor advertising is first and foremost "re
minder advertising" — and we have already noted what an important
function reminder advertising performs. Copy must be short, vigor
ous, and to the point, so that "he who runs may read." Illustrations
must be big and powerful. Layouts for outdoor advertising must be
FAMOUS "tattooed man" on a 24-sheet poster, with a

friend. (Courtesy Philip Morris, Inc., and Leo Burnett
Company, Inc.)
extremely simple, so that the whole message can be conveyed in the
limited viewing time with the limited amount of attention the driver
of car can give it. This is why outdoor advertising is seldom used
a
alone as an advertising medium to introduce new products or new
advertising ideas. Yet it is one of the most powerful of all advertising

media when it is used to remind people of a well-known product or
slogan ( as Coca-Cola uses it ) or to reinforce a new product or adver
tising campaign presented in other media ( as Ford uses it ) .
Outdoor advertising is divided physically into three basic types.

The first of these is called "paper," because the advertising is
printed on sheets of paper which are rolled up after printing like wall
paper and put up ("posted" is the trade nomenclature) with paste
and brushes just as wall paper is hung. The familiar outdoor bill
board —a large horizontal rectangle with a standard size of 19 feet
8 inches in width and 8 feet 10 inches in height — was originally
posted with twenty-four pieces of paper. Today, ten or twelve pieces
of paper cover the space, but the original name has stuck, and these
billboards (better described as "postings") are called "24-sheet
posters," or simply "24-sheets." In some markets, "3-sheet posters"

are available — three pieces of paper forming a vertical rectangle 3
feet 5 inches wide and 6 feet 10 inches high.2 Because of the stand
ardization of sizes, outdoor poster paper can be printed at a central
location, under the supervision of the advertiser and his agency, and
then shipped to outdoor advertising companies anywhere in the coun
try with uniform color and quality in every location.

The second basic physical type of outdoor advertising is known as
"paint," which is the short way of saying "painted poster" or
"painted bulletin." These postings are usually constructed of metal,
2
Another type of "paper" is the "1-sheet poster," a single sheet of paper,
usually 30 by 46 inches, often used by oil companies and theatres. This kind
of poster is not handled by outdoor advertising companies but by the adver
tising department of the company using this medium, except in the metropoli
tan areas where 1-sheet posters on the station platforms of subway, elevated,
and commuter railways are sold and serviced by transportation advertising
companies.
ADVERTISING MEDIA
an(^ a^vertisement is painted on the metal by skilled sign painters
who follow a color-specified blueprint as a guide. Often a painted
poster will consist of space on the wall of a building, in which instance

the painting may be done directly on the brick or concrete of the wall.
Every "paint" job is a custom job, painted to order from layouts

made to the exact size specification of the posting and transferred to
the blueprints used by the painter.
Either "paper" or "paint" may be illuminated by projecting lights
so that the poster can be seen at night. An extra charge is made for
such illuminated locations.
The third physical type is called the "spectacular." This term origi
nated in outdoor advertising (from which it was borrowed by the
television networks to describe one-hour or two-hour programs of
more thanordinary interest). As used in outdoor advertising, a
"spectacular" is a poster that is animated, with elements that move,
change shape, rotate, or change color with flashing lights that are an
integral part of the design and structure of the poster. The Camel's
man, blowing his smoke rings out over the corner of State and Ran
dolph Streets in Chicago, is a "spectacular," and it is this kind of out

door advertising that makes Broadway no longer "The Great White
Way," but the "Great Multi-Colored Way."
The locations of all three types of outdoor advertising are owned
or leased by an individual or a company known as the "poster plant
operator." The word "plant," in this instance, does not mean the
building in which the company has its offices, stores its paints and
paste and brushes, and garages its trucks. Instead, the "poster plant"
means all the poster locations controlled by the company, within the
city where it has its headquarters and out into the surrounding towns
and along highways and country roads. In the United States, there are
about 1000 poster plant operators,covering some 12,000 markets
and including more than 15,000 cities and towns. Each poster plant
operator is responsible for the maintenance of his plant, for posting

or painting at specified contract times, and for the sale to advertisers
of the space on the posters he controls.
ADVERTISING MEDIA
oUTDOOR ADVERTISING “spectacular"—a Pepsi-Cola bottle ten stories
tall. (Courtesy Pepsi-Cola Company.)
The poster plant operator sells this space by "showings," his term
for a number of posters within his plant. A "full showing" (also
called a "base showing" or a "Number 100 showing" ) is that num
ber of poster locations, strategically located on streets and highways,
selected so that everybody in town, riding or walking, will be able to
see an advertiser's message at least once in a thirty-day period. Ac
tually, of course, the audience full showing is much
covered by a
—
greater than this in some markets, more than ninety per cent of the
people will see an advertiser's message as many as twenty times dur
ing the thirty-day period because of the high traffic flow along much-
travelled streets. The number of posters required to deliver this kind
of coverage will vary from market to market. Twenty-five posters
may be a full showing in a large metropolitan area, while five may
give complete coverage of a smaller city. For the advertiser who needs
less saturation coverage at lower cost, the poster plant operator offers
a "half showing" (often called a "Number 50 showing") which com
prises half the number of locations in a full showing, or "quarter
a
showing" (or "Number 25 showing") with one-fourth the locations

of a full showing. An advertiser who desires more intensive coverage
— for the introduction of a new model or the start of a new campaign
- — may purchase a "Number 150 showing," which includes half
again as many full showing. Showings are usually con
locations as a
tracted for on an annual basis, with provision for posting every

month, every other month, or for concentrated postings at certain
times of the year for seasonal products such as soft drinks in summer,
anti-freeze in winter. "Paper" is posted for thirty days and then
changed, because of the effects of weather on the paper itself. "Paint"
is usually posted for six months or a year or more before it is changed,
and "spectaculars" may be unchanged for several years if the cost
of construction is to be amortized by the advertiser over
long period a
of time. (In markets where 3-sheet posters are available, contracts

are made in the same way, except that the vocabulary changes. A
showing of 3-sheet posters is called a "group." )

All outdoor contracts are a matter of individual negotiation with
RTISING MEDIA
plant operators. A representative of the advertiser or his
poster
agency will visit the various cities where outdoor advertising is to be
275
used and will "ride the showing" in an automobile with the poster
plant operator. He will check the number of posters in the showing,

their exact location, the approach to each poster, the direction and
amount of traffic flow, the competition for the viewer's attention from
traffic lights, obstructions, and other posters. He will ask the poster
plant operator for evidence of "equalization," so that he takes his
share of low traffic locations along with his share of high traffic loca
tions. He will want evidence that the gross circulation of every loca
tion — the number of people who can see the poster in a thirty-day
period — has been audited by the Traffic Audit Bureau, which au
thenticates the circulation of outdoor advertising as the Audit Bureau
of Circulation does in the print media. And he will apply the cost per
thousand formula to determine the value of outdoor advertising in
reaching this vast mobile audience.

Basic information about the outdoor medium is furnished to adver
tisers by The National Outdoor Advertising Bureau, Inc. (NOAB),
an organization owned and supported by leading advertising agen
cies. The NOAB centralizes agency operations in the outdoor medium,
so that individual agencies need not duplicate the necessary check
ing facilities. The NOAB is maintained by an extra commission of

1% per cent above the standard agency commission of 15 per cent of
the cost of the space, so that the agency commission on outdoor ad
vertising is billed at 16% per cent. The outdoor advertising industry
maintains a national sales force in principal cities, Outdoor Adver
tising Incorporated (OAI), set up to furnish information and con
tracts for its members across the country.
TRANSPORTATION ADVERTISING
Transportation advertising is advertising in, on, or connected with

various forms of public transportation —car cards on the inside of
ADVERTISING MEDIA
subway cars, elevated trains, commuter trains, street cars, buses,
^^7^
posters on the outside of this rolling stock and on the trucks of the
Railway Express Company, and posters on station platforms and at
terminals.
It is like outdoor advertising in that its audience is away from
home. It is also like outdoor in that it is a poster medium, demanding
short copy and bold layout, even though it has largely a "captive"
audience which has time for reading as it rides along in coach or bus.
The principal unit in which transportation advertising is sold is the
car card, a miniature poster measuring 28 inches by 11 inches. Con
tracts are made on an annual basis, with changes of advertisement
every 30 days. A "full run" contract puts a poster in every piece of

rolling stock owned by the transportation company. A "half run"
covers every second piece of equipment, and a "quarter run" includes
one-fourth of the rolling stock. Contracts are made individually with
the transportation companies or with organizations which handle ad
vertising for a group of transportation companies. The Standard
Rate & Data volume, Transportation Rates and Data, is the source of
information for the 450 facilities comprising this medium. The Na
tional Association of Transportation Advertising has done substan
tial research into the characteristics of the audience for transportation
advertising.
DIRECT MAIL
Perhaps the most "cussed and discussed" advertising medium at

the present time is direct mail.
Direct mail is cussed by government officials because some adver
tisers have abused the mailing privileges offered by the Post Office
Department, overloading the mails, and taking a free ride in distrib

uting their advertising in part at least at the expense of the taxpayer.
Direct mail is often disparaged by the very audience it is intended to
influence — people who find their mail boxes stuffed with letters,
ADVERTISING MEDIA
MEDIA DEPARTMENT
277
VICE PRESIDENT IN CHARGE
BUSINESS ASSOCIATE
MANAGER DIRECTOR
MEDIA
SUPERVISORS
PRINT BROADCAST
BUYERS BUYERS
ASSISTANTS ASSISTANTS
ORGANIZATION CHART of a typical agency media de

partment. (Courtesy Kenyon & Eckhardt, Inc.)
folders, broadsides, and catalogs about subjects of very little interest

to them. Some advertisers frown on direct mail because they say it is
wasteful, too many mailings go into the wastebasket without being
opened, too much company overhead is required to keep mailing lists

up-to-date, too much money is spent for mailing costs to reach an
audience more economically covered by advertising in the mass
media.
Yet examples of the power of direct mail advertising are not hard
to find. The great mail order houses built their organizations on direct
mail advertising. One of the most sought-after pieces of advertising
is the Sears Roebuck catalog. Thousands of magazine subscriptions
ADVERTISING MEDIA
are sold by mail every year, and so are millions of dollars worth of
merchandise, from flower seeds to automobiles.
Profitable use of direct mail advertising depends almost entirely
upon audience selection. Audience selection for direct mail advertis
—
ing depends upon the construction of a mailing list a list of names
and addresses of the people to whom the advertising will be mailed.
Compiling mailing list takes time and costs money. The origi
a good
nal compilation is only a start, for a mailing list must constantly be
kept up-to-date. In the American society, where one third of all the
families in the country move to a new address every year, just keep
ing the mailing list current is a major job.
Department stores and other retailers who provide customers with
charge accounts or other credit arrangements of course have sound
mailing lists and an assured way of keeping these lists current. Ad
vertisers who rely on their own salesmen to furnish names and ad
dresses of present and prospective customers have a somewhat harder
job. Many reasonably accurate mailing lists are compiled and sold by
direct mail list companies, who search the license plate registrations
for names of automobile owners, the birth records for the names of
new parents, and the marriage license records for new families. If you
have the kind of product that fits an available ( and accurate ) mailing
list, then direct mail can select an "in-the-market" audience for you
as no other medium can.
Conversely, if you buy or borrow a mailing list haphazardly, you

have no assurance that the names on the list are potential customers
for your product at all. Merely scattering your advertising in front of
people is uneconomic at best, and since direct mail is by nature one
of the most expensive ways to reach a mass audience, it can be far
and away the most wasteful medium if the quality of the list or the
nature of the audience reached by the list is not suited to the product
advertised.
Much direct mail fails to get itself opened. Much more direct mail
fails to get itself read. In the direct mail medium, headline and illus
tration, the salutation of a letter, the first words of the first paragraph
ADVERTISING MEDIA
of the copy must work far harder for the attention of the reader —
because there is no supporting editorial material (which magazines
279
and newspapers provide) to keep the reader from throwing the ad
—
vertising away. Yet— and this has been proved time and again too
much emphasis on attention value for its own sake, too much cute-
ness, too much straining for effect can defeat its own purpose by get
ting in the way of the reader's real interest in the product advertised.
The direct mail copywriter walks a tightrope — between getting the
attention of the reader on the one hand, and, on the other, writing a
message that is relevant to the product and to the sale the direct mail
piece is intended to .make.
The principles for establishing the value of direct mail (and other
collateral media —match book covers, in-store posters, point-of-sale
displays) are the same as those for any other medium. How large is
the audience reached? How selective is the medium in singling out
this audience? What kind of people compose the audience? How
much does it cost to reach a thousand prospective customers? When
direct mail answers these questions efficiently and economically, as it
often does, it has very real value to advertisers who use it wisely.
ADVERTISING TO OPINION LEADERS AND SPECIAL INTEREST CROUPS
A number of sociologists are very much interested in the process

of mass communications, endeavoring to evolve theories which ex
plain how the media of mass communications work and exert influ
ence on the public. One of them is Paul Lazarsfeld, of Columbia Uni
versity, who has advanced a theory he calls the "two-stage flow of

influence." His studies of the influence of newspapers (through the
reading of news stories, editorials, and advertising) compared with
the influence of face-to-face communication about the same events,
ideas, and products at the same time (we would call this word-of-
mouth advertising ) tend to show that much and perhaps most of the
information passes through some individual, whom he calls an "opin-
ADVERTISING MEDIA
ion leader," who greatly influences the decision to act, accept the
idea, or buy.3
Many informed advertising men concur. In fact, they have been

using this principle of communication long before it was formulated
as a theory. Many advertising campaigns have been designed not so
much to influence the public at large as to reach the opinion leaders
at various economic levels and in various occupations. By convincing
the opinion leaders of the Tightness of a cause or an idea or of the
benefits of buying and using a product, the advertising has reached
its real effectiveness when the opinion leaders have spread the in
formation or reinforced the campaign in their face-to-face conversa
tions with other people or by such overt and visible actions as voting
or buying and using the product advertised.
Opinion leaders may be found at all social and economic levels in
all kinds of social and occupational groups. Union officials and shop
stewards rank high as opinion leaders. So do doctors, ministers,
teachers, bankers, nurses. So do women who are active in groups like
Parent-Teachers Associations, the League of Women Voters, the Girl
Scouts. Yet anyone may be an opinion leader, anyone who has taken
the trouble to inform himself about issues, ideas, or products. He may
be a fellow worker. He may be your father or your
fellow student or a
favorite professor. She may be a next-door neighbor, with a recipe

your mother wants to copy. Anyone whose opinions you respect and
whose advice you want to follow is an opinion leader.
Some advertising media reach a selected audience of opinion
leaders as a group. Magazines like The Atlantic and Harper's have
influence all out of proportion to their relatively small circulations
because their editorial content is designed for teachers, professors,
ministers and other people whose education tends to make their
3
For more reading on Professor Lazarsfeld's theory and a report of his ex
periments, see Elihu Katz and Paul F. Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence (Glen-
coe. 111., The Free Press, 1956). A more complex view of the influence of the
mass media is reported by Herbert Blumer, "Suggestions for Study of Mass
Media Effects." in Eugene Burdick and Arthur J. Broadbent, American Voting
Behavior (Glencoe, 111., The Free Press, 1959).
ADVERTISING MEDIA
How mad should
a guy get for 23*?
1. Am I burned up. I come home after a hard day,
and when I sit down with the paper to check up
on the sputniks, what do I find? The last G-E
bulb in my favorite reading lamp is gone!
2. So I ask the wife. "Sure," she admits, "I

took it for the kitchen . . .after you put the
kitchen bulb in the garage!" If that isn't like
a woman. Tryin'
'•
'
/to pin it on me! 3. "So!" I says. "It's come to this. My
wife's a bulbsnatcher! You oughta know
you can get a new General Electric bulb
for less than a quarter!" And can you
imagine? She starts drippin' tears!
100
WATT
23*
4 -BULB
PACK 92*
AVOID BULBSNATCHING THIS EASY WAY:

4. I give up! How mad should a guy get
for 23i? I go down to the corner and, for Get General Electric bulbs in the handy
less than a buck, get enough G-E bulbs to 4-bulb pack ! Easy to buy, carry, store !
fill the empty sockets, with some to spare.
And I'm smart enough to lug home some
ice cream, so everything's hunky-dory!
GENERAL ELECTRIC
CARTOON SEQUENCE advertisement is a nice change

of pace for an advertiser who believes in the picture se
quence technique. (Courtesy Large Lamp Department.

General Electric Company, and Batten, Barton, Durstine
and Osborn, Inc.)
opinions valued by those who listen to them and consult them. Bank
282 ers (who may read The Harvard Business Review) may also have
considerable influence in advising on the brands of materials and
equipment with the money they lend. The advice of
to be purchased
architects on building materials and appliances for the houses they
design is likely to carry great weight with the home owners for whom
the houses are being designed. Doctors and nurses are often asked for
their opinions about shoes for the feet of growing children, about
cosmetics and hair preparations, about brands of food for babies, and
and diets of various kinds. Readers of
about clothing, mattresses,
—
The New York Times and there are many of them across the coun
try— are often considered to be better informed about national and
international affairs than other people in the community. Newspaper
editors and reporters are widely respected as opinion leaders — not
only for the opinions they express in face-to-face conversation but
for the influence they exercise in
print— and the business publica
tions of professional journalism, like Editor and Publisher, are often
used by advertisers to inform this influential group.
In our society, of course, of emphasis is placed on
a great deal
financial success and the acquisition of things made possible by finan

cial success. We want to buy finer quality shirts, take more glamorous
vacations, ride the new jet airplanes, buy the furniture, read the
books, see the plays, and generally keep up with the successful
Jones's. Magazines like The New Yorker, which in its own phrase is
read by "the people other people copy," select out this kind of
opinion leader, whose influence may be more evident in what he buys
than in what he says.
WANTED: NEW CREATIVITY
It is perhaps truism that we are living in an era of great social

a
change. New habits of living, a vastly mobile society, the new leisure
afforded by new methods of production, the tempo of almost un
ADVERTISINO MEDIA
limited capacity to produce and the new economy of overabundance
in the United States — these factors are producing changes in our
people almost faster than we can keep up with understanding them.
Yet in these rapidly changing times, a surprising constant is the
stability of the mass media in the amount of time people are willing
to give them. Charles E. Scripps, chairman of the board of The E. W.
Scripps Company, publishers of the nineteen Scripps-Howard News

papers, pointed out in a recent speech:
Way back in 1880, the mass media then available — newspapers, peri
odicals, and books — absorbed 2.4% of the average family income. In the
year 1957, all mass media — newspapers, periodicals, books, radio, televi
sion, and admissions — absorbed 2.4% of the average family income. . . .
I am still amazed at the remarkable stability of this pattern, and I
think it suggests much regarding the ability of people to consume mass
media. . . .
I have no theories or proofs, only hypotheses. I feel quite sure that the
remarkable consistency of expenditure patterns isn't brought about by
any economic restraint. It is brought about by the fact that people have
only so many minutes to devote to the mass media. In other words, the
statistics . . . about consumer money and media don't really prove any
thing, but they suggest some remarkably interesting ideas about con
sumer minutes and media.
The various media are competing with one another for just a few of a
tightly limited number of minutes available.

Consider [a typical] market: three TV channels, a half-dozen radio
stations, two newspapers, popular magazines, special interest magazines
by the score, dozens of moving picture theaters. And, don't forget, some
people still read books.
Consider next our own busy days. Eight hours to sleep, eight hours to
work, an hour for travel, an hour or more for meals, a half hour or more
for dressing and bathing; add to this social and family activities, the
amount of leisure time for which you have a free choice of use can't be
more than two or three hours a day, and you don't spend every moment
of this eagerly absorbing mass media communications.
// there is one point I want to make, . . . it is this one about consumers
ADVERTISING MEDIA
and that inflexible bit of time in which we hope to have them exposed to
all of our mass media. This, in the final analysis, is where the mass media
compete, and we just don't know enough about the way people would like
to use that time. . . . Are we really giving them what they want, or do they
just accept us because we are there?
When I consider the seeming inflexibility in the amount of money or

the number of minutes people are willing to spend with their mass media,
I wonder how often we kid ourselves in the hope thai we can add some
thing to people's use of the media. It begins to look as though we can't

add something without displacing something else. For a single consumer
—at a given moment — the media are mutually exclusive.
I wonder, too, if the increased amount of leisure time available to
people isn't offering the media more competition than help. The last ten
years have brought increased use of the automobile for pleasure, boating,
hobbies such as photography and hi-fi, home workshops, bowling, out
door sports, gardening, and many others. Radio is the only one of the
media that has been able to go along with these pursuits to any extent.
I'm beginning to wonder, also, if the appetite of the mind for informa-
tion, ideas, and entertainment — like the appetite of the body for food —
is a sort of constant. Possibly the human mind is hungry for these things
up to a certain point, and at that point it becomes satiated for a time. The
psychologists tell us that reading is extremely complex work for the brain.
Let's just skim over some of the almost revolutionary changes that are
taking place in the social patterns of the American people.
We know from hard statistics that the number of people in the "over-
40" age bracket is constantly increasing. Educational levels have in
creased. Spending power has increased. These things alone are bound to
alter the American pattern.
Sociologists say there is a drift away from the traditional to the new
est; away from the old virtues of self-reliance, thrift
hard work, and
toward social and technical advancement. Sunday has changed from a
day of quiet austerity to a day of relaxed leisure and self-indulgence.
The automobile, for years the great American symbol of status and
achievement, seems in some social areas to be losing that particular func
tion to such things as the suburban home, travel, clubs, and outdoor ac
tivities.
N G MEDIA
Also, we have the move to the suburbs, bigger families, informal attire,
rapid changes in style from traditional to modern, color in men's cloth
ing and refrigerators, the worship of youthfulness and vitality rather than
of age and wisdom. Informal entertainment has taken the place of the
dinner party. And a tuxedo that fits is getting harder to find in the "over-
40" group.
Fears are often expressed about the cult of conformity, but when has
this country ever seen so much self-indulgence in the expression of indi
vidual tastes and preferences? . . .
We see a greater sophistication in behavior among a great many people.

