CRITICAL THINKING ABILITY, DOGMATISM, AMBIGUITY TOLERANCE AND BELIEF IN THE PARANORMAL by Michael James Nanko, Ph.D. Previous resarch has suggested that individuals who ‘endorse paranormal and psi beliefs do so because of fallibilicy of reasoning, impaired judgment, lowered understanding of causality, and/or other cognitive inadequacies. Believers in the paranormal have also been represented as possessing fewer favorable personality and cognitive traits than skeptics. Believers (scoring in the highest quartile of the belief scale) were predicted to score lower than Skeptics (scoring in the lowest quartile) on the attribute variables. The present study pred ea that those who endorse psi phenomna only, concomitant with low endorsement of other paranormal phenomena (Psi-only Believers group), would not ditter from skeptics on the attribute variables‘one other purpose of this study was to improve upon an exiting paranormal belief scale, and to apply it to the study of possible differences between Believers and Skeptice. The scale categorizes the paranormal subject matter into eight relatively different and meaningful subscales. The test-retest reliability coefficient of the Extended Paranormal Bellet Scale was .90 ‘The hundred and twenty-five subject: from age 19 to 77, completed a series of tests and questionnaires. As predicted there were no significant differences between Psi-only Believers and Skeptics on the three attribute variables. Contrary to prediction, however, there was no significant difference on the three attribute variables between those wiv endorse more global aspects of the paranormal (Believers) and skeptics "Personal experience" was reported as the most compelling source for belief in the paranormal. Report of a personal psychic experience was strongly associated with higher levels of paranormal belief. Religious affiliation was not predictive of higher levels of paranormal belief: Religiosity, on the other hand, was so associated Females in this study were no more likely to endorse paranormal beliefe than were males: increased ace correlated positively with higher levels of endorsement ofparanormal belief; level of formal education and college major were not related to level of endorsement of paranormal beliefs. For this sample of subjects psi-only belier and general p. normal belief did not reflect lowered critical thinking ability, ambiguity tolerance or higher dognatien as compared with Skeptics. Some tentative theoretical interpretations are offered along with suggestions for future research.© 1986 MICHAEL JAMES NANKO ALL RIGHTS RESERVED‘The empiricist thinks he believes only what he sees - but he ig much better at believing than seeing G. SantayanaTABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIst OF TABLES 22... ee See chapter A. INTRODUCTION. ©. 2-22... - ee 1 Background of the Problem... 2... ‘ Statement of the Problem... .....-.. 9 Purpose of the stuay ee poooo fH Theoretical Framework»... 2. ee 1M Research Hypotheses... 2. 7 2) 22 Importance of the study... 2. 2 25 Scope of the study... 2.2 ee 28 Definitions . . e0gc0000c 1 oa 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. © 2-22.22... 37 Incidence of Paranormal Beliefs... ..... 39 Personality, Psychopathology. Psychotherapeutics and Paranormal Beliefs ee 53 General Context of Relief in Paranormal . . 62 The Psychology of Belief... . .. ce 89 Sources of Belief . 1m Explanation... - 2-2 ee eee ee ee BL Nominal Fallacy... +--+. eee 8s Representativeness Fallacy... . . « eon Probabilistic Thinking... 2... +... 942 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE (continued) Coincidences and Oddmatches . . . . « Tllusion of Cluster: Dogmatism: The Open and Closed Mind. . Belief and Disbelief syetem . . . . Measure of Dognatism. Dognatism and Belief/Disbelief in Pei Phenomena and the Nonpei Paranormal. . . Ambiguity Tolerance critical Thinking and Paranormal Belief Personal Experience ané Reliefs... + Demographics. - . summary 0 MeTHopoLogy . 2... Research Design Subjects... 1... Instrumentation... Extended Paranormal MacDonald ambiguity Seale AT-20.. Paranormal Belief scale. . ‘Tolerance Page 103 aio uz az 120 1s 136 aaa 1s2 169 an an aa Ws 176TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page 3. METHODOLOGY (continued) Dogmatism Scale... 2-2-7 es 188 Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking appraisal. 2 ee eee ee ee 192 Investigator Questionnaires... ... . 200 Research Procedures. 2-2-2. 2 202 Data Analysis. 2-2 2 ee ee ee 203 Limitations ©... ee ee eee 205 FINDINGS... . . aor) Pai-only Hypotheses ©. 2-2-2 2 2 2 207 Hypotheses Comparing High and Low Endorsers. ee + 20 Secondary and Demographics Hypotheses . . - - - 212 CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH... ee 226 Sunnary eee ea ee 226 conclusions 2... ee -- 230 Primacy Hypotheses... . cee 230 Secondary and Denographic Hypotheses. . - - - 235 Discussion. bee 2a9 Suggestions for Future Research : 262 ix‘TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page NOTES. . ae ee ce REFERENCES © ee ee ee OTR APPENDICES . eae - 298 A. Cover Letter/appeal to subjects... . 1. . 295 B. Tobacyk and Milford Paranormal Seale. . . . . 296 ¢. Tobacyk and Milford Factor Loadings for each of the Seven Factors... .... 298 Correlations among the Tobacyk and Milford Seven Paranormal subscales... . . 299 E. Extended Paranormal Belief scale 1 300 F. MacDonald ambiguity Tolerance scale... . . 302 G. Short-form Dogmatism Scale... - ~~. . 308 HH. Percentile Scores/Norme for Critical ‘Thinking appraisal... . 2... +++ 310 1. Critical Thinking Appraisal: Correlations with Otner Tests... --- 311 3. critical Thinking Appraisal . pees 7 K. Investigator Questionnaires: Secondary and Demographic Variables . 313 L. Correlational Matrix for CTA, AT-20, Dogmatisa, and the EPAS with all Subscales.. . . . . ‘316 odamatch of Precognition? (Qh Personal Anecdote) erLIST OF TABLES Table Page Summary of Means, Standard Deviations for Hypotheses 1, 2,-3.2... -- 209 summary of Means, Standard Deviations for Hypotheses 4, 5, 6... . ee mL 3.(a) Source of Belief... 1... - a3 3.(b) Source of Belief... 22.22. ----- 213 Religious Affiliation and Paranormal Belief... .-.-..-+ ++ 215 Religiosity and Paranormal Belief 216 ‘Sex and Paranormal Belief... 2.2... - 218 Educational Level and Paranormal Belief . . 220 College Major and Paranormal Belief zar 9. Personal Psychic Experience and Paranormal Belief, ; . 222 10.‘ EPBS and Tobacyk and Miltora Paranormal Seale and Subscale Means. . i 224CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Several research studies have noted the high incidence and apparent increase in paranormal beliefs in the general population (Abell and Singer, 1981; Ayerof and Abelson, 1976; and Truzzi, 1971), Further, the increase in endorsement of paranormal beliefs can also be evidenced further when one studies the quantity of academic journals that publish articles and studies on tne paranormal. After several decades of treating this topic as taboo (murphy, 1957), many psychologists have begun to think that it is appropriate to study psi phenomena--topics such ae telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and retrocognition--as well as states of consiciousness presumed to be associated with putative psi ability. There is a need to illuminate what is considered paranormal. For the most part, the terms superstitious, occult, paranormal, psychic, and the extraordinary, have, unfortunately, been used interchangeably throughout the social psychological literature to represent the general belief category called paranormal. For the purposes ofthe present study, the terms will not be used interchangeably and an important distinction will be made between psi phenomena and the other aspects of what is considered paranormal. The "paranormal" will be used to represent a global category (inclusive of all the following): psi phenomena, psychic, occult, superstitions, extraordinary life forms, witencratt, aspects of traditional religious beliefs, and other similar beliefs. Although psi phenomena is included as an aspect of the paranormal, it will be considered separately for some of the comparisons made in this stuay. Pai Phenomena include the ostensible abilities and experiences of telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and psychokinesis. Psi phenomena are studied under che domain of parapsychology proper. Psi is considered a more "reasonable" category of study, even by a large number of academically-based skeptics. However, psi phenomena. which are studied scientifically by parapsychologists, are quite often associated through 2 negative halo effect with the more improbable and untestable alleged phenomena or events, like