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Design by erence tyne Aarewor by HL StsIntroduction This study guide in psychology has been designed to give students the opportunity to study and to revise each of the learning outcomes from the IB psychology guide. The content follows te structure ofthe guide for the coe (HI/SL, the options (HL/SL), and qualitative esearch methods (HL). An addtional section covers how to vite papers, including short answer questions and essays. It also includes model answers with examiner's comments. Further chapters covering the Internal Assessment and the Extended Essay can be found on the associated website www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/psychsg This study quide is organized in boxes with headlines and bullet points to give you a quick overview and facilitate your learring. All leaming outcomes are covered with examples. Ir the learning outcome asks for "examples or “empirical studies” you have to learn at least ‘two, and this is taken into consideration in the study quide. ‘This books intended as. useful supplement to a course book, it can help students co focus and structure the earring process in relation to content and learning outcomes. Its also a suppor in revision ofthe material and the sil that are assessed at the exars, You are ‘encouraged to read the IB Psycholagy Course Campanian, which develops the various topics more and puts them into perspective ‘The fundamental building blocks of psychology ae theories, induting concepts and empirical studies, combined with critical thinking skill. Many ofthe key studies and theories ate provided here, wit guidance on how to evaluate and discuss. One ofthe main challenges in studying psychology is to learn what psychologists have to say on various topics basad on theoretical propositions and empirical research, Academic psychology reflects the complexity of human beings and there are no simple answers to complex ‘questions. Par of the jay of studying psychology is to get an insight ito fascinating human beings, how knowledge is created and why itis sometimes necessary to review wat we know. ‘The psychology students therefore trained in citical thinking and arguing based on evidence. These core sk are important and should always be the focus oleaming psychology. Taken together, psychology students havea unique opportunity for becoming knowledgeable, reflective thinkers, and skilled communicates. General learning outcomes General learning outcomes “Thote are general lenming outcomes fr the evs of anabsis ani the options. Tey are sated atthe beginning o each eve Options The genta learning outcomes apoyo all the options ie abnorralpaychoogy, developmental psychology heath ond of analysis and option in the description of the content, and they apply to all pants of the content. Levels of analysis ‘You may be asked quesonsin the general learning ouremesin Al levls ona ethane o integrated ith the content. Discus how and wy partic research methods ae wed ax the bologiea|/cogntve/sociccultural lee analysis Tis leaming outcomes focused on research methods (e9 the experiment, the obsenation, the case study, scanning techniques). Characters, sengths an iitatons of various research methods are outlined in chapter 1. Apply this knowledge of methodology to particular studies where aperoprate. = Discuss etical considerations red to research studies at ¢hebilosica/ cognitive /sciocueura lvl of analysis Genel ethical cnsierations are explained in unit 14. Some of these considerations may apply co research studies within all the level of ana You ned t lok ae parla study and ask youself which ethical consdecions could be relevant forthe rudy you tse human relationships, and sport psychology. So you could replace “behaviout" with the tite of each options. ‘You may be asked questions in the general leaming outcomes in all levels of analysis, ether alone or integrated with the contem. Since citcal thinking (29. analysis, evaluation) is assessed in che ‘options you should consider where it could be relevant to apply these leaming outcorres (eq. i itis relevant to evaluate the methodology ofa research stud). = To what extent do biclogical, cognitive and sociocultural factors influence behaviour? This means that you should consider the extent to which these factors could influence behaviour and integrate research in your "= Evaluate psychological research (ie. theories and/or studies relevant to the study of behaviout. This means that you should be able to evaluate particular ‘theories and suies (ie. focus on strengths and limitations) when relevant.Contents 1 Methodology and ethics in empirical research 2 Biological level of analysis Physiology and behaviour = Genetics and behaviour 3 Cognitive level of analysis = Cognitive processes = Cognition and emotion 4 Sociocultural level of analysis Sociocultural cognition Social norms Cultural norms 5 Abnormal psychology Concepts and diagnosis Psychological disorders Implementing treatment 6 Developmental psychology = Cognitive development Social development 1 Identity development 7 Health psychology = Stress Substance abuse, addictive behaviour and obesity Health promotion 8 Psychology of human relationships = Social responsibility ‘Interpersonal relationships = Violence 9 Sport psychology «= Emotion and motivation Skill development and performance Problems in sports 10 Qualitative research in psychology Theory and practice in qualitative research Interviews Observations Case studies 11 Writing exam papers in psychology = Writing an SAQ (Paper 1 section A) = Writing essays (Paper 1 section B and paper 2) = Writing an SAQ in qualitative research methods (HL) Index. 18 34 48 o7 84 103 123 M5 160 mW| 1 1 __ Psychology as a science '= Psychology isthe scientific study of human behaviour and ‘mental processes. Inthe IB Psychology programme, the focus 's on the iological, cognitive and sociocultural loves of aralysis when tying to explain psychological phenomena "= Scientific means that data collection is done ina systematic way, and that the esearch is conducted using quantitative or qualitative methods "= Psychologists use various research methods depending on the purpose ofthe study, Traditionally, quanttive methods hhave been considered to be the most scientific but there is, ‘an increasing use of qualictive methods in psychology. Sometimes qualitative and quantitative methods are used within the same study |= Psychologists formulate theories to try to explain psychological phenomena. Psychological theories are based ‘on certain assumptions and each theory includes concepts. "= Empirical researc is often based on a research hypothesis. Sometimes the research hypothesis is based on a theory but sometimes the research study generates a theory. What is a research hypothesis? ‘A research hypothesis isa precise and testable statement that predicts what is expected to happen to the variables in a research study. The research hypothesis may be based upon the predictions of a theory but this is not always the case. “The research hypothesis i either accepted or ejected on the basis of the findings of an empirical study What is an empirical research study? Empirical esearch is any activity that includes the organized collection and analysis of empirical data, “The researcher decides on which methodology to use for data collection in the research study depending on the aim ofthe study (for exarnple quantitative or qualitative methods). The research process in experimental research ‘Observation of anc theorizing about a phenomenon rt Formulation ofa research hypothesis I Collection of empirical data using 2 scientic method r ‘Analysis ofthe data and discussion of results r ‘Acceptance or rejection ofthe resezch hypothesis What is a research method? ‘A research method i the way the researchers collec and analyse data The data of a research study is analysed and interpreted ‘The method may be quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative = The information is numerical eg. experiments or surveys) = Data analysis isin the form of statistics (eg, mean, standard deviation, or percentages). Qualitative "= The information isin the meaning ofthe data (eg. diary entries or interview data), "= Data analysis is in the form of interpretation ofthe data 10 see what the data reveals, Data means “information”, Data is often measurable but not alvays. For example, qualitative research data is nat usually measurable Evaluating empirical research studies The way an empical study has been conducted evaluated because a number of considerations can afer the imcrpettion ofthe data such as = methodological considerations ethical considerations = catural considerations = gender considerations.1 Methodology and ethics in empirical research Dhar ave special etic rues in elation wo ania esearch, ‘bu the most important is that animals should not sue unnecessary harm Consider some of these questions when evaluating research studies ‘Has the study been conducted in an ethical way? Have participants been put at rik? The Bish Psychological Society (BPS) and American Psychological Association {APA) have codes of ethics ior psychological researc. "Has participants’ privacy been invaded or have their rights been violated? 1 Did the animals suffer unnecessary? Was the research juste, that is, were the results so importanc that they justified the use of animals? Did the study use a representative group of people as participants? Is there a sampling bias? It could be that ‘only males or only ferrals participated in the study or there could be a cultural bas, for example only American callege students participated 1 Was the study canied out in 2 natural environment {eg, in a school or in an artificial environment (eg. in a research laboratory)? Were the tasks given to participants similar to those they would encounter in real if? Laboratory experiments often ask participants to do things thay would not do in real ie (2, giving elaccal shocks to another paicipant 1 Are the findings of a study supported or challenged by those of other studies? IF to studies investigate the same phenomenon and get very diferent results then we should consider why thats ‘Ave the findings socially sensitive? I the research topic is controversial (eg. deprivation sudies, homosewality, genetic research, oF inteligence) special atention must be given to how the data is used. Sore topes are controversial and research can be misused. What is a psychological theory? A psychological theory is a statement about a possible relationship between psychological variables “The aim of psychological theories isto: = summar, simpliy and explain psychological phenomena make predictions about the possile relationship between psychological vaiables 1 enable application to realife sues eg teatment programmes or educational schemes) Psychological theories are principles and not laws like in some scien theories Psychological theories should be seen as statements that are probable rather than certain Psychological theories are always open to some degree of probabiliy or inprobability. Evaluating psychological theories ‘A psychological theory con aie insight nc psychological pitenomena which cannot be observed (eq. merry processes) or offer some order by descbing and explaining chological phenomena inthe scial world (ea. prejudice) ina precise and coherent way with the use of psychological concep Some itera for evaluating a psychological tear: = Does the theory reflect the facts? Is the theory validated through empirical research and obsenations? isthe theory clear and understandable? Are the predictions possible to grasp? ‘= Isthe theory useful for explaining as well as predicting? Does the exlanaion of eed rake sense in elation to what i obsewved? 1 Isthe theory practically useul? Can it be used in reablfe situations, such as predicting under what drcumstances people will quit smoking? Or can it be Applied to create strategies for behavioural change, sch 25 educational soapopers based on seca learning theoy? 1 Isitpossble to test the theory ina scientific way? Con the theory be supped in empirical tudes? What is a model? ‘A madel ia physical representation of what a psychological phenomenon coud look lke. A model i rast based on a theory. tis a hypothetical construct and it should not be mistaken forthe real thing ‘An example ofa model isthe multistore model of memory suggested by Atkinson and Shifrin 1968) which described the memory system as having several stores Maintenance weheassl Envirormertal stimuli (sersoqe ‘memory (sm ‘Atention Retival Eaborate rehearsal afomation retrieval1.2 Experimental methods ‘experiment (true Field experiment (q experiment) eo) Characteristics | = tetakes place in alaboratory | = ittakes place in anatural | = The independent variable (IV) (erifcial environmen emironment. isnacurally eccuning, = Theresearcher manipulates | = Impossible w obtain roral_ | ® The researcher does not the IV and conto al other control so there may be ‘manipulate the variables but variables (10 avoid confounding variables, records possie effects of confounding variables). The searcher manipulates variable (IV) on another (the = Theteis a contolled the independent arable (IV). | dependent variable or DY. environment and standardized procedures. ‘Strengths = Iecan establish causeeffect | = It has more ecological validity | = Ic has ecological validity - the relationships than lboratory experiments focus is on naturel behaviour a Theres vaiiable tbl and because behaviour ocurs ina | in anatural environment. AREER ETTE natural environment. Theres vary lite bias from “+ objectivity There ae fewer derrand demand characteristics, = iseasy to replicate (incease | characierscs (especialy if especially if particinants do roiaily of results). paricipants donot know that_ | not know they are being they ate being studied) investigated Limitations = Arttality ray esutin lack | * There arskofbiastiom — | = Ieisimpossble co establish of ecological valiciy confounding vaiables because | _causeeffect eationship. Results may be biased because | there is less conto = The research is impossible to of demand characterstics and | = itis neatly impossible to replicate exactly - often case experimenter effects. replicate exactly. stucies. = Sometimes deception i = Itismore diffcut to ecord | ® There are ethical issues of necessary (ethical issue). data accurately consent, deception, invasion of = Possible ethical issues, for privacy example problems with informed consent, exposure to unpleasant situations, invasion of privacy Examples from | Investigating the reaction of Investigating whether cating | Investigating levels of aggression the sociocultural | children after watching either an | ingroup/eutgroup attitudes in two| in childeen in a small community level of analysis | adult model acting aggressively | groups oF V1earold boys would | on Saint Helena Island before and towards a Bobo del or not