Compare the advertising appeals of 30 years ago with those of today ; or
the popular heroes of fiction ; or for another example, the attitudes toward
the escapades of a few personalities in the entertainment field — I almost
think people are getting bored with them.
No doubt World War II and the Korean War shook people out of tra
ditional patterns. Marriage at an early age, even during college years, is
now an accepted thing. People today seem more willing than ever to try
something new ; to break out of socially safe and conservative ways. . . .
All of living are coming swiftly and are

these changes in the pattern of
rapidly reaching more and more people. The question is: What are we
in the mass communications field going to do about it? Experience is
said to be the greatest teacher. It is — as long as your field remains con
stant. But, trial and error won't work if the next time you try something,
the thing you try it on has changed before you are aware of it.
If the first law of nature is "survival," the second law is "adapt or die."
/ suggest that experience alone wont be enough to enable us in the mass
communications field to adapt as quickly as we will have to adapt.

I don't want, for a minute, to discredit experience or wisdom. Experi
ence tells us that the fundamentals of human behavior are probably con
stant, but, within these constants, there is room for vast changes in modes
of behavior, in values, in attitudes, and dispositions.
The changes are coming so fast that we must look more and more to
current research to tell us about the people we are trying to reach and
how to reach them. . . .
If I am correct in my hypothesis that the appetite for information and

ideas is constant, then important changes in the use of media must be
ADVERTISING MEDIA
substitutions in preference. ... If people change their ways of living and
thinking, and change their tastes, and some of us fail to adapt, we may
suddenly find ourselves too far behind to catch up. . . .
Today, information and ideas can reach millions of people in all parts
of the world literally within the hour. I feel sure that this
ability to reach
out and communicate quickly with people everywhere will soon prove to
be more significant to mankind than the ability to reach out beyond the
moon with a space ship.
We are barely beginning to know how to pass mass communication
through barriers of prejudice, conflicting ideologies, and ignorance.
Let us recognize, then, that those of us in the field of mass communi
cations are dealing with some of the newest and most powerful instru
ments created since the dawn of civilization, and we have barely begun
to know how to use them.
We had better hurry.4
The challenge which Mr. Scripps has boldly advanced faces every
media buyer, every advertising man, every management man in the
years ahead. It is your challenge. Make the most of it.
Summary
1. The major carriers of advertising today are the media of mass

communications: magazines, newspapers, outdoor, transportation,
direct mail, radio, and television.
2. Supporting these major media are such physical devices as
match book covers, calendars, blotters, catalogs, movie films, and
"word-of-mouth advertising" — which are called the "collateral"
media.
4
Charles E. Scripps, "Money, Media, and Minutes," speech, Advertisers
Club of Cincinnati, January 7, 1959.
RTISING MEDIA
3. The creative work of the media buyer is to evolve new combina-
tions of advertising in the mass media in order to reach an increasing
28 7
number of prospective customers at the lowest possible cost.
4. The problem involved in the creative work of the media buyer
is one of audience selection.
5. A useful yardstick in comparing one medium against another,
or in making comparisons within a medium, is the "cost per thou
sand" formula.
6. One of the ways we can evaluate the audience selection of maga
zines is to study the editorial content of the magazines to be con
sidered.
7. The Audit Bureau of Circulations ( and similar independent re
search organizations) provide the foundation for honest, intelligent
media buying by accurate, impartial circulation audits.
8. Standard Rate & Data Service, Inc., performs the function of
the media buyer's memory.
9. Newspapers — the "action medium" — also offer advertisers
great speed and flexibility.
10. Business publications are of great influence because they are
read by people interested in advancing their own careers and who are
influenced in reaching buying decisions by the fact that they are often
spending other people's money.

11. Outdoor advertising and transportation advertising reach the
mobile market of people away from home, an important factor in
our kind of society "on wheels."
12.When direct mail advertising is good, it is very, very good.
When it is bad, it is horrid.
13. Advertising to opinion leaders can influence sales to vast num
bers of people who respect and follow the acts and opinions of the
opinion leader groups.

14. We have barely begun to explore the creative use of the mass
media. The challenge of this field to young people with inquiring
minds is enormous — and rewarding.
ADVERTISING MEDIA
SOUND AND SIGHT:
Special Problems
Radio and television — the newest advertising media,
known collectively as the "broadcast media" — present
the advertiser with an entirely new set of problems.
These problems are quite different from those of the
print media which we examined in the preceding chap

ter.
The basic difference is in the nature of the broadcast
media. It is apparent from the start that people receive
broadcast advertising in different way than they do
a
print advertising. Different physical stimuli are in

volved. Our western culture is an "eye-oriented" cul
ture. One of the first things that happens to us as we
start growing up is that people teach us to read words in
print. We are also taught to look at, study, and interpret

pictures — pictures that hang on walls or are printed in
288
of Radio and Television
books or magazines. These pictures do not move, nor do the words we are taught
to read. Instead, our eyes move, reading the words in skips and jumps, scanning
the pictures for objects of interest to us. Over the course of eight years of grammar
school, four years of high school, and four more years of college, the physical
stimulus of the eye develops into a very powerful stimulus. The habit of reading
becomes extremely strong. We become accustomed to receiving a greater part of
our sensory impressions through the eye, because we are conditioned by the habit
of reading — the means by which we receive most of our cultural information.
As we develop this very strong eye stimulus pattern, our other sense perceptions
become relatively weaker. The keen sense of smell, the sense of touch, the percep
tion of "facial vision" developed by people who are blind and cannot become eye-
oriented, are relatively underdeveloped by most of us. This is also true of the sense
of hearing — and the physical stimuli of sound, received through the ear, become
relatively weaker stimuli to us as we grow up and after we have grown up because
of the cultural emphasis placed on the development of sight.
289
This poses special problems in radio, because radio depends solely
on sound and on hearing, entirely on the lesser stimulus of sound and
not at all on the stronger stimulus of sight. It also poses special prob
lems for television, because the strong eye stimulus is used in a dif
ferent way in television than this stimulus is used in print. In tele
vision, the picture moves, not the eye of the person watching the
screen. Words pop on and are wiped off, with varying degrees of
intensity of light and color. This means our looking at television can
be less conscious, can require far less concentration than our look
ing at printed pictures or printed words. And television combines the

high level stimulus of sight with the low level stimulus of sound. This
means that we are appealing to two different senses instead of one.
These two sense perceptions — eye and ear —can either conflict with
each other, or they can be used to reinforce each other. For maximum
penetration into the mind, these sense impressions must never be al
lowed to conflict — they must always reinforce each other.
As advertising media, radio and television present other problems,
too. Some of these problems and their solutions are different for
radio than they are for television. But, from the management point
of view, three of these problems are so basic to both media and so
important to both media that it is worth while to consider them to
gether as applied both to radio and to television. These are the prob
lems of:
1. programming,
2. time-buying, and
3. commercials (the advertising messages of the broadcast
media).
THE IMPORTANCE OF PROGRAMMING
When we buy space or showings in the print media, we are dealing

with known audiences. The Audit Bureau of Circulations can count
the number of copies printed and sold by a publication, and the ed
RADIO AND TELEVISION

itors of the publication doprimary job of audience selection for us.
a
The Traffic Audit Bureau can tell us, with a high degree of accuracy,
how many people willoutdoor poster at a given location in a
see an
twenty-four hour period. While the old adage — that the media sell
white space and what you put in that white space is what counts — is
partly true, the print media also sell known audiences. This means
that the advertiser can concentrate the greater part of his effort on the
content of his message — on what he is going to say in the space he
buys to people about whom he has (or can obtain) a great deal of
specific information.
With radio and television, the problem is more complex. All that
the broadcasting companies can sell is time. They can tell us that
within the geographical area reached by the signal put on the air by a
given radio or television station there are a certain number of radio
sets and television sets. But no one has yet been able to predict with
certainty how many of these sets will be turned on at any given time,
or how many of them will be tuned to a given station at a given time.
The factor that causes sets to be turned on and tuned to a given
station at a given time is the program.
This is why people turn on sets — to hear programs. If people are
not interested in the first program they hear, they turn the dial —to
another program. If they are not informed or entertained by what
they hear, they turn again
— to another program. It is the program —
not the medium — -that selects the audience. Each program selects its
own audience. This audience may be quite unlike the audience se
lected by the program which precedes it in time or which follows it

in time. The audience for the program on one station may be quite
different from the audience for the program on another station at the
same time.
Thus, the essence of the successful use of the broadcast media for
advertisers is the successful selection of programs — programs which
build an audience of people to whom the advertiser can deliver an
advertising message.
The right program must be selected. The right time for that pro

gram must be chosen. Then
— and only then —can the advertiser be
gin to concentrate on what he is going to say to the people he hopes

will agree with his program and time selections — the people who be
come the audience for his commercial.
Obviously, then, we need some standards for program selection.

The most important of these is the ability of the program to build
an audience. It is fairly easy to compile a list of the types of programs
which have been able to attract large audiences in the past. Such a
list would include:
1. News programs and programs of news commentary or news analy
sis. We know that news is one of the primary interests of people
and that "electronic journalism" — the presentation of news. with
great speed on radio and television

—can build a sizable audience.
2. Cotnedy programs, which may be
a. built around the personality of a comedian, like The Bob Hope
Show;
b. built around the "situation comedy," in which the comedy is
developed through plot structure, as in the case of Father
Knows Best;
c. built around the combination of comedian and situation, as in
The Honeymooners, starring Jackie Gleason.
3. Quiz programs, in which participants match their wits with ex
perts or with each other and in which the much larger listening
(or viewing) audience shares vicariously;
4. Dramatic programs, in which the medium of communications we
call "the theatre" is translated directly to the broadcast media.
5. Mystery programs and "westerns" — which have been developed
highly specialized technique of dramatic program.

as a
6. Variety programs, like The Ed Sullivan Show, in which that kind

of "theatre" once known as variety or vaudeville appears on
radio or television.
7. Musical programs, often built around a single orchestra (like
Lawrence Welk), a single singer (like Bing Crosby), or a dancer
(like Fred Astaire).
O AND TELEVISION
“spectacular" success–Fred Astaire and Barrie Chase in “An Evening
with Fred Astaire.” (NBC Photo, courtesy National Broadcasting Company.)
-
8. Educational programs, including:
a. actual extensions of the classroom to a vast number of living
rooms;
b. exploration of the physical sciences — the sea, the earth,
space,
the human body — far beyond the limits of the classroom;
c. political programs, particularly during presidential election
years;
d. symphony orchestras, operas, classic drama like Hamlet or
Macbeth;
e. forums, interviews, discussions, re-creations of history like See
It Now, You are There, The Twentieth Century.
9. Special events, including:
a. sports events and sports commentary;
b. national political conventions;
c. the proceedings of the United Nations and of congressional
committees;
d. the inauguration of a president or the coronation of a queen.
You can, of course, remember many programs within each of these
categories which were "hits"
— which had the ability to build an au
dience. You can also probably remember many more programs in
each category which were "flops." Certainly, there are more flops
than hits. Merely selecting a program which happens to classify in
some category on a list is no guarantee that the program will build
an audience. This is the first of the great gambles of broadcasting —
we never know until the program is actually on the air whether it
will attract an audience or whether it won't.
Some attention must be paid to the relationship of the program to
the product advertised. The closer this relationship is, the greater the
likelihood is that the program will be a successful vehicle for ad
vertising. A program built around a very feminine singing star may
be completely unsuited for an exclusively masculine product like
shaving cream, and yet the same program may be highly suited to a
product bought and used mostly by women, like a liquid detergent for
dishwashing. A recent children's program — an adventurous "west
O AND TELEVISION
ern" — was co-sponsored by the makers of a soft drink and by the
makers of automobile parts. The relationship of a children's program
to soft drinks is obvious. What was less obvious — but highly suc
cessful, in this instance — was that the same program attracted to its
audience a large number of young fathers and young men in the 16
to 30 age group. This group comprises some sixty per cent of the used
car market. This is the biggest market for replacement automobile
parts, and the strength of the program as an advertising medium for
the parts manufacturer was verified by research and actual sales — ■
after the program had been broadcast for several months. The adver
tiser had only experience and judgment to guide him when he signed
the contract for the show.
Certain types of program are better suited for certain broadcast
times in building audience, and the advertiser must consider the re
lationship of the program to the time available for it to be broadcast.
If the program is designed to build an audience of women for a prod
uct purchased by women, then the time chosen may be "women's
time" —the hours from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. when many women are at
home, alone and uninterrupted. If the program is designed to build
an audience of children, for products of which children are an im
portant influence in the buying decision, then the "children's hour"
is indicated — 4 p.m. to 6 p.m. on weekdays, 8 a.m. to noon on Satur
days. If a man audience is desired, then the program is likely to be

sports, and the time is likely to be after 10 P.M. or on Saturday after
noon. If both husband and wife participate in the buying decision,
then the programming is likely to be "family style," and the time
selected will be the prime family viewing hours — 6 P.M. to 10 P.M.
Frequently, the advertiser has little if any choice as to the kind of

program he may select. If he desires to use the broadcast media, he
must often take the program which is available at the time it is avail
able. So many advertisers are eager to use radio and television that
there is almost always competition between them for the available
programs and times. Some years ago, the actual building of a pro
gram was a responsibility of the advertiser and his agency, and a

number of the largest agencies designed programs for the specific
^?C)^
needs of their clients. Today, however, programs are usually built by
"program packagers" — independent producing companies —or by

the broadcasting networks. While many programs are available in
radio, relatively few come on the market in television. There is usually
a long waiting list for them. When an advertiser wants to sponsor a
television program, he studies the "availabilities" on the programs
open to new sponsorship, either because the programs themselves

are new and have not been previously sponsored or because the pre
vious sponsor is giving up a program for one reason or another.
This list of "availabilities" is usually short. The advertiser is fre
quently put in the position of making "Hobson's choice." He may
take the available program whether it is suited to his product or not,
often gambling on the ability of an untried program to build an audi
ence, or stay out of the broadcast media until a suitable program be
comes available. Often he has very little time in which to make up
his mind and reach a decision, for the options on availabilities (the
granting of period of time for the advertiser to study the program

a
and decide to sponsor it ) are seldom as long as a week, often as short

as 24 hours.
Sometimes the advertiser may be caught in the competitive pro

gram planning of the networks. Each network tries to schedule its
programs — particularly for the prime family time periods —so that
it can dominate the entire listening and viewing of the whole audi
ence for a complete evening. The hope is that if a strong program is
scheduled for an early evening time the audience will be held for all
the programs that follow during the evening; it relies on the human
inertia that keeps people from reaching out and turning the dial to
change stations. This frequently means that two very strong programs
will be scheduled at the same time by competing networks— with the
result that neither advertiser obtains as much audience as he wants
because the networks are involved in a scramble of competition for
the total audience.
Radio and television stations — and advertisers, too — are hampered

by the inflexibility of time. There are a limited number of hours in ^Q'T
a day, and it is impossible for the broadcasting station or network to
add hours (as a magazine or newspaper adds pages) when the num
ber of advertisers increases. This is also true of programs and their
limited numbers. As a result—and as in any competitive situation
where demand exceeds supply — the cost of advertising in the broad
cast media can be very expensive indeed. Part of this cost is inherent
in the competitive programming situation. Part of it comes from the
increased size of audience — the steadily increasing number of radio
sets and television sets in homes across the country. Part of it comes
from the increasing complexity of programs and the number of people
necessary to produce them — actors, singers, announcers, directors,
producers, cameramen, sound engineers, set designers, stage hands,
property men, and electricians. The cost of programming — often re
ferred to as the "talent cost"— may range from $5,000 to $10,000 for
a half-hour radio program for prime audience time and may run from
a minimum of $25,000 for a half-hour television program to $250,000
or $300,000 for television "spectacular" running one-and-a-half or
a
two hours. The talent cost is the number one item in budgeting for the
broadcast medium. It must be related to the ability of the program
to build audience and estimated in terms of the "cost per thousand
homes reached" — the only way an advertiser can determine whether
a program is justified, in terms of cost, against the investment of the
same number of dollars in other advertising media.
THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENT OF TIME-BUYING
Once a program has been selected to build an audience, then the

advertiser faces the problem of selecting stations and times which
give the program the greatest opportunity to build its audience. This
dual operation — the selection of stations and the selection of times
— is known as "time-buying."
The ability of a radio station or a television station to reach the

OQ Q people who are the potential audience is evaluated in terms of "cov
erage" — the geographical area in which the signal of the station can
be heard and the number of homes with radio sets and television sets
included within this area.
At this point the essential electronic difference between radio and
television in reaching an audience becomes apparent.
Radio uses electrical waves which move in an amplitude modula
tion wave pattern which follows the curvature of the earth. Thus,
radio coverage is limited only by the power of the transmitter. The
oretically, if a station had enough power, its signal could be heard all
the way around the earth. In actual practice, of course, power is
limited, yet in the early days of broadcasting, KDKA in Pittsburgh
and WLW in Cincinnati could be heard in almost any state east of
the Rocky Mountains. Some very powerful stations in Mexico domi
nated the southwestern United States, and Radio Luxembourg
blanketed western Europe. Even today, the Voice of America pro
grams, broadcast over Radio Free Europe stations, can be heard be
hind the Iron Curtain because the transmitters are so powerful. In
the United States today, to prevent one very powerful station from
monopolizing frequency which many stations could use, the Federal

a
Communications Commission has limited the power which a station

may use.
Television, by contrast, transmits pictures and sound by means of
frequency modulation waves which move in a straight line off into
space. The farther your home is from the transmitter the taller your
television aerial must be. Increasing the power doesn't help — the
waves still move in a straight line. Thus, the effective coverage of a
television station is limited to an area of sixty to seventy miles from

the transmitter and depends to some extent on the direction in which
the television signal is beamed.
Within these physical limits, radio stations and television stations
can map the areas covered by their signals and count the homes with
radio sets andtelevision sets where the signals can be received. This
set count is usually divided into "primary coverage" — homes where

RADIO STATION coverage map, showing primary and
secondary coverage plotted on a county map. (Courtesy
Radio Station WJIM, Lansing, Michigan.)
-- -
--- --
- - -- --
Population of primary area
Population of primary and secondary areas
Retail sales, primary area
Retail soles, primary and secondary areas
-
Radio families in primary area
- --- - --
Radio families in primary and secondary areas
- --
SOURCE
-
the signal can be received clearly and easily —and into "secondary
300 coverage" — homes where the signal can be received but perhaps not
as clearly as that of a competing station. It is on this basis of "cov
erage" that radio and television stations are chosen to carry the pro
gram and the advertiser's message.
However, it is obvious that the number of sets turned on and ca
pable of receiving a program will vary by the time of day. So will the
number of people gathered around the set at home to hear or see the
program. The media buyer is then confronted with the problem of the
selection of the day and the time at which to broadcast the program
in order to reach the greatest number of potential listeners at the
lowest possible cost.
Broadcast time for programs is sold by hours and segments of
hours, half-hours, quarter-hours, ten minutes, and five minutes. For
spot announcements between programs, time is sold on radio by the
word in "100-word spots" and "50-word spots" and on television by
the minute and the second — "1-minute spots," "20-second spots,"
and "10-second spots." The broadcast day is divided into listening
periods of larger or smaller audiences and is often classified in this

way:
Television Sample
class hour rate
(one station)
Evening time, 7 p.m. to 10:30 p.m., Monday
through Friday, and 6 p.m. to 10:30
p.m., Saturday and Sunday Class AA $1000
Evening time, 6 p.m. to 7 p.m., and 10:30

p.m. to 11 p.m., Monday through Friday,
and Noon to 6 p.m. and 10:30 p.m. to
11 p.m., Saturday and Sunday Class A $ 900
Evening time, 5 p.m. to 6 p.m., Monday

through Friday, and 11 p.m. to
Midnight every day Class B $ 700

All other times Class C $ 450

Radio Sample
class hour rate 301
7 a.m. to 10 p.m. daily Class A $ 55
10 p.m. to 7 a.m. daily Class B $ 40
Within these classes, rates may break roughly as follows:
yvi hour : 60 per cent of the hour rate

hour: 40 per cent of the hour rate
10 minutes: 35 per cent of the hour rate
5 minutes: 25 per cent of the hour rate
1 minute or 20 second spot : 20 per cent of the hour rate
10 second spot : 10 per cent of the hour rate.
All rates are subject to discounts based upon the frequency of use.
Radio and television programs are usually sold in cycles of weeks —
13 weeks, 26 weeks, 39 weeks. An advertiser scheduling a program
for 39 weeks is often permitted to take a "summer hiatus" of 13

weeks — that is, his program is not broadcast but his day and time are
reserved for him to renew the program for an additional 39 weeks
starting in the fall.