that of witchcraft, spirit possession, UFOs and lycanthropy (werewolves, vampires, etc.). Indeed, the field of parapsychology has, as part of its history. an association with the occult, and some of its current professionals still study the controversial question of hunan survival after death, as well as other events thatcannot be empirically verified. However, many knowledgeable scientists (skeptics and believers alike) who have made the effort to study the Literature, understand that psi research, for the most part, is performed as science typically is conducted. at least this is the case for academic parapsychology. ‘This study will distinguish between psi beliefs and the more global category of general paranormal beliefs. For the remainder of this chapter, the background on the incidence and prevalence of paranormal beliefs are presented. ‘This is followed by an elucidation of the statement of the research problem and purpose of the study. A theoretical discussion of each of the major and minor variables used in the etudy is then followed by the hypotheses that are to be tested. ‘This study is designed to test the relationships between three cognitive attcibute variables (critical thinking. dogmation. and ambiguity tolerance) with two criterion variables global paranormal belief, and the other, belief in pat phenomena. Several secondary and denographic variables are also explored and are discussed more fully in the theoretical section. Finally, the chapter ends with a Aiscussion on the importance and scope of the study.Backaround In the discussion to follow the context from which the present study emerged will be described. Most of the studies related to belief in the paranormal have come out of the field of parapsychology proper (Krippner, 1982; Wolman, 1977). For the most part. research into the variable of belief has been included in experiments of ostensible psi functioning. such research id not focus on how and why people cone to believe, or differences in attributes between believers and skeptics, rather, they targeted how attitudes and beliefs toward psi were predictive of the subjects performance on an ESP or psychokinesis task. there has been almost no limit to the variety of factors studied with regard to possibie influences on psi performance A plethora of cognitive variables have been studied in this cegara: intelligence, subliminal perception. concentration, memory, analytical thinking, and inagery ability (see Palmer, 1982). Physiological predictors such as EEG, hemispheric specialization, skin conductance and temperature have also been used, with mixed results (Palmer, 1979) (see Wote 1). Personality aspects have been explored in search of the reliable and high scoring psychic subject. studies have looked at everything from anxiety (Kanthamani and Rao, 1973; Nielsen and Preman, 1965) to depersonaliz:(Oliman, 1977), epilepsy (Eisenbud, 1977), psychoses, such as paranoid schizophrenia (Alberti, 1974) and the values one holds (Collymore, 1978) as they relate to possible psi functioning. Some of the more systematic attempts to find reliabl personality correlates have been in the study of neuroticism and ESP. The Defense Mechanism Test (Kragh, 1960) and Cattell's 16PF (Cattell, 1965) have been used fairly extensively in the parapsychology literature. Another variable that has received considerable attention in parapsychological research 8 extraversion. which is a major factor in the conceptual systems of both cattel (1965) ana Eysenck (1960) Several studies have demonstrated patterns of correlations between ESP and measures of neuroticism and extzaverelon, however, there have also been significant reversals of such findings (Haight, Kanthamani and Kennedy, 1978). Unless mediating variables can be specified, such reversals lessen the confidence one can place in the validity of such relationships. tn any case, these studies have produced little insight on the research problem of potential differences between nonbelievers and believers in psi ané the general paranornal. overall, the most reliable finding that has surtaced in the enormous body of psi literature is that of the “eheep-goat" effect (Schmeidler and McConnell, 1973) "Sheep" is the tera given to those who endorse peychic andrelated phenomena, “goats" represent those who do not endorse such beliefs, There is also sone evidence, albeit less reliable, that subjects who report confidence or ungualified certainty that their own scores will be high because of their purported psi ability ("supersheep") will have unpredictable, highly variable scores (Belofe and Bate, 1970) (see Note 2 for more information on the Sheep-Goat effect). ‘The eriteria used for classifying subjects as sheep or goats have differed somewhat, but they all have as their common denominator the presence or absence of belief in the occurrence of exteasensory perception, either as a theoretical possibility or an established fact, with or without supposed personal experience of similar phenomena. Quite apart from the reported differential psi performance of sheep and goats, this present investigation is interested in what personality and cognitive characteristics, if any, distinguish the believers (the sheep) from the nonbelievers (the goats). ‘The sheep-goat picture thus far is not a very well-focused one. The findings are either one-time discoveries that are in need of replication, or, even if established, are not easily integrated with one another one of the major problens with this line of research may be the classification system for what is defined as a belief in the paranormal or pei phenomena. The definitionquite often diftecs with the investigator's idiosyncratic perceptions ana beliefs about the phenomena that comprise psi and the nonpsi paranormal ‘There is a less flattering view of the believer in the paranormal that pervades in the literature, one that is not always empirically based and which may be the result of stereotypic perceptions. Unfortunately, there are only a few select skeptics who have taken the time to review the legitimate claims of the paranormal and have systematically attempted to study the subject matter. In fact, the extremely skeptical community has decided to confront and dispell such beliefs wherever they are tound (Note 3). However, the skeptical conmunity has also suffered from fraud and misrepresentation in their own ranks related to their armed attacks at the believers and the researchers of the paranormal (Rawlings, 1981-62). ‘his may reflect on the threat that some skeptical menbers perceive from the community of believers, the so-called "occult" movement, from the pervasiveness of paranormal be fe and from the continued inflitration of psi research in academic circles. there is also the general unwillingness to remain open-minded about claims that are presented by serious and qualified investigators of the paranormal. Some skeptics fall prey to the same unfavorable traits of dogmatic thinking and lowered tolerance for ambiguity they assign to the believers inthe paranormal. Sone of these attitudes represent an example of why some skeptical inguirers may lump all of the aspects and phenomena of the paranormal (superstitiousness, magical thinking, belief in reincarnation, ete.) together under one umbrella. Furthermore, this may explain why many arguments against pei phenomena and the paranormal use such techniques as: false categorization, personal defamation, group derogation, unsubstantiated allegations, contradictions, nonsequiturs. rumor ané innuendo, and appeals to authority, often falling subject to the “true believer mentality they criticize in the believers (Rockwell, Rockwell and Rockwell, 1978). the probiem of understanding a delier systen is \gly complex. From the Gallup polls (Gatlup and Proctor, 1982) to the psychological, soctological and parapsychological investigations of belief, one can conclude that paranormal beliefs are widespread. However, the understanding of the psychological factors involved in the development of such beliefs are as yet undiscovered for the most part. Are believers gullible, as many skeptics contend? Do they suffer from irrational, rigid, and less intelligent thinking? Are they dogmatic in their beliefs and attitudes? Are those who believe in the paranormal less logical, analytical and generally poorer at critical thinking?Statement the Problem ‘The primary research problem involves the study of aieeerences between believers in psi phenomena and believers in the more global aspects of the paranormal with skeptics on the cognitive and personality attributes of critical thinking, dognatism and ambiguity tolerance. Scores of studies have endeavored to delineate a variable here and there. however, very few studies have aspired to employ a logical and fairly comprehensive constellation of measures to gain insight into the personality, orientations, preferences, and cognitive attributes of those who believe in the paranormal or psi phenomena only. ‘There ace two basic approaches that have been implemented to research perancrmel beliefs 1) Parapsychology proper has studied how belief was related to performance on some particular psi task, be it telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition or psychokinesis. ‘The purpose of such research was to attain some correlation between belief and performance scores on an ostensible psi task, whether or not the performance scores were indicative of psi functioning (Palmer, 1982). Belief has also been investigated for its relationship to personal psychic and/or paranormal experiences (Aicock, ise. Ayeroff and Abelson, 1976; Irwin, 1985; otis and Alcock. 