acting. | result in intergroup aggression or | after the introduction of television aggressively towards the Bobo doll | not Simiary investigating whether (Chariton et a. 1997) (Gandura et al. 1961). cooperation could eliminate aggression (Sherif etal 1956, 1961) ‘Tiue experiment: here i contol over variables and the possbilty for random allocation to experimental condition. Quasi experiment: there is no contol over vaiables (eg if they are naturally occuring such as gender, ethriciy, age) and ne possibility of random allocation to conditions1 3 | Non-experimental methods Interviews interviews Unstructured interviews Semistructured interviews interviews. Colleton oF data from individuals by asking them (selFeport method) - mostly ina facetoface situation {but can also take place by telephone or eral). Qualitative approach to esearch (most) ~ colecting subjective data, interpreted by the researcher No causeefect relationships but rather “perception” and ‘subjective understanding” of situations and events, Very stauctured approach ~ interview schedule states questions and the order they will be asked, but possible for interviewer to be flexible. Often closed questions. Strength: easy vo analyse data Limitation somewhat artifical asthe structure imposes marty imitations to understanding participants. Specification of topics and allocation of time (somewhat lke a conversational interview) | Strength: open to the respondents’ om ideas 5 Limitation: may be Interview schedule with speciied questions but more informal and flexible. Strength: possible to maintain focus of interview (because ofthe interview schedule) but flexible and ives opportunity for respondents to talk more freely. Limitation: data analysis very time consuming. ficult to analyse data since the interview may take many different dtections Ethical issues whem interview topic is socially or personally sensitive Professional competence important so that interviewer can aveid making respondents feel uncomfortable. Inform respondents about right to withdraw, Survey ‘often used to collect data from larger groups (smallscale surveys under 300, largescale suveys ‘over 300) Questionnaires ~ or interviews (selFreport data). Use of closed or open-ended questions. Strength: possible to collect data in a relatively quick and easy way. 51 Limitation: seléreport data may be affected by response bias. (Questionnaire Data is collect through the use of written questions - surveys: 1 openended questions dosed questions quantitative and qualitative data Data which express what people think and feel and which are not numerical. Qualitative data can be ~ qualitative tumad into quantitative if they are categorized analysis Qualitative analysis: kind o analy that focuses on the meaning of what partciants say and the way they experience an event, rather than individual words. Qualitative analysis involves interpretation (often related to a theoretical framework, such as thematic analysis or grounded theory) (Quantitative Numerical data (numbers) express arount, length etc, and the data can be measured in numbers data- or quantity. quantitative ‘Quantitative analysis uses the numerical data for analysis and interpretation This takes place in the furs ‘srealysiex ‘of descriptive statistics (2g. mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics {any statistical test) which is used to make inferences about the data,1.4 Ethics in research eee al principles in research with animals ‘= Informed consent: Researchers must inform participants ‘about the nature of the research study (briefing). The participants must know what the researc is about and what will happen in the study'so that they can consider whether they will participate or nt. children participate in research it is mandatory to obtain parental consent. "= Deception should be avoided: Researchers must not deceive participants delinerately without a valid justicacion. Sight deception could be used if it can be justified and it does not harm participants, = Protection of participants: As a rule, participants should suffer no physical or psychological har in the esearch, Researchers should avoid invasion of privacy in covert ‘observational studies unless itis justified = Debriefing: Researchers must inform participants about the results of the esearch and assure them that they have not been hatred in any way, especially if deception was used 1 Right to withdraw: Participants have the right to withdraw ‘at any moment in the research process. They aso have the right to withdraw their daca from the study when itis ‘inished if they are not satised with the development ofthe reseatch. = Confidentiality: Researchers must assure that all data ‘remain anonymous so that participants will not be recognized. ‘= Stress and pain: Researchers should take measures to minimize tess and pain = Consider alternative ways: Researchers should consider whether there ae alternatives to animal research, "= Approval of research projects by ethical committee: Researchers must ask for permission to conduct research with animals. The application must include details oF the study indluding potential harm to animals and possible benefits of that research, = Researcher competence: The researcher must have skills and ‘experience in doing research with animals, Itis only recently that ethical guidelines for animal research have been formulated. Much ofthe research conducted before the 1970s did not consider animal suffering a major problem, Animals are used in research because (1) they are easy to contro, (2) they can be used where it is not possible to use hhurvans for ethical reasons, (3) there's some similarity beween animal and human physiology, Ethical considerations to include in evaluation of research ‘= Did the researchers get in‘ormed consent from participants? = Were participants harmed in any way? results made ie worthwhile ‘= Were the results important and have they benefited humans? = Could the study have been conducted in alternative ways? "= Were there ethical guidelines when the study was conducted? f= Was te study justified? If paticipants or animals have been subjected to unpleasant experiences i is important to consider ifthe2 A 1 Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis and explain how these principles may be demonstrated in research Principle 1: There are biological correlates of behaviour. ‘This means that there ate physiological origins of behaviour suich as neurotransmitters, hoimones, specalizad brain areas, and genes. The biological level of analysis is based on reductionisr, which i the attempt to explain complex behaviour in terrsof simple causes, Principe 1 demonstrated in Newcomer etal, (1998) performed an experiment onthe role of the stress hormone cortisol on verbal declarative merary. Group 1 (high dose corti) had tablets containing 160 mg of cortisol forfour days. Group 2 (low dose cortisol had tablets with 40 mg oF cortisol for four days. Group 3 (contl) had placebo tablets. Parcigants lsened toa prose paragraph and had to recall ic as atest of veal declarative memory. This meray system soften negatively aected by the increased level of cortisol under longiexm stress. The results showed that group 1 showed te worst performance onthe memory test compare to group 2 and 3. The experiment shows that an increase in cortisol over a petiod has a negative eect on memory. Principle 2: Animal research can provide insight into human behaviour, ‘This means that researchers use animals to study physiological processes because itis assumed that most biological processes in non-hurran animals are the same asin hurmans, One important reason for using animals is that there isa lot of research where humans cannot be used for ethical reasons. Principle 2 demonstrated Rosenzweig and Bennet (1972) performed an experiment to sludy the role of environmental factors on brain plasticity using rats 2s participants. Group 1 was placed in an enriched environment with lots oF toys. Group 2 was placed in a deprived environment with no toys. The rats spent 30 or 60 days in their respective environments before being killed, The brains ofthe rats in group 1 showed a thicker layer of neurons: inthe cortex compared to the deprived group. The study shows that the bran grows more neurons iFstimulated, v Principle 3: Human behaviout is, to some extent, genetically based, This means that behaviour can, to some extent, be explained by genetic inheritance, although this is rarely the ful explanation since genetic inheritance sould be seen as genetic predisposition which can be affected by environmental factors. 1 Researchers interested in the genetic origin of behaviour often use twins so that they can compare one twin with the other on a variable such as inteligence, depression or anorexia nenosa Identical twins (monazygotic twins ~ MZ) are 100% ‘genetically demcal as they have developed from the same 9. They thereiore act asa contol foreach other, Fratemal twins (dizygotic tains - 02) have developed from two diferent eggs. They share around 50% of their genes so ‘they ate no moe similar than siblings 1 Twin research never shows a 100% concordance rate soit is believed that genes are a predisposing factor rather than the cause of behaviour, Therefore itis also important 10 consider what environmental factors could influence the ‘expression othe genetic predisposition Principle 3 demonstrated in: Bouchard et al. (1990) performed the Minnesota twin study, a longitudinal study investigating the relative role of genes in 10. ‘The participants were MZ reared apart (MZA) and NZ teared together (MZT). The researchers found that NVZT had a concordance rate of 1Q oF 86% compared to MZA with a concordance rate of 10 oF 76%. This shows a ink between genetic inheritance and inteligence but it does not rule out the role of the environmenta i Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain The case study of H.M. = Thiscase study is irporcat because it provided evidence that there are diferent memory systemsin the brain (see unit 3.3) 1 Milner (1957) was the fist to report the case of HIM. ane the profound effects on merry functioning, following an operation which removed te hippocampus and adjacent ateas in H.M's brain © Corkin et al. (1997) did a tARI scan of HM's brain. Brain imaging was used because itallowed the researchers to get precise picture of the brain damage. They discovered that parts ofthe ternpora lobe, including the hippocampus and the amygdala, were missing, but also that the damage was rot as extensive as previously believed. HLM. suffered fom epileptic seizures after he fll ofa bike, aged seven, itwas assumed thet the seizures vere connected to the accident and he became increasingly incapacitated Wher HIM. was 27, the neurosurgeon Wiliam Scoville, perioimed experimental surgery in otder to stop the seizures Tissue irom the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus, was remaved on both sides of his brain. Aer the operation HM. suffered from amnesia. He could not create new episodic and semantic memories, but he wes able to learn a few procedural memories, His personality remained unchanged and there was no general intellectual impairment. This case suidy shows thatthe hippocampus i important in memory processing and particularly inthe strage of new memories. HM. participated in research studies until his death in 2008, and his brain was donated to scence The hippocampus What can be learned about localization of function in the brain in relation to memory from the case study of HM? The hippocampus and the areas around the hippocampus play acral role in converting memories of experiences ‘om shoretm merrory (contemporary sore) to longtemm memory (permanent store}. HAM. coud etain metres of what had happened before che surgery This indicates that the hippocampus temporay rather than a permanent reron store HM. could learn a few new procedural memories so this indicates that such memories ae not stored via the hippocampus. = The fact that HIM. (and other people with amnesia) had deficits in one part ofthe memory system but notin others is evidence thatthe brain has several memory systems and that these are supported by distinct brain regions, = The study shows that memory processes are much more ‘complex than originally believed. Although the hippocampus is vey important in the storage of new rmerories it isnot the only structure invelved in the process. Evaluation of the case study of H.M. = The operation was based on the assumption that HIM's seizures would stop and it was suocessiul in this respect, but the brain damage caused memory problems that had not been anticipated ‘= HIM, participated in research for more than 50 years. He participated in many kinds of tests (e. cognitive tests, cobsewations, and neuroimaging studies). = This longitudinal case study has contiibuted enormously to the knowledge of how memory processes are related to speciic brain areas, ‘or example |The mecial temporal lobes ae important forthe forming, ‘organization, consolidation, and reieval of memories. 5 Contcal areas are important for longterm memory, for Facts and events (semrantic and episodic memories), and ‘the use of that information in daly life. Procedural memories are not processed by the hippocampus ‘= There are ethical considerations in this case study Since H.M. ‘was nat able to remember all the times he parcinated in research i¢ could be argued that it was unethical. However, the findings of the study are very important and ths justifies "= Itis not usually possible to use the findings from a single ase study to generalize about a larger population, but since the findings from other case studies of people with brain damage like H.M. tend to support those ftom this case study, it may be possible to generalize to some extent “Tris case atudy can also be used to BS answer a qutstion on vhy particular research mathode are ved atthe biological tev! of analysis. It could alzo be used 40 adress ethical ieaues in research,2.3 Explain, using one or more examples, the effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour When a nerve impulse reaches the end of the neuron, the neuron fires and neurotransmitars are released into the synaptic gap where they travel tothe neuron at the other Side of the synaptic gap, 1 Ifthe neurotransmitter isnot absorbed it an be reuptaken, diffused out or destoyed. The neurotransmitter then binds to specic receptor atthe other side Ira neurovansmiter is blocked or epiaced (eg. because another chemical interes) then the messages change. This affects the physiological syste, cogeition, moad, or behaviour ‘Synaptic transmission Dopamine Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in goatdirected ‘behaviour {motivation} such as pleasure seeking, control of rmoverent, emotional sponse, and adie behaviour Dopamine is released inthe bain’ reward stem, Dopamine and addictive behaviour Dopamine i released in the brain's reward system and has been associated with pleasure seeking and addictive betiaviour, Addictive drugs or substances increese the ‘amount of dopamine in the reward system. = Dopamine can be relased by environmental triggers (e, the sight ofa cigarette package, food, ora gambling machine} because this is associated with pleasure (reward). "Nicotine isthe psychoactive ingredient in tobacco, which increases the level of dopamine inthe brain's reward circuit ‘causing feelings of pleasure and relaxation, Berridge and Kringelbach (2008) on dopamine in pleasure seeking FMRI scans were used to study brain areas involved inthe subjective experience of pleasure. They found that the ‘oibitofiontal cortex was active when people reported feeling pleasure The researchers concluded that: dopamine and the nucleus ‘accumbens s perhaps rather involved in pleasure seeking This ‘ould explain addictive behaviour (eq. nicotine addiction leads to craving). ‘The orbitofrontal cortex and natural opiods (endorphins) are perhaps linked tothe subjective experience of pleasure Fisher (2004) on dopamine in “addiction to love” This is an evolutionary explanation of behaviour. “Being in love” has similarities with “being addicted” according to Fisher. Dopamine increases desire and reward by triggering the some emotional rush of pleasure when you see or think of the loved one as if you were taking a drug like cocaine Dopamine can explain the highs of romantic passion (igh levels of Copamine) and the lows of rejection (Iw levels of dopamine). Acetylcholine (ACh) on memory ACh isa neurotorsmter which hasbeen linked to synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus and it seems to pay an important rl in learning and shreterm memory via ‘the cholinergic system (Shinoe et al, 2005). 