The time-buyer studies the times available, the potential audience
coverage of stations and networks at various times, and the kind of
audience available in terms of the kind of audience the program is
designed to build. He must also consider the programs that precede
and follow his own. A high audience program immediately preceding
for his program. A low audience
may result in a greater audience
program preceding may mean that his program will have less chance
to build its own high audience. He must watch the competition on
other networks and stations scheduled for time periods opposite the
one he is considering. An advertiser must be courageous indeed to
consider tackling some of the high audience programs at established
time periods with a new and untried program of his own.
As in the instance of programs, the time-buyer is often faced with
"Hobson's choice." He must take the time that the station or network

has available. This can be no small factor when much $20,000
302
as as
per program may be required to reach a national audience with one

half-hour of radio time, $65,000 per program to reach a
as much as
national audience with one half-hour of television time. Time costs

must be added to talent costs and divided by the number of homes in
the potential audience to obtain a "cost per thousand" figure and
bring some degree of realism into broadcast advertising.

A third cost must be added to talent costs and time costs in budget
ing for broadcast advertising. This is the cost of "attendant ex
penses." Most programs require rehearsals; studios must be rented,
actors and musicians paid, sound men and cameramen compensated
for rehearsal time. Scenery must be built, put up, taken down, ware
housed between programs. Many radio programs are recorded, many
television programs filmed. If these charges are not included in the
"program package," they must be provided for as a separate item in

the broadcasting budget.
CO-SPONSORSHIP AND SPOT ADVERTISING
It is usually at this point that the advertiser adds together talent

costs, time costs, and the cost of attendant expenses — and starts
looking for a co-sponsor. A co-sponsor is an advertiser of a non-com

peting product who is willing to share half the costs for half of the ad
vertising messages. Often two sponsors will share a half-hour pro
gram. Four or more are sometimes needed if the program is an
hour or longer.
Many advertisers find the costs of program sponsorship to be more
than they can afford in terms of potential sales through broadcast
advertising. Then they turn to "spots" — the short announcements

between programs. A "spot" often has a very high audience potential
— listeners or viewers carried over from the preceding program or
waiting for the following program. It is often possible, by strategic
selections from the "spot availabilities," to build an audience as

or larger than program audience for fraction of the cost
large
303
as a a
of program sponsorship. High audience "spots" are also available

as "participations" within a program (like Today with Dave Garro-
way) regularly scheduled by a network or station. Here an advertiser

may buy two or three "participations" a day or five or ten "participa
tions" a week — "one-minute spots" within an existing program which
has done its job of audience-building. "Spots" and "participations"
are of great value to the advertiser who is launching a new product,
introducing a new model, or bolstering a weak market. Many adver

tisers who plan their merchandising activities in waves, or who build
promotions around a specific product using all advertising media, or

who have seasonal products not suited to year-round programming,
will select "spots" and "participations" as the most effective and
economical way to use the broadcast media.
THE I1SESCAPABLE COMMERCIAL
All the work we do in broadcasting — all the work of programming

and time-buying — is done, from the management standpoint, for one
basic reason. The reason we do this work is to provide an audience for
an advertising message. We are trying to reach people — with fre
quency and in large numbers— in order to inform them about our
product, to get them to accept our ideas, to create for them a favor
able image of our company, to persuade them to do what we want
them to do.
We assign the job of accomplishing all this to the kind of broadcast
advertising message which is known as a "commercial." The con
ventions of the broadcasting industry, hardened into a "code," limit
the amount of time which may be devoted to advertising. On network
programs, both on radio and television, commercial time is generally

limited to three minutes per half hour. We have learned through ex
tensive research that the peak moments of audience size within a
half-hour program occur at approximately ten minutes after the start

of the program and ten minutes before the end of the program. We
must count as commercial time the announcements which open and
close the program "The Pure Oil Company and your friendly neigh
(
bor Pure Oil dealer present . . ." and "Tune in again next Tuesday
when The Pure Oil Company will again present . . ."), which the
program director calls the "opening billboard" and the "closing bill
board." The remaining time — about two minutes — is usually divided
in half, providing for two 1-minute commercials to be slotted in at
the moments of peak listening. Sometimes, by very careful timing of
the billboards, we can pick up an additional half-minute for an
additional commercial near the end of program. (When this very
a
short commercial is used, as it often is, to advertise a different prod

uct made by the same company sponsoring the program, the com
mercial is called a "little brother." When it is used by a co-sponsor
who shares the program on an alternating basis, it is called a "hitch
hike.") If spots are being used, we are of course limited by the time
we buy — one minute, thirty seconds, ten seconds.
It's all a matter of time — but what important time it is. We may
have $100,000 a program, in time and talent costs, dependent upon
two minutes commercial time to sell enough of our product to get us
our money back with a profit!
This means that every commercial must be prepared with no less
care, no less attention to detail, than the finest four-color advertise
ment for magazines and newspapers.
Every commercial must be prepared, too, knowing that it will be

received through a different kind of sense perception than print ad
vertisements.
As we have already noted, radio programs, including commercials,
are received by people through their ears alone. This aural stimulus
requires little in the way of conscious attention, far less for example
than reading, which requires a great deal of attention. While listening
with "half-an-ear" to the radio, we can read, play bridge, work cross
word puzzles, eat breakfast. Women can wash dishes, do the ironing,
make the beds (though woe betide us, as advertisers, if they are run
ning the vacuum cleaner during the minute our commercial is on! ).
Men can wash the car, weed the garden, build models in a basement
workshop. This habit of listening to the radio, half consciously, while
we are concentrating on doing something else, means that the writer
of radio commercials must face up to three special problems:
1. getting the attention of the listener, to change half -conscious
listening to fully-conscious listening;

2. selecting, from the audience thus gained, those people who are
the real prospective customers for the product that is being
advertised; and
3. repeating and repeating and repeating one single important idea
or selling point in order to put this one idea across to a listener
who is occupied by doing other things than listening.
The first of these problems, that of getting attention, is usually
solved by some kind of change in the level of sound at the opening of
the radio commercial. It may be a loud noise — a siren, a bell, a
brass band playing a stirring march. It may be a "soft" noise — a

quiet, persuasive voice, or soft music
—because as much or more con
trast with the preceding sound may be obtained by greater quiet than
by greater noise. Every good speaker knows the trick of lowering his
voice when he sees the attention of his audience wandering. Every
good radio commercial writer knows this trick, too, even though he
can never see his audience.
The second problem, that of selecting out the real prospects, is
usually done by words
— words designed to do the job of audience
selection:
"Car owners! The weather man says the temperature is going to drop
tonight — and that means you'd better have anti-freeze in the radiator
of your car. . . ."
"If you're one of the many women now planning meals for Lent, just
listen to this new way to perk up that familiar salmon loaf. . . ."
"Hey, kids! Have you seen the new midget submarine —the kind that
really dives — the kind you get only in a box of ".
These and other leads to commercial work not only to select out
306
a
prospects but also to do part of the job of getting attention.

The third problem, that of repeating one single idea, is perhaps
the most important problem to solve in writing for radio. A print ad
vertisement stands still for the reader. One important idea or sales
point can be bolstered by three or four secondary ideas or sub

ordinate sales points. The reader has the opportunity to reread — to
go back over information he deems important to his buying decision.
In writing for radio, this advantage is missing. One idea is about all
the human mind can absorb at a time — and we have one minute in
which to put it across, to a listener who is only half-listening. This is
the reason why radio writing repeats so much— the same idea, often
reiterated in the same words. It seems monotonous to us when we read
it in print — it often seems monotonous to the writer —but it is an es
sential skill of writing for radio.
Read this commercial, for example:
Chick raisers!How many expensive baby chicks will you lose this
spring? Too many? Then just listen to this: New Kellogg's Starter-
Grower contains 28 per cent higher antibiotic levels. Think of that!
28 per cent higher antibiotic levels than in last year's Kellogg's chick
feed. High antibiotic levels in your chick feed help chicks get off to a
fast, strong start, help give you big thrifty pullets for your laying house
next fall. And new Kellogg's Starter-Grower contains 28 per cent higher
antibiotic levels to help your chicks live and grow fast. So why risk your
good chicks and why risk future egg money on 'just any' chick feed? See
your Kellogg's dealer and get new Kellogg's Starter-Grower containing
28 per cent higher antibiotic levels.
There's no doubt about the listener to whom the commercial is

intended — the farm woman to whom the "egg money" means new
curtains for the living room, a new winter coat. There's no doubt as to
what the commercial is about — the name of the product is mentioned
four times, the main selling point is reiterated four times. Is this nec
essary? Yes, it is. Think about it from the way the farm woman is

going to listen to it. It's six o'clock in the morning. The radio is carry-
ing a farm news program. The woman is preparing a big farm break
307
fast — bacon and eggs sputtering in the frying pan. That's where her
attention is concentrated. She may miss — in conscious hearing —the
first ten seconds, the first twenty seconds of this commercial before the
idea penetrates to her conscious attention that this message is for her.
By the time she starts listening consciously to something that is im

portant to her, half our commercial is gone. So we intentionally re
peat, intentionally reiterate
— to give her a chance to catch up, to
register the name and the idea, to get her to decide to find out more
about new Kellogg 's Starter-Grower next time she buys feed.
The words in radio have to do all the work. They have to build the
pictures in the listener's mind, because there aren't any pictures to
look at in radio. Notice the picture words in our sample commercial:
"How many expensive baby chicks will you lose this spring . . . fast,
strong start big thrifty pullets for your laying house next fall . . .
. . .
chicks live and grow fast . . . why risk future egg money?" A whole
chain of pictures springs up in the listener's mind — led by picture
words that lead to reinforcement of the all-important sales point.
The words are so important that nothing should be permitted to
interfere with them and the message they must convey. A catchy tune
in a singing commercial may be so memorable in itself that the tune
is remembered yet the words never penetrate. If what you have to say
isn't worth saying, it isn't worth singing, and unless the words of the
message come clearly through, the singing commercial can defeat its
own purpose in getting attention and delivering a sales message.
In preparing television commercials, we have a different situation.
Television, as we have noted,combines two means of sense percep
tion — the high level stimulus of sight and the relatively weaker stim
ulus of sound. The pictures in a television commercial — including the
words which are seen part of the pictorial presentation — are more
as
important than the sound, the words which accompany the pictures.
Barrett Brady has put it well: "We must show more and say less."
In the early days of television, advertisers were not as conscious of

this fact as they are today. Now we realize that television is primarily
a visual medium of communication. The picture in a television com
mercial must tell the story. The sequence of pictures must be used to
advance the story. The spoken words must be used to support the
story, to explain, to elaborate upon what we see on the television

screen. The words must say what the picture shows.
Television has the unique ability to screen out the irrelevant and
focus sharply on the relevant. The television camera eliminates dis
tracting elements, such as a very exciting news story alongside our

advertisement or a colorful news picture opposite it. The camera can
zoom in on a relevant detail of our product. We can demonstrate our
product right in the home of a prospective customer. We can show
every relevant part of our sales message, remembering always to
"show more and say less."
A very good test of the effectiveness of a television commercial is
one you can make this afternoon or tonight while you are watching
television. As devised by Dr. Claude Robinson of the Gallup-Robin-
son organization, the test is simply this: when the commercial comes
on, turn the volume control down until you can no longer hear the
sound. If you can understand the commercial without the sound, if
you can get the sales message and know what the idea of the com
mercial is from the pictures alone, then you are looking at a television
commercial which is likely to be a highly successful one. On the other
hand, if you cannot get the idea that the advertiser is trying to com
municate without the spoken words, you are watching a commercial
which is going to be less successful in getting people to do what the
advertiser wants them to do. The reasons are obvious. When we watch
a television program in a family group, we concentrate on the pro
gram
— to see it and hear it. The commercial is usually an interrupter
of the program — a break in the continuity of the entertainment which
is almost a signal for us to do something else. Conversation starts —
a distracting element of sound which takes our attention away from
the spoken words of the commercial. Some one gets up to go to the
kitchen for a second cup of coffee — another distraction which inter
O AND TELEVISION
feres more with the low level stimulus of sound than with the high
level stimulus of sight. The pictures of the television commercial may
continue to get part of our attention — in fact, they may be the only
part of the commercial of which we are conscious and on them de
pends the greater part of the delivery of the advertiser's message to
us. The pictures must carry the story — the words can only support it.
For this reason, television commercials are usually the product of
a three-person team: a writer, a television art director, and a televi
sion producer. Each member of the team must fully understand the
principle of telling the story primarily through pictures, pictures sup

ported by words. In carrying out this principle, the three members
of the team each make a contribution. The writer is concerned with
the basic idea he wants the commercial to convey, with the sales
points about the product he wants covered. He thinks about these
ideas, visualizing them in his mind. The television art director gives
these ideas physical form, actually drawing the high points of the ac
tion in the pictures which will advance the story. The television pro
ducer gives them expression through the techniques of the television
medium — through live action, animation, stop motion, or other opti
cal effects — knowing what can be done (and what cannot be done)
with a television camera.
The team presents its work on paper in the physical form known
as a "television storyboard." In a rectangle with rounded corners —
which looks like a miniature television screen — the art director draws
the pictures representing the high spots of the action. Under each
picture are typed the directions for the actors and camera crew (la
beled VIDEO) and the instructions for the kind of music and the ac
tual words which will be spoken by the actors or the announcer (la
beled AUDIO). It is on the storyboard that the advertiser's
management group bases its decision to approve, to go ahead and

produce the commercial. Then the storyboard becomes a road map
for the television director to work from in the actual production,
matching cast, scenery, music, and spoken words to the instructions
he receives from the storyboard.

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As management people we need some criteria, some bench marks,
against which we can evaluate the radio commercials and the story-
boards submitted to us.
Here we can use again the S-I-M-P-L-E formula we learned to use
for print copy and layouts. Obviously, we are judging an advertise
ment, and the criteria which work for one form of advertising also
can work for another. So we will look to see (and hear) how well the
commercial meets our standards. Our commercial must:
Stop the viewer — keep him from turning the dial, from starting a
conversation, from getting up to go out to the kitchen;
Interest him in what our proposition will do for him;
Make him want it,
intensifying desire he already has;
a
Persuade him that it's right for him to want this product;
Lodge the argument, rationalize the desire
by
giving logical rea
a
son to act;
Ease into the sale — ask for the order —make easy to buy.
it
AH six elements must be present for the greatest possible effectiveness
of the commercial.
Yet combining all six elements into single commercial calls for a
a
very special art in handling the media of sound and sight. One min
ute or less all the time allowed. The audience has no chance to go
is
back and study sales points, clarify impressions that are not immedi
ately crystal clear. For this reason, the best radio and television ad
vertising messages are built around one single selling idea — one
simple selling idea. Just one. That's all.
This one big simple idea repeated in commercial after commer
is
cial. expressed with almost primer-like simplicity, with com

It
is
plete lack of advertising language, and sparing use of superlatives.

a
uses conversational, down-to-earth words, without being so

It
"folksy" as to sound contrived and insincere.

The best commercials use constant repetition of the big idea, ex
pressed in different ways. The idea closely associated with the prod
is
uct name itself. And the idea kept simple— the words are few and
is

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to tne Pomt — 30 tnat ê message has time to breathe within the sixty
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seconds or less allowed for it.
Content is more important than technique. If a commercial lacks
an idea, all the sound effects of radio and all the optical techniques
of television won't make it come to life and make an impression upon
the waiting mind of the listener or viewer.
Leading advertisers have learned the importance of another prin

ciple of radio and television commercials. This rule says, very simply:
Who says it is as important as what is said.
This principle is derived from the great success of the personal

salesmanship of a number of leading radio and television personali
ties. You know many of them. Arthur Godfrey has brought sales suc
cess to many a product because of the way he projects his great per
sonal warmth and sincerity, his real belief in the products advertised
on his program, to the millions of women who hear him and buy what
he tells them to buy. In the same way, Dave Garroway and Gary
Moore add of sincerity and believability to the commercials
a value
they deliver. Ed Sullivan has built one of the most successful of all
television programs for his sponsors — simply by being himself in
front of the television cameras. These and other "television spokes
men" are great salesmen because they are honest and believable.
They are welcome in millions of living rooms, and they carry con
viction about the products they sell to millions upon millions of lis
teners.
How they do it has been analyzed by one of the leading writers of
commercials, Alan Kent. Mr. Kent says that every good commercial
must:
1. Make friends. People do not buy from salesmen who are un
friendly, but you can "close the sale" with almost every friend you
make.
2. Make the customer Tell your listener exactly
a proposition.
what she gets for her money. Put the commercial on a sound selling
basis — so that the customer knows what you want her to do and what
she gets in return.

3. Learn to anticipate questions. In personal selling, the salesman
learns to ask questions to open the customer's mind, to find out what
315
she wants to know in order to make his proposition believable. In the
broadcast media, since the customer isn't there, we have to learn to
anticipate the questions that are likely to arise and answer them. We
have to anticipate the questions that get the right answers for us —
that lead the customer to respond by accepting the idea we want her
to accept, by buying the product we want her to buy.
Leo Burnett, applying the Kent yardstick to all advertising, has
added this comment:
It is all a matter of making friends.

It simply comes down to avoiding the things which we know repel
people — pomposity, bragging, snobbishness, coldness, "talking down" to
people — and employing more of the words and pictures that attract
people — realism, giving the reader or viewer credit for a little sense,
discrimination and judgment, understatement, and complete warmth of
expression.
I once worked for a wise old country newspaper editor whose favorite
admonition was, "Write to express, not to impress."
This is what makes the difference between great advertisements and
just ads.
THE CREATIVE BROADCASTING MAN
Mr. Burnett has gone on to define his picture of the ideal creative
broadcasting man:
A television writer must be many different people when he writes a
commercial.
First, he is the person charged with getting the idea for a commercial
or series of commercials that successfully interprets or projects the basic
strategy and theme of a campaign. An idea, by the way, that is not just
a headline, or a block of copy, or a single illustration, but an idea for a

total production composed of many parts — words, pictures, sound, move
ment, people and places, time, emotions, you-name-it.
In addition, in every commercial he writes, he is :
— a writer of This is writing that some

the spoken word, an art in itself.
body must eventually speak or sing. It is living writing. It is writing

of special words that must complement pictures, not explain them;
words that must flow, be easily understood, be alive. This is writing
that knows when no words are required — knows when a look on an
actor's face or a gesture says it all.
— a director, for he must plot the actions (as he writes) of people and
objects — whether live-action or animation. Who moves where and
when? Is there enough time to make the move? Does the action flow?
Does the meaning of each scene, each picture come through?
Again, the writer-as-director

must put into words what he visualizes
the action to be. He is creating people when he writes; he is creating
mood and meaning and emotions the moment he puts a pencil to
paper.
— a designer, for he must describe (as he writes) what sets, backgrounds,

and locations his people and products appear in.
The writer-as-designer must know what effect he is after, and the right
setting to accomplish the effect.
Is it to be realism? A house, a living room, a kitchen? What kind?

What age group lives there — what income level?
Is it outdoors? Where? Why? What do we see?
Is it fantasy background? Stylized? Art or three-dimensional?
What time of year, time of day?
Everything you see on the screen contributes to a total effect on you

— consciously or subconsciously. Thus everything in a scene must have
a meaning and reason for being there.
— an artist, for he must describe (as he writes) what each picture, in

succession, will look like — both in a storyboard and in a camera.
Where is the viewer in relation to the scene? Does he see an entire
room in long shot, or is the attention on the face of someone in
a a
closeup? Is he high on a crane, or at table-level, or floor-level?
How many people in the scene, and where's the center of attention?
What are the people doing?
What's the mood? Night, gloomy, rainy? Or bright, fresh, sunny?

Early morning or late afternoon?
How are the people dressed? What does their furniture look like —
their clothes, car, house?
Animation? What kind — stylized, Disney, UPA? Partial, limited, or

full animation?
The artist who will draw the storyboard and the cameraman who will
shoot the scenes all contribute to the final picture.
But someone has to first set the scene and describe in detail what the
audience should see.
Someone? The writer.
— a musical conductor, for he must determine (as he writes) if and when

music and lyrics should be used, and what kind, how played, and if
possible, compose one or both.
Is a jingle required or desirable? What kind? Sprightly, tuneful?

Or repetitive and insistent?
Background music — is it required? Would it help the total effect?