1962; and Schouten, 1983). 2) The nonparapsychological literature has basically studiedparanormal beliefs from the perspective of uncovering relationships between belief an possible personality and cognitive inadequacies (Alcock, 1961: Kahnenan and tversky, 1975; Singer ané Benassi, 1981; Tobacyk, 1982). In very general terms, previous reserach has suggested that individuals who endorse paranormal and psi beliefs ao 80 because of some maladjustment of personality, fallibitity of reasoning, impaired judgment, lowered understanding of causality and other cognitive deficits or inadequacies. Believers in the paranormal have been found to possess less tavorable personality and cognitive attributes and skills than skeptics (Alcock and otis, 1980, etc.). However, this unflattering view of the believer does not always hold up (Jones, et al., 1977) ‘his line of research has not been eystematic or process-oriented. one major flaw in the study of belief with other variables has been the inconsistent application of what constitutes the paranormal. Most beliefs scales or surveys are not empirically derived and are idiosyncratic to the perceptions of the investigator. The problem remains to study paranormal belief with logically consistent cognitive attributes usng an empirically-based scale. crucial to the present stuay is the need to categorize those who believe in psi phenomena only (concomitantly not endorsing the nonpei paranormal), into a separate subject. 10group for comparison with skeptics. This group is termed the Psi-only Believers. This is a unigue strategy for studying the problem of possible differences between believers and skeptics on specific phenomena and on various attributes. Psi belief is a subcategory or aspect of the paranormal, which has been subject to much more scientific research and theory-building than the nonpsi paranormal. ‘The acceptance of pei is more pervasive in the general population, and in the scientific community than are other aspects of the paranormal. Tt is generally considered to be a more testable, falsifiable and reasonable phenonena than other phenomena which comprise the paranormal ‘The research problem also entails the consensual replication of previous research which has demonstrated that believers in the larger aspects of the paranormal do not fare ag well as skeptics on cognitive attributes and abilities (Alcock and Otis, 1980; Kahneman and Tversky, 1975: Tobacyk and Milford, 1983). The present study suggests several research questions: Who believes in the paranormal? Do those who endorse the paranormal differ in any way from those who do not? Since science tends to reject a priori the shenonena agsociated with the paranormal and the parapsychological, why do some still believe? ts there a deficit in logical reasoning or critical thinking ability that predisposessome people to believe in paranormal phenomena and/or interpret certain events as paranormal? Ace people wo tend toward authoritarian personality and dogmatism more Likely to develop beliefs regarding the paranornal? Professional researchers on both sides of the issue have been accused of dogmatic approaches to the question of psi phenomena (Alcock and Otis, 1980). Are people with 2 lowered tolerance for ambiguity about their world nore Likely to develop paranormal beliefs than those who have a high tolerance for ambiguity? Are those who endorse the paranormal less tolerant of ambiguity? Is this type of thinker, who is intolerant of ambiguity. more rigidly skeptical about the possibility of paranormal phenomena, or, are they as skeptics intolerant of what they might perceive as ridiculous and harmful to science and society? Furthermore, what are the demographic differences between those who believe and those who do not? Is belief related to education levels, certain religious beliets or to gender? These are some of the research questions that were extracted fron the literature about belief in the paranormal urpose of the study he major purposes of this etudy are twofold: First, to investigate whether those who endorse only psi beliefs az(concomitantly not endorsing the nonpsi paranormal) ditter from skeptics on the cognitive attributes of critical thinking, dogmatism and ambiguity tolerance. Second, to investigate whether those who endorse high levels of paranormal beliefs differ from skeptics on the sane It has been reported in the literature that believers in the paranormal are closed minded. have a strong need for certainty. are lacking in critical thinking ability. and possess a number of other less praiseworthy traits and abilities (Abell and Singer, 1981; Alcock, 1981; Aicock and otis. 2 Marks and Kammann, 1980). However, the research results cited above have not produced conclusive evidence that believers in the paranormal are less intelligent and less well-adjusted, and there is no precedence for comparing Psi-Only Believers with Skeptics. Perhaps the problem is that a definitive result, experimentally sound, and clearly derived, has not been obtained. The choice of measuring instruments or experimental tests may be one reason: a delineation of hypotheses that clearly distinguish the basic relationships possible, may be another. Another purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationship between the variables of self-reported ostensibly psychical experiences with belief in the paranormal, It was also important to study belief for any aacovariations with age, sex, religion, and with educational level and training as these latter areas of investigation have yielded inconsistent results. one final and crucial purpose was to develop a more up to date, logically consistent, and meaningful paranormal belief scale and employ it here to more adequately reflect the multiformity of such beliefs. The paranormal is 2 complex subject matter and the term "paranormal" conjures up a plethora of images and varying conceptions undeniably, there is certainly a need to divide the various phenomena associated with the paranormal and the distribution of the various subject matter into categories which are based on logic and conmon sense. For example. it makes sense to combine together the beliets in telepathy and clairvoyance, but not with belief in space aliens, spirit possession of humans, and astrology. Belief in Big Foot and the Loch Ness monster, perhaps, belong together. but not in the same category with belief in astral travel. Theoretical Framework ‘This section will begin with a presentation of the three predictor cognitive variables of dognatism, ambiguity tolerance, and critical thinking. ‘The deecription of the cognitive attribute variables will be followed by discussion of the secondary and demographic aavariables. Bach variable is presented in context with the problem of paranormal beliefs. A more detailed explication of each variable is supplied in chapter Two. DOGMATISM: The Open and Closed Mind Dognatism is a total cognitive configuration of ideas and beliefs organized into a relatively closed system. Tt is a cognitive system mostly resistant to change, not just of single beliefs (or sets of habits) but to change of systems of belief. To the extent a person is said to be characteristically dogmatic or “closed in her thinking, the preservation of her total system will be at stake rather than the preservation of just a particular belief within this system. In his thorough study of dogmatism. Rokeach (1960) found that an important characteristic of a belief or Aisbelief system is the degree to which it is "open" or Losed Basically, a system is open if the individual can take in, evaluate, and act upon relevant information from the environment on its own intrinsic merits. That includes attending, evaluating, and acting upon information without being influenced by irrelevant internal and external factors. These internal factors, for example, can be sinple habits or even primitive beliete. 