1 Tre choinegic sytem isa sytem of rene cls that uses acetylcholine in transmitting neve signals. Memoty processing and higher cognitive functioning are dependent on the cholinergic system Martinez and Kesner (1991) ACh in memory formation Aim To investigate the role of ACH in memory formation Procedure Experimental study using rats. They were trained to rum a maze. They were divided into three groups. = Group T-receved injection with scopolamine (blocks ACh receptor sites, reducing available ACh), = Group 2:received injection wth physostigmine (blocks production of cholinesterase (enzyme) which cleans up ACh fiom the synapses) leading to mare available ACK = Group 3:The contiol group. Results = Group Thad problems finding their way ehrough the maze ‘and made more mistakes, © Group 2 ran quickly through the maze and made few rmstakes, The group was quicker than the contol group, Evaluation The study shows that ACh is important in memory since the rats showed different memory capacity depending on ACh level. Since this was a controlled laboratory experiment, it can be ‘concluded that the level of ACH is one actor that affects memory but the neurobiology of memory is very complex.ee Explain, using examples, the function of two hormones on human behaviour Cortisol and memory Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal cortex in response to sess and to restore horeostais (the bodys normal balance) Chronic stiess may tesult in prolonged coxtisol Newcomer et al, (1999) Experiment on cortisol and memory ‘Aim To investigate how levels of cortisol interfer with verbal declarative memory. Procedure A selfselected sample (recruited through Advertisement) of 51 nonmal and healthy peonle aged 18-30 was used, Itwas 2 randomized, controled, doublebiind experiment running for four days. All participants gave informed consent. Thete wete three experimental conditions: 1. high level of cottisol (tabiet of 160 mg per day), equivalent to consol levels in the blood as a consequence of a major stressful event. 2. A low level oF consol tablet oF 40 mg per day, equivalent to cortisol xR secretion and this can lead to physiological changes such as damaged immune system and impairment of learning and memory. Ths is because high amounts of cortisol results in atrophy of the hippocampus (Sapolsky, 1996). levelsin the blood as consequence of a minor stessul event. 3. placebo (tablet of no active ingredient). Results The highevel group performed worse on the verbal declarative memory test than the lowlevel group, They performed below placebo levels after day 1. The lowlevel group (mild stess) showed no memory decrease, Evaluation This was a controlled randomized experiment soit was possible o establish a causeerTect relationship beoween levels of ‘consol and scores on a verbal declarative memory test. Ethical issues were observed with informed consent. The negative effect of taking high dosages of cortisal was reversible so no harm was done. ‘Orytocin and trust The hormone oxytocin is secreted by the hypothalamus and released (1) into the blood stream via the pituitary gland or {2) into the brain and spinal cord where it binds to oxytocin receptors. Oxytocin acts primarily as 2 neurotransmitter in the brain = Oxytocin has been linked to trusting other people Experimental manipulation of oxytocin levels has shown increase in trust = Accotding to evolutionary psychologists, trust isan important social tool in the relationship between humans Baumgartner etal. (2008) The role of oxytocin in trust in ecomiomic behaviour ‘Air To investigate the role oF oxytocin after breaches oF trust in 2 ‘must game Procedare 1 The participants played a trust game used by economists and neuroscientists t study social interaction “The “investor” (player 1) receives a sum of money and must decide whether to keep itor share it with a "trustee (player 2) Ifthe sum is shared the sum istrpled. Then player 2 must decide if this sum should be shared (trust) or kept (violation of ts). FMRI scans were caried out on 49 participants, They received either exytocn or piacebo va a nasal spray. Participants played agains different trustees in the tust game and against computer in a risk game. In 50% ofthe games their trust was broken, They received feedback on this form the experimenters during the gares. Trusts an adaptive mechanism as it helps humans to form meaningful relationships ata personal and professional level. Betrayal distupes bonds of ust and may resue in avoidance ofthe person who has betrayed you "= Learning who to trust and who to avoid is important for survival and the wellbeing of an individual. Humans should also be able to move on after experiences of breaching ‘tust if longterm relationships and mencal wellbeing are to be preserved, "= Oxytocin could playa role in reducing Fear reactions via the amygdala thae may arise as a consequence of betrayal Results Participants in the placebo group were likely to show less trust after Feedback on betrayal. They invested less Participants in the oxytocin group continued to invest at similar rates after receiving feedback on a breach of trust: = The INIRI scans showed decreases in responses in the amygdala and the caudate nucleus. The amygdala is involved in emotional processing and has many oxytocin receptors. The caixlate nucleus is associated with learning and memory and plays a role in rewardzelated responses and learning to trust. Evaluation "= Onytocin could explain why people are able to restore trust ‘and forgive in long term relationships, "= Scanmer research is merely mapping brain activity but nothing definite can be said about what icreally means at this point = Giving oxytocin like this in an experiment may not reflect rratual physiological processes. The function of oxytocin is very complex and itis too simplistic to say that itis “the tust hormone” =2. 5 | Discuss two effects of the environment on ____/ physiological processes 10 Effect 1: Environmental effects on dendritic branching (brain plasticity) Environmental stimulation res to the way the environment provides stimulation inthe erm of soca interaction and Tearing opporanies for annals and humans, Experiences, ate processed in the bran nenius stem, and stimulating environments wil sulin inceased numbers of synapses (bain plasticity), Gpnick eal, (1990) describe neurons as ‘rowing telephone wites that communicate with each aher 1 Anemtched environment i charecerized by multiple ‘opportunities to lean new things, Researchers have used ‘animal models to study saptic changes inthe brain because its nat possible to use human in deprivation experiments 1 Instead researchers use casestudies of children who have groom up in total neglea, i. with litle or no experience of language, ouch and ineracon with other humans. The brains of neglected children ae oten smaller and there is scientific endence of aeted brain function (eg. in inteligence and emotions) Rosenzweig, Bennet and Diamond (1972) The role of environmental stimulation on brain plasticity ‘Aim To investigate whether emitonmental factors such as a rich ran impoverished environment affect development of neurons in, the cerebral cortex, Procedure ‘= Rats were placed in either an enriched environment (EC) or an impoverished condition (IC) = EC: 10-12 rats in a cage provided with different stimulus ‘objects to explore and play with. This group also received maze taining = 1G each rat in an individual cage (isolation and no stimulation), = The rats typically spent 30 to 60 days in thelr respective environments before they were killed so the researchers could study changes in brain anatony,. Results "= Theanatomy ofthe brain was different for rats in the EC and, the. = Thebarains of EC rats had increased thickness and higher weight ofthe cortex, EC rats fad developed more acetylcholine receptors in the cerebral cortex (important ‘neurotransmiter in learring and memory). Theeeyearold chilean Normal Extreme neglect Bain scans of brains ofthreeyearaldchildrn: ronal bran and brain ‘wth signs of extreme negloct ina child (Perry, 1957), Evaluation = The experiment was a rigorously controled laboratory experiment so itwas possible w establish a cause-effect relationship ‘The experiment used anil motels and therefore it may be difcule to generalize to humans unless esearch with huerans provides the same resus. Followup ofthis research indicated that just2 hours a day in an entiched environment produced the sare plastic changes inthe brain as in ras that had been constantly in the EC ‘oncition. This shows that the brain can change and adapt to new situations, Since brain plasticity is assumed to follow the same pattein in animals and hureans the implications ofthe study are chat the human brain will also be affected by environmental factors such as intellectual and social stimulation "= The research challenged the belief that brain weight cannot change, This was an important finding, Thete are ethical issues in the use of animals in research lke ths, Since the esultscontibuted to a much better understanding of the role of environmental factors in brain plasticity it can be argued that the research was justified inspite of the ethical issues, Reference: Rosenzweig, MR, Bennet, EL, and Diamond, MC. (1972) Brain changes in response to experience, Sientiic American, 226 (2) 2229,2 Biological level of analysis Effect 2: Environmental stressors and hippocampal damage in PTSD patients A stressors any event that threatens to disrupt the body's normal balance and stars a stress response such as secretion of sess hormones and activation ofthe “eat sensor" in the bain, the amygdala 1 Astressr may be an acute stressor (eg. being assaulted, having an accident) ot could be a chronic stressor 9, anticipation of violence e wonying) 1 The ight or fight response (coping mechanism) is a pattern of physiolegical responses that prepares the body to deal with emergency Sapolsly (1996) fas shown in animal studies that longtetm stess and a prolonged fow of contisol can influence the size of the hippocampus, hich plays a major olen memory ‘Trauma and PTSD. = Traumatic episodes (frightening situations fom which person cannot escape) produce intense fear. In abou 585 ofthe population this ray lead to PTSD (posttraumatic sues isorde) with etecs tha can last for a bit period or alifetire Combat veterans and survivors of childhood sexual abuse ho sue om PTSD end tm havea nuber of sess related problens such 25 forgetfulness and diiculty learning. n such patents stess-tleted physilogical changes have been observed in the brain, especially in the hippocampus, which play an important oe in integrating diferent aspecs ofa memory atthe time oF recollection. Prefrontal Cortex Hippocampus Amygdala Bremner et al, (2003) Stress, PTSD and memory problems related to reduction of hippocampal volume. ‘Aim To measure the volume of the hippocampus based on the theory that prolonged stress may reduce the volume ofthe hippocampus due to increased cortisol levels. Procedure = MI scans were made of the brains ofthe participants and particpants completed memory tests (eg, remembering a story ofa ist of words), ‘= The participants were veterans and female adults who had ‘experienced early childhood sexual abuse, Some had developed PTSD, but not all Results ‘= The researchers found that there were deficits in shorter memory and then performed MII scans ofthe participants’ brains They found that the hippocampus was smaller in FTSD patients than ina control group, The veterans with most memory problems also had the smallest hippocampus. "= The findings showed a clear corelation between number of yeats of abuse as measured by a trauma test, memory problems and hippocampal volume. "= People suifering from PTSD o*ten suer ftom other psychological disorders (eg. depression) which could perhaps also playa role in the observed changes in the brain Evaluation ‘= The sample was very small so itis difficule to say anything definite about the relationship between trauma and hippocampal volume, "= There could be alternative explanations to differences in hippocampal volume (e.g thet people who suffer ftom PTSD often suffer from depression as well). Depression is also associated with reduction ofthe hippocampus. However, the findings of a large reduction of hippocampal \volume in combatselated PTSD has been replicated many ‘bes, u2 2.6 Examine one interaction between cognition ___/ and physiology in terms of behaviour. Evaluate two relevant studies. Cognitive neuroscience isthe scientific study of biological ccomelates of mental processes (cognicion), Ths area of research investigates how various bain areas are invoNed in cognitive processes e.g. how brain damage affects memory), but in recent years researchers have also investigated how cognition and physiological processes may interact in people who meditate ‘A numberof neuroscientists are exarnining how meditation (or mindiulnessbased stress reduction (MBSR) may influence brain functions (eg. the effec of meditation on attention, ‘emotional reactivity and stress). Interaction of cognition and physiology can be seen in the selfregulation of attention (MBSR) which seems to have physiological benefits (eg. sess reduction). Davidson et al. (2004) Brain waves and compassion meditation ‘Am Toimvesigae whether meditation can change brain atv Fight monks who had pracised meditation for many years and a contre group of 10 students who had one week oF training participated inthe sud. Cognitive aces Gcluding meditation) produce electrical acy when the ‘neurons fire. This was recorded by the EEG (eceroencephalograh which ecordselecicalacity as brain waves). Participants were asked o meditate on ‘uncontonal compassion. open the mind for eins of lve and Compassion for short periods = Thecontal group panicipaed ina taining session where thay wete asked to think of someone they cared about and to lec ther mind be invaded by love and compassion. After nial raining the paricipants were asked to generate an ebjective feeling of compassion without focusing on aryone in parila. The EEG of the monks brains showed greater activation as well as beter organization and cotdnation of gama waves There was a postive conelaion beneen houts o practice and level of gamma waves auation Theres suppor the idea that attention and atecive processes are sil that canbe trained but mare research i ‘eed to establish if the change i brain waves i caused by hours of taining and not ndindul dierencesberore training Vestergaard-Poulsen etal. (2003) found thot exensive pracice cof meditation involving sustained attention could lead to changes in brain stuctue. They found stuctual changes in the ewer brain stem of paricipants engaged in longterm practice of meditation compared with agematched non neditaors "= MRilscans of two groups of participants ~ meditators and ronsmediators. = The study found structural changes in bain stem regions ‘oncemed with conto of respiration and cardiac rhythm {autonomic newous system). The connecton of neurons in this ‘area seemed more complex in people who meditated ‘= This could explain some of the beneficial etfects found in research on stess eduction techniques such as (ABSA because otis levels are reduced and the cardiac and breathing rhyhen slow down, Meditative practices have already been applied in health psychology, for example Davidson et al. (2003) found that Mindfulness meditation could increase positive eration and immune responses ‘= MBSR has also been found to alleviate pain (Grant a 2010) ‘See more on the application of MBSR in unit 75, ~2.7 Discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour = Brainimaging techniques ae used in neuroscience to "= Brainimaging technology isa promising way to investigate investigate the elaionship between behaviour and brain the possible relationship between biological factors and structures, for example after brain damage of to find out behaviour, but so far scanning can merely register hich ateas ofthe brain are involved in which cognitive structures and activity in the brain, itis not possible to activities (cognitive neuroscience). determine causeetect relationships at this point. MRI scan: magnetic resonance imaging MRI scans can give detailed picts of internal structs in the bod The body consis, ta lage exe, of water Ashtati etal (2008) used MRI o vestigate whether suibstance abuse (marijuana) can damage the developing brain molecules. In the MRI scanner radio frequency transmitter is ‘adolescents and young adults sired oa epenicesaheeenagies hk The tesetchos cane the ino 14 young men witha Te Beiidete seed Limitations of MRI ‘control group consisted of 14 young men who had not used = ttlscansaepatiaiety |= Theyae vey mara eho seunerb, ei hector inlet than oe ba Hoel Resets aval | iovmran may fick atnraliesin the Rona parts and tempt ions canbe se tien ne fhe rans ofthe aruona user, The development of wiemitist |g ene hits mtn (ye wes alee nd thi could ean SreitonThycan be wea |" Tecate sy Sew infomation pecs na inte ba for the early detection of causeeffect = The researchers concluded that early marijuana use can Aictener dese ae esta teat jai tthe dy Tey aes to sins no Cave coeltonal data ve search sad, hn sa 1 fw scan: functional magnetic resonance Strengths of fMRI Limitations of fMRI imaging The fRI scanner measues changes in blood flow in the active brain. This is associated wth use oF oxygen and linked to reutal = Iedoes not use | The focus is mostly on radioactive localized functioning in the actviy during infomation processing, When participants are substances. brain and doesnot tke into the brain that conespondsto that iuneton, MRI scanning is inallregions ofthe | OF Processing in neural widely used by cognitive neuroscientists and other researchers brain, networks, _and its use has increased entormously over the last 10 years. The results are cortelational so itis not possible to establish cause-effect relationships Harris an Fiske (2006) wsed HMA scans to study students! bain = This was found except when pantcipant looked at pues oF processes as @ response to being presented with pictures of extreme ‘people from extreme ourgroups such as the homeless and ‘utgroups Ths stidyinsocal cag aimed to find the blagjical adi Brain regions related to ‘tsqus’ were acted and -comrelates of stereotypes and prejudice. ‘there was no activity in the prefrontal cortex. = The researchers scanned students while they were watching = The researchers concluded that this indicated a citer pictures of franc humans or objects Iwas predicted dehumanization of be outgroups. These groups were that the medial prefrontal cortex would be active when apparently viewed as “disgusting objects’ and riot people. participants looked at hunrans but not when they ooked at objects x J 1B4 2.8 2 Biological level of analy: General issues in brain imaging to consider in a discussion = Brain imaging is mainly about mapping brain stuctures and activity in the brain ‘© Another limitation deals with localization of function. I rmay be possible to identify brain structures that are active during a task but, since most structures are linked to other structures in networks, ic is not possible at this point to say definitely where things happen in the brain, — [exam Tip rs cing technologie you need to include at leat Nao cvanples. lf you are asked to discuss on, then don't mention enor than ont since you wil receive no credit for mentioning rare. You can address "how and why specific technologies are used” and “srenginaitations of using tenn” including roeearch studi ty apport your arguerent. thous Brin imaging is excting a offers a vow nto te ving brain, ie el foo soon to conclude anything definte about which areas ar involved in vhat cori procsees. Te human brain is very complex and, a this pont, brain imaging ia perhaps best used in diagnosis of Brain abnormalities With reference to relevant research studies, discuss the extent to which genetic inheritance influences human behaviour Gene mapping Attempt to determine the effect ofa particular gene on behaviour such as psychological traits (temperament), psychological disorders (eg, depression or schizophrenia) or various physiological conditions. Caspi et al, (2003) Longitudinal study on the possible role of the 5-HTT gene in depression after experiences of stressful events = The SHTT gene inuences the level of serotonin, which is known to play 2 role in controlling rood, = The researchers compared participants with a normal SHTT gene and a mutation ofthe SHTT gene with shore alleles, Both types are quite requentin humans but the long allele is slightly more frequent (5796). ‘= The researchers found that participants who carried a mutation ofthe S-HTT gene and who had experienced many stressful events were mare likely to become depressed after stressful events than these participants who cartied the normal HTT gene. = The SHTT gene could indicate a vulnerability co depression after stress and the researchers speculated whether the gene could moderate individual responses to environmental Factors. ® © Evaluation Since a large proportion of the population caries the mutation ofthe SHTT gene that makes therm suscepuble to depression after traumatic events it can be dificult to conclude that the gene isa major contribution to depression. People who did not cary the mutation also became depressed 1 The study showed a correlation between the presence of a SHTT shorcallele and depression bucit isnot possible to establish a couse effect ielasionship Genes contribute to some extent to behavioural alts and disorders but iis not clear fiow environmental factors influence genes. Environmental factors were included in the study (stressful events) but there is no evidence against the ideo that it could be the tres‘ul events (environmental factors) that made people depressed. = Much more esearch is needed before a clear relationship between a gene and a behavioural trait can be established. etiologies of abnorenat behaviour. In this case a possible txplanation of depreselon.vhich could relate to the diathesis~ ssrees model, 72 Biological level of ple) ‘Twin studies = Moncaygotic twins (MZ or identical twins) come from the same egg and share 100% oftheir genes. Dizygotic twins (02 or fraternal twins) come from two different eggs and share around 50% of their genes, Siblings share 50% of their genes, = The researchers calculate concordance rate the likelihood or probability that if one individual has the taitthe other will also have it), The concordance rate is assumed to establish iFor to what extent a certain vai is inherited Bouchard et al, (1990) Twin study investigating genetic inheritance in intelligence This study used a seseleced sample of #42 twins who had been reared together (MZT) and MZ twins who had been reared apart (NZA) to investigate concordance rates fora number of variables such as 1Q The results showed that for 1Q (measured by a standardized intelligence test called WAI) he concordance rate was (69% for MZA and 88% for MZT. = The researchers concluded that environmental factors do play a role in development of inteligence but 1 is to a large extent inherited and that 70% ofthe observed variation inthe sample coud be attributed to genetic variation "They dim thatthe results indicat that in a sample like the cone inthe study (white, middleclass in an industrialized 1 Invtwin studies, one twin acts as contral forthe other twin The classic twin study only studied concordance rates and did not indude environmental factors. n some cases MZ ‘wins were raised apart and in these cases it was assumed that differences were due to ennirenmental Facto. = Invtwin research, sets oF MZ are compared with sets of DZ twins fora panicula ait or disorder. High concordance rates in MZ bvins and lower concordance rates in DZ. twins for the same behaviour indicate that the traitor disease is linked to genes (inherited). Differences within pairs oF identical twins are attbuted to environmental factors. nation) genetic inheritance in IQ accounts for around ‘worthirds ofthe observed variance of 10. ‘= They also said that their findings do not indicate that 10 cannot be increased, hati influenced by environmental ‘actor. Evaluation = Comtelational data cannot establish cause-fect telationships. Concordance rates were high inthe study but far rom 100% soit wes dificult tb determine the relative infuence of genes. CColeulation of concordance rates isnot always reliable = There was no contol forthe effect of environmental vatiables in the study and this affects accurate estimations oF a genetic contribution to intligence. '= The findings ‘rom this selfselecred sample make it cficule to generalize findings. Problems in genetic research Genetic esearch cannot at this pint determine the extent to which genetic inhetanc influence behaviour bacause 2 Genes interact with environmental factors in complex ways eis dieu co measure relative inuenceof genes and envronmental ‘actors = Knowledge about genesis stil limited '= There are problems in genetic research (eg. concordance ‘ates in twin studies cannot say anything about cause-etfect {elationships). MZ cwins being treated inthe same way as, DZ ewins may be wrong (the “equal environment assumption” may be flawed) and this limits the possibility (of draxting meaningful conclusions from twin studies 52. 9 Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour = The theory of evolution, suggested by Charles Darwin, is based on the assumption tha living organisms face ‘environmental challenges. Organisms that adapt the best have a greater chance of passing on their genes to the next generations. Organisms with speciie genetic traits that enhance survival ate said to be naturally selected, Natural selection is a cucial evolutionary process in Darwin's theory. One evolutionary explanation of behaviour: disgust in pregnant women = Nausea and loss of appetite during pregnancy may have been evolved asa vay to protect the mother andthe fetus agains diseases vhich could threaten the fetus Disgust, has evlved 25 food rejection response to prevent contamination and the spread oilless = Tre tory under investigations whether disgust has ‘vohed to compensate forthe mother athe baby’s vulnerability disease during the fis ew months of pregnang. Fessler et al (2005) Elevated disgust sensitivity in the fist trimester of pregnancy ‘Aim To investigate if disgust sensitivity in the fist trimester of pregnancy was elevated a predicted Procedure = AWebbased survey was completed by 691 women recruited through pregriancyseated Web sites, No compensation was of ered for parcpation. The women’s mean age was 28.1 years. On the Web-based questionnaire, the participants (1) indicated thei current level of nausea using a 1Gpoint scale and {2) answered questions to test their disgust sensitivity in eight diferent areas (eg, food; contact with animals, body products, and dead animals: hygiene; contact with tilt) Evaluation of evolutionary explanations Its dificult to test evolutionary theories and not much is kc about che lie of eal hun Evolutionary explanations tend to focus on biological factors and underestimate cultural influences, According to Davey (1974) disgust ior spiders may be ‘explained by people's need to find tangible causes of illness and disease when the causes were unclear 16 ~\ OD resuits = Overall, disgust sensitivity related to food and body products in women inthe Hus rimester was higher compared to those in the second and thd trimesters = Disgust was particularly elevated in elation to food, which was exactly what the researchers had predicted, = Foodborne diseases are pantcularly dangerous to women in the fst trimester and thetefore it was predicted that disgust sensitivity related 0 food would be high. Ths was supported by the resus The results may indicate that nausea and vomiting are evolved behaviout because they limit the likelihood that pregnant women vill eat dangerous food Evaluation = The data was collected though questionnaires. Seleports may not be reliable. This is nocan efective way of mmeasuting dsgus. It would have been mote liable co conitont participants