What kind of music — big orchestra with lots of strings, or a modern
Shearing sound? Dixieland, calypso, or toy piano?
Vocalists? A cappella or instrumental backing? What

Solo or group?
kind of arrangement — predominantly men or women?
— an editor, for he must determine (as he writes) which scene follows

which, how long each runs, and how each scene moves into the next.
"Cut," "wipe," "dissolve," and "pan" are not just terms to be tossed
around casually, but are the means of accomplishing a commercial

that flows, that tells you visually how we get from one scene to the next.
— a producer, for it is the writer-as-producer who is first charged with

creating a production (composed of many parts) that answers a spe
cific need and job. Thus, it is the writer who is responsible for seeing
that the pieces he created blend together into a successful production.
A writer's script should not be "saved" by the efforts of a hundred

specialists who will work on it as it moves through production. It
should be, rather, enhanced and brought to life by these specialists.
Above all, the script should be a comprehensive "blue-print" of what

is desired in the finished production.
A writer does not do all the individual parts, — but he does create and
define what the parts should be.
So here is our TV writer: Idea man, writer, director, designer, artist,

musical conductor, casting director, editor, producer.
But he is one thing more:
—an advertising man, for his commercial productions are created pri
marily to advertise and sell something —not to entertain.
In addition to everything else he must do, he must also figure out how
to persuade people to do something other than just watch his produc
tion.
The TV writer is writing a complete sales talk. He must lead his audi
ence through a sequence of selling ideas that not only hold their in
terest, but induce them to act upon what they have seen.
How many of these different jobs a particular writer can do, and how
well, determines how capable a writer he is.
It ought to be evident by now that a TV writer is a different animal
from other writers.
How did he get this way?
He got the way he is because he started out in a certain direction very

early in his life.
Certain things appealed to him that didn't appeal as strongly to others.
The world of make-believe and imagination was familiar ground to

him as a child. He was able to project himself into almost any situa
tion.
He responded to and participated in music, "play-acting," and fantasy.
He liked the movies and radio, and liked to be in plays.
In high school and college, he acted or worked backstage, did writing,
and generally dunked himself in the many phases of dramatics and
self-expression.
Before he got into advertising, he probably worked at several jobs
that were further extensions of everything he had done before.
Some TV writers wrote plays for radio, some acted, some produced,
some were musicians or artists.
But all, in one way or another, did many things, and were actively in
terested in many things that had to do with the arts — movies, theatre,
radio, television, music, and the graphic arts.
It is this background, this storehouse of information and knowledge
acquired over many years, that the TV writer draws on when he creates
his productions.
We cannot tell someone who doesn't have this background to "go get
it."
Such activities and interests are not taken on in later life, but are
things that have been a way of life since childhood.
320 Summary
1. Our western culture is "eye-oriented"; but radio depends solely

upon the physical stimulus of the ear through sound, and televi
sion uses a combination of sound and sight. These factors pose
special problems in the use of the broadcast media.

2. The important elements of broadcast advertising are:
a. Programming;
b. Time-buying;
c. Commercials.
3. People turn on sets to hear programs. It is the program, not the
station, that selects the audience. Success in the use of the broad
cast media begins with the successful selection of programs.
4. Programs must build their own audiences; therefore, there must
be a relationship between the program and the kind of audience
it will build to the product which is to be advertised on the pro
gram and to the time at which the program is scheduled.
5. The problem of the time-buyer is to find a time available at which
the program can build the greatest possible audience of prospec
tive customers at the lowest possible cost.
6. Three elements of budgeting for the broadcast media are:
a. The cost of programming (talent cost);
b. The cost of time;
c. The cost of "attendant expenses."
7. Every commercial must get attention, single out prospective cus
tomers, and deliver one basic idea to those customers.
8. In radio commercials, we can deliver one basic idea by repeti
tion.
9. In television commercials, we deliver one basic idea through pic
tures and words. The pictures must tell the story and advance
the story — the words must support the pictures. The words must
say what the picture shows. We must "show more and say less."

10. We can evaluate commercials with the S-I-M-P-L-E formula and
with the Kent Test.
321
11. Who says it is as important as what is said.
12. If it isn't worth saying, it isn't worth singing.

11
BRINGING IT All
TOGETHER (I):
So far in our discussion, we have been concerned

with number of jigsaw puzzle pieces which, when we
a
put them together, give us a broad picture of the con

temporary business instrument we call advertising.
We have seen how advertising is an instrument of
communications — of people communicating with other
people, of information and persuasion used to get
people to accept ideas which lead to a course of action.
We have seen that the advertising business is, very
simply, a service business — a business which deals with
ideas that inform and persuade. These ideas
spring
from the creative application of some form of research.
They are given expression in words and pictures — in
copy and layout for the print media and in commercials
for the broadcast media. They seek out their audience
322
The Marketing Plan
through one or more of the channels we know as the media of mass communication.
AH this is the business of advertising — this is what advertising people do and how
they do it.
But advertising, in the eyes of management, is not an end in itself. It is a means
to an end. Therefore, in management thinking, advertising is part of a much larger
picture which encompasses all the sales and distribution functions of a business.
Our name for this much larger picture is "marketing," and the way in which we put
its component parts together is often referred to as the "marketing mix," or "the
'
marketing management concept," or simply as "the marketing concept."
As a systematic discipline, marketing teaches us, as Peter F. Drucker has said,
"how to go about, in an orderly, purposeful, and planned way, to find and create
customers:
"—
to identify and define markets; to create new ones and promote them;
"—
to integrate customers' needs, wants, and preferences, and the intellectual
and creative capacity and skills of an industrial society, toward the design of
323
new and better products and of new distributive concepts and proc
324 esses."1
Clarence Eldridge, whose life and work have been of great influ
ence in the emergence of marketing as a discipline, has put it this
way:
The role of marketing, in its partnership with research, is to create

among consumers a maximum awareness of, and desire for, both the
old, the new, and the improved products of our farms and factories; and
to provide channels of distribution through which the products can flow,
with maximum efficiency, to the ultimate user. Thus the responsibility
of marketing, as the name implies, is to provide a market — an outlet —
for our vast productive capacity.
To discharge this responsibility, it must do many things:
1. Make an accurate quantitative measurement of the market poten
tial for a given product —in order to avoid both shortages and over
production.
2. Determine who and where are the best prospects, in order that
advertising and other activities can be rifle-accurate.
3. Determine, from a knowledge of the gross profit at various levels
of volume, how much money can be afforded for marketing expense.
4. Determine the amount of money necessary to produce a given-
volume result, and attempt to predetermine the point of diminishing
returns from increased advertising and sales expenditures.
5. Determine what combination of price, volume, and marketing
expenditures will produce optimum results — in volume, franchise pro
tection and permanency, quantity and stability of employment, and in
service to the community.
6. Determine those attributes of the product that are most likely to
appeal to potential users; and which features are likely to meet resistance
from buyers and prospects.
7. Select those markets, those media, and those selling appeals that
are appropriate to the needs and objectives of the product
8. Appropriate an amount of money sufficient to exploit fully the op-
1 Peter
F. Drucker, "Marketing and Economic Development," The Journal of
Marketing, Vol. XXII, No. 3, January, 1958, p. 252.
THE MARKETING PLAN

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portunities of the product and meet its promotional requirements up to
326 — but not beyond — the point of diminishing returns.
9. Execute the advertising and selling activities with skill, aggressive
ness, and a constant regard for the objectives to be attained.
10. Maintain a continuing after-the-fact evaluation of all marketing

activities, and modify them — as to markets, media, selling appeals, tech
niques, and amount of expenditures — to whatever extent the evaluation

suggests. In this connection it is vitally important to maintain a com
pletely objective, non-defensive attitude — seeking always improvement
in what is being done, and never self- justification.2
THE MARKETING PLAN
As you can see, this is a large assignment. If it is to be meaningful,

it cannot be approached in helter-skelter fashion. To bring order to it,
to relate facts, objectives, and plans for the immediate present and the
distant future to each other in some kind of logical arrangement, we
need some kind of control. This control — or technique, or device, if
you prefer to call it by those names — usually today takes the form of
a written document.
This document may be fairly short, for a small business, or reason
ably long, for a larger business. It is usually prepared in notebook
form, with looseleaf pages, so that it can easily be changed and added
to as marketing plans change in accord with changing conditions. It
is usually mimeographed or duplicated, because it contains much
confidential and competitive information which is vital to the busi
ness it concerns. It is a "top secret" document, and the people to
whom copies are given often have to sign a receipt for each copy,
pledging themselves not to disclose the information it contains.

Such a document may be known by a variety of names. Some
2 Clarence E. Eldridge, "Can Management Meet the Challenge?" in Annual
Marketing Research Conference, Contributed Papers 1955, Donald R. G.
Cowan, ed. (Michigan Business Papers, No. 31), (Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Bureau of Business Research, School of Business Administration, University
of Michigan, 1955), pp. 136-137.
THE MARKETING PLAN

people call it a "Master Strategy Blueprint."3 Others term it a "situa
tion study." Still others call it"basic marketing strategy state
a
327
ment." But to most people in advertising, this kind of document is
known as an "Eldridge Marketing Plan" (because Clarence Eldridge
was one of the first to propose such a document and to outline his
ideas of what it should contain), or simply as a "Marketing Plan."
OBJECTIVES OF THE MARKETING PLAN
The Marketing Plan has as its objectives the following:

1. A method of bringing all the facts about a company up-to-date
and keeping them up-to-date. Usually this is done at annual intervals,
although for some businesses, operating in very fast-moving, highly
competitive industries, the up-dating may be done every six months
or every three months. The reason for this collecting of facts and
other information out of a company's historical past would be more
obvious to your fathers, perhaps, than it is to you. You must remem
ber that most businesses today are still relatively young. The appli
cable history of most American corporations seldom goes back for a
hundred years. More likely it extends back for fifty or for twenty-five
years, perhaps only for fifteen or ten years. This means that most of
the useful facts about the background of a company have been estab
lished within the memory of living men, men who are actively direct
ing the destinies of the company. They have had no need to commit
these facts to writing — they know them from having lived them. The
facts about the company are in the minds of the board chairman, the
president, the sales manager, the treasurer. But now, as these men re
tire or die, their active minds and memories disappear from the com
pany board room and the planning meetings. The successful plans
3
"Your Marketing Plan," which
See the series of articles by Herbert West,
appeared in Advertising Agency Magazine, April 12, 1957, May 10, 1957,
June 7, 1957, July 5, 1957, and August 16, 1957. These articles contain much
valuable interpretation and commentary on the conception and execution of
a Marketing Plan.
THE MARKETING PLAN

they made — and the mistakes we can learn from them to avoid
— go
with them, unless some method is provided to write company history
on paper while these men and their minds are still around. This is the
first important purpose of a Marketing Plan.
2. A method of collecting all the facts about the company, all the
policies established for the company, all the thinking about the future
of the company, together in one place. The assembly of this kind of
information is made increasingly necessary by the increasing mobil
ity of our corporate society. We know that one-third of the families
in this country change their places of residence every year. We know
that this proportion is higher among businessmen, particularly for
the middle-management group in a corporation. We have learned, the
hard way, that it often is impossible to obtain needed information
about the production department when the production manager is
off on a six-months' assignment to build a new plant in Caracas. It is
difficult to get the sales manager's opinion on a problem in the home
office when the sales manager is holding a regional convention in
Houston. When a new executive is hired, it is far too time-consuming
to expect him to be up-dated on all plans and policies through a series
of face-to-face interviews with all the other department heads. So we
bring all the information together in one place and serve the second
important purpose of a Marketing Plan.
3. A means of making this information available to everyone who
needs to know it. As companies grow bigger, face-to-face communica
tion and interaction become more difficult. Too many people are in
volved to rely on personal interviews. Since people are people, some
department heads find problems simply in communicating with other

department heads, because of differences in personality, mental proc
esses, or body chemistry. In some corporations, Chinese walls are
built between departments — the legal department may not even know
what the advertising department is doing until a mistake is made that
cannot be settled without a law suit. The Marketing Plan surmounts
these barriers to communication, by making facts, information, poli
cies, and plans readily available to all who need to know.
THE MARKETING PLAN

4. A device for the periodic reappraisal of plans, promotions, ad
vertising campaigns, product changes, price changes, methods of
329
marketing, distribution, and selling. We must know where we are
and how we got where we are if we want to plan for the future intelli
gently. We must go through this process of "taking stock" with rea
sonable frequency to evaluate what success we have had and to avoid
compounding mistakes and errors of judgment sheerly through re

fusal to look facts in the face. Because the up-dating of a Marketing
Plan provides for such "stock-taking" at specified intervals, we can
be more certain that this function of planning does not go by default.
5. A method for integrating all the elements of marketing into a
concerted plan of action. All collections of information are useless —
or serve only an antiquarian purpose — unless we are able to interpret
them and to act on the information thus collected. So the Marketing
Plan sets a definite course of action and assigns definite responsibili
ties to departments and to individuals within departments in carrying
out the details of the plan.
ORGANIZATION OF THE MARKETING PLAN
In meeting its objectives, the Marketing Plan, as originally pro

posed by Clarence Eldridge and elaborated by others, may be organ
ized under five main headings:
I. The Statement of Facts. In this chapter are brought together:

a. A concise factual history of the company and its principal ex
ecutives who have shaped the policies of the company in the past
and who are directing its destinies in the future.
b. A concise factual history of each product manufactured by the
company, including trends in volume over the years, trends in
competitive review of advertising, promotional, and
position,
marketing budgets, and the profit history of the product. Much
of this information may be supplemented (but not supplanted)
by statistical information presented in tabular form.
THE MARKETING PLAN

The present for
330
c. sales story each product ( as the sales department
sees it) and the advertising copy policy (as the advertising de
partment and the advertising agency see it). Not infrequently it
is discovered that the company salesmen are presenting the prod
uct in one way, while the advertising goes in a different direc
tion.
d. Market data, interpretive consumer profiles, and advertising and
promotion history, including an evaluation of the effectiveness
of each recent promotion.
In military terms, the Statement of Facts might be likened to the

study of the situation which a staff officer makes for the use of his
commander in planning a military campaign.
II. Identification of Problems and Opportunities. This chapter in the

Marketing Plan forces each member of the management group to
think through the future of the company
it,
as he sees isolating prob
lems which must be overcome the company to survive, identify
is
if
ing opportunities to be seized and objectives to be met the com
if
to grow.
is
pany
forth the objectives which the company hopes to

II
Chapter sets
achieve.
III. Listing, in order importance and timing, the Objectives Defined

of
of
in Chapter of III ranks the problems and op

II
the plan. Chapter
portunities in the order in which they are to be accomplished. Some

of them may be short-term objectives, capable of being met within
year or two. Many more of them will be long-term objectives, to
a
be met progressively over five or ten years. Some companies project
their Marketing Plans for twenty or twenty-five years, particularly

problems of plant expansion, of new ground, con
if
acquisition
struction of new buildings, decentralization of manufacturing, new
production processes brought about through automation, and grow
ing markets arising out of normal population increases are brought
out through study of company objectives.
a
THE MARKETING PLAN

To continue the military analogy, Chapter III outlines the strategy
by which the company will solve its problems and meet its opportuni
331
ties.
IV. Recommendations — the Plan of Action. In this chapter, the im

mediate action to be taken is spelled out on a short-term basis, usu
ally for the year ahead. Who does what and when he does it is
decided, and definite areas of responsibility are defined. Included
are specific recommendations on the amount of money to be spent
in the year ahead, the ways in which the money is to be spent, and
the advertising plans — the media plan, the copy plan, the support
ing materials.
In the military sense, these are the tactics — the setting forth of what
troops will be committed and how they will be deployed.
V. Summary, including profit and loss projections. This chapter briefly

condenses all the information contained in the plan, with a projec
tion forecasting the immediate financial future of the company —
whether it can meet its objectives with an immediate return, or
whether it must take calculated risks to meet its future objectives,
operating at a loss for a short period, or investing new capital, to
attain the position desired for a successful future. (Sometimes this
chapter is placed first in the physical assembly of the Marketing
Plan, in order to conserve the time of top management. )
The amount of detailed information included in a Marketing Plan

is enormous. Compiling the first Marketing Plan for a company which
has not previously used this method is time-consuming, but it is well
worth the time — and once compiled, the Marketing Plan is relatively
easy to keep up to date. The contents of a Marketing Plan for one
company may be very unlike those of a Marketing Plan for another
company in a different field, and it is obviously unnecessary to repeat
the company history in compiling Marketing Plans for each product
made by single company. Nonetheless, every Marketing Plan
a
should be as complete as it is possible to make it. As a guide to the
THE MARKETING PLAN

kinds of information to be included, Mr. Eldridge has made the fol
lowing check list, for a typical product in the food field:
CHECK LIST FOR ELDRIDGE MARKETING PLA1S
I. Statement of Facts
A. The Product
1. The General Product Class

a. Description of product class
b. History of general product class
c. Importance of general product class in food industry
d. Future trends of general product class
2. Our Specific Product

a. Product History
( 1 ) Original development
(2) Initial introduction
(3) History of brand name
(4) Product characteristics and ingredients
(5) Major changes and product improvement
(6 ) Uses — primary, secondary, and undeveloped uses
(7) Reasons for interruption or cessation of manufacture
(8) Experience with other types or forms of the product
b. Production
(1) Raw materials used
(2) Factors affecting availability of raw materials used
(3) Seasonality of production
(4) Method of production
(5) Quality standards and problems
(6) Limits on production quantities
(7) Location of plants where produced
(8) Costs of manufacture
(9) Developments that might affect production
c. Packaging History
(1) Type of container
(2) Size and shape of container
THE MARKETING PLAN

(3) Suitability of sizes for consumers
'
(4) Package changes
(5) Label changes — appearance if package turned V4
around
(6) Suitability for shelf display, advertising, TV, etc.
(7) Case sizes and changes

(8) Extent of spoilage, damage in transit, storage, etc.
(9) Packaging developments which might affect brand
(10) Service offered
(11) Ease of opening
(12) Instructions for uses
d. Pricing History
(1) Current price and trend in warehouse prices
(2) Current price and trend in retail prices
(a) By package size
(b) By store type or outlet

( c) By city size
(d) By geographic area
(3) History of price deals

(4) Reasons for major price changes
(5) Retail price vs. wholesale price and jobbers profit re
lationship
e. Sales History
(1) Starting point (one market — district —regional?)
(2) Sequence of steps leading to full national distribution
(forecast of logical sequence for new products)
(3) Distribution accomplishment (broken down by districts

and national or semi-national)
(4) Distribution objectives in relation to actual accomplish
ment (broken down by districts and national or semi-

national pinpoint problem markets and/or areas)
(5) Sales records, previous years to date (broken down by
districts and national or semi-national — cases per thou
sand population)
(6) Sales objectives in relation to actual sales accomplish
ment (broken down by districts and national or semi-
national pinpoint problem markets and/or areas)
THE MARKETING PLAN

A PROMOTIONAL ADVERTISEMENT designed to in
crease brand share for a leading instant coffee. (Courtesy
Standard Brands, Inc., and Compton Advertising, Inc.)
f. Product Classification
( 1 ) Specialty or staple
(2) Convenience
(3) Main dish or side dish
(4) Ingredient or complete
3. Competition
a. Types and brand names of leading competition (regional,

national, private brands)
b. History of leading competitive brands
c. Product characteristics of leading competitive brands
d. Review of competitive production methods
e. Package sizes and changes of competitive brands
f. Current price and trend of warehouse prices of competitive
brands
g. Current price and trend of retail prices of competitive brands
— by package size, by store type, by city size, and by geo
graphic area
h. Share of market breakdown by brands
4. Industry Practices
a. Prices
b. Packs
c. Allowances
d. Discounts
e. Advertising
f. Promotion
B. The Market
1. Distribution
a. Method of distribution used by product
b. Method of distribution used by leading competitors
c. Distribution and trend by package sizes
( 1 ) By store types
(2) By geographic area
d. Difficulties encountered in securing or holding distribution

e. Trade attitude toward company
THE MARKETING PLAN

f. Trade attitude toward product (and competition)
g. Dealer margins of product and competition
h. Dealer turnover of product and competition
i. Shelf fronts vs. competition
j. Allocation of sales coverage
( 1 ) Sales coverage by class of trade

(a) Per cent covered
(b) Frequency of coverage
( c) Calls per day
(d ) Sales per call
(e) Procedure on calls
-
1 Independents
2 - Chains
( f ) Per cent of time spent on each product
(g) Sales cost per product

(2) By districts
(3) Pinpoint sales coverage in problem
(4) Comparison with competitive strength within markets

and districts (specifically problem areas)
k. Company sales policies toward retailer, wholesaler, institu
tions
(1) Discounts and credits to customers
(2) Cooperative advertising allowances
1. Competitive sales organization and policies
(1) Organization
(2) Number of salesmen
(3) Frequency of calls
(4) Discounts and credits to customers
(5) Advertising allowances
(6) Institutional sales coverage
(7) Anticipated future activity
2. Sales and Trends of the Over-all Market for the Product

a. In cases, units, or pounds
b. In dollars
c. By city size
d. By geographic area
THE MARKETING PLAN