15For the purpose of the present study, dogmatism. closed-mindedness, or cognitive closedness is expected to be related to belief in the paranormal. This prediction is made on the basis of previous research conducted by Alcock and Otis (1980), However, on the basis of the assumptions of the present investigator. individuals who endorse onty psi beliefs (somewhat scientifically substantiated, and more * easonable* and socially supported beliefs), and do not endorse any other aspects of the nonpei paranormal, are not expected to differ on the measure dogmatism when compared to skeptics. ambiguity Tolerance Budner (1962) nas detined intolerance of ambiguity as “the tendency to perceive ambiguous situations as sources of threat." Tolerance for ambiguity may be defined as the “tendency to perceive ambiguous situations as desirable.” The scales that have been developed on this subject measure the extent to which individuals can tolerate ambiguity in a variety of aspects of life, from social situations to chance events and general problem solving. An ambiguous situation may be defined as one that cannot be adequately structured or categorized by the individual due to a lack of sufficient cues. Individuals who are intolerant of ambiguity desire immediate “answers” and they tend to perceive issues in terms of black and white: 16few positions are held in the middle. For example, you are either for gun control or you are against it. while the person who can tolerate ambiguity might be willing to accept that the unlocalized strange noises in the house are simply strange noises (i.e., there is no explanation readily available for it, although it might be one of a number of things), a person intolerant of ambiguity may see things differently. Perhaps an individual intolerant of ambiguity, who also holds a belief in some aspect of the paranormal, may be more ready to believe. for instance, that the noises derive from 2 poltergeist, or that there is the involvement of a discarnate entity (haunting), rather than remain in a state of suspended Judgment of ignorant of its cause, Many people have difficulty dealing with ambiguous and novel situations such as coincidence and other personal events that are often interpreted in superstitious ways Ie is therefore predicted that individuals who have already developed a strong belief in the paranormal would demonstrate more intolerance for ambiguity than nonbelievers. It is also predicted that those who endorse only psi phenomena, and do not endorse the nonpsi paranormal (the Psi-Only Believers), will not differ from skeptics on the measure of ambiguity tolerance. aycritical Thinking Alcock (1980:479) reasoned “it is possible rhae those students who believe in the paranormal are less capable of detecting flaws (in thinking). Believers and skeptics often accuse each other of being less capable thinkers as well as being overly dogmatic in their belief, to the extent that they cannot fairly evaluate evidence which runs to the contrary. Believers in the paranormal have also been labeled as credulous, gullible, uncritical: and sufferers of illusions, delusions and fallible judgment. At least one research project has found that skeptics demonstrated a significantly higher level of critical thinking ability than aid believers (Alcock and otis. 1980). ‘These investigators found that compared with the published norms of American Liberal arts college freshnen, the skoptic's scores fell at the 65th percentile, while that of believers fel1 only at the 40th, thus placing the skeptics in a mich more favorable light. Thie etuay was Limited by the fact that only 26 subjects were tested and that the belief scale used has little support in the Literature. The present study will explore the relationship between believers in Psi-only and in the general paranormal with skeptics on critical thinking ability as measured by thé Critical thinking Appraisal Scale (Wastson-Glaser, 1964). tn the larger sense, 18critical thinking ability is a composite of attitudes, knowledge and skills. The critical ehinking abilities under study in this investigation include inference making, recognition of assumptions or presuppositions, deductive ability. interpretation of data, and evaluation of arguments. Personal Experience Personal experience is the most frequently offered reason for belief in ESP (Schouten, 1983). From studies by Evans (1973), Ayeroff and Abelson (1976), and McConnell (4977). it appears that many respondents believe that their personal experienc: contributed significantly to their beller. These findings suggest that people base much of their belief on personal experiences. if that is the case. then a positive correlation between these two variables would be expected. The present study will attempt to replicate the positive association between personal experience and belief in the paranormal using a more reliable measure of belief. Another question will look at what is reported by the subject as the most "compelling source" of thei: belie. Tt is predicted that those who endorse paranormal beliefs will more often attribute the "source" of that belief to a personal experience over any other source (e.g., books, classes, the media, otc.) asReligion ‘The relationship between religious affiliation and endorsement of the paranormal is still quite exploratory at this point in time. Therefore, no specific relationship is predicted between these two variables. However, a significant relationship is predicted betweon self-reported level of *religiosity* and paranornat beliefs based on the notion that both religious and paranormal beliefs are quite sinilar. Sone ways in which they are similar include the lack of empirical evidence to justify the belief, and the involvement of magical or extraordinary clains, etc. sex Digterences ‘The preponderance of the studies in belief of the paranormal, have primarily supported the notion that females report nore superstitious belists (Blum and Blum, 1974) and more belief in the supernatural and Pseudoscience than do males (Scheidt, 1973). Haraldsson (1981) also found in two of four studies on belief in psychical phenonena that women tended to score sore as sheeps than goats in both Iceland and in Scotland. Significant sex differences have also been found with regard to belief in the paranormal in the United states (Gallup and Proctor, 1982; Roper, 1974) and in Germany and Sweden (as also reported in Haraldsson, 1981). However, 20this finding has not been consistent across ali samples (sheils and Berg. 1977; Thalbourne, 1961) quite possibly due to the variability in the measures of belief used as well as other subtle factors (e.9., survey setting, experimenter effect) and to not so subtle factors (e.9., cultural factors, educational level). As unpopular a typigication as it may be, fenales in the present stuay are predicted to endorse more paranormal beliefs than are males. education More Americans today have high school diplomas and college degrees than ever before. It is also the case that the incidence of paranormal belicfs has also risen. Im the research literature, more tines than not, an inverse relationship between educational level ana belief im the paranormal holds. There is some indication that scientists are generally more skeptical regarding the Likelinood of paranormal phenomena (Alcock, 1977; Gallup and Proctor, 1982; Otis and Alcock, 1982). However, the most extensive survey of attitudes toward the paranormal was conducted among the readers of a popular English Journal, New Scientist (Evans, 1973) which found a large portion of scientists and technicians with higher degrees possessing favorable attitudes toward psi (67% versus 22% negative). From a common sense point of view, it would 2.seem that the higher the educational level, the lower the incidence of paranormal, superstitious, occult, and extraordinary beliefs in the population. thie study will remain with the general trend that predicts a negative relationship between formal educationai level achieved and endorsement of paranormal beliefs. It is not expected that this same relationship will nol when stuaying the relationship between college major and paranormal beliefs in a general way. It has been suggested that science students are more analytical (Otis ana Alcock. 