wit real dsgustelicting objects = The effec sizes were not big but signicam. The findings are supported by ote studies (eg, Curtiss etal.2004) showing that images that threaten the immune system are judged as mote disgusting ‘Ser aleo the evolutionary explanation of te role of ‘eytocin in trust in unit 24, "Crain one ity os » consider whether thie evolationary theory cn be supported or not You shoul also explain general problems in evolutionary explanations.2.10 Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour Ethical considerations in genetic research ‘There are specific issues of concern in genetic research within the biological level of analysis. This is particulatly rue in the search for genes involved in abnormal behaviour, butitis also relevant in research on genetic influence on disease, ieligence, personality or health. The main reasons for concerns are: = Knowledge about the role of specific genes in behaviour is still limited so researchers should be careful about making definite conclusions, Genetic research is often reductionist as it does not include environmental factors "Genetic research is corelational by nature o one should be cateful to make definite condusions about the risk of developing a disease = Itis not cereain that genetic esearch, lke the Human Genome Project, is ethically neutral. There are historical examples of risuse of ethically sensible data eg, eugenics in Nazi Germany) and itis nec guaranteed that data could not be misused again (Wallace 2004) Genetic research into complex behaviour such as homosexuality is controversial because of the social ‘meaning and significance of homosexuality. Genetic research could result in stigmatization and discrimination as ‘many societies are homophobic, The search for the "gay gene” has generally raised controversy \ Caspi et al. (2003) Longitudinal study on the possible role of the SHTT gene in depression after experiences of stressful events The researchers compared participants with a normal SHTT and a mutaton ofthe SHTT gene with shorer alleles, Both types ate quite frequent in the hurman population but the tong allele is slightly more frequent (57%) "= The researchers ound that participants who caried a mutation ofthe SHTT gene and who had experienced many stessful events were more likely to become depressed after stressful events than those paticirants who caried the normal HTT gene Conclusion Its not lear what todo with knowledge from genetic research and genetic screening at this point - bath at an individual level and in society. For example, being genetically predisposed to depression doesnot mean tat a person vill develop depression, The results of genetic screening for depression could cause personal distress and have @ negative impact on someone's life (ea. if based on this they decided not to have children} Ethical considerations in all genetic research The DNA pro‘lle ofeach huran is unique, except for MZ twins vo are 100% genetically similar. The fact that one twin acts asa contrl in genetic research is the major reason wihy twins are often used to determine hetitabllty Genetic inforration is often seen as special becouse itis assumed that genes determine behaviour and genes ae associated with personal identity. In reality, genetic information can only reveal a potential risk Anonymity and confidentiality Participants in a genetic study must be sure that their anonymity and confidentalty is protected but in farcily ‘and twin studies it can be dificult to ensure this fully. This is also the casein the research of rare disorders. "= Participants have a right to know who owns the genetic information and how i will be used in the future (eg. if their access to insurance or employment could be compromised because of the genetic data) Informed consent and the right to refuse or withdraw "= Participants have a right to be fully informed about what the research is about, the procedures, what could be the result of the study and how the information will be use. Research into genetic influences en behaviour could potentially pose risks to participants and the genetic information could be misused. "= Genetic researc can reveal information that is unexgected (0 a source of distress to participants (eg. when a participant has no sign ofa disorder but the data shows @ genetic predisposition) v3. 1 | Outline principles that define the cognitive ___/ level of analysis and explain how these principles may be demonstrated in research 18 Principle 1: Human beings are information processors and mental processes guide behaviour. People are active information processors. They perceive and interpret what is going on around them. This is often based on ‘what they already know. There is arelauonship between people's mental representation and the way people perceive and think about the wold Principle 1 demonstrated in Schema theory defines cognitive schemas as mental representations oF knowledge. Mental representations (schernas) ae stored in categories (concepts) in merry. These schemas provide quidelines tor interpretation of incoming information when people ty to make sense othe world, Schemas influence cognition in that schemas creake expectations about what will happen in speci situations (ea. whata "teacher ise or what {o expect when you go toa rock concer). Schema theory can, 0 alge extent, explain reconstructive memory and stereotyping Darley and Gross (1983) periormed an experiment in which they showed participants videos of a git playing in a pot environment, then it a wealthy environment. Then they saw a video of the gil in what could be an inteligence test. When the participants wore asked to judge the furure of the gil they all said thatthe “poor” gi would do worse than the “wealthy ait The study derronstrated tow human beings actively process information based on afew salient details co form an overall impression that may not recessanily be conect. Principle 3: Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural Factors. Research has shown that cognitive processes such as perception, memory and thinking are influenced by sociocultural factors Bartlett (1932) introduced the concept of “cultural schernat in memory research. He suggested that schemas influence memory in that they lead to distortion or “econstiuctive memory" Other researchers suggest that the environment in wich people live leads to speciic cultura and social demands that influence the way they process information DiMaggio (1997) suggests that schemas are (1) representations ‘of knowledge (e. stereotypes and socal roles) and (2) mectanisms that simpli'ycogrition i the form of "cognitive shortcuts that are shaped by culture. Schematic cognition is shaped and biased by culture (2g, culturally based stereotypes) Principle 2: The mind can be studied scientifically. Cognitive esearchers use a numberof scientific rethods to study the mind (eg. laboratory experiments, neuroimaging, case studies interviews, and archival research). The most used research method was, fora long time, the laboratory experiment, because it was considered to be the most scientific Principle 2 demonstrated in: Loftus and Palmer (1874) performed an experiment to rast reconstructive memory in relation to eyewitness testimony. The ‘im was fo see whether misleading questions could distort, memory, Participants saw a picture ofa car crash and were asked to estimate the speed of the car based on questions sucht as "How fast was the car going when it smashed /hit/bumped ino the other car?" Words such as “smashed” elicited higher speed estimations. Because the experimental method was used itwas possible to establish a cause-effect relationship between the use of specific words and estiration of speed. Experimental research on memory has been crtcized for lacking ecological vali. CCorkin et al. (1999) used IRI scans to observe the exact damage to HM. brain, HM, suffered ftom amnesia due to a brain operation where the hippocampus and adjacent areas had been removed to eliminate his epilepsy The scans confirmed damage to these areas. Although asirall part of the hippocampus had been spared it was not enough to support storage of new explicit memories. Principle 3 demonstrated in: Bartlet (1932) suggested that memory is guided by schemas and that culture can influence schemas. Previous knowledge determines the way people interpret incoming inorration and memory (memory distortion). He asked British participants to ‘ead an unfamiliar Native Ametcan story and reproduce it. The rartidpans changed details of the story to ft with their own calturel schemas Cole and Scribner (1974) investigated how memory strategies were inftuenced by culture. The study asked children tor a rural ateain Libera and children from the USA to memorize items rom four diferent categories: utensils, clothes tools, and vegetables Chiiren from the US improved periorance ater pracice but the Liberian cilden didnot unless they fad attended schol Leaming memory strategies, like “chunking’, appears to be dependent on schooling and the literate children in the study did not use these sategies. The researchers concluded tha the way cognitive psychologists study merory processas does not lays reflec the way people learn t remember in real ie =3.2 J Evaluate schema theory = Acognitive schema can be defined as 2 mental representation of knowledge stored in the brain. A schema can be seen as a network of knowledge, belies, and expectations about particular aspects of the world. = Schema processing is to a large extent automatic, i. processed with lite attention. t imohes information from ‘wo sources: Input fom the sensory system (botton-up processes) and information stored in memory {topddown processes), hich is used to interpret the incorring information (pattem recognition, imerpretation), Influences processing ‘of social information Soxiety's beliefs about the traits of females and males. Bartlett (1932) suagests that schemas are active recogriton devices representing an effort after mening Schemas help people rake sense ofthe werld, make predicions aboutit and what to expect, and provide guidance on how to behave Dittagaio (1987) suggests that schemas are (1) representations of knowledge (eg, stereotypes and socal roles) and (2) ‘mechanisms that simplify cognition inthe form of "cognitive shortcuts. Schematic cagition is shaped and biased by culture (eg: in cutualy based stereotypes). Gender schemas are ‘examples of cognitive schemas shaped by sociocultural ideas about what is appropriate fr ren and woren (noms). c Darley and Gross (1983) cared outa laboratory experiment ‘on schema processing in the social word '= Inthis laboratory experiment, the participants saw two videos ofa git. Invideo 1 a gil was playing in a poor environment, in video 2a gil was playing in a rich environment. Than they saw a video oF the gil in what could be an inteligence test. = When the participants were asked to judge the future of| the gis they al said thatthe “rich girl would do well and ‘the ?poor” git would do less well = The study demonstrates that participants probably used ptestored scherras of what it means to he poor and rch {and interpreted the ambiquous information accordingly. Participants processed information based on a few salient details to form an overall impression that may not necessarily be correct. Possible ways in which schemas affect memory 1 People tend to remember the meaning (ist) of something, not the actual wording = People use stored knowledge to make sense of incoming information. the information is unclear or incomplete, they il in the blanks or interpret using ther scherras. This iscalled “reconstructive memory” and results in cistortion 1 People tend to ignore information thats no in line with their schemas (schematic information). This may lead to bias in information processing (ein streceyping where people ignore information that is notin line with their schema) People tend to focus on information that iin in with thei Schetras(scherratic information). This may result in "confirmation bias” Cc Bartlett (1932) "The War of the Ghosts” ‘Ai To investigate vihether people's memory fora story is affected by previous knowledge (schemas) and the extent to which memory is reconstructive Procedure Bartlet asked Bish partcjpans to heat story and reproduce it iter 2 short time and then repeatedly over a period of months or years (serial reproduction). The story was an unfamiliar Native American legend called "The War ofthe Ghosts” Results The paticipants remembered the main idea ofthe story {the Gist) but they changed un‘amiiar elements to make sense o the Story by using terms mare feito their oun cultural expectations The sary remained a coherent whole although it was changed, It became noticeably shorter for each reproduction Bartlett concluded that remembering is an active process. Memovis ae not copies of cexpetience but ther “reconstructions” Evaluation 1 The results of the study confirm schema theory (and reconstructive memory), but it was performed in a laboratory and can be citicind far lack of ecological validity, Prticipants did not receive standardized instructions and some of the memory distortions may be due to participant! {guessing (demand characteristics). In spite of these methodological limitations, the study is one (of the most important in the study of memory. Bare, (1932) Remembering A study in Experimental and Social Psychology. Cambridge Cambridge University Pres. 1920 3 Cognitive level of analysis r Brewer and Treyens (1981) Experiment on memory of objects in a room ‘Aim To investigate whether people's memory fr objec in a room (an offic) is influenced by existing schemas about what toexpect in an ofc Procedure Participants were 30 university students, who rived individually to the laboratory and were asked to waitin an fice containing objects (e.g, desk, typewriter, coffee pot, calendar). There were als other objects that did not conform to the ofc schema (a shila pieceof bak, a pair of pes) 1 After waiting for sore tim, participants were taken out of the office and asked to write down evrything they could remember from the room Results = Most patcipants recalled the schematic objects (ec. desk, typewriter) a. ~ Some participants reported things that would be expected ina typical office but were not present in this one (eg telephone, books}. = Many participants also recalled the skull {unexpected object). The very unusual object resulted in becter recall than predicted by schema theory Evaluation ‘= The study confirms schema theory (and reconstructive memory), but it was a controlled laboratory experiment so there ae issues of artificiality. ‘= The study used deception (participants were noc told about the real purpose ofthe experiment) but they were debriefed afterwards and rot harmed. The study could not have been made without deception so ic was justified. 