By package size
337
e.
f. Seasonal trends
3. Factory Sales History and Trend of the Product
a. Actual or equivalent cases

b. In dollars
c. By sales divisions and/or districts
d. By package sizes
e. By seasonal trends
4. Consumer Sales History and Trend of the Product

a. In actual or equivalent cases
b. In dollars
c. By geographic areas
d. By city size
e. By package sizes
f. By store types
g. Seasonal trends
h. Nielsen trends
5. Relative Performance of the Product in Relation to Over-all

Market
a. Trend of product's market share of actual or equivalent cases

b. Trend of market share by geographic areas
c. Trend of market share by city size

d. Trend of market share by package size
e. Trend of market share by store type or outlet
6. Consumption and Market Development
a. Development and trend
(1) Nationally
(2) By city size

b. In comparison with competition and total market
(1) Nationally
(2) By city size

c. Product test results
THE MARKETING PLAN

7. Consumer Habits
a. Family member motivating purchase
b. Family member dictating brand choice
c. Normal units of purchase
d. Normal frequency of purchase
e. Frequency of usage
f. Method of preparation
g. Use with other foods
h. Meals at which served
i. Brand loyalty
j. Habit trends affecting purchase or usage

k. Consumer income group
1. Population shifts and growth
8. Consumer Usage and Attitudes
a. Basic psychological, social, and economic factors motivating

purchase and use of product
b. Usage of product and competitive products
(1) By age groups
(2) By economic status
(3) By sex
(4) By size of family
(5) By presence of children
(6) By race, religion, ethnic origin
(7) By education
(8) Regional differences
c. Product characteristics liked and disliked by consumer
d. Product advantages and disadvantages in minds of consum
ers (and in comparison with competition)
e. Consumer preferences between product and competition as
shown by surveys
f. Attitude towards package
g. Attitude towards pricing
9. Industry Practices
a. Prices
b. Packs
MARKETING PLAN
c. Allowances
d. Discounts
339
e. Advertising
f. Promotion
C. Gross Profit History
1. In dollars
2. In dollars per standard unit
3. As per cent of sales
D. Advertising History
1. Expenditures
a. In total dollars
b. Per unit
c. As a per cent of sales
d. Per population unit
e. By geographic region in relation to sales
f. By city size in relation to sales

g. By media
h. Seasonal variations
i. Review of competitive advertising expenditures
2. Copy
a. Past copy strategies and changes

b. Reasons for changes
c. Records of effectiveness of specific copy
d. Results of specific copy tests or research
e. Competitive advertising appeals

f. Starch ratings
g. Nielsen ratings
3. Media Strategy
a. Past media strategy and changes

b. Reasons for changes
c. Efficiency of media used
d. Suitability of media to strategy, product, and copy
THE MARKETING PLAN

Policies affecting choice of media
340
e.
f. Records of effectiveness of specific media

g. Results of specific media tests
h. Media used by competition
i. Trends of media which might affect brand
E. Promotion History
1. Expenditures
a. In total dollars
b. In dollars per unit
d. By geographic region
e. By city size
2. Promotion Objectives
a. Load trade
b. Displays and features
c. Lower shelf price
d. Repeat purchase
e. Sampling product
f. Sales support and enthusiasm
g. More shelf fronts

h. Distribution
3. Promotion Strategy
a. Present and past strategy
b. Types of promotions used
(1) Dealer
(2) Consumer
c. Effectiveness of specific promotions
d. Results of promotion tests
e. Competitive promotions
F. Merchandising History
1. Description of special merchandising events
2. Description of display materials
THE MARKETING PLAN

Where Do
Great Ideas Come From?
From its beginnings this nation has been American. These institutions are doing their
guided by great ideas. utmost to raise their teaching standards, to
meet the steadily rising pressure for enroll
The men who hammered out the Constitution
ment, and provide the healthy educational
and the Bill of Rights were thinkers— men of
climate in which great ideas may flourish.
vision -the best educated men of their day.
And every major advance in our civilization They need the help of all who love freedom, all
since that time has come from minds equipped who hope for continued progress in science,
hij education to create great ideas and put in statesmanship, in the better things of life.
them into action. And they need it tiou*!
So, at the very core of our progress is the
college classroom. It is there that the imagina
tion of young men and women gains the in If you want to know whot the college crisij
tellectual discipline that turns it to useful means to you, write for a free
thinking. It is there that the great ideas of booklet to: HIGHER EDUCA- o«.™
the future will be born. TlON, Box 36, Timei Square
That is why the present tasks of our colleges Station, New York 36, N.Y.
and universities are of vital concern to every
Sponsored as a public ■ rial Aid to Education, by
YOUR NAME HERE
PUBLIC SERVICE campaigns are planned as carefully as

thosefor any product. (Courtesy Council for Financial
Aid to Education, Inc.. and The Advertising Council,
Inc.)
of placement of display material
342
3. Estimate
4. Tie-in advertising secured

5. Trade and field sales organizations views on display material
6. Trends in store display material as they relate to our particu

lar products
7. Other merchandising activities
a. Mailing, etc.
b. Trade advertising (if employed for merchandising)
G. Selling History
1. Expenditures
a. In dollars
b. In cost per unit
2. Number and depth of sales coverages
3. Sales coverage
a. Number per year

b. Calls per day, etc.
H. Review of Previous Marketing Plans
1. Review highlights of marketing situation which had a bearing

on any previous marketing plan
2. State objectives of previous marketing plan

3. Brief description of copy, media, and promotions involved in
previous marketing plans
4. Budgetary breakdown of previous plans
5. Evaluation of results of previous plans
II. Identification of Problems and Opportunities
A. Review of Facts to Determine Specific Problems —in Trends,

Competitively, in Consumer Attitudes, etc.
B. Review of Facts to Determine Special Opportunities
THE MARKETING PLAN

III. Statement of Objectives
A. Copy
343
1. Analysis of audience to whom copy should be directed for
greatest efficiency
2. Review of product's consumer benefits

3. Statement of the basic selling ideas
4. Selection of most effective benefit or benefits to be featured in

copy
5. Development of copy strategy
6. Art treatment
B. Media
1. Review of types of consumers to be reached
2. Analysis of the ability and efficiency of various media to reach

desired consumers
3. Development of media strategy

a. Print
b. Outdoor
c. Transit
d. Radio
e. Television
f. Other
C. Promotion
1. Analysis of product reaction to dealer promotional effort

2. Analysis of product reaction to consumer promotional effort
3. Development of promotional strategy
D. Publicity
1. Investigate value of formal publicity program
E. Sales and Production
F. Distribution
G. Product
H. Packaging
I. Pricing
THE MARKETING PLAN

J.
344 Merchandising
K. Summary of Objectives
1. Include reasons for any major departures from previous objec
tives
IV. Formulation of Plans

A. Advertising Plan
1. Copy
a. Basic copy policy
b. Examples of presentation of basic copy idea
c. Copy themes directed to special groups or areas
d. Possible copy testing
2. Media
a. Specific media recommended

b. Cost, amount, and schedule of advertising in each media
c. Possible media tests
B. Promotion
1. Specific dealer promotions recommended

2. Specific consumer promotions recommended
3. Timing of promotions
4. Possible promotion tests
C. Selling Activity
1. Amount and type of sales work recommended
D. Special Activities to Meet Problems or Exploit Opportunities —

Media, Promotion, and/or Sales Activity
1. Regionally
2. Locally
3. Specialized Groups
E. Possible Product Changes
F. Possible Package Changes
G. Possible Changes in Pricing
H. Possible Consumer or Product Research Projects
THE MARKETING PLAN

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DEMONSTRATING product superiority in headline, pic

tures, and copy- (Courtesy E. du Pont de Nemours
I.
&
Company, Inc.
)
I. Establish Over-all Timetable
346
J. Summary of Expenditures
1. In total dollars related to projected production

2. As a percentage of net sales
3. In expenditure per standard unit

4. Affordability of total expenditure
5. Breakdown of expenditures between media, promotion, testing,
etc.
6. In relation to media used
7. In relation to sales geographically
8. In relation to sales by city size groups
V. Summary
A. Significant Facts
B. Principal Problems and Opportunities
C. Major Objectives
D. Recommended Plan
No proponent of the Marketing Plan advocates or even supposes

that this kind of fact-finding process is the answer to all the problems
which may confront a business. The success of a Marketing Plan lies
in its ability to stimulate management to the creative solution to busi
ness problems by enabling management people to apply intuition and
insight to those problems, based on sound judgment with full knowl

edge of all the applicable facts. Only when we know where we are and
how we got there can we make intelligent plans for the future. Only
by providing for periodic re-evaluation along the way can we be sure
that we are making progress. These are the purposes of the Marketing
Plan, and to the degree that any Marketing Plan fulfills these pur
poses, it has value in the total picture of marketing
— the creation and
satisfaction of consumer demand at a profit.
THE MARKETING PLAN

Summary
347
1. The purposes of a Marketing Plan:

a. To bring all the facts about a company up to date and to keep
them that way.
b. To assemble facts, policies, and plans into a single document.
c. To make this information available to all those who need to
know it ( and to no others ).
d. To provide for periodic reappraisal of strategy and tactics.

e. To integrate all the elements of marketing into a concerted
plan of action.
2. The physical organization of a Marketing Plan:
a. The statement of facts.

b. Identification of problems and opportunities.
c. Listing, in order of urgency and importance, the objectives de
fined.
d. The recommended plan of action.
e. Summary, including profit and loss projection.
THE MARKETING PLAN

f BE REALLY REFRESHED!
BRINGING IT All
TOGETHER (II):
The unifying concept which brings all the parts of
advertising together, welding them into a complete unit
with an assigned task in the terms of the Marketing
Plan, is the concept of the advertising campaign.
An advertising campaign usually consists of the fol
lowing three elements:
1. A series of advertising messages for the print, out
door, and/or broadcast media. Each message is written
to a single, central selling idea which runs through and
is the foundation for all the advertising messages in the
series. Each message looks physically like all the other
messages in layout or in television technique, so that

there is physical continuity as well as idea continuity
throughout the series.

2. A planned media schedule, designed to carry out
348
Advertising Campaigns
the objectives of the Marketing Plan in reaching the greatest possible number of
prospective customers at the lowest possible cost.

3. A merchandising plan, unified with and designed to follow through on the
basic selling idea, reinforcing it with salesmen and with dealers and giving it
additional exposure to prospective customers at the actual point of sale.
The success of every advertising campaign depends on the skill with which each
of these three component parts is executed. Weakness at any point in the develop
ment of the campaign lessens its chances for complete effectiveness. Strength in
all phases of the development of the campaign permits each phase to borrow
strength from each of the other phases. When all parts of the campaign work to
gether and reinforce each other, the strength of the whole is greater than the sum
of the strengths of its parts.
Here, as an example of a complete campaign and how it was carried out, is "The
Wesson Oil Story," as reported by James D. Woolf in his column "Salesense in Ad
vertising" in Advertising Age:
349
I have always been a strong believer in the strategy of focusing the
350 reader's (or the listener's) attention on a single strong selling point and
variety of themes.
it,
staying with as against spreading emphasis over
a
We seem to remember most vividly those things that are impressed on
our minds in terms of single symbol or idea.
a
should not go so far as to say that advertising campaigns should al
I
ways be built around single core idea. There undoubtedly have been
a
many cases where advertising has succeeded through the use of wide
a
variety of ideas and appeals. But do believe that, in most situations, ad
I
vertising has greater impact and more memorable when the selling
is
around single idea or single group of closely related
is
appeal centered
a
ideas.
The meeting took place in the office of the account executive in an im
portant advertising agency. Up for decision was new campaign for an
a
automotive product. Present were the account exec, the agency's creative
production chief, and the writer who had dreamed up the new theme. On
the rail was the pattern layout, 1,200-line newspaper advertisement,
a
exemplifying the "Big Idea." Everybody agreed the pattern was It.
The copy man referred to the next step — namely, "getting up" series
a
of dozen or so ads playing up the same theme in variety of ways. The
a
a
creative chief, brilliant student of advertising, shook his head doubt
a
fully. "I suppose that's what we'll likely do," he said, "but think maybe
I
won't be smart. Here's pattern ad that says exactly what we want to
it
—says quickly, understandably, and dramatically with few skil

it
say
a
fully selected words. think perhaps we ought to run the ad as is, over and
I
over again."
The creative chief
it,
went on to explain that, as he sees takes long,

it
a
long, LONG time to sell an idea to the American public.
In this connection have been very much impressed with the advertis
I
ing of Wesson Oil. For quite some time the Wesson print ads as well as
the Wesson tv commercials have hammered away at single core theme
a
"Wesson Oil takes the smoke out of frying!" So interested have been
I
in this campaign that asked my friends at Fitzgerald Advertising

I
Agency, New Orleans, to tell my readers all about it. What follows the
is
story just as they wrote for me. We are indebted to them for this re
it
vealing explanation of the thinking behind the fine Wesson Oil promo
tion.
ADVERTISING CAMPAIGNS
In 1956, Wesson Oil was far and away the biggest seller in a market
growing seven times faster than population. This growth was largely a
result of Wesson's promotion and advertising. While many consumers
had used vegetable oil for salads and, to some extent, as an all-purpose
product, Wesson proceeded to promote exciting new uses. In baking, for

example — the Chiffon cake, Stir-n-Roll pastry, Stir-n-Drop cookies, to
name a few. Naturally, Wesson's widely advertised innovations were fol
lowed by its competitors. In 1956, they were getting into Wesson Oil's
share of the growing market with aggressive price cuts and dealing, plus
heavy advertising. In addition, baking and salad opportunities for oil
were being reduced by the rapid growth of prepared mixes and prepared
salad dressings.
Exhaustive research in depth pointed to the volume opportunity for
vegetable oil in frying. Solid shortenings had the bulk of this frying use.
The creative people initiated exhaustive tests by the home economists of
the Fitzgerald agency staff. These tests pointed to Wesson Oil's demon
strable superiority as a fryingA complete marketing strategy, plus
agent.
Marketing Creativity — what Fitzgerald people refer to as "M.C." —
pointed to only one conclusion : demonstrate Wesson's frying superiority
to the public. In other words, show solid shortening smoking, and Wes
sonoil not smoking at identical frying temperatures, in two frying pans.
Because of the power of the "smoke, no-smoke" demonstration, televi
sion was selected as the kick-off medium. In a saturation campaign of one
nighttime and four daytime network shows, the commercials previously
tested before live audiences were governed by four considerations:
They must inform.
They must be entertaining.
They must focus attention entirely on the demonstration, hence the
"black" set and the black clothes of
the presenters.
And, above all, they must be honest, even to admitting that the pre
senters are an "acting" couple.
At the start, the commercials were done live. The producer had a prob
lem with the technicians. They wanted stand-by "smudge pots" in case
the solid shortening wouldn't smoke on cue. They didn't get them. They
weren't needed.
The tv campaign broke February, 1957.
The print version started in supplements a few weeks later, and the
Wesson Oil -r
takes
SOLID
SHORTENI
SOLID SHORTENINGS SMOKE. The special ingredient they contain, that

makes them good for baking, breaks down at frying temperature. Smoking short
ening is breaking down, and that can hardly lie good for you.
the smoke out of frying
"
WESSON Oll DOES NOT SMOKE because it is all shortening in its purest
form-nothing added. Wesson isso clear and brilliant, so light in body, it sparkles
as it pours. No other oil as fresh, as pure, and as light.
Enjoy cleaner frying with no clinging odor

•
Smoke S Out -!
Brighter flavor in foods-no greasy film even after they've cooled
- frying-more safely prepared than with costliest solid shortenings

Flavor's in!'
> Digestible
Easier and thrifty-Wesson's the shortening you pour

and can use again and again
KEY ADVERTISEMENT from the Wesson Oil campaign.

Basic elements from this advertisement were repeated
throughout the series. (Courtesy Wesson Oil and Snow.
drift Co., Inc., and Fitzgerald Advertising Agency.)
magazines followed. Again, the same principles were applied, and the
354 demonstration ad was patterned as closely as possible to the commercial
for the carry-over remembrance factor.
Research proved the value of this thinking. Gallup-Robinson responses
were filled with "I've seen that ad on tv." Much heart searching went
into the problem of "How long can we run one ad?" The Wesson Oil
people had the courage to stand fast to the principle that it was better to
run it too long than too short. As of this date, that one ad is still running,
virtually unchanged. In recent months, variations of the ad have been
added.
The demonstration was made the focal point of the Wesson Oil sales
meetings. Again, it was done "live." Salesmen were called from the floor
to make the test and see for themselves. They were convinced.
The results? This concentration on sinking home one salient fact of
superiority, vitally interesting to the public, helped reverse a share-of-
market trend. In 12 short months, Wesson Oil, already the leader in a
growing market, increased its share of market by 20%.

It is always difficult to pin down the factors that make for a sales suc
cess story, but in this case the Wesson Oil people and the Fitzgerald
agency believe that this campaign had a lot to do with the fine sales re
sults.1
Another advertising idea is credited with affecting favorably the

entire economy of a country, as reported in The Christian Science
Monitor:
FORD HAT PROMOTION

SPURS JAMAICA JOBS
This Advertising World
By Mary Alice Allen

Written for The Christian Science Monitor
Madison Avenue's gayest promotions sometimes have unexpectedly

far-reaching Cinderella results.
1
James D. Woolf, "The Wesson Oil Story," in "Salesense in Advertising."
Advertising Age, May 12, 1958, p. 116.
For example: more than 2,500 Jamaican farm people now are engaged
in making straw hats for one sales promotion campaign in the United
States. And the money these people receive for their hatmaking is mak
ing it possible for them to buy more of life's necessities than they other
wise might
Behind it all is a summer sales promotion by the Ford division of the
Ford Motor Company, pushing Thunderbirds and Ford convertibles. The
promotion includes mailing coupons to more than five million prospective
car buyers in the United States, offering them Jamaica straw hats below
cost. The purchaser receives his hat by mail directly from Jamaica, but
the coupon must be endorsed by his Ford dealer.
Plan Suggested
This rather different advertising gimmick has resulted in employment
for inland Jamaican farm families suffering from the economic setback
of a severe drought. It is expected that more than an entire season's regu
lar output of straw hats will be used in the promotion.
The story of this economic boost began in mid-May of this year, when
0. E. Mclntyre, Inc., a mail-order advertising firm representing the Ford
division, sounded out the Jamaican Industrial Development Corporation
on the practicability of such a promotion.
Purpose of the Jamaican Industrial Development Corporation is to en
courage and stimulate the growth of industry on the West Indies island
in an effort to foster a diversification in the traditional agricultural econ
omy and make the island as self-sufficient as possible.
Supply Uncertain
Currently, Carroll C. deCosta, United States representative of IDC,
has more than 230 United States manufacturers studying the possibilities
of establishing new plants in Jamaica.
When suddenly confronted with the Ford proposal, Mr. deCosta was
not certain that Jamaica could supply all the straw hats that would be
needed.
In his own words, Mr. deCosta's reaction was: "I had no idea whether
we could supply such an order, but I did know this — our farmers had a
poor season due to drought. Our crops were one-fifth normal. If we
could organize the farmers, we could not only fill this order, but we'd
keep a lot of belts from being tightened up."
MAILING PIECE from the Ford Jamaica Hat Promotion,
credited with helping to build Jamaican economy.
(Courtesy Ford Motor Company and J. Walter Thomp.
son Company.)
Only IFC
irn
America's TOP
lowest price.
T-I-O
co
"-l-time favorite-it
topped
convertible-extends
anopeninvitation
tofuninthesun The 4-passenger number
performing,
Thesweetest most most exciting car-awa.
-
responsive,
mostcomfortable
-
for-58design!...Drop
intoyour
andseeforyourself
Forddealer's why L
~
un-summer,born bymore
*
- *
s thananyotherconvertible.
Americans
Americ
and-
New
designed
to
-
e
----
-
-
-
-
|-
|-
|-
|-
--
-|- -------
--
--
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---- ---- -
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"--- . -
-
-
|- - |
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|
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--
-
The sun"
It had been estimated that 30,000 hats would be needed for display in
358 the 7,000 Ford salesrooms across the United States. The total order was
expected to be at least a quarter of a million.
Normal output of hats in Jamaica is approximately 1,500 a week. The
manufacturing of Jamaican straw goods is only a supplementary indus
try, not organized. Families plait straw into strips and sell them to small
plants catering to the Jamaican tourist trade.
From then on the deal shaped up in somewhat whirlwind fashion, as
the idea was received enthusiastically in Jamaica by Harold A. Braham,

executive director of IDC in Kingston, and by other groups concerned
with the island's economy.
The IDC, the Jamaican Welfare Cottage Industry, Ltd., and the Carib
bean Cottage Craft Agencies organized the farmers to meet the order
commitment. The Jamaican Tourist Board agreed to underwrite the cost
of boxes in return for a plug for Jamaica tourism, to be printed on the
boxes, and to supply a portion of the mobiles needed to display four
model hats in each Ford salesroom.
Drought Hit Palmetto
Drought had affected the palmetto from which straw is cut, so the
government opened forest preserves to make extra straw available for the
project. Box manufacturers, post office officials, and the United States
commercial attache all contributed to the swift completion of the deal.
Today, in the Jamaican parish of St. Elizabeth, entire villages are en

gaged in making straw hats, to promote Ford convertibles. For these
people, ranging in age from eight to 80, this introduction to the whims
and fancies of creative advertising has been an economic windfall.2
Here is another example of a successful campaign:

HOW $14,000 SPENT FOR ADVERTISING
SPARKED $454,190 IN EQUIPMENT SALES
The story of pioneering a new market for high-unit-cost industrial
equipment with a joint advertising campaign, prepared for Inter
national Harvester Company, Chicago, and Drott Manufacturing
Company, Milwaukee, by Leo Burnett. Company, Inc., Chicago.
2
Mary Alice Allen, "Ford Hat Promotion Spurs Jamaica Jobs," The Chris
tian Science. Monitor, July 17, 1958.
Few advertisers and their agencies have any illusions about selling
high-cost capital goods off the printed page.
Too many advertisers are willing to take the attitude that it can't be
done. They are too often satisfied to prepare and place "reminder" ad
vertising, or so-called "institutional" advertising, and let it go at that.
But advertising can spark the sale and help start the sale of capital
goods, just as it does for consumer goods, using the same basic advertis
ing principles.
And the cost of space being what it is in business publications (where
most capital goods are advertised ), the sales returns from this kind of
advertising are spectacular in comparison with the cost of the advertising.