1992; Za'Rour. 1972), however, evidence from Evans (1973), Jones, et al, (1977) and Otis and Kuo (1984) do not support euch a viewpoint. Research Hypothese: ‘The present study is aimed at the investigation of belief in tne paranormal as a global measure. It also endeavors to study belief in the myriad of subcategories of what has generically been considered paranormal beliofs. They are: ‘Traditional Religious Belief: Pei Beliefs; Witchcraft; Superstition; spiritualism: Extraordinary Life Forns: Precognition: and Miscellaneous Psychic and Occult Beliefs. The global measure of paranormal beliefs and the Psi-only (Psi and Precognition subscales) categorical measures of belief were analyzed for possible differences among the attribute variables of 22critical thinking. dogmatism (open to new ideas versus closed-mingedness or prejudiced thinking) and ambiguity tolerance, or the need for certainty in one's belief world. It is a stated premise in this study that it is possible for some to hold a belief in psi phenomena while not holding a belief in nonpsi paranormal, and that a person holding such a belief system will aot demonstrate the negative qualities of lowered critical thinking, ambiguity intolerance, and cognitive closedness For the predictions made in all hypotheses except 1, IT, and IIT, those constituting the High Endorsecs (Believers) category will be those who score in the upper quartile on the full Extended Paranormal Belief Scale (HPBS). hose eubJects consticuting the Low Engorsers (Skeptics) category for the same comparisons will be representative of those who score in the lowest quartile on the full EPBS. For hypotheses 1, 11, and 111, a Pei-only endorsement (belief) category will be used for comparison with the Skeptics. Psi-only belief is defined by the high endorsement of the Psi and Precognition subscales with a concomitant low endorsement of the nonpsi paranormal (the remaining six subscales). The Low Endorsement (skeptics) category renains the same for hypotheses 1 through 6. Im this study the following primary and secondary hypotheses are to be tested: 23Primary Hypotheses: Hypothesis I: There will be no significant difference between Psi-only Believers and Skeptice on the meacure of critical Thinking Ability Hypothesis II: There will be no signi¢icant aifgerence between those subjects who endorse Psi-only beliefs ana Skeptics on the measure of Dognatisn. Hypothesis ITT: There will be no significant difference between those subjects who endorse Psi-only beliefs and Skeptics on the measure of Ambiguity Tolerance Hypothesis IV: Low Endorsers (Skeptics) will score higher on Critical Thinking Ability than High Endorsers (Believers). nypothesis Vi tow Endorsers (Skeptics) will score ower on Dogmatism than High Endorsers (Believers) Hypothesis VI:' Low Endorsers (Believers) will score higher on Ambiguity Tolerance than High Endocsers (Believers). Secondary and Demographic Hypothes: Hypothesis VI Subjects reporting a “personal experience” as the most compelling source of their beliet in the paranormal will have higher mean EPBS scores than those reporting other sources 24Hypoth is VIII: ‘There will be no significant aiccerences on mean EPBS scores among the categories of religious affiliation Hypothesis Ix: The higher the self-reported religiosity. the higher the level of endorsement of paranormal beliefs on the EPES. Hypothesis X: Females will have higher scores on the EPBS than males. Hypothesis XI: There will be no significant correlation between age and scores on the EPES Hypothesis X11: It is expected that the higher the formal level of education, the lower the level of endorsement of paranormal beliefs as indicated by mean Hypothesis XIII: There will be no relationship between college major and level of endorsement of paranormal beliefs (mean EPBS scores). Hypothesis XIV: Report of personal paranormal experience will be related to higher endorsement of Paranormal beliefs (mean EPBS scores). Importance mais investigation will contribute to the general social, psychological, anthropological and pacapsychological literature on belief in the paranormal. It may also serve to substantiate or to discontirm pevious 25studies which have found widespread belief in the paranormal. This study may also provide insight into some of the psychological processes, cognitive and socionetric relationships associated with belief in the paranormal. A specific contribution is made in the area of whether believers and skeptics differ on the cognitive attributes of critical thinking skills, dogmation, ané ambiguity tolerance. Another important aspect of the present study is that it looks at paranormal beliefs as aultidimensional, as having relatively independent phenomena and belict categories. This perspective provides for a more intelligent view of belief in the paranormal--an approach that should be followed in future investigations of this subject. The separate grouping of Psi-only Believers in the comparisons with Skeptics is an important first nove in this new direction of studying specific endorsonent of paranormal phenomena There are implications of the present study for the educational, psychotherapeutic and mass media contexts as well. Very briefly. evidence for less favorable cognitive abilities for those who endorse paranormal beliefs may suggest that certain efforts are necessary in the formal educational system. There are studies which conclude that the persistence of irrational, unfounded b ets (i.e, paranormal beliefs) can be interpreted as a failure of the 26modern educational system--a system that purports to eliminate erroneous ideas by teaching critical thinking ana logical reasoning skills (otis and Kuo, 1984). ‘the comparisons between belief groups and Skeptics on critical thinking, as well as the findings on the possibie relationships between educational level and college major on level of endorsenent of the paranormal beliefs should be instructive on this area of concern. ‘the field of psychopathology and psychotherapeutics may also benefit from some of the variables explored in the present study. There is substantial evidence, both clinical and experimental, to support the proposition forwarded by Ellis (1962) that adherence to a system of irrational belicfe, 1ike euperetitione and paranormal phenomena, is associated with psychopathology or a proclivity towaré thought disorders. More recently, magical thinking has also been fornally associated with paranormal beliefs and is considered to be a prominent symptom of borderline schizophrenia or schizotypal personality disorder (Spitzer Endicott and Gibbon, 1979). Paranormal beliefs and the high in jence of reported psychic experiences in the population have been systenatically criticized as irrational, superstitious and psychopathological. Therefore, a superior understanding of the relationships between believers and skeptics on reasoning abilities (critical thinking) and related 27cognitive and personality attributes as studied here, may help further clarify this problems. Much more is @iscussed on this issue in Chapter Two. Finally, one of the most useful contributions to be made by the present study to the academic community and to this problem area is the development of the Extended Paranormal Belief Scale which is derived from the enpirically-based scale devised by Tobacyk and Milford (1983). This scale divides paranormal phenomena into eight relatively independent and meaningful subscales Scope of the study The scope and limitations of the present study are outlined in this section. The potential limitations of the present study include the potential problems of selection of subjects and selection of test instruments Due to the many constraints typical of nonfunded research, along with the problem of recruitment and motivation of a volunteer subject base for this study, only a select repertoire of survey and test materials could be employed For this study adults were s yeted over young children or adolescents in order to work with individuals more likely to have established beliefs regarding the subject, and to have some kind of involvement in their beliet 28Also, due to the pervasiveness of belief in the paranormal and the variety of such beliefs, it was also crucial to include subjects who would make up the full spectrum of belief and disbelief, In order to assure that a wide spectrum of believers and nonbelievers were represented in this investigation, an attempt was made to secure subjects from the general membership organization whose focus was on the promotion of the field of the paranormal, and those whose affiliative purpose was to Promote a more skeptical approach to the subject of the paranormal. However, this strategy proved unsuccessful for the most part, and it was, therefore, decided that subjects would be recruited from the general university population. 