1 There's sample bias, University students were used as. patticipants soit may be dificult co generalize the results Brewer IME and Tryons JC. (1981) “Role of schemata in momory for places’, Copmite Pychoogy. 13. pp. 207-30. 5 es eee Schema theory has proven extremely useful in explaining oe (eg, perception, memory, and reasoning) = Schema theory can be used to explain the reconstructive nature of memory for example in eye witness testimony, stereotyping, gender identity (gender scherna) and cultural differences (cultural schemas) ‘Cohen (1993) argued thar: the concept of schema is too vague to be useful and it is not clear how schemas are ‘acquired in the fst place Schema theory may focus too much on the inaccuracies of memory but most ofthe time people remember accurately3 . 3 Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies Model This model was one ofthe fist to give an overview of the basic structure of architecture of memory and it was inspired by computer science, The model seams ather simplistic, but it did spark off the idea of humans as information processors and it has been one ofthe mos influential models attempting to describe the memory system Rehearsal TORTIE encosina ONT MeMonY” [Betreval| MENIGRY. Displacerent [Loss (nct [on al) ‘Atkinson and Shittn (1968) The multistore mode is based on the assumption that memory consists of a numberof separate stores and that memory processes ate sequential : The multistore model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968) ©The memory stores in the mode are structural components that include control processes (eg. attention, coding, and rehearsal). Rehearsal ensutes the transfer of infomation frorn shorten memory (working memory) to longer mernory, Sensory memary registers sensory iniormation and stores it Ter around 14 seconds, Information in the sensory memory is modality specie (ie. related to different senses). Only a small aount ofthe sensory information will be transferred into the shortierm memory (STM) store (depending on whether or notitis attended to}. f= STM has limited capacity (around seven items) and limited ‘duration (around 6-12 seconds}. Inforrration processed in STM is transferred into ITM i iis rehearsed. Ino, itis lost. ‘= LIM is believed to be of indefinite duration and of potentially united capacity Evidence of the multistore model of memory: the serial position effect ‘The serial position effect is believed tobe linked to rehearsal, ie. people repeat things in order to remember. The serial position effect suggests that people remember things beter i they are either the frst (primacy eect) or last (recency effect) item in a lise oF things to remember, Glanzer and Cuitz (1966) ‘Aim Toinesigate tecenc fet in fe recal (ina orden Procedure This was a laboratory experiment where participants fist heard als of ters and then immediately had orca them in any ore Results Participants recalled words from the beginning of the list (privacy effect) and the end of the isthe recency eet) best The rests shoved a Ushaped cure. partcpamts were iver aller task us ater heaing the last word, the pinay effect isappered ut the receny effect remained ° 9 Recency feat Probability of remembering Begining Encl Position ofthe item on thelist ‘The recency effect could be due to the words stil being active in STM {working memory). Rehearsal could be a factor in tansfer of information into LTM, Evaluation The study supports the idea of multiple stores (STM, ‘and LTM). Ths isa convolled laboratory study with highly Ccontolled variables, uc there is no random allcation of participants to experimental conditions so ies not a ‘nue experiment Thete may be problems with ecological validity 7 Evidence of the multi-store model of memory: case studies of individuals with amnesia due to brain damage 1 Armesia is caused by daevage to the hippocampus and telzed netsocks imolved in storage of new memories. s+ MARI scans shows that HIM. had severe damage to the hippocampus weich is cial in the storage of information into TH HIM. could store new procedural memories (implicit. ‘memory but he was not able to store new explicit memories (semantic or episodic), This shows that the memory system contains different systems ai22 3 Cognitive level of analysis ee eel "= The model pioneered the new approach to memory where humans ace seen as information processors. = The model's concepwalization of memory a5 multstored is supported by research, = Ichas been possible to make predictions based on the model and to design experiments ‘= The overall model has been modified, for example by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) with their new version of shortterm memory the “working memory” model ions of the multi-store model of memory = The model i very simplistic and it cannot account for how interaction between the different stores takes place (eg, how information fiom LTM may indicate what is important ‘and relevant to pay attention toin sensory memory), |= Research into the encoding of LTM has challenged the singlestore version of ITM. Its now accepted that TM contains several stores (eg semantic, episodic procedural). Model 2: The working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) = Baddeley and Hitch suggested the working memory model as an alterative vo STM. "= This model challenged the view that STM is unitary and ‘that information processing is passive = Working memory is seen as an active store used to hold ‘and manipulate information. The model has been ddoveloped over the years to include findings from research (eg. fourth component, the episodic buffer, has been added), Working memory includes four separate components 1 The central executive A controling system that monitors and coordinates te operations ofthe other components (Slave systems). The cental executive is modality fee soit Can process information in any sensory modality but i has limited capaci 1 The episodic buffer A limited-capaciy temporary storage system or interface between the other systems in working ‘emony Itis assumed to be contolled by the cental executive through conscious awareness. The episodic buffer handles information in various modalities. The episodic buffer resembles the concept of episodic memory. The phonological loop fandles verbal and auditory information Its divided into two components 1 The articulatory control system: the “ier voice 2. The phonological store: the “inner eet" This can held speeclrbased material active in a phonological form. Ie is assumed that a memory trace can only last fiom 1.5, 1 2 seconds if itis not refteshed by the articulatory control system. = The visuo-spatial sketchpad: the “inner eye" This hancles| visual and spatial information ftom either sensory memory (visual in‘oration) or irom LT (images). “Hy ee | Episodic buffer eer a ee Evidence of the working model of memory 1 There evidence of working memory in the so-called dual tasks experiments, The model assumes that there is a division of tasks between the diferent slave systems according to modaliy two tasks are done simultaneously (ea. in dual tasks ‘experiments or in mulkitasking) itis possible to perform vel iF separate systems are used, Fconcument tasks use the same system, it wil affect performance negatively. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) asked participants to answer increasingly dificult questions about sirrple eter Combinations that were shown at the same time. Reaction time increased asthe questions became move difficult. The participants were then asked to do an articulatory suppression task (eg, repeating “the” al the time, repeating numbers rom 1 to 6, or repeating random rrurbes) wile they answered the question. There was no significant difference in reaction time between the group who was asked to repeat the" orto repeat numbers from 1 to 6, The group who was asked to repeat random numbers had the worst performance. This was interpreted a overload problems forthe central executive = Quinn and McConnel (1996) asked participants to learn a list of words by using ether imagery or rehearsal. The task was performed on its own or in the presence of a concurrent visual noise (changing patterns of dots) ora concurrent verbal noise {speech ina foreign language). The results showed that leaming words by imagery was not affected by a concurrent verbal task but it was disturbed by a concurtent visual task The opposite vas found in the rehearsal condition. This indicates that imagery processing uses the visuo-spatial sketchpad whereas verbal processing Uses the phonological loop. IF two tasks used the sane component, performance deteriorated. The study thus lends suppor to different modalieyspecific slave systems and the idea of limited processing capacity3 Cognitive level of analysis ee ceed ‘The model has been useful in understanding which pars ‘of the memory system may be linked to underiying problems in reading and mathematical skills The model focuses on the processes of integrating informacion, rather than on the isolation of te sub- systems. This provides 3 much better basis for Limitations of working memory “The major criticism of the first models of working memory was the unclear role ofthe central executive, This has been dealt with by including the episodic bu‘fer inthe revised mode! ‘The model has been critisize for its emphasis on structure rather than processing, understanding the more complex aspects of executive control in working memory Compare and contrast the two models enn Cnn) oe (similarities) Provides possible architecture ofthe memory . system (several stores) STM temporary storage, limived capacity and . duration Focus on the entive mem systert 7 Simplistic model of STM ~ not much focus on . interaction between stores STM temporary storage and gateway to LT ‘No specifications of content of STM Provides possible architecture ofthe memory system (several stores) STM temporary storage, limited capacity and duration Fouus primanly on STM ‘Much more complex idea of STM suggesting possible interactions between the stores, and especially modalitybased functions of shoretetm ‘memory (visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop). The addition of a governing system (central executive) isa strength, although hour it works is not yet well documented, Provides a bette explanation of storage and processing than the multistore model in chat an be applied to understanding, reading and mental calculations Early versions of the model are vague on the role of the central executive, but later development of the model suggests that centil executive guides attention via two systems (automatic and supervisory attentional syste), = The model is broadly accepted and considered {important for understanding not only memory processes, but also cognitive processes such as thinking and problem solving (functional approach). og (differences) STEUER = STM and [TM are more complex than the model | = Theie is not enough focus on the interaction bevween the stores (e4, how information from LT is used to deal with chunking in STM). . Rehearsal is not enough to explain transfer of information to LTM. The model cannot explain why memory strategies and elaborate rehearsal is ecient3 4 Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process Damage to the hippocampus and amnesia Scoville and Milner (1957) The case study of HM. = Scoville and Miner (1957) descibed the case of HM, who fell off his bicycle when he was 7 years ol, injuring his head, He began to have epileptic seizures when he was 10. By the age of 27 the epileptic attacks prevented hr fom living a normal ie Scoville performed an experimental surgery on H.MLs brain to stop the seizures. The seizures stopped but HM. suffered from amnesia forthe esto his lie The case study of HiM, provides information on how particular brain areas and networks are involved in memory processing. This helped scientists to formulate new theories, about memory functioning HM's memory HLM. could no longer store new memories (anterograde arsnesia), Most of his memories frm before the operation rerained intact (paral reograde arnnesa) 1 He could not transfer new semantic and episodic memories {expt memories) into LTH 1 He could form neve longterm procedural memories (implicit memories) 1 He was able o cary on normal conversations (.. had some capacity for working memory but he would forget what the conversation was about imrrediately. What can be leamed about the relationship between ‘the brain and memory from the case study of HM? The memory systems in the brain constitute a highly specialized and complex system. 1 The hippocampus play acitical oe in converting merovies of experiences from STM to LTA (the permanent store) 1 HIM. was able to retain some memories for events that happened long before his surgery. This indicates that the ‘medial temporal region with the hippocampus isnot the site oF permanent storage in itself It rather seems to play a role in how memories are organized and then stored elsenther inthe bain, = The medial temporal region with the hippocampus is important for forming, organizing, consolidating, and retrieving memory Cortical areas are important for longéeim storage of knowledge and how to use this knowledge in everyday situations ‘The fact that HM. and other people with amnesia have deficits in some types of memories but nat in others is taken as evidence that the brain has rultiple remory systems tha are supported by distinct brain regions. 