This result came to International Harvester Company and Drott Manu
facturing Company from a joint advertising campaign budgeted at less
than $14,000 for the year 1952. Careful records were kept on every sales
lead developed from the advertising, with the result that sales totaling
$454,190 are credited to this low-cost campaign.
International Harvester makes crawler tractors. Drott makes a unit
called a Drott "Bullclam," which fits on the front of the tractor. Together,
the tractor and bullclam make a unit of equipment which makes it pos
sible for municipalities and private scavengers to dispose of refuse and
garbage through the new Sanitary Landfill Method of garbage disposal,
pioneered by Drott.
The objectives of the advertising were:
1. to sell the Sanitary Landfill Method as a new and better way to

dispose of municipal garbage and refuse than rat-breeding, fly-
infested open dumps, or smoky incinerators;
2. to sell the International-Drott unit as the best equipment for em
ploying the Sanitary Landfill Method — against competitive makes
aggressively seeking a share of this new market.
Sanitary Landfill, as an approved method of municipal garbage dis

posal, was relatively young in 1952. Only a few cities and towns had ac
cepted it. International and Drott had been advertising and selling in this
market for only three years. Yet spectacular result stories and case his
tories were obtainable from those cities which had been among the first
to buy the equipment and try the method. Rats and flies had been elimi
nated. Smoking incinerator chimneys had disappeared. Unsightly ravines
Civic Pride intity Dump
Fast-growing Marietta, Georgia, relies on an international
to
a
Crawler with Drott Bullclam please both old-time
citizens and new jet-bomber industry

a
a
of
“Our city 20,800 got bigboostwhenLockheedset up
B-47 jetbomberplant here,”saysByronWallace,head
of
of
the SanitaryDepartment Marietta,Georgia.“But

thenour cityincinerator
brokedown.
“A newonewouldcost$75,000, webeganburning
in our
refuse opendump. was stinking,smoking nui
an
soa of
it.
sance.Lockheed wanted part Ourcitizensdidn't

It no
either.But whohad $75,000?

a
“Then we gotDrott. We got Drott Bullclamon

an
InternationalCrawler.Now we buryour garbage com

is
pletelyeveryotherday.The sanitaryfill improving our

is
land,andtheCrawler-Bullclam efficientwedon'tsee
so
is
how anylower-costdisposal possible.”

InternationalCrawlerswith Drott Bullclamsare the
of
to
ONLY unitsspecifically designed doallfour steps the

Crushes
andcompacts
refuse completesanitary-filljob.Ask yourInternationalIndus
trial Distributorfor details.Or writeto:
Drott ManufacTuRINGCORPORATION, Milwauxet wis.
a,
1,
International Marvestercompany,c*caoo 1tunois
A
sefore. Bulletara
spreads
refuse
beforecrushing BULLCLAM BY
itis
beneath
thespecially-curved
Bunclaim
front.
Thisunit
Marietta's
"one-man
sanitation
squad."
After. TheInternational-Drott
unitburies
thewaste,
turnin-the-landintovaluable
sites
forpark-play
or
wrounds,
airstrips,
homesfactories.
POWER BY
[
_m.
10
AT
IN
N
N
IA
T
E R
Gradesandlevelsfinished
are
HM
POWER THAT PAYS
sani
on
TYPICAL ADVERTISEMENT from the business-paper campaign
tary landfill. (Courtesy International Harvester Company.)

had been filled, and land erosion checked. And where the dumps had been
were now playgrounds, factory sites, ball parks, housing projects, even
airports. Land that had been a wasted eyesore for years was now trans
formed into productive wealth, creating profit for its owners and a wel
come addition to the tax rolls for hard-pressed municipal governments.

The assignment of preparing the campaign was given to Leo Burnett
Company, Inc., at that time International Harvester's agency for Indus
trial Power advertising.
Details of the case history material were carefully checked, with the
cooperation of the municipal officials involved. Sanitary Landfill, because
it was new, offered an element of controversy in some cities, and it was
discovered in at least one instance that a courageous public official had
made his political reputation by backing his belief in the method with the
performance of the International-Drott equipment and taking his story
to the people.
These case histories were told in six, two-page, two-color advertise

ments in alternate months over the year. Layouts were made with an
editorial, news approach, to give strong display to headlines, subhead
ings, pictures and captions. Headlines were written for news value —
"Creates Wealth from Waste," "Factory Sites from a City Dump," "How
to Build a Playground."
The slogan, "One-Man Sanitation Squad," developed naturally out of
the performance of the equipment.
When available, a sequence of actual news pictures, taken on the job,

was used to tell the full story of the four steps of the Sanitary Landfill
Method. When only a single step could be illustrated photographically,
four small line drawings illustrated the four steps.
The media to be used were selected with equal care. It was decided to
concentrate on only those readers who would directly influence the sale.
American City, Public W orks Magazine, and Western City were chosen,
with a total circulation for each advertisement of 41,763. Since only a
small segment of this audience can be considered a market for this equip
ment it is clear from the results that a very large percentage of potential
buyers were reached through these publications.

The results were not long in appearing. As summed up by R. C. Reyn
olds, then advertising manager for Drott:
"In 1952 as a result of these ads, we received 458 requests for addi
362 tional information. This compares to 59 inquiries during the first six
months of 1949 and an average of 195 inquiries in each of the years
1950 and 1951.
"We followed through on every one of these leads by notifying the
distributor, the salesman, and our own district representative. Sales of
Drott equipment totalling $163,150 can be traced directly to these in
quiries."
Since every sale of Drott equipment required the sale of an Inter
it,
national crawler tractor to power International Harvester estimates
sales totalling $291,000 as its results from this advertising.
Thus an advertising campaign costing less than $14,000 credited
is
directly with $454,190 in sales.
Another recent example the case history of single advertise

is
a
ment for the Rolls-Royce automobile which appeared in the spring of
1958. You may remember that 1958 was poor year for the auto
a
mobile industry. was recession period — an "economic coffee-
It
break," as some writers called it. Sales even of the lowest-priced

domestic automobiles were low, and the automobile industry was in
the doldrums. Yet at this particular moment in economic history, the
most expensive car on the market, Rolls-Royce, scored spectacular
a
success. The now-famous advertisement, "At 60 miles an hour the
loudest noise in this new Rolls-Royce comes from the electric clock,"
Mather,
by
was prepared the advertising agency of Ogilvy, Benson &
Inc. In long piece of copy — about 600 words— the advertisement

a
presented fascinating array of facts about an automobile then priced

a
at $13,550. The price was plainly stated— twice — in the ad. The
car at this price,
media, carefully selected to reach those able to buy
a
included The New York Times, the Chicago Tribune, The Washing
ton Post and Times Herald, and the Wall Street Journal, the New
Yorker magazine and Sunset magazine. Readers were invited to drive
the car, and the local dealer's name and address were given at the
bottom of the ad. The dealer followed through on every inquiry.
Within three weeks after the advertisement appeared in Chicago, the
Chicago dealer reported actual sales totalling $285,000 — with an ad
vertising space cost of approximately 1.5 per cent of sales.
363
IMPLEMENTATION SERVICES: MERCHANDISING
In each of the cases we have noted, the element of merchandising

— the follow-through of the advertising campaign — was extremely
important.
Such implementation starts with the advertiser. Every member of
the sales force must be informed about the campaign. He must be
given an opportunity to study the advertising, to know the main
selling idea. He must be trained to use the same arguments in his

personal selling that appear as advantages and benefits to the prospec
tive customer in the copy of the advertisements. His enthusiasm for

the campaign must be raised to the same high pitch as that of its
creators — for on his enthusiasm depends the way retailers and dealers
will receive the campaign and use it in selling the prospective cus
tomer.
Often the advertising agency is asked to present the advertising and
the media schedule to the sales force. This presentation may be
elaborately done in a sales meeting —when all the members of the

sales force are brought together for a theatrical presentation, com
plete with all the elements of showmanship and salesmanship — or a
series of such meetings. Or it may be done with a brochure, outlining

the campaign and underscoring important information about the copy
platform and the media schedule, which is mailed to every salesman

for his use on his own schedule of calls.
Frequently, the media in which the advertising is scheduled are
asked to participate in merchandising the campaign to salesmen, re
tailers, and dealers, through low-cost direct mail, display pieces, or
counter cards bearing the familiar legend "As advertised in . . ."
Retailers and dealers must be persuaded to display the product
prominently in their stores, to feature it in their own advertising, and
in
“At 60 miles an hour the loudest noise this
new Rolls-Royce comes from the electric clock”
no
in
is
What makes Rolls-Royce the best car the world? "There really magic about it—
an
it
is
to
merely patient attention detail,” says eminent Rolls-Royce engineer.
is
1.
to
is
"At 60 miles hourtheloudestnoisecomes 15.Youcanlubricatetheentirechase Price. The carillustrated thisadvertisement
by
an
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hefamousRollsRovceradiator
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Roll,RoyceInc. Rockefeller Plaza,

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With newnetwork dealer,
andpartsdepots
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for
in
FIRST ADVERTISEMENT the famous Rolls-Royce cam.
paign. (Courtesy Rolls-Royce, Inc., and Ogilvy, Benson

&
Mather, Inc.)
to Put UP ê display materials furnished by the advertiser for use
at the point of sale. The largest corporations employ special men who
travel from city to city, from dealer to dealer to see that window dis
plays are created, banners and posters installed, and mass displays of
cartons and cans built (not forgetting the "starter gap" — the few cans
removed from a display after it is built so that customers will not hesi
tate to pick up more cans for fear of destroying the symmetry of the
display ) . More often, this is the responsibility of the individual sales

man who calls regularly on the dealer — another good reason for the
complete indoctrination of the sales force in the objectives of the

campaign.
IMPLEMENTATION SERVICES: SALES PROMOTION
Much of the implementation of the campaign comes under the

heading of what we know as "sales promotion."
Sales promotion differs from advertising only in degree and in
method. Both have the same ultimate objective — selling the product.
It is difficult — and often unnecessary —to tell where one leaves off
and the other begins. As good a definition as any is one that many
writers have used:
"Advertising moves the consumer toward the product.
Sales promotion moves the product toward the consumer."
Under the sales promotion category, the following are often grouped:
1. Contests. A contest is usually a short-term method of reaching
a desired level of sales very quickly. It can be used to bolster sales
in a lagging market, to increase share-of-market in a peak selling
period, to raise the selling plateau of a product which has levelled off
at a point below that desired by the advertiser. It can also be used as
a "shot-in-the-arm" to stimulate the efforts of salesmen and to in
crease interest and activity on the part of dealers.
2. Product promotions and "push periods." Many products are
seasonal in nature. Many others have their greatest sales in months
during which people buy because they have become accustomed to
buying certain kinds of products at certain times of the year
— fur
coats in August, household linens in January. Other companies have a
number of products and divide the calendar into "push periods" dur
ing which the entire selling effort of the company will be concentrated
on a single product for two or three months, moving on to another
product in the two or three months following. Advertising and media

scheduling will be geared to this kind of time-table, which permits the
sales promotion department and the sales force to coordinate mer
chandising activity in depth for intensive selling in a short time

period.
3.Cooperative advertising with dealers. Cooperative advertising
— in which manufacturer and dealer split the cost of regional or local
advertising according to a predetermined schedule — is sometimes
handled by the advertising department, sometimes by the sales pro
motion department. (Often, of course, both functions are combined
in a single department.) Arrangements for this kind of advertising
take many forms. Some manufacturers furnish complete advertise
ments to dealers without charge, asking the dealers to pay only the
cost of the space occupied by the advertisement at local advertising
rates. Others split the cost of the space with their dealers — the manu
facturer pays half, the dealer pays half. Still others offer a complete
advertising service for their dealers, including print advertising,
radio scripts, television films, movie trailers, direct mail letters and
folders, blotters, signs, and match books — at a far lower cost per item
than the dealer could arrange if he did it all himself. Both the manu
facturer and the dealer benefit from cooperative advertising — the
manufacturer by obtaining additional audience for advertising co
ordinated in basic theme and selling appeal to his national effort, the
dealer by focussing the impact of the total campaign to his own place
of business as the local sales outlet.
4. Price concessions and "deals." Advertising which features spe
cial, limited-time price reductions ("ten cents off this month only"),
or "two-for-one sales," or which offers a premium "deal" ("get this
beautiful carving knife at no extra cost with your purchase of ")
usually classifies as sales promotion. Here again we are considering
short-term methods of boosting the sales curve— "shot-in-the-arm"
procedures to increase brand share or to stimulate lagging sales.
IMPLEME1\TAT101\ SERVICES: PUBLICITY
Very often, advertising and sales promotion activities make legiti

mate news — news of such interest to so many people that editors of
newspapers and magazines are willing to print articles about these

activities in their news columns.
For example, when the captured German submarine, U-505, was
towed across Chicago's Outer Drive to its permanent resting place
outside the Museum of Science and Industry, a news
event was
created. The fact that an International Harvester tractor did the
towing (and the picture editors of all the Chicago newspapers were
notified of the time and place of the event by an International Har
vester publicity man ) was incidental. Every Chicago paper covered
the story and carried a picture — because this was legitimate news.
Similarly, the "Grand National

Baking Contest" sponsored by
Pillsbury has become legitimate news. So many women are interested
in this contest, in the glamour of the "bake-off" at the Waldorf-
Astoria Hotel in New York, in the personality of the famous woman
selected each year to make the grand awards, that the news story of
this annual event makes the front pages and the food pages of most
newspapers across the country.
By contrast, much of the activity of advertising and sales promo

tion is not news. The announcement of a new advertising campaign
is not news, except to advertising people through the advertising trade
press. A shipment of new merchandise to replenish stocks is not news,

in the sense of publicizing it in the news columns of a newspaper. The
mere fact that an advertiser has products for sale is not news.
The publicity man is thus forced to walk a tightrope between news
that is news and has a legitimate place in news columns and "press
Q/iQ
agentry" which no self-respecting editor should be asked to print.
The Grand Opening of supermarket in a big city is not news — but
a
the Grand Opening of a supermarket in a small town may be news be

cause local people involved may be news in and of themselves in a
small community. A product change involving the number of threads
on a bolt may be of interest only to buyers of bolts — -and hence be
advertising — but the product change on an automobile may be of

major interest to millions of people — and hence be news. The ap
pointment of a new salesman to the Pacific Coast territory is news
only for the company magazine — but the appointment of a new presi
dent of a major corporation may be news for the whole country.
Whether or not the publicity man falls off his tightrope depends
on:
1. his own sense of whether a given item is news — real news —or
advertising;
2. his skill at recognizing news elements in a story and his ability
to spot "pegs and angles" which make news;
3. his professional integrity in leaving it up to the editor to decide
what is news and what isn't. The invasion of this editorial pre
rogative by an advertiser's publicity man is the quickest way to

lose friends. Any advertiser who demands "free" publicity in
exchange for advertising is courting disaster. Not only will he
not get it— from any editor who is worth his salary — but, when
the time comes when he does have legitimate news, he may find
his news ignored because he attempted to get news space
through pressure.
IMPLEMENTATION SERVICES: PUBLIC RELATIONS
A wise man once said, "Good public relations consists in finding

it,
out what people want you to do and doing and finding out what
people don't want you to do and not doing it."
Q An advertiser has many publics he must find out about. Here are
*7Q
some of them:
1. His customers — the present and prospective buyers of his
product.
2. His sellers — dealers, distributors, retailers — the people who
actually deliver his product to the customer.
3. His suppliers — the people who sell him raw materials or com
ponent parts used in making his product.

4. His employees — his present labor force and the people he may
want to hire.
5. His community — the people who live where his plants are
located, the friends and neighbors of his employees.
6. His stockholders — the people who own his company.
7. The financial community — the bankers, brokers, and security
analysts whose opinion can affect the sale of his stocks and
bonds.
8. Government officials — national, state, and local — who may
be potential purchasers of his product or potential supervisors
(in the public interest) of the way his business is run.

9. His competitors — the companies which, with his own, make
up an industry.
10. The press.
11. "Influence groups" — the "people other people copy" — doc
tors, nurses, the clergy, bankers, architects, lawyers, educa
tors, management men — whose opinions about ideas and prod
ucts influence many people.
The corporate image of any company and the brand image of any
product are the sum totals of what all of these publics think about the
company and its product. These totals include some positive elements
and some negative elements. The job of public relations is to build to
the positive and to get rid of the negative, by seeing to it that the
company is correctly interpreted to its various publics. An excellent
example of public relations advertising, in this case for the advertis
ing industry itself, is shown on the next four pages.
American Business and Advertising
serving the public through
The Advertising Council

The crossed sword and quill symbolize a powerful
but relatively lurk- known instrument of public good.
They symbolize also the good citizenship of American business
and advertising, not in theory, but in actual practice,
over a period of seventeenyears.
The following pages tell the story of the annual $100,000,000
contribution in money, time, space and talent made by
American business to public advertising campaigns conducted
by The Advertising Council.
This story, as the Council's annual advertisementfor 1953,
has been primed as a public service by twelve publications:
Advertising Age, December 33; Broadcasting,January 5;
Business Week. December 37; Editor O Publisher. December 37;
Life. January 5; Look. January 6; Nation's Business, January;
Printers' Ink, December 19; SaturdayEvening Post, December 37;
Sponsor, December 30; Television Age, January 13;
Time, December 39-
The combined circulation of these magazines is close to
31 million. At paid rates,the contributed space would have cost
more than $336,000.
THE STORY OF THE ADVERTISING COUNCIL
IS TOLD ON THE NEXT 3 PAGES . . .
A SUPERB "public relations" advertisement for adver