1t was concluded tnat it would be advantageous to include students of both undergraduate ané graduate status to better assure a lacger range in age ané educational achievement as well as a more likely @ispersion of beliefs regarding the paranormal. Aside from the university population, a random sample of subjects from a group with a demonstrated interest in the paranormal did participate in the stuay. Therefore, one possible limitaion of the study was that no committed skeptical organization decided to participate. ‘The other potential limitation the present stuay was the possible self-selection af subjects to parti in the testing. At one university used for securing 23subjects, participation was entirely optional ana self-selection was possible. However, steps were taken to guard against this possible factor by appealing to subjects from all belief perspectives. Although critical thinking, dogmatism and ambiguity tolerance are important cognitive and personality indicators, a possible limitation to the present study was the length of time for subjects to complete all test instruments. Perhaps more subjects would have decided to participate in the volunteer situations if shorter forms of critical thinking were available. (The average time to complete the critical thinking scale alone is 50 minutes.) The design of the study presented here does, however, allow for a more comprehensive examination of potential psychological and sociological factors associated with belief in paranormal phenomena than has been previously published. Moreover, it uses a logical and coherent approach to the subject of paranormal beliefs, reflecting more accurately the various aspects of the paranormal (e.d., psi versus nonpsi paranormal) which makes the results much more meaningful. Therefore, in the context of the literature on paranormal beliefs, the study will hopefully add yet another piece to the puzzle.Definitions Altered State of Consciousness: This term can refer to virtually any mental state differing from that of the normal waking condition: hypnosis, trance meditation of the yoga or Zen tradition, hypnogogic and hypnopompic states, drug-induced states, trance dancing, etc Apparition: Predominantly a visual experience in which there appears to be present a person (deceased or Living) who is in fact out of sensory range of the experient: often associated with "spontaneous extrasensory perception." @.g., in connection with an "agent" who is aying or undergoing some other crisis, or in connection with a haunting (in which case it is likely to be referrea to in non-technical contexts ac a ‘ghogt.') aur A field of subtle, multicolored, luminous radiations said to surround living bodies as a halo or cocoon: the term is occasionally used to refer to the normal electromagnetic field forces surrounding the body. Reliet: The state of believing: conviction or acceptance that certain things are true or real. Clairvoyance: Paranormal acquisition of information concerning an object or contemporary physical event: in st to "telepathy," the information is assumed to derive directly from the external physical source (object or event), and not from the mind of another individual or group of persons. aExtraordinary Phenomena: Phenomena which resides outside of the mainstream of science and which do have not or cannot be verified in an empitical manner. Extraversion: Disposition to turn one’s interests upon or find pleasure and value in external things or the social environment. From the Extraversion-Introversion dimension of Jung's psychological types. Actively outward toward people and objects (Extraversion-Introversion Dimension). Ganzteld: Tern referring to a special type of experimental environment (or technique for producing it) consisting of homogeneous, unpatterned sensory stimulation: audiovisual ganzfeld may be produced by placing halved ping-pong balls over each eye of the subject, with digeused light (frequently red in hue) projected onto them from an external source, together with the playing of unstructured sounds (white or pink noise) into the ears, while the person is in a general state of relaxation or comfort. This state of deprivation of patterned input is said to be a psi-conducive state due to the inwardly-generated impressions, some of which may be “extrasensory" in origin. Ghost: As popularly used, this term denotes only the apparition of a deceased person, ané is not sufficiently precise for psi research 22Intentional Observer Effect: A term applied to the subject in a psychokinesis experiment who attempts to will ‘observes a ranéom number generator or quantum mechanical process to deviate in its performance from chance. Lycanthropy: Belief in the magical power to transform oneself or another into an animal (e.g., werewolf). Magical Thinking: Archaic. primitive, prelogical thinking, such as seen in the unconscious of neurotics, in small children, in normal persons under conditions of fatigue, as antecedents of thought in primitive man, and in schizophrenic thinking (Hinsie and Campbell, 1974). Magical ideation also defined as belief in forms of causation that by conventional standards are invalid Nonpsi Parancenal: All aepects of the paranormal with the exclusion of psi (e.g., ESP. PK, precognition). The nonpel paranormal beliefs are those which are considered to be less well supported scientifically and culturally. gceul! : Term referring to certain reputed sciences and practices, such as magic, astrology, witchcraft, sorcery, divination, ete., involving esoteric knowledge or the employment of mysterious agencies: not be be confused with scientigic parapeycnology. Ouija Board: A device congleting of a board marked with words, alphabetical letters and numeral + together with a smaller board on three legs, one which serves as a pointer; the device is employed to spell out messages, 33answers, etc., by having the fingers of one or more persons rest lightly upon the pointer, which moves over the larger board ané stops at the various markings: sone of these messages are considered by the users to be “extrasensory" in origin. Out-of-Body Experience: An experience, either spontaneous or induced, in which one's center of consciousness sens to be in a spatial location outside of one's physical body. For-sone students of survival of bodily death, the out-of-body experience provides an example of what a disembodied existence could be like. ‘This experience also has an alleged connection with clairvoyance. This term is preferred by parapsychologists over that of traveling clairvoyance of astral projection or astral travel. Paranormal: A synonym for psychic or parapsychological; beyond (para) what should occur if only the known laws of cause and effect are operating. Parapeyehology: Term coined by Max Dessoir and adopted by J.B. Rhine to refer to the scie cific stuay of “paranormal" phenomena, i.e., except in Britain, it has largely superceded the older expression "psychical research." Poltergeist: This phenomena involve the unexplained movement or breakage of objects, etc., and often seem to center around the presence of an adolescence or troubled FYadult. ‘They differ from a haunting in that an apparition is rarely ever seen. Bre cognition: ostensible knowledge of a future event which could not have been predicted or inferred by normal a A term used to identify an individual's exteasensorimotor communication with the environment. Psi includes both ESP and PK. Psychic: Refers to an individual who "possesses" psi ability of some kind and to a relatively high degree. as an adjective, it is commonly applied to paranormal events, abilities, research, ete., and thus means “concerning or involving pei," or *pacapsychological.* Psychokinesis (PK): Term introduced by J.D. Rhine to refer to the direct influence of mind on a physical system without the mediation of any known physical energy. Reincarnation: A form of survival in which the mind, or sone aspect of it, is reborn in another body. Rebirth is used as a synonym for reincarnation, but some Buddhists make a distinction between them, using rebirth to indicate the idea chat from one life to another a continuity of personality occurs, but not an identity. Retrocognition: A form of extrasensory perception in which the target is some past event which could not have been learned or inferred by normal means. 35Sheep-Goat Effect: Term first used by Gertrude Schneidier to indicate the relationship between acceptance of the possibility of ESP under the given experimental conditions and ESP scoring level, those accepting the possibility (sheep) tending to score above chance and those rejecting it (goats) at or below chance Supernatural: Existing or occurring outeide the normal experience or knowledge of man: not explainable by the known forces or laws of nature; attributed to God, or a god or cosmic force. Tavolvenent of ghosts, spirits and other supernatural beings. Supersheep: A subject who is certain that ner score will be high because of ner ESP ability. Superstition: An irrational belicf in magic, chance, ete., of an exaggerated fear of the unknown. Delusional. Survival: Continued conscious existence in Aisembodied form for at least a time after bodily death; aiffers from immortality in that external existence is not implied (although neither is ruled out). 