24 Explanation of the relationship between H.M’s brain damage and his memory deficits Corkin (1997) used MRI scans and analysed the extent oF the damage to HIM'S brain to find out. The scans showed that 11 Parts ofthe temporal lobes including the hippocampus and ‘elated structures on both sides were missing This partof the brain's memory system plays a citical role in varsforming shoreerm merris into longterm memories These areas are invohed in specific neurotransmitter pathways in memory (eg, acetyicholneis believed to play an important role in learning and episodic memories) ‘Normal bin Him’ brain Hippocampus!3 Cognitive level of analysis High levels of cortisol and memory deficits Corisoisa sess homone secreted by the ackenal glands in response to physiological or psychological tes. During longi sess too much crise is teleased and this ay affet not ony immune functioning, but also merrxy processes, Chronic oversecetion of cortisol may hinder the brain in forting new mermories or accessing akeady existing memories ‘Sapolsky (1968) demonstrated that prolonged stress can damage the neurons inthe bippocarpus but this can be teesed inom levels of oto are stored, Longer sess could cause ieverible damage Lupien et al. (1998) followed a group of elderly people for five years to study the role of cortisol on memory. They found thacortsol secretion was to high in about 30% of the elderly population, Those who were exposed to excessive Corts secretion for five years showed merony impairment tnd atopy (sinking) ofthe hippocampus, They aso found thatmemory impairment can be reresed ithe domage had not progressed toa point of no return. ‘The larting ouome “egpain” requires yu to show how boogie factors infuence 2 cognitive process. You are supposed to kon two bilagical factors. You cou also use acefy{choline ara explain how this biological factor infaenees memory proceenes (ee more on this in unit 22). Lupien et al. (2002) Experiment on corse level and memory ‘Aim The exseriment was a follow up with ew groups ofthe elderly people from the fveyear study. The ai ofthe experiment was to see whether it was posible to reverse memory problems with a drug, Procedure = Participants wee ivded into two groups group 1 ad @ tmodetate lee! of cortisol at seine, and group 2 had a high level of cortisol and signs of impaired memory at biseline Both groups were first given a drug preventing secretion cof cotsol{metyapone). Then they had todo a memory test. After this, hoth groups were given another drug {ydrocotsone) to restore their level of cortisol to previous levels. Results were compared with levels ina placebo group. Results The results showed that paricipans with a moderate level of cortisol who were given mesyrapone had 10 problem restoring normal mesrory function. Patciparts ‘who, from the stat, had a high level of consol had no memory improvement. Hyérocorisone caused even areter memory loss 2526 3.5, cognitive process Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one Cultural and methodological considerations in cross-cultural research on memory = Wang and Ross (2007) Cultures both a system values, schemas, model, arifacs) and a proces (twas daly routines, and practices), Culture affects wy people remember, how they emember, when they remember, what they remember and whether they find it necessary to remember avail s+ When researchers conduct ctosscultural memory research with participant fom Western and non-Western cultures they often use tasks developed in psychology laboratories, such as fre ecall of ists of urvlated words. In such tasks, the people rom Wester cultures generally do beter. This coud be because such tasks are meaningless to non-Western people, Cultural and social demands determine memory = Bartlett (1932) clairrs that cultural and social damands ‘ean explain the extraordinary ability of Swazi herdsmen to recall individual characteristics of their cattle. The Swazi culture evolves around the possession and care of cattle and itis important for people to tecagnize their animals. = Misty and Rogoff (1994) argue that culture and memory are enmeshed skills. Remembering is an activity, which is determined by the demands of the social and cultural ‘context in which it takes place. Remembering may be a means of achieving an important social or cultural goal. For ‘example, the Itamul elders in New Guinea have an extraordinary memory fo lines of descent and history. This, kind of knowledge is important to them because it can help resolve property disputes with conflicting clans. Cole and Scribner (1974) Cross-cultural study of memory ‘Aim To investigate fee recall in two different cultures, the USA and the Kpelle people in Liberia Procedire For the test in Liberia, the researchers used objects that would be familiar tothe Liberian children. The lst of words belonged to four distinct categories. American children were Given fee recal tests ratching their culture. The esearchers, presented the words tothe participants and asked them to remember as many of them es pssibie in any order (ree recall) Inthe second part ofthe experiment, the researchers presented the same objects in a meaningful way as par of 0 story. Resuits 1 Inthe fee recall test, the nonschocled participants hardly improved their periormance afte the age of 9 or 10. They remembered around 10 ites on the first trial, and around two more after 15 practice tras Liberian schoolchildren performed as schoolchildren of the same age did in the USA. They aso used similar memory strategies. In the second part of the experiment, the norschooled Liberian participants recalled objects well because they ‘grouped them according to the oles they played inthe story School children in Liberia and the USA used chunking and recalled items according to categories, The nonschooled Lberian children did not use the categorical structure of the list to help them remember. This indicates possible cultural differences in cognitive processes such as categorization ‘and memory, Evaluation The extent to which iis culture or schooling (or both) that influenced memory and categorization inthe study isnot entiely clear. The experimental method was used and it «an help to establish causeetect relationship, but since the independent variable was culture (or schooling) it may be dificult co say anything definite about causeefiect relationships. More research on culture and memory Rogoff and Waddel (1982) found that Mayan children did bette in a memory task f they were gen one thae was tmeaningful other in local tr The researchers constructed a miniature model ofa Aayanvllage, which resembled the ctilden’s own village, The reearche then selected 20 rriniaoute objects fom a set of 80 (eg. anirals, Furniture, people) and placed ther in the model. Then the objects were ‘taken out of the model and replaced among the 60 objects. After a few minutes, the experimenter asked the children to reconstruct the scene they had been shown. Under these condition, the Mayan children dd sight beser than the dtlden from the USA, ‘The study shows that the content and context ofa memory task are important and that use‘ul memory surategies are learned in a sociocultural context, Culture and memory summing up The impicaton of many rosscultural memory studies is that although the abil c remember universal {hardware specie foms of remembering (swat) are not universal but ater contextbound = Amethodologicel problem exists as rast emery research is conducted in clues with frl schooling systams. This makes it dificult to generalize findings to cultures with no Faxmal schooling3.6 process is reliable Evaluate the extent to which a cognitive 2 Memory is nota “tape recorder or an exact replica of what happened, but rather a “constuction. Schema theory can explain why this kappens. Reconstructive merrory indicates that memoryis only reliable to some exert. © Cognitive researchers have found that memories are not ‘xed and can be lst, changed, or even created. Memories may also be scrambled in the proces of retieving them and they canbe manipulated (Loftus, 2003), Eyewiess testimony has been found to be incorecton numerous cccasions where DNA has revealed tha the wrong person was convicted, Al this indicates that memory is not alueays reliable = Wie tend to remember the overall meaning (gist) of soreething and we reconstruct the infomation to some ‘extent when we retrieve it, "© Sometimes merry is distorted for personal reasons, for ‘example to enhance our own importance (selserving bias). Reasons for inaccuracies in memory could be: = Memory is reconstructive (eg, Bartlett, 1932) and information processing is schema driven (see unit 3.2). "= Memories are constructed after the fact and chey are susceptible to postevent information and manipulations eg. Loftus and Palmer, 1974) "= Thete i no relationship becween people's belie cha their memory is accurate and the memany’s accuracy (eg Neisser and Harsch, 1992). (See more on “lashbulb memories” in nie 3.) Barlett (1932) The theory of reconstructive memory “This theory assumes that humans ae active infection processors who construc emotes as they ty to make sense of what happens based on what they already know Schemas stored in ITM help people make sense ofthe world around them Baret called this “fort after meaning”. People donot imply remember information because the pestored schemas determine what to remember, He suggested thatthe reconstructive nature cof memory based on schema processing could explain memory distortions (se Baten’ study in unit 32) pe ee eat ed et Sei) ed The madel can explain |® The model may focus mamory distortions 00 much on the wel inaccuracy of memory Schema processing is, not fully understood. leis supported by many | * empirical studies and laboratory expetiments (eg Loftus and Palmer, 1974), Loftus and Palmer (1974) Reconstruction of automobile destruction (the first experiment) “To investigate whether the use oF leading questions would affect ecll in a situation whete paticinants were asked to ‘estimate speed, Tiss. situation thas could happen when people appear in court as eyewitness testimonies, Procedure The student participants saw videos of atic accidents and had to answer questions about the accident. In ‘experiment | the pancipants wete asked to estate speed of the cars based on a critical question: "About how Fast were the «ais going when they smashed into each othe” “Smashed” was replaced by words such a ht, colded, bumped or contacted in ‘other conditions (experiment 2 isnot included here) Results The mean estimates of speed were highest in the “smashed” condition (40.8 mph) and lowes in the “contacted” rou (31.8 mph). The researchers calculated a statistical test and found thac hei results were significant at p 0005. The results indicate that memory snot reliable and that memory «an be manipulated by using specific words. The critical word in the question consistently affected the participants answer to the question, One explanation could be thatthe use of different words influenced participants’ mental representation of the accident, ie. the verb “smashed” activates a cognitive schema of a severe accident and therefore spead estimates, increase. It is not the actual details ofthe accident that are remembered but rather what isin line with @ cognitive schema (of a severe accident, This i in line with Bardett’s suggestion of reconstructive memory. It could also be that participants simply had dificulties estimating speed. This cannot be ruled out. Evaluation The experiment was conducted in a laboratory There may be a prablem of ecological validity. Neisser has iticzed laboratory experiments on memory for being too antici. The fact thac the experiment used students as participants has also been citized because students are not representative ofa general population, The films shown in the ‘experiment were made for teaching purposes and therefore the participants’ experience was not the the same as if had been 2 real accident. The experiment was rigorously controlled soit ‘was possible to establish a causeeffect relationship between the independent variable (the critical words) and the dependent variable (estimation of speed) Loftus, EF and Palmer 1C. (1978) "Reconstruction of automebile destruction: An example ofthe Interaction between language and memory’ Journal of Vestal lazing and Vetal Behavior 13, 581-580. 728 3 Cognitive level of analysis rc Riniolo et al, (2003) on accuracy of eye witness testimony in a teal life situation - the plunge of Titan ‘Aim To investigate the reliability of memory for a central detail of eye witnesses tothe Ttanc's final plunge (ie. whether the Titanic sank intact or broke in two before it went down). It was believed atthe tm thatthe ship went down intact. Procedure The researchers used archival dota, ie, transcripts from ‘wo hearingsin 1912, one in the USA and one in the UK. The researchers identified 20 cases (N=20) fom the total amount of 91 survivors in the hearings who had explicitly addressed the state ofthe ship during its final plunge. Results 75% of the eyewitnesses in this study, i. a total of 15, soid that Titanic was breaking apart during sinking and 25% said Titanic was intact while it was going down. The majority ofthe 20 selected eyewitness testimonies in this study said that the ship broke in to before the plunge so cental tats ofthe event wore recalled accurately, although the memory was formed during ‘traumatic conditions (high emotional arousal) After the hearings it was concluded that the Mtanic sank intact and tis “roth” has v + been repeated in the lteranure until the discovery of the wreck, Reasons for this could be that it was believed that the Titanic ‘ould not sink and the general belie that memory is impaired ‘when witnessing a traumatic event. Evaluation The case study only investigated memary for one central trait. The eyewitnesses used in this archival study were pat of a subgroup and they are not representative ofall the eyewitnesses, There might have been bias in the interrogations ‘towards coniavion ofa preexisting belie! ofthe intact ship. Ie is not possible to determine if postevent information could have iniluenced the testimony, The sample was small and it was not possible to interview the eyewitnesses for clatification because they were all dead at that time, It was not possible to measure the perosived trauma either, In spite ofthese methodological limitations, this case study contiibutes to our knowledge about the accuracy of eyewitness testimony from people who witnessed a waumatic event in real ile Riniolo. TC, Koledin M,Drakulic, GMA, and Payne, RA, (2008), Journal of General Pythology, 130 1} 89-88, a one. of the studies dealing with mernory in realli You may also ute Bart (472) fom unit 32. You need 2 mu of foetus a ren you cul chooks a experiential ty and 3 1 7 | Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes = The use of advanced technology in research on cognitive processes provides insight into the complexity ofthe activity of the brain's neuronal networkin cognitive processes that underpin behaviour Cognition atways involves neuronal activity inthe brain. Modern technology, eg, EEG (electoencephalograpiy) and MII functional magnetic resonance imaging), can be used to study cognitive processes while they are taking place (eg. in traditional cogritive research on memory but also in research on neruroeconomics and reuromarketing). 1» Neuroimaging, such as AMR, can register changes in blood flowin the active brain (oxygen and glucose consumption in the brain). The researchers can then make a map of areas in the brain related to speciic cognitive processes. 1» Neuroimaging has revealed that cognitive processes are mediated by a network of distributed interacting brain regions and each area makes speciic contributions.3 Cognitive level of analysis EEG and MEG EEG (Electoencephalography) refs to the recording ofthe brain's electrical signals, i. the fring ofthe many neurons in the cortex ofthe brain, Hlectades are placed on the scalp to register what pats of the brain are active arid in what ways. EEG can be used to record electrical activity for research purposes (eg. which areas are active when a cild listens to its mother’ voice) (MEG (magnetoencephalography] is a technique used to record ‘magnetic fields produced by the natural electrical activity in the brain Palva et al, (2010) Working memory ‘Aim To investigate the interaction of neuronal neoworks in the | cerebral cortex in relation to visual working memory. Procedure Data ‘rom EEG and MEG was used to idencfy pattems of interaction beoween the neurons (neuronal syrichrony) in che cerebral cortex during visual tasks. Results The results showed synchronization of neuronal activity in different brain areas related to the maintenance and contents of wotking memory. Specific networks interacted (eg. diferent areas of the brain’ frontal and parietal lobes played a certal role in coordinating attention and action in working memory). Handling and maintaining sensory information tout visual stimuli showed activity in networks inthe occipital lobe Evaluation The findings support Baddeley’ model of working memory (eg. the central executive could be linked to the activity = inthe frontal and parietal lobes), The activity in the networks in ‘the occipital lobe could be linked tothe visuospatial sketchpad (see more on the working memory model in unit 3.3). The neuroimaging technologies used were important co detect specific brain areas involved in cognitive processing, This could not be done othervise Phonological laop temporal lobes ofthe Taft hemisphere Visuospatial memory Cental exeative — ‘ight hemisphere dorsolateral prefron corer MRI MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) produces threedimensional images of brain stuctures. tis used to detect structural changes in the brain in cases of brain damage or illness. = HIM. suffered fom amnesia and was notable to form new explicit memories This case study demonstrated that explicit memory processes are dependent on the hippocampus and adjacent conical suuctures, but the exact damage to H.'s brain was not known before researchers could use brain imaging, = Corkin et al. (1997) used MARI to study H.M'S lesion in the fist attempt to use modern technology to study his brain = The esults ofthe MRI scan confirmed a relationship betwaen damage to the medial temporal lobes (including the hippocampus) and H M's armnesia. Although a tiny part cof te hippocampus remained it was nt enough to support normal memory function, ‘Strengths of using modern technology Limitations of of using modern technology "= Itprovides the opportunity to see inside the working brain as it operates by mapoing active brain areas. itis also possible ro see synchronization between various brain areas involved in cognitive processes ‘= itis useful in diagnosing bran disease or damage that ‘uses problems in cognitive functioning (Tor example memory problems in Alzheimer's) "Scanning takes place in a highly artificial environment and Some scanners ate extremely noisy. Ths affects ecological validity. Scanner studies can map brain areas involved in various cognitive processes but it snot yet possible to say anything definite about what these pictures actually mean. 2930 To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? = Damasio (2000) Emotions are physiological signals asa reaction to external stimul,and felngs (consccus interpretation ofthe emotion) aise when the brain interprets the stil 1 Theemotion “fear isa useful survival mechanism asi allows anima and humans) to tact quickly to any possible sign of danger by stating the “ight or fight” reaction, Inhurrans, cognitive factors such as appraisal ‘may help to modulate physiclogical and psychological reactions to stimuli = Emotional arousal is a form of suess that activates the stress hormones adrenaline and consol. This is @ useful survival mechanism, Mernory ofa erful experience is stored in te cortex (explicit memo) and the ertional ‘memory ofthe experience is stored va the anyadala (implicit memory. Norrally hurrans can conto rational Fear reactions but nt always, and in sore cases fear ‘may be elicited without conscious contol as in panic attacks = Aniety phobia, panic disorders, and PTSD in humans indicate a malfunction inthe brain's ability to conrl fear reactions. Humans with damage to the amygdala do not experience fear in dangerous situations and tis ray endanger survval Brain, memory, and emotion 1 Investigations into the tole of emotion on explicit memory have focused primarily on the imteracion ofthe amygdala (specialized forthe processing of emotion) and the hippocampus (necessary for semantic and episodic memory) = Phelps (2004) suggests tat in emotional situations the amygdala can modulate memory encoding and storage of explicit memories (hipoocampal dependent remeries) So that emotional evens receive priority. Amyidaia Hippdcamous LeDoux's theory of the emotional brain (1999) Humans emotional reactions are flexible due to evolution. Learning to detect and respond to danger is importa for survival (eg. an instant response is needed in dangerous situations), Humans have aso evolved “emotional eng’ ile. aconscious experience ofthe emotion wich hes 0 eraate the level of danger before a response LeDoun’s two pathways of emotions in the brain h ‘Sensory cortex t > -_— p long route c a m ? a short route 5 eo < ‘emotional stimulus 1. The short route The amygdala reacts immediately to sensory input and activates response systems (eg. the physiological stress response “ight or light") This is very useful inthe case of immediate danger where a quick reaction can make the difference between lfe and death. 2. The long route The sensory input goes via the sensory om to the hippocampus. This route involves evaluation ‘of the stimulus and consideration of an appropriate response. This could link to the concept “cognitive appraisal” (Lazarus, 1975). Easterbrook (1959) Cue utilization theory (central traits and peripheral traits) 2 Thetheory predicts that in situations with high levels of emotanal arousal, people wil tendo pay mere ateron te and encode deals of the emotion arousing stimulus {central details) and rot pay attention to details that are rot centzal to the emotional arousal (peripheral details) ‘ee Riniolo et al. (2003) on memory for cental tats in 2 ‘traumatic event (The Titanics final plunge) in unit 38,3 Cognitive level of analysis Lazarus (1975) Appraisal theory According to appraisal theory, cognitive factors can modulate stress responses, ie. che physiolegical and psychological reactions involved in the experience. Appraisal can be seen as an evaluation ofa situation, including evaluation of ‘one's psychological and material resources to cope with the sressful event Speisman et al, (1964) Experimental manipulation of emotions through cognitive appraisal ‘Aim To investigate the exten-to which manipulation of cognitive appraisal could influence ertional experience Procedure In this laboratory experiment participants saw anxietyevoking films (eg. film oF an aboriginal initiation ceremony whee adolescent boys were subjected to unpleasant genital cutting) = This im was shown with thre diferent soundtracks intended tormanipulate emotional reactions. The “trauma condition” had a soundtrack with emphasis on the mutilation and pain; the “inelectualization condition” had a soundtrack that gave ‘an anthropological interpretation of the initiation ceremony, ‘the “denial condition’ showed the adolescents as being willing and happy in the ceemony ‘= During each viewing ofthe il various objective physiological rmeasutes were taken, such as heat rave and galvanic skin response, Results The participants in the *raumna condition” showed much higher physiological measures of stess than the participant in the two other conditions. The resus suppor the appraisal theory im thac the manipulation ofthe participants’ cogitive appraisal di have a sigheant impact on te physiological ses reactions ‘The participants inthe trauma condition” reacted more emotionally. Evaluation This was a laboratory experirent with rigorous contol so it may lack ecological validity, but research on the role oF appraisal in realif emotional events tends to ind the same relationship as laboratory reserch The study could be @ demonstration of how biological and cognitive factors interact in emotion andi illustrates LeDoux's theory oft two pathways in ertional processing, ‘Summary of the interaction of emotion and cognition Cognitive and biological Factors do, co large exten, interact in emotion, but in cmplex ways that ae not yet well known Emotions may influence cognitive processes such as mer ory, and cognitive processes such as appraisal may influence errotions, bu ite i known about the exact workings ofthe physiological conelates of emotion ‘The influence is often bidirectional and this has been explored within health and abnormal psychology. = Neuroimaging investigations of emotion have identified ateas in the preftonta lobes associated with active ‘reappraisal of the emotional importance of events (Ochsner and Gross, 2008). Ths indicates tat itis possible to regulate negative emotions via appraisal, 3132 3 9 Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process Brown and Kulik (1977) The theory of flashbulb memory (FM) 1» Fashbulb memories are a type of episodic memory (explicit memory. leis assured that they ae highly resistant to forgetting, ie. the details ofthe mesory wil remain intact ‘and accurate because ofthe emotional arousal at the moment of encoding. This is controversial = FM.can be defined as a highly accurate and exceptionally Vivid memory of the moment a person first hears about a shocking event. 1» The *fashbulb indicates thatthe event willbe registered like 2 photograph, ie. it will be accurate in detail ‘= Brown and Kulik suggested that IM is often rehearsed because itis important or emotionally salient to the individual and this makes the memory rore accessible and vividly remembered over time ‘According to the theory, there ae sic important festues about FM that people remember in deta: 1 place (ie. where they vere when te incident happened) © ongoing activity (ie. what they were doing) * informant ie. how they leames about the incident) coum affect (ie how they fle ther emotional status or affea) other affect (1. how other people fl) ‘= aftemath (ie impotance ofthe event - the consequences). r Brown and Kulik (1977) Research on FM ‘Aim To investigate whether shocking events are recalled ‘more vividly and accurately than other avets. Procedure Questionnaites asked 80 participants to recall ieurrscances where they had leaned of shocking evens Results 1 The participants had vivid memories of where they vere, what they did and what they fet when they rst heard about a shocking public event such asthe assassination of John F Kennedy. = The participants also said they had lashbullb merrries of shocking personal events suchas the sudden death of arlatve The sults indicated that FM is mre likely fr tnexpected and personally elevant events. The researchers suggested ‘the photographic model of fleshbulb memory’ Brown and Kulik suggest that FM is caused by the physiological emotional arousal ea, actvcy in the amygdala) Evaluation The reliance on retrospective data questions the reliably oF his study. People tend to imcerpret an event fiom ther curen perspective Research indicates that although an Fit is errotionally vivid itis not necessary accurate in regard to details. The phocographic rode of FM hasbeen challenged, Neisser (1982) is citical towards the ea of ashbulb memories, a5 cettain memories are very vivid because they are rehearsed and discussed ater the event. Neisser and Harsch (1992) did areal ife study on people's memory ofthe Challenger disaster. The first data were collected less than 24 hours after the event and the same participants ‘were tested to and a half years later. Most participants did not remember anything correctly but were very confident that they did Neisser and Harsch (1992) Testing the FM theory ‘Aim To test the theory of flashbulb memory by imestigating the extent vo which memory for a shocking event (the Challenger disaster) would be accurate after a petiod of time Procedure = 106 students in an introductory psychology class were Given 2 questionnaire and asked to write a description of hhow they had heard the news. They also had to answer ‘seven question related to where they were, what they were doing, etc, and what emotional feelings they experienced athe time of the event = Participants answered the questionnaires less than 24 hours after the disaster. ‘= Two and a half years later, 44 ofthe original students answered the questionnaire again. This tive they were also asked to rate how con‘ident thay were of the accuracy of their memory on a scale from 1 to 5.The participants were also asked if they had filled out a questionnaire of the subject before = Sorratime after the last questionnaites, the researchers performed a semistructured inteniew to test whether the participants could remember what they had weitten previously. Participants then saw ther original reports from ‘the frst questionnaire3 Cognitive level of analysis © resus nly 17 participants out ofthe 44 remembered that they had filled out the questionnaire before, “There were major discrepancies between the original questionnaire and the followup two and a halt years later. ‘The mean score of correctness of recall of the seven questions ‘was 2.95 out of 7. For 11 participants the score was 0, and 22 scored 2 or lss. The average level of confidence in accuracy for the questions was 4.17. ‘The resis challenge the predictions of the FM theory and also {question the reliability of memory in general. Participants were confident that they remembered the event corectly both times and they could not explain the discrepancies between ‘the frst and second accounts Evaluation © The study vas conducted in a natural environment and it kas higher ecological validity than laboratory experiments on memory. The participants were psychology students who participated for course credits and they may not be representative. = The degree of emotional arousal when witnessing a shocking public event may be different rom experiencing a traurvatic ‘event in your own personal life, and the importance of the ‘events ray be vet different. This could influence how well people remember a cerain event, per ed ‘= The theory can, to some extent, explain why very ‘emotional memories are often more vividly remembered ‘over time, but it cannot explain why these memories are ‘often no more accurate than any other memory (except pettgps for some central details). "= The theory has generated many research studies and the ‘theory has been modified. The idea that emotional events are better remembered than nonemotional events is supported, but modified with the idea that the event should have specific personal relevance. ‘= “Flashbulb* refers tothe flashbulb used in photography, but the name may not be wellchosen as the photograph ‘taken with atlashbulb preserves everything in the scene as it was at the time the picture was taken, = An FM isa “reconstructed memory" where the emotional importance ofthe event may inluance the way the memory is reconstructed ~ particularly if it is discussed with other people overtime (confabulation) or ifthe memory does not have particular personal relevance 33