tising. ( Courtesy of The Advertising Council, Inc. )
Publisher's Note — This is an advertisement, but one of
such unusual character we are glad to be a sponsor of it.
Persuaders
in the Public Interest
The story of little-known band of men and women
a
who created a Hundred Million Dollar
Non-Profit Trust that works for the public good
By JASON WEEMS
Last summer, a called for help from a unique business organi dent of medical problems for the Rockefeller
father, driving his zation called The Advertising Council. Foundation, the advertising man went on to
vacationing family You've probably never hecrd of The Ad elaborate his idea in terms of what advertis
through one of our vertising Council, but it is unlikely that a day ing could do to spread new medical knowledge
great national for passes in which you are not exposed to the among all the people.
ests, pulled up for persuasive messages, prepared and dissemi
the view where a nated under its auspices, on the air or in print. Persuasion for the Public Welfare
mountain road This is a good thing for you, and for your
His convictions, widely shared by many ad
looked down on a country.
vertising men at that time, boiled down to this:
deep, wooded Persuasion in the public interest started
when an advertising man had lunch with a 1. American advertising facilities and tech
canyon.
Princeton professor and three officers of the niques had becomethe most effective means
Filling his pipe, he flared a kitchen match
Rockefeller Foundation in New York. This for the communication of new knowledge,
with his thumbnail, in the Western manner.
was in the spring of 1941. and for persuasion to use it, which the
"Hey, Pop," cried his eight-year-old son,
world had ever seen.
"don't throw that match out the window,
The Adman 3. This means of communication could be
break it. You know what Smokey the Bear
says."
Stuck His Neck Out used just as effectively in the public in
Smokey has beenurging people to take such The professor was doing research in commu terest as it was being used in the private
precautions against starting forest fires for nications under a Rockefeller grant, so the interest.
16 years. You've probably seen his messages lunch table talk naturally turned to the art, 3. Advertising being a communication fa
on posters, on TV, or in print. Or heard them or science, of communication. That was when cility developed by business, business itself
on the radio. the adman stuck his neck out. might well consider making it available for
Smokey, who now lives in the Washington, He said all foundations were making two public welfare projects and organizations.
D.C., zoo, was a real-life bear cub. A forest mistakes in policy. First, they spent most of
Out of these convictions The Advertising
ranger found him wandering in the smoke of their money on the increaseof knowledge and
Council was born in November, 1941. Its
a forest fire which had consumed his mother. very little on the distribution of it. Second,
initial organizers and financial supporters
Advertising men dressed him up in print as a when they did spend money on the distribu
were the six official organizations of national
forest ranger and made him the greatest fire tion of knowledge, they used old-fashioned
advertisers, of magazine, newspaper, radio,
fighter of them all. horse-and-buggy methods, and ignored the
and outdoor media owners, and of advertising
As a result of his efforts, the U.S. Forest modern high-speed effectiveness of motion
agencies.
Service estimates that, since 1943, 600,000 pictures, broadcasting, and advertising.
It had barely been organized when it was
forest fires did not start; 360 million acres of Seeing a responsive gleam in the eyes of the
called upon to play a greater role than any of
timber did not burn; and nearly 10 billion late, great Dr. Alan Ciregg, world-wide stu-
its founders had envisioned.
dollars of damage teas not done!
ABOUTTHEAUTHOR— JatonW«mi h thepennam*for The Stab in the Back
Who Made Smokey a Hero oneofAmerica'* men.Heho*beenMKtewful
moilvertotife
Fire Fighter? a*a Bibletaletmon,o printer,
onadvertisingwriter,a book On December 7, 1941, the Japanese struck
andmagoline publisher, o government official,thehead
at war found itself
Smokey got his start in the fire-fighting busi of a socialKienceresearchlaboratory
andconsult art|lo □ Pearl Harbor. A country
ness in 1943 when the U.S. Forest Service largeFoundation. HeI*theauthorof Mveralbooks. faced with vast new problems which could be
met only with the cooperation of all the people. By the end of the war, more than One Bil by a three-fourths vote before the Council will
lion Dollars' worth of government messages tackle it.
Scrap metals, rubber and paper were needed
in vast quantities, and they had to be had been published and broadcast as a contri What Kind of
gathered up from every farmyard and city bution of American business to the war effort. Projects Are Approved?
cellar. The results proved what advertising men
Since the war, The Advertising Council, with
Fats and wheat had to be saved to send to had long believed: that advertising could as
the approval of the Public Policy Committee,
our allies. effectively inform and persuade people to act
has presented numerous national problems
in the public interest as it had in their private
War Bonds had to be sold. for your information and consideration, and
interest.
Merchant seamen, WACS, WAVES, and programs for your support and action.
nurses had to be recruited. Waging the Peace There are emergency programs, such as
Victory gardens had to be planted. appeals of the Red Cross for disaster funds.
When the war ended, many in the War Ad
Altogether, before the war was over, ci There are periodic programs, such as the
vertising Council thought its usefulness was
vilians had to be persuaded to do more one called "Religion in American Life", which
over. There were more who felt that the in
than one hundred things like this. reminds you of the strength to be drawn from
strument of public information, which the
Great Britain, faced with the same problems, attendance at your church or synagogue.
Council had created, was far too valuable to
had turned to paid government advertising ;Gallup polls have shown a steady increase in
be reserved for war.
to help solve them. This made the govern attendance at religious services since this pro
The government still had jobs of public in gram started.)
ment by far the biggest, and almost the only, formation which needed doing . . . such as
advertiser in the country. Some felt this was Other programs, such as Forest Fire Pre
forest fire prevention, and the sale of Savings vention, have been continuous over a period
a potential threat to freedom of the press. Bonds; and there was the original Council
of years. One is the Stop Accidents campaign
concept of broad public service such as assist for the National Safety Council. It has
ing the work of the Red Cross, CARE, March
"42 years with chalk on my sleeve" of Dimes, the National Safety Council, and
many others. Public Policy Committee
The word "War" was dropped from the
of The Advertising Council
name, and The Advertising Council continued.
CHAIRMAN
But here it faced a new problem. FAUL0. HOFFMAN
VKf CHAIRMAN
Who Decides What's in the fVAHSClAtX,EtftorM Na, To*TW
Sow**.
Public Interest? MfMlfftS
SARAH OMON UAMNNG,ftidaW VOIWfCoAapa
Under the imperatives of war there was no ■AimJ. WJHCHE, 1MarSaervtor*.
U'
question about what projects the Council ifNJAMIN J. SUTTENW1ESER.
Porfnar
should undertake, but when it came to non andCaaacwaf
OUVEClAPFIR.PaWaU
governmental organizations and non-war HELEN HAU.Diracfa-,
H-*T SMaa*
Sari
projects of government departments, who was CHARLESS. iONES,
P-waai*,BcMaUCHICwaOTffe
to determine which ones were in the public
LAWKHCE Owneaflw,
A. K1MPTON. •*
WvaraBr
interest?
The businessmen who were the financial A. t LYON,f.Kv»* Satrap, K«aV
ar inbo.
supporters and operators of the Council's fa JOHNJ. McCLOY, h, Tfca
Chain— Otoaa
cilities did not feel it was in the public interest EUGENE CMwm, DmWo*.igteaFoaf1
MEYER,
that they alone should decide such questions. TianaHareM
WILLIAML MYERS.
Dao«of AnrKvffcr
As a result, a Public Policy Committee was
OpMonAndy*
ELMOROKR.FtoMte
created. This was a group of 30 of America's
HOWARD M.D.Ma-Ye* U
A. RUSK.
most distinguished citizens with backgrounds
and experience in various areas of American 5TANUYRUTTENSERG, O1rad
Kaaaorch or,Aft-CIO
BETTER SCHOOLS—TV continuingpurpose
of thisc«m- A»ifarrfh'
ROMSSHISHKIN. Frawmm,AFVCfO
paipi» ia maintain publicinteretr
in thenation'xachooll, life. One of the first to accept an invitation to FranJanl,
whichmuitbereadyto mm tilingschool populatioos
over serve was Dr. Alan Gregg, who remembered GEORGE N. SHUSTER. HwiMr Cofef*
thenexttenyean. In 1951, StateSchoolCommittee* in THOMASJ. WATSON,IK. FmioW,
creasedin number* andParent-Teachers Association
mem the luncheon where he first heard how adver hmo MavMaaa Ctrpomhem
bershiprose.
Citizenconcernaboutourschoolsandwhatthey tising might help solve some health problems. HENRYM WR1STON.Eaamrin D'racta
reachisata newhighlevel. Th*Aawrice*
Aaa—fca/
On this pageyou'll find a list of the men and
America Chose a Better Way women who serve,without pay, on this Public
Our government turned to the newly formed Policy Committee. They are drawn from busi helped bring the traffic toll to a new low per
Advertising Council, which quickly became ness, labor, education, agriculture, the re vehicle-miles traveled. Still another is the
the War Advertising Council. ligions, medicine and public affairs. They rep drive for Better Schools, which has stimu
The Council called for volunteers. Adver resent no one but themselves and the best lated formation of State School Committees,
tising agencies supplied talented people to interests of their country, as they see them. and increased membership in Parent-Teacher
prepare the messages needed. Advertisers, When a project is presented for The Adver Associations. Result: citizen concern about
magazines, newspapers, radio stations, and tising Council's support, the Board of Direc our schools and what they teach is at a new
outdoor poster companies supplied advertis tors first decides whether or not it can benefit high level.
ing time and space to carry the messages to from broad national advertising. If they de One of the largest and oldest is the cam
the country. cide it can, it goes to the Public Policy Com paign in support of the U.S. Treasury for the
All these interests responded through the mittee which votes on whether or not it is sale of Savings Bonds. You have probably
War Advertising Council. America responded importantly in the public interest. The Public responded to both your own and your coun
to the messages. Policy Committee must approve the project try's benefit.
sion" psychology. Government, economic Why Haven't You Heard
and business leaders say it helped reverse the about the Council Before?
HELP US KEEP THE downswing of last spring.
This article might well have been titled, "The
THINGS WORTH KEEPING The Advertising Council has also tackled
Light Hidden Under a Bushel." And that
the problem of misunderstandings about might seem a contradiction in terms when it
America abroad. The Round Tables on
comes to advertising.
American Life, sponsored by the Council in
But it is a fact advertising men are little
1933-54, developed a description of the given to advertising themselves. Their first
American economic system as "People's
rule is: "Never get on the stage in front of
Capitalism" which was widely disseminated
your client."
throughout the world by the U.S. Information So the chances ire that any one of these
Service.
public service messagesyou read or hear does
In later Round Tables, in which both Yale not identify either The Advertising Council
University and the University of Chicago or its business donor as its sponsor. You see
:i
participated, citizens and scholars have been or hear it only as a message from the organi
developing the story of America's cultural life zation which it serves.
Sab?5--5
an .
to help correct the distorted picture of
America often painted abroad.
Yet He who first spoke of "a light put
under a bushel" also said: "Let your light so
shine before men, that they may see your
More Than 100 Million Dollars a Year good works."
HELP STRENGTHEN AMERICAS PEACE POWER
And so it has seemed to me it was time for
BUY U. S. SAVINGS BONDS Altogether, the programs of The Advertising
all our citizens — the millions like you and me
Council get more than 100 million dollars'
who have responded to the appeals which
worth of support every year.
The Advertising Council daily casts upon the
The support comes from American busi
waters— time for us to know and fully under
Adfrom1he Treasury
corrent Bandcampaign. Started
it the ness, large and small corporations alike. It stand the workings of this great Public In
mirw r,l W» II I* laik. ..I.I,.. - ■ ■■
comes from owners of magazines, newspapers,
formation Trust.
television and radio stations, outdoor and So the next time you hear from Smokey
transit advertising facilities. It comes from
the Bear, you might like to remember the
The Council Doesn't the volunteered talent of America's leading
uniquely American institution that put the
Wait to be Asked advertising agencies. words in his mouth for the good of us all.
When the Council seesa developing national Most of it is represented by donations of The Advertising Council demonstrates by
need which calls for the help of better public advertising time and space. But there's also actions, not words, the social responsibility
information, it tries to get a program started. cash to support the necessary staff work of of American business and the power of adver
A recent example was creating and getting the Council and some of the programs it tising in the public interest.
support for a program of "Confidence in a originates. Even more important, it has proved that
Growing America" in the spring of 1933. A great deal of it results from the devoted Americans will move to solve the problems of
Twenty million dollars' worth of advertising services of a group of some 70 of America's their society with intelligence, sacrifice, and
time and space told Americana why they were leading corporation officers who serve the courage whenever they are adequately in
justified in having such confidence. This Council, without pay, as its Industries Ad formed of these problems and persuaded that
helped avert the development of a "depres visory Committee. they need solving.
You'll recognize some of these examples of 1958 campaigns
Trafficfatalityrite
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rrVrTrVrVrV
Publicinterest
inschool
frcadYincreased
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13 50
Ownership
of U S Savings
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andCommonityChests VoteandContribute throughthreemajorfaiths forRadio
The Advertising Council . . . for public service

If youwouldliketoknowmoreaboutthiawork,tbiamaga-
youwritefor a freebookletto The Adver-
line suggeata
tiaingCouncil.35W. 41thSc. NewYork 56,NewYork.
People expect products to work, to deliver the value for which
they were purchased. It is up to the company to see that its products
375
do work, do deliver value. People expect companies to be good citi
zens, to contribute to the functioning of the society in which they have
their base. It is up to the company to act like a good citizen, to live up
to the expectations of its publics — from a secretary who takes a tele
phone call to a senior executive who takes on the job of chairmanning

the Community Fund drive.
Advertising in only a part of public relations — yet it is an impor

tant part. It is from a company's advertising that most individuals
within these many publics get their impressions of the company and
its products. The company which overstates its case in its advertising
messages, the company which claims too much and boasts too much,
the company, which fails to live up to the image presented in its adver
tising is the company which overlooks the opportunity offered by ad

vertising as a public relations vehicle to sound growth and steady
progress. This, too, is salesmanship in print — and in radio and televi
sion — and in the face-to-face, street-corner, back-fence communica
tion which is the most important advertising of all.
THE MANAGEMENT VIEW OF ADVERTISING TODAY
Grey Advertising Agency, Inc., in its provocative publication Grey

Matter, recently made "a composite compilation of the advertising
views of today's enlightened management." This is what was said:
1. The very first thought in planning advertising must be that selling

is its goal. While every ad in the campaign (print, radio or TV)
should contribute toward creating a favorable brand or corporate
image, the purpose of every ad is to persuade or sell.
2. The best ads are built on a "Big Idea." It may stem from the prod
uct. It may be in a new use of the product, in enjoyment of the
product, in dramatization of a product benefit, or in a countless
number of places. But a big, dominant idea must break through the
reader's or viewer's indifference and arouse him to action.
3. The product can rarely be a by-product of an ad. Where to show
it,
the product, how to show how large or how small, rest on the
imagination and ingenuity of the advertising creator. But few,
if
any, are the instances where an advertisement can sell without
showing (or talking about) the product.
Effective not bellow, shriek, exhort, argue or
4.
advertising need
blatantly ask for the order. can achieve selling persuasiveness
It
through the emotions, through reason, or both.
Advertising communication with the consumer. Therefore,
5.
is
greater attention must be paid to communicating more easily and
more smoothly. Complex, round-about advertisements and com
mercials must give way to direct, imaginative simplicity that will
make readers or listeners not only receptive to the message, but en
thusiastic enough to want the product and even talk about to
it
others.
Entertainment valuable ingredient of good advertising,
6.
may be
a
but most effective when it's linked to the product, and doesn't
is
it
come out of left field to draw attention away from the product.
Talking down to people annoys them. Talking over their heads
7.
puzzles them. Advertising that sells talks to people in their own

language, never below their level. Sincerity (humor can be sincere),
honesty, conviction must be in every ad.
Advertising must establish feeling of kinship with the reader or
8.
listener-viewer. Hence, must be friendly. Not gushy or coy, but

it
honestly, genuinely friendly.

Finally, advertising that sells must be believable.
9.
the claims are "out of this world" or shouted as

If
the message
is
if
the consumer being cowed into submission, or the words are stiff and
is
stilted, or the testimonial false or forced, or the situation

is
obviously
impossible, hard for the reader or hearer to accept the message in
is
it
good faith. just isn't believed, even though the disbelief may be sub
It
conscious. Buying believing.2

is
Grey Matter (New York, Grey Advertising Agency, Inc.), Vol. 30, No.
2
1,
January, 1959, pp. 3-4.
INDEX
Action, 82 Advertising (Cont.)
Advertisers, 37-38 direct mail, 276-279
Advertising: early use of the word, 11
action-producing, 82-83 getting started in, 50-55

and American society, 35 graphics, 206-237
attitude-producing, 84 history, 6-16
appeals, 168-171 industrial. 26-28
brand image, 31 informational theory, 83
business publication, 265-268 institutional, 29
campaigns, 348-376 layouts. 213-222
channels, 239 local, 23
as communication, 20, 35, 36-37, in magazines, 244-249
76-77 mail order. 146
in Communist China, 70 management view, 375-376
cooperative, 367 media:
contributions to society, 73 broadcast, 288-321
costs, 68-69, 300-301 collateral. 239
corporate image, 31 print, 238-287
corporate, 104 selection, 240-241
criticisms of, 70-73 merchandising plans, 349, 363, 366
definitions of, 2-6, 35 national, 20-22
377
Advertising (Cont.) Advertising media :
in newspapers, 255-259, 262-265 definition, 40

classified, 262 people who work in, 40-41
display, 262-263 (see also Media)
number of people engaged in, 44 Advertising people, 46
to opinion leaders, 279-282 Advertising Psychology and Re
outdoor, 268-275 search, 218
public service, 31, 33, 78, 107, 341 Advertising research :
purposes of, 99-111 classifications, 128-129
to professional groups, 28 definitions, 112, 128-129
qualifications for work in, 46-50 reliability, 115
radio and television, 288-321 techniques, 115-125
regional, 22-23 validity, 115
responsibility, 63, 73 Advertising Research Foundation
retail, 26 (ARF), 156-157
sales promotion, 366-368 Advertising research organizations,
service function, 45 people in, 41
in Soviet Russia, 70 Advertising Typographers Associa
spokesman for business, 35 tion of America, Inc., 233, 235,
support of mass media, 75 237
television and radio, 288-321
Agency commission, 15-19, 275
trade, 26
AIDA formula for copy, 173
transportation, 275-276
Aided recall, 88, 91, 152
truth in, 12, 45
Alcoa foil, 98
types of, 20-32
Alderson, Wroe, 82-84
typography, 227, 230-234
Alikeness of characteristics, principle
word-of-mouth, 239
of, 117
Advertising Age, 47, 267, 349-354
Allen, Mary Alice, 354-358
Advertising Agency, 327
Allstate Insurance Companies, 34
Advertising agencies :
15-19, 275 Aluminum Company of America, 98

compensation,
American Airlines, 182
early history, 14-16
function, 16, 18-19 American Association of Advertising
people who work in, 41 Agencies (AAAA), 17
relation to clients, 16-19 American Heritage Foundation, The,
relation to media, 15-19 33
Advertising Council, Inc., The, 33, American Meat Institute, 106, 107,
107,341,371-374 110.138
Advertising Industry, The, 18-19 American Motors Corporation, 39
Advertising knowledge, elements, 82 American Home, The, 247

Advertising man, qualifications, 46- American Newspaper Publishers As
50 sociation (ANPA), 156, 265
INDEX
American Research Bureau (ARB), Batten, Barton, Durstine & Osborn,
158-159 Inc., 147, 216, 269, 281
American Telephone & Telegraph Beads-o'bleach, 178
Company, 246 Beech-Nut Life Savers, Inc., 202, 204,
American Viscose Company, 180 228, Color insert II
American Weekly, 264 Behavior, human, 137
Amplitude modulation, 298 Behavioral sciences, 113-115
"and hearing not," 56 Better Homes & Gardens, 247
Appeals, copy, 170-171 Bissell Carpet Sweeper Company, 212
ARB (American Research Bureau), Bleed page, 216-217
158-159 Bok, Edward, 60
Arbitron (television rating), 158-159 Bolex cameras, 258
Area probability sample, 119-121 Borden, Neil H., 62, 73
Argosy, 248 Borders, 217
Armour & Company, 21
Art directors, 207-210
Brady, Barrett, 1 1 , 307
Brand image, 31, 84-85, 86 '.
Astaire, Fred, 293 Brand share, 132
Associated Business Publications, 268 Brandt, H. F., 218
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Britt, S. H., 218
System, 63 Broadcasting, 288-321
Atlantic, The, 280 people who work in, 43
Attention value, 214 Broadcasting, 158-159
Attitude, 82 Brophy, Thomas D'Arcy, 57, 125
Audience research, 129, 155-160 Buick Motor Division, General Mo
Audience selection, 185, 245-248, tors Corporation, 202-203
256-257, 265, 269-270, 278, Bullfight advertising, 9
290, 305 Bureau of Advertising, ANPA, 156,
Audimeter, 158 265
Audit Bureau of Circulations, 156, Bureau of the Census, 116, 132-133
249-250, 265, 268 Burnett, Leo, 49, 57, 142-143, 172-
Aunt Mary's Mincemeat, 64-65 173, 195, 315-319
Availabilities, 296 Burnett, Leo, Company, Inc., 5, 63,
Avisco cellophane, 180 74, 80, 86, 89, 92, 103, 106, 139,
Ayer, N. W., & Son, Inc., 56, 229, 246, 141, 144, 188, 270, 310-311,
265 358-362
Business publications, 265-268
Balance, 217-218, 219 Business W eek, 266
Barnum. P. T., 58
Basic promise (of a product), 167, Calkins, Earnest Elmo, 55-56
193-194 Campbell-Ewald Company, Inc., 261
Basic selling ideas, 167 Campbell-Mithun, Inc., 96
Bates, Ted, & Co., 62 Campbell's Pork and Beans, 219
Campbell Soup Company, 102, 181, Communication,
380
13
198-199, 219 Compton Advertising, Inc., 324
Canada Dry Corporation, 196, Color Cone, Fairfax, 57
insert I Consent decrees of 1956, 17-18
Caples, John, 147 Consolidated Consumer Analysis,
Caption, 163 133-134
Car cards, 275-276 Consumer jury testing, 148
Carnation Company, 178, 260, Color Consumer Purchase Panel, 137
insert III Consumer research, 128, 137-142
Cartoons, 225 Consumer trends, 124
Cartoon sequence, 281 Construction Methods and Equip
Carrier Corporation, 181 ment, 243
Case history, 180 Contrast, 214, 234
Caterpillar Tractor Co., 95, 107 Controlled circulation, 268
Charm, 248 Cooperative advertising, 367
Chase, Barrie, 293 Copy, 186-205, 303-315
Chase and Sanborn Coffee, 334 appeals, 168-171
Channels of communication, 239 commercials, 303-315
Chenault, Richard S., 237 definitions, 162
Chesterfield cigarettes, 140 direct mail, 278-279
Chevrolet Division, General Motors elements, 163
Corporation, 261, Color insert formula, 173, 193, 205, 312
III outdoor advertising, 270
Chicago Sun-Times, 255 platform, 193-194
Chicago Tribune, 362 radio and television, 303-315
Christian Science Monitor, The, 354- summary, 205
358 Copy research, 129, 145-155
Clairol, Inc., 181 Copy testing, 147
Clooney, Rosemary, 197, Color insert Copywriter, 164-165, 315-319
T "Copywriter's hunch," 145
Coca-Cola Company, Inc., The, 85, Corporate image, 31, 34, 86
^
181, 182 Co-sponsorship, 302-303
Coke (trademark) , 182 Cost per thousand formula, 241-244
Cole & Weber, 228 Coulson, John, 140-141
Collateral, 239 Council for Financial Aid to Educa
Colonial society, 138-139 tion. Inc., 341
Colonial Williamsburg, 12 Coupon, 220
Color, 196-197, 221-222, 228-229. Coverage map, 299
260-261, Color inserts I, II, Cox, Edwin, 185
and III Cramer-Krasselt Company, 197
Commercials. 303-315 Credit line, 163
Commission system, 15-19 Cub Scout, 174-175
INDEX
Curtis, Cyrus H. K., 60 Ethnic groups, 131
Customs, 138 Evinrude Motors, Division of Out
Cutline, 163 board Marine Corporation,
197, Color insert
I
Davis, Kenneth R., 18 Exurbia, 130
"Deals," 367-368 Eye camera, 218
de Lopatecki, E., 237 Eye motion, 218
Demand, 99 Eye stimulus, 288-290, 307-309
Demography, 128
Demonstration, 229 Family of products. 100-101
Designing for People, 49 Fashions, 140
Desire, 99 Federal Communications Commis
Desires (copy appeals), 169-170 sion, 298
Diagrams, 225 Finished art, 225
Dial Soap, 21 First National Bank of Chicago, 24
Diary of an Ad Man, 56 Fitzgerald Advertising Agency, 350-
Dichter, Ernest, 70 354
Direct mail, 276-279 Fletcher, Frank Irving, 56
Disposable income, 131 Folkways. 138
Dreyfuss, Henry, 49 Food Business, 267
Drott Manufacturing Company, 358- Food-Drug Index, 135
362 Food Processing, 267
Drucker, Peter F., 323-324 Foote,Cone Belding, 21, 67, 174,
&
du Pont No. "7" Polish, 178, 345 190-191,211.228, 260

du Pont, E.
I.,
de Nemours Co., Inc., Ford Motor Company, 102, 104. 108-

&
178, 269, 345 109,110,181,226, 354-358

Forest fires, 32
Ear stimulus, 288-290, 307-309 Fortune, 266
Earthmoving equipment, 243-244 Francisco, Don. 68
Eastman Kodak Company, 197, Color Franklin. Benjamin, 12, 255
insert Frequency modulation, 298
I
Ebel, Edward, 194 Frequency of replacement, 103

Editor and Publisher, 282 Frey, Albert W.. 18
Editorial content, 245, 248, 267 "Frey Report," 18-19
Eldridge, Clarence E., 324-346 Friskies. 178
Emphasis. 218, 220 Fuller Smith Ross. 258
&
&
Englander Company, Inc., The, 182,

183 Gallup Robinson. Inc.. 152-155
&
Equalization, 275 Impact Studies, 186, 194, 308

Erwin Wasey, Ruthrauff Ryan, Inc., Carroway. Dave, 314
&
260 General Electric Company, 182, 196,

Esquire, 248 Color insert 281
I,
General Foods Corporation, 178, 179, Headlines (Cont.)
382 194, 211, 260,Color insert III imperative, 181
Getchell, J. Stirling, 56 news, 176-180
Geyer, Morey, Madden & Ballard, questions, 181
Inc., 39 selfish, 185
Gladiatorial combat, 7 "show off," 186
Godfrey, Arthur, 314 "story telling." 182

"Good advice" headlines, 181-182 Heinz, H. J., Company, 178
Good Seasons salad dressing mix, 211 Hekman Biscuit Company, 22, 27
Goode, William J., 121-122 Herold, Don. 233, 235, 237
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, Hershey chocolate, 68
The, 180, 197, Color insert I History of an Advertising Agency,
Graffiti, 7-10 The, 56
"Grand National Baking Contest," Hoover Company, The, 103
368 Hopkins, Claude, 55, 94
Graphic arts, people who work in, 43 House & Garden, 247
Graphics, 206-237 House Beautiful, 247
Green Giant Company, 86, 88, 89 Hower. Ralph M., 56
(see also Minnesota Valley Can "How to" headlines. 180
ning Company) Hunt Foods, 175, 177
Green Giant brand peas, 86, 87
Grey Advertising Agency, Inc., 122- Ideas:
125, 375-376
executing, 171-176
Grey Matter, 122-125, 375-376
producing. 165-167
Illustrations, 221-227
Hallmark Cards, Inc., 174, 175
attention. 222
Hammond Organ Company, 220
cartoons. 225
Hancock, John, Mutual Life Insur
communication, 223, 225
ance Company, 196. Color in
demonstration. 223
sert I
diagrams. 225
Haphazard sampling, 118
photography, 225, 227
Harper's, 280
Impact Studies, 152-155, 186, 194,
Harper's Bazaar, 248
308
Hart Schaffner & Marx, 180, 216
Hartman, George H.. Company, 22, Imperative headlines, 181
27 Industrial Marketing, 134, 268
Hathaway, C. F., Company, 182, 184 Industrial revolution, 13
Halt, Paul K.. 121-122 Influence groups, 244, 279-282

Headlines, 163,176-186 Information, 93
case history, 180 Informational theory, 83
"claim and boast," 185 "Inherent drama," 145
"good advice," 181-182 Institutional advertising, 29
"how to," 180 Intaglio printing, 234-235
INDEX
International Harvester Company, 28, Layout (Cont.)
358-362, 368 principles of, 214-221
Intertype, 230 size, 221
Interurbia, 130 typography, 227
Intuition, 145 unity, 221
Lazarsfeld, Paul, 279-280
Jamaica, Ford hat promotion, 354- Leading, 233
358 Lees, James, and Sons Company, 229,
Jell-O, 178-179, 194 Color insert II
Johns-Manville, 200-201 Letterpressprinting, 234
Johnson & Johnson, 178, 224 Lever Brothers Company, 260
Johnson, Samuel, 12 Libby, McNeill & Libby, 105
Life, 119-121,214,247
Kellogg Company, 91, 92, 306-307 Life Savers, 202, 204, 228, Color in
Kennedy, John E., 2 sert II
Kent, Alan, 314-315 Linotype, 230
Kenyon & Eckhardt, Inc., 52, 108-109 Listerine, 143, 182
125, 185, 196, 197, 226, 261, Little, Arthur D., Inc., 142
277, 325 Logotype, 163
Ketchum, McLeod & Grove, 98 Look, 214, 247
Key numbers, 147 Lord & Thomas, 68
Kleenex, 102 Lorimer, George Horace, 60
Knox-Reeves Advertising, Inc., 229 Lower case, 230
Kraft, J. L., 66 Lucas, D. B., 218
Kraft Cheese, 66, 104 Lucid Interval, 56
Kraft Foods, 178 Luck, David J., 118-119
Kudner, Arthur, 56 Ludgin, Earle, & Co., 261
Ludlow, 230-231
Ladies' Home Journal, 248 Luther, Martin, 70
Lambert and Feasley, Inc., 143 Lydecker, Garrit, 62
Lasker, A. D., 68
Layout, 210, 213-222 McCann-Erickson, Inc., 85, 100-101,
application of principles, 221-236 203, 229
balance, 217-218 McManus, Theodore, 56
borders, 217 Mclntyre, O. E., Inc., 355
color, 221, 228-229, Color inserts Mademoiselle, 248
I, II, III Madison Avenue, U.S.A., 48, 56, 62,
elements of, 213 158-159
emphasis, 218 Magazine Advertising Bureau, 156,
illustration, 221-227 249
motion, 218 Magazines, 244-249
picture sequence, 214 Mailing lists, 278
poster style, 228 Mail order advertising, 146
Mail order houses, 277 Media research, 155-160
Mail order promotion, Ford, 354—358 Media selection, 240-241, Color in
Mail order testing, 147 sert III
Market research, 128, 130-137 Merchandising plan, 349, 363, 366
Market Research Corporation of Metropolitan Life Insurance Com
America, 136 pany, 78, 180
Marketing areas, 130 Mincemeat, 65
Marketing belts, 130 Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Marketing Behavior and Executive Company, 228. Color insert II
Action, 83-84 Minnesota Valley Canning Company,
Marketing concept, 323, 325 68, 87 (see also Green Giant
"Marketing mix," 62, 323 Company)
Marketing Plan, 322-347 Monopoly, 71
check list of elements, 332-346 Monotype, 230
objectives, 327-329 Montaigne, 10-11
organization. 329-332 Moore, Gary, 314
summary, 347 Mores, cultural, 138
Marlboro, 270, 310-311 Morris. Philip, Inc., 270, 310-311
Mars, Inc., 229, Color insert H Morton Salt Company, 229, Color in
Marshall Field & Company, 25 sert II
Mass communication, 13, 279, 283- Motivational research, 140-142
286 Motivations, 124
Mass distribution, 13 My Life in Advertising, 55, 94
Mass media, competition in, 283
Mass production. 13 Nabisco Shredded Wheat, 261, Color
Master Strategy Blueprint, 327 insert III
Mathes, J. M., Incorporated, 196 National Association of Insurance
Maxwell House Coffee, 195 Agents, Inc., 181
Mayer. Martin, 48, 56, 62, 142 National Biscuit Company, 261
Meat, 107 National Broadcasting Company, 293,
Media : 313
broadcast. 288-321 National Business Publications, Inc.,
business publications, 265-268 268
direct mail, 276-279 National origins, 131
magazines, 244-249 National Outdoor Advertising Bu
mass communication, 239 reau, Inc., 275
newspapers. 255-259, 262-265 National Television Index (NTI),
outdoor, 268-275 158-159
print, 238-287 Needham, Louis & Brorby, Inc., 215,
radio and television, 288-321 229
summary, 286-287 New generation of buyers. 105

Media department. organization New product advertising, 98
chart, 277 New Yorker, The, 282, 362
INDEX
New York Mirror, 257 Organization charts (Cont.)
New York News, 257 media department, 277
New York Times, 257, 282, 362 marketing concept, 325
News advertising, 154 Outdoor Advertising, Inc., 275
News copy, 186-189

News in advertising, 93 Paillard Incorporated, 258
News headlines, 176-178 Painted bulletins, 271
Newspapers, 255-259, 262-265 Palmer, Volney B., 14-15
"action" medium, 22, 259 Parade, 264
classified advertising, 262 Parkay margarine. 178
comic sections, 263 Participations, 302-303
display advertising, 263 Penn, William, 12
early advertising in, 14-15 Pennsylvania, 12
flexibility, 259 Pepsi-Cola Company, 273
foreign language, 256 Personal salesmanship (on televi
labor, 256 sion), 314
local advertising in, 24 Persuasion, 84, 93
magazine sections, 264 Photographs, 224, 225, 227
Negro, 256 Pica, 233

rate structure, 262-263 Pictures, 222-227
speed, 259 Picture sequence advertisements, 189,
supplements, 263-264 190-191,196,214-216

weekly, 255-256 Pillsbury, 96, 97, 139, 368
Newsweek, 247 Pilot studies, 123
Niblets brand corn, 68. 89 Planographic printing, 235
Nielsen, A. C, Company, 135-136, Poffenberger, Albert T., 169
158-159 Points, 231
Political advertising, 8-9
Ochs, Adolph S., 60 Politz, Alfred, Research, Inc., 119—
Offset lithography, 235 121, 156, 157
Ogilvy, Benson & Mather, Inc., 30, 84, Polyandry, 138
184, 362, 364-365 Polygamy, 138
Oglivy, David, 84, 87, 192 Pompeii, 7-10
100 Greatest Advertisements, The, Population and Its Distribution, 133
56, 140 Poster plants. 269. 272, 274
One-sheet posters, 271 Poster style, 187, 189, 228
Operations research, 142 Postl. Charles, 172
Opinion leaders, 279-282 Premiums, 367-368
Opinion polling, 148 Printing processes, 234-235
Oranges, 66-68 Product research. 129. 142-143
Organization charts: Programming, 290-297
advertising agency, 52 Promotion plans. 366-368
advertising department, 54 Psychological overtone, 97-99
INDEX
Public health, 78 Robinson, Claude, 186, 308
386 Public relations, 369-375 Rolls-Royce, Inc., 182, 362, 364-365
people who work in, 45 Romance magazines, 248
Publicity, 368-369 Rotogravure printing, 234-235
people who work in, 43 Rowell, George P., 16
Publics, 370 Royal, 91
Public service advertising, 31, 33, 78,
107, 341 SaladaTea,90
Published materials, 116, 132 Sales, factors influencing, 61-62, 145-
Publisher's representatives, 264-265 146
Pulse (television rating), 158-159 Sales Management, 134
Pure Oil Company, The, 74, 181, 304 Sales promotion, 366-368
Purex Corporation, Ltd., 178
Sampling, 117-121
Sanitary Landfill promotion, 358-362
Question headlines, 181 Sans-serif type, 232
Questionnaires, 121-124 Santa Fe System Lines, 63
Quota sampling, 119 Saturday Evening Post, The, 242, 247,
255
Races, 131 Scaurus, 9, 10
Radio, 288-321
Scripps, Charles E., 283-286
commercials, 303-315
Scriptores, 8, 9-10
programming, 290-297 Schlitz beer, 94
time-buying, 297-302
Schweppes, Ltd., 30
summary, 320-321
Schwerin Research Corporation, 155
Radio Corporation of America, 196,
Scotch Tape, 94
Color insert I
Sears Roebuck catalog, 277
Radio station coverage, 298
Seasonal products, 144
map. 299
Sensory impressions, 288-290, 304,
Radio Station WJIM, 299
307-309
Random sampling, 118
Serifs, 232, 233
Rath Packing Company, The, 261,
Color insert III Seventeen, 248
Readability, 233-234 Shakespeare, 11
Share of market, 132

Readership studies, 149-155
"Reason why" copy, 188, 189, 201
Shelter magazines, 247
"Recognition" method, 152 Showings (outdoor advertising), 274

Reeves, Rosser, 62 Signature, 163
Repetition. 90 Simoniz Company, 187
Resor. Stanley, 57 S-I-M-P-L-E formula for copy, 173,
Retail advertising. 24 175,205,312
Revere. Paul, 12 Smokey the Bear, 32
Reward for time and attention, 194 S.O.S Scouring Pads, 260, Color in
Reynolds. R. C. 361-362 sert III
INDEX
Spanish Green Olives, Commission Tea Council, Inc., 102,110
for, 229, Color insert II Technique for Producing Ideas, A,
Special interest groups, 279-282 165-166
Spectacular (outdoor advertising), Technique of Advertising Layout,
272, 273 213,218-221,237
Spectacular (television) , 293 Technique of Advertising Production,
Split-run testing, 148 237
Sponsor, 158-159 Television, 288-321
Sports Illustrated, 248 commercials, 303-315
Spot radio and television, 300-301, copywriters, 315-319
302-303 costs, 297, 300-301
Standard Advertising Register, 91 coverage, 298
Standard Brands, Inc., 334 department, 42
Standard Rate & Data Service, Inc., facilities map, 313
250-255, 265, 266, 268, 276 personal salesmanship in, 314
Stanley, Thomas Blaine, 237 programming, 290-297
Starch Advertisement Readership rating services, 157-160
Service, 149-151 storyboard, 309-311
Starch, Daniel, 169 summary, 320-321
State Farm Mutual Insurance Com time-buying, 297-302
pany, 215 Terramycin, 102
Statement of product difference, 167 Test markets, 147
Status symbols, 88 Thebes, 7
Stauffer Reducing, Inc., 180, 182, This Week, 264
190-191 Thompson, J. Walter, Company, 16,
Steichen, Edward, 225 47, 62, 66, 82, 130, 133, 137,
Store audits, 135, 136 197. 201,260, 356-357
Storyboard, 309-311 Three-sheet posters, 271
"Story-telling" headlines, 182 Tiffany & Co., 90
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 70 Time, 243, 244, 247
Stripe toothpaste, 260, Color Section Time-buying, 297-302
III Trade advertisement, 27
Sub-headlines, 163 Trademarks, 10
Sugar Information, Inc., 1 10, 188 Trade papers, 267
Sullivan, Ed, 314 Traffic Audit Bureau, 156, 275
Sunkist Growers, Inc., 66-68 Transportation advertising, 275-276
Sunset, 362 Trendex (television rating), 158-159
Supplements, newspaper, 264 Trends in consumer behavior, 140
Suburbia, 130 True, 248
Surveys, 123-125 True Story, 248
Swift & Company, 100-101, 144 24-sheet posters, 269, 270, 271
Symbols, 223 Type, body of, 231
INDEX
Type case, 230 Washington Post and Times-Herald,
Type faces. 231-232 362
Typography. 227, 230-234 Washington State Apple Commission,
228. Color insert II
Watkins, Julian L., 56. 90, 140
Uncle Tom's Cabin, 70
Wesson Oil and Snowdrift Company.
United Biscuit Company of America,
Inc.. 349-354
22, 27
Wesson Oil. 178, 349-354
U.S. Department of Justice, 17 Herbert,
West. 327
U.S. News and World Report, 247 Color in
Whirlpool Corporation, 197,
Unrestricted random sampling, 118 sert I
Upper case, 230 Winters, O. B., 56
W oman's Day, 248
Van Camp Pork and Beans, 94 Women's fashion magazines, 248

Videodex (television rating), 158— Women's service magazines, 248
159
Woolf, James D., 47, 169-170, 349-
354
Vigoro. 144
Word-of-mouth advertising, 239
Visualizing. 209-210
Vogue, 248
"Yellow journalism," 60
Volkswagen of America, Inc., 228,
Young & Rubicam. Inc.. 42, 78, 177,
Color insert II
179, 187, 196, 197, 204, 220,
Voting, 32, 33, 70
228
Young, Frank H., 213, 218-221, 237
Wales, Hugh G., 118-119 Young, James Webb, 56, 82, 165-166,
Wall Street Journal, 362 205
Warner-Lambert Pharmaceutical Young. William T.. 80
Company, 143, 182
Washington, George, 12-13 Zerex anti-freeze, 269

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Till

COMMUNICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT

Communications for Management

ALLYN AND BACON, INC

© Copyright, 1960, by ALLYN AND BACON, INC., 150 Tremont Street,

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number : 60-8655

whose contributions to the stature of advertising

The business of advertising, if it is to grow in stature

competent critical judgment. This need exists not only

the men and women of management, as well as for those

Selecting the essential elements of advertising to be thus emphasized has not

East Lansing, Michigan

What advertising is — 4. A capsule history of advertising — 6. Ad

THE PEOPLE OF ADVERTISING

The people who work in advertising — 38. The good advertising

Action and attitude - 82. Basic principles -

ADVERTISING RESEARCH: Criteria and Method*

Evaluating advertising research -

Market research - 130. Consumer research — 137. Product research —

142. Copy research — 1 45. Testing copy — 146. Evaluating copy

Producing ideas - 165. -

PREPARATION OF ADVERTISING (II): Graphics

Visualizing - 209. Working with layouts -213. Working with pic

Media selection - 240.The cost per thousand formula 247 . Mag -

wirii wMlm b nu iwfilndii

All good textbooks seem to start with precise defini

aspect of advertising, attempting to relate it to other

trying to define what advertising is and what it is all about.

go forward blindly believing that advertising can be all things to all

pull the chestnuts of unsound management decisions out of the fire

tising is people communicating with other people about products or

desires of a larger group. Advertising is the art of persuading people

advertising and selling are pretty sneaky

To hear these boys talk, you'd think

g was one part psychiatry to

We happen to think that most people

And that these people, regardless of

their libidos or ids, like the kind of ad

vertising that shows arresting pictures of

ful, interesting words about them.

k heavens, that's the kind of

We work for the following companies: Ai-imtatrInhiiranckCompakikn. amhaicanMinimumSpirit* Co. . Appointmrnt

PLATFORM FOR ADVERTISING from a leading adver

It provides the kind of information the customer needs to make a

nomical messages, advertising can help to accelerate the process of

problem of mass production was solved.

A CAPSULE HISTORY OF ADVERTISING

Although advertising know it today is comparatively young,

the principles of advertising have their roots deep in the history

principles of human behavior which enable advertising to work are

PERPETVI CLADIATbRVM PARIA XX ET D LVCRETIO VALENTIS ILlAD

ROMAN IMPRESARIO advertises entertainment — a gladiatorial combat.

In ancient Thebes, three thousand years ago, a scribe wrote on

parallels to contemporary advertising are scratched and

specific office. These advertisements had a standard form: the name

HOLCONIUM PRISCUM II VIR

which we translate as: "All the fullers [the Pompeiian equivalent of

dry-cleaners] urge Holconius Priscus for the office of duumvir [one

ually in a hurry. They abbreviated as much possible, just as a news

paperman today abbreviates afl-cio, nam, fdr, Ike, sunfed, and

Publium Furium duumvirum, virum bonum, oro vos, facite,

or, as Mau translates for us:

"Make Publius Furius duumvir, I beg of you; he's a good man."6

D. Lucreti Satri Valentis flaminis Neronis Caesaris Aug(usti) fili per-