1" epathy: Refers to the apparent paranormal acquisition of information concerning the thoughts, feellags or behavior of another conscious being: the word has superceded earlier expressions such as “thought-transference. 36cuaPTER 2 REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE ‘This chapter reviews the psychological, social science and parapsychological literature which are pertinent to the present study. Chapter Two also provides for an elaboration of many of the ideas and concepts presented only in brief form in Chapter One. The present research was designed primarily to investigate the aifference between high and low endorsement of paranormal beliefs and psi-only beliefs vs. low endorsement with the personality and cognitive variables of dognatism, ambiguity tolerance, and critical thinking abilities. Secondary variables and demographic factors as they relate to belief/disboliet are also explored in this review. Most of this review of the specific variables involved starts on page 112. A secondary focus of this review was to analyze the development, structure, and potential functions of paranormal beliefs, and the exploration of possible factors which may predict the acceptance or rejection of paranormal beliefs. From this review of the Literature, a nore exact position will be presented as to what a7constitutes the azanormal, as tt is an often misconceived and misapplied term. Also, an argument will be made for the distribution of paranormal phenomena into various categories based on the nature of the phenomena in question, This is especially the case with regard to the distinction betwen psi an nonpsi paanotmal phenomena. For the purpose of this chapter the reviews are divided into the following categories: (1) Incidence and Pervasiveness of Paranormal Beliefs (2) Personality, psychopathology. psychotherapeutics ana paranormal beliefs (2) General context of Belief (4) ‘The Psychology of Belief (a) sources of Belief (®) The Role of Explanation (c) Nominal Fallacy ané Beliet (a) Representativeness Fallacy (e) Probabilistic Thinking (#) Coincidences and odématches (g) Mlusion of Clusters open and Closed Mind (a) Belief and Disbelief system (b) The Measure of Dognatism (c) Doguatism and Beliet/Disbelief in Psi Phenomena and the Paranormal (6) Ambiguity Tolerance 38(7) Critical Thinking and Paranormal Beliefs (8) The Role of Personal Experience in Paranormal Beliets (9) Demographics: Age, Sex. Education, and Religion (10) Summary Incidence and Pervasiveness of Paranormal Belie! ‘The revival of interest in the paranormal has been made known by the enormous quantity of books, newspaper and magazine articles, as well as organized group activities which focus on the myriad range of such topics. These topics range from astrology, ESP, spoon bending. psychic healings, astral travel, 4 possession, and hauntings, to auras, biorhythms, the Bermuda Triangle, ancient astronauts, witchcraft and lycanthropy. One can find advertisements for occult and paranormal materials and services in the back of most popular periodicals, including Psychology Today. Most all of the major radio stations across the country have talk show programs on the paranormal, or frequently use “psychics,” “astrologers, and the pulp occult authors as guests. The television and movie media industries are also enamored of the paranormal and have dramatically increased their use of these subjects, often exaggerating 29‘the phenomena beyond the limits about which academic parapsychologists would even speculate. Various state legislatures and local ordinances have approved business operations that perform palmistry, tarot card reading, tea readings and similar occult practices. Events known as “psychic fairs" are the swapmeets of the eccult world with a variety of witches, mediums and psychics providing consultations to the masses. Courses on how to develop your psychic abilities can be found across the country in adult and community education programs, and there are multituainous private workshop and course offerings. It has been reported that the swedish government has mandated the study of parapsychology and spiritualism as part of the nigh school curriculum (Roll, 1978), The american Society for Psychical Research reports that there are currentiy over 100 recognized college and university courses on the paranormal offered for course credit (American Society for Psychical Research, 1980). Some of the United states universities that offer course credit include: Yale, Harvard, Princeton, university of California, Duke. CUNY, Washington University and the University of Virginia. overseas one can find coursework on the paranormal at the University of Uteecht, University of Freiburg, University of Tceland, University of Tasmania and at several of the universities 40in Great Britain. Several universities now offer opportunities tor graduate level work on the paranormal and a select few offer accredited prograns for the master or doctorate degree on the study of the paranormal (Malaer, 1984; schmetater, 1979) The University of California at Berkeley offered the first fully accredited doctoral degree for research in parapsychology in 1980, but not without some controversy. ‘hus, occult and paranormal beliefs are salient, not only among the lay public, but also among college students (Singer and Benassi, 1981). In 1969, the etatictice on the relative number of occult books sold over the nore parapsychological mainstream books at college bookstores was at thirty to one (McConnell, 1971). Moreover. recent study by Otis and Kuo (1984), investigated beliet of a wide variety of extraordinary phenomena among university students in singapore and canada. they presumed a negative relationship betwen level of technological development of a country and extraordinary beliefs, which was not supported. students from both countries were strikingly similar in belief in the occult and paranormal. There is now a growing body of Literature that supports the notion that belief in the supernatural and paranormal is eminently strong at the college level (sahoda, 1968; Jones, et al., 1977: Levitt, 1952; tora, 1958; Za*rour, 1972). au‘There are two valuable means of analyzing the situation regarding the incidence and prevalence of psi and nonpsi beliefs. One way is to survey and observe the general population in order to sense what most people consider valid or invalid paranormal phenomena. The second avenue for learning more about the extent of paranormal beliefs is to survey the scientific community Scientists and the academic context play a large role in determining what is considered legitimate phenomena in most Western societies. A fairly recent population poll (Roper, 1974) indicated that over half the adult respondents surveyed in the United States believe in psychic phenomena, while a survey in England indicated 70 percent endorsement of BSP among scientists and technicians (Martin, 1974; Time, 1974). Gallup (1978) and Polzella, et al-, (1975) have confirmed that belief in psychic phenomena is consistently found to be moderate or strong in 80-90 percent of the population. In one study, belief in the psychical outranked belief in God in both strength and prevalence (iiuthnow, 1978). The most extensive survey of attitudes toward parapsychology to date was conducted among the readers of the British journal, New Scientist (Evans, 1973). over 71,000 copies of the journal were sold and 1,416 replies were received. The results showed a high level of belief 42in ESP. Over 67 percent of those responding reported that ESP was either an established fact or a likely possibility. The membership of the American Psychological Association was surveyed in 1938 (Warner and Clark) and in 1952 (Warner) to determine their attitudes towerd ESP and parapsychology. Warner and Clark (1938) had a 58 percent return rate on surveys and Warner (1952) had a 68 percent return rate. In both cases, those considering ESP an establiened fact or a likely po ibiniey, constituted 2 small percentage of the sample (8 percent and 17 percent, respectively). ESP was not considered a remote possibility or an impossibility by 50 and 49 percent, respectively. Engineers and physiciete with an interest in the paranormal lean in particular toward the investigation of paychokinesis (also known as telekinesis, or the intentional observer effect), colloquially referred to as mind over matter (John, 1982; Rush, 1977; Senmidt, 1973, 1976; Walker, 1975). Psychologically trained researchers are also involved in studying psychokinesis however, with special concern for the internal and environmental mediating variables (Girden, 1962; Levi, 1979: Morris. Nanko and Phillips, 1982; Murphy, 1962; Schmeidler, 1976; stanford, 1977). The three major parapsychological associations in the world count Ph.D. peychology-trained academicians as their amajority membership. The Society for Psychical Research in Great Britain, the American Society tor Psychical Research in New York, an the Parapsychological Association (affiliate with the American Association for the Aavancenent of Science) in Virginia, all report psychology as the leading discipline of training amongst their memberships (Note 4). However, it should be noted that psychologists tend to be more skeptical of the paranormal than those from other disciplines (McClenon, 1984). Various other survey studies reveal aspects of belief im ESP. Moss and Butler (1978) are reported in Wagner and Monnet (1979) to have surveyed their psychology colleagues (number = 37) and their students (number = 80). The profeceore were found to be significantly more skeptical than the students. Wagner and Monnet's (1979) study which was actually conducted in 1973, is the most methodologically sound. They surveyed a sample of college cescors selected at random from the 1968-1969 Cass and Birnbaum, Comparative Guide to American Colleges. the criterion for inclusion was that the institution have at Least 1,000 students and 100 faculty. This research indicated a favorable attitude toward BSP similar to that found by Evans (1973) and Gallup (1979) in that 66 percent of their college professor sample were favorably oriented to ESP, whereas only 23 percent considered ESP either a remote possibility or an impossibility. aaAnother well-designed study was performed by McClenon (1982) using the membership of the Anerican Association for the Advancenent of Science, This study of attitudes toward ESP, parapsychology and anomalous experience was @irected at Council monbers and selected Section Committee representatives of the AAAS. The study was designed to survey "elite" AAAS members because they are in positions of leadership and, therefore, constitute an aspect of the sadministrative" elite in science. Elite scientists play a critical role in the process of labeling certain systems of belief as deviant this McClennon study found a difference in attitude when compared to previous research. Only 29 percent were favorably Aisposed (consider ESP an estabiiched fact of a Likely possibility) while So percent considered it a remote possibility or an impossibility. The population of elite scientists were far more skeptical about the existence of ESP than the average college professor or the average science reader polled through the journal, New Scient: ist. Of those AAAS members surveyed by Mcclenon, 69 percent consider the scientific investigation of ESP as a Legitimate undertaking, while 14 percent denied its legitimacy. ‘The percentage of individuals who denied the legitimacy of the investigation of ESP was greater than has been found in any major study. Certainly sone conflict exists due to the fact that such a large number 45of elite individuals within science opposed the scientizic investigation of a question considered valid by a majority of college professors and students. Anong this elite group, believers in ESP tended to cite personal experiences as grounds for belief. Skeptics tended to cite a priort reasons as grounds for disbelief. a far lower percentage of these elite scientists reported an anomalous experience than is reported by the general american population as evidenced in the survey studies to follow. ‘The Gallup Poll organization conducted a series of surveys in 1980 through 1981 probing the attitudes and beliefs that Americans eighteen and older held about the paranormal and immortality (Gallup and Proctor, 1982), In these surveys, two-thirds of those polled responded "yee" to the question: “Does a life exist beyond death?= Based on traditional projecting methods used by Gallup, that percentage transiates to about 100 million people. The Gallup Poli also showea that one-third of all adult Americane--about 47 million people--have hag what they call a religious or mystical experience. ‘These experiences ranged from those typical of the "core" near-death experience as described by Grosso (2981), Moody (1975), and Ring (1980) to experiences as @ramatic as otherworldly unions with a divine being, communications with deceased people, visions of unusual 4Lights, and out-of-body experiences (see Blackmore, 1984, and Seigel, 1980, for serious reviews of this latter subject). ‘hese findings are not so unusual when compared to the flood of paranormal ané hallucinatory experiences reported by Wilson and Barber (1984) in their research of tantasy-prone personalities, which studied professional people fron medicine and psychology. ‘The survey findings published by Gallup ana Proctor (1982) were primarily focused on what Americans believe about life after death and other issues related to the question of survival of bodily death. The Gallup Pol! has asked audiences in 1952, 1965, and 1980 this question: ‘bo you think there is 4 Heaven where people who have lea good lives are eternally rewarded?" A consistent seven out of ten people responded affirmatively. Although seventy percent of Americans have believed in a Heaven for the past 20 yeare, there are some interesting variations in belief, depending on such factors as the respondent's educational level, sex, religion, and place of residence. First, more women (75 percent) than men (66 pecent) believe in Heaven. This is in agreement with other rescarch from the parapsychological and social psychological literature, which point to the tendency tor women more than men to believe in the paranormal (Scheidt, 1973) as well as the occult and superstitious (Blum and arBlum, 1974). Geographically, there are far more people who hold such beliefs in the Midwest (76 percent). the South (84 percent), ané the Deep South (89 percent) than any other region by more than 20 to 30 percent. There was also a negative relationship between education and belief in Heaven, wherein 77 percent of those with a grade school education believe, while 60 percent with a college education believe. Surprisingly, there were no age aitterences in belief in Heaven. One might expect that the older one gets, the more likely one would think about--and believe in--Heaven. tn fact. more than 75 percent of those 18 to 24 years of age believe in Heaven and 70 percent of those $0 and older reported a belief in Heaven, As might be oxpacted those who reported a personal religious experience, say they believe in Heaven (86 percent) substantially more than those without such an experience believe (64 percent) on the other end of this equation there is the belie in a Hell. In 1952, 1965, and 1980, the Gallup Poll asked their national sampling of American adults this sane question: "Do you think there is a Hell to which people who have led bad lives and die without being sorry, are eternally damned?" Again, the results were quite consistent over the 30 years with the average belief in Hell at 55 percent. These figures are nsiderably lower chan the 70 percent range of belief in a Heaven. Those 48from the South (72 percent) and the Deep South (81 percent). had the highest belief and were quite different than those from the West (36 percent) or the East (42 percent). As was the case with belief in Heaven, the lower the educational level of the individual, the more Likely he of she was to believe in Hell. Im the Gallup surveys, a significant number of people on every educational level believe that the afterlite will be populated by a hierarchy of clearly identifiable supernatural beings. In the most recent survey, people were asked about their belief in the Devil. Thirty four percent of the general adult American public said they believe in the Devil as a “personal BEING who directs evil forces and influences people to do wrong." Another 36 percent said they believe in the Devil as an "impersonal FORCE that influences people to do wrong." ‘Twenty percent aid not believe and ten percent were undecided In the most recent Gallup survey (1961), the investigators explored what they considered to be the most pressing beliefs in the occult or supernatural. More than hal€ of the adult American population believe in ESP, and two-thirds of those with a college background believe in ESP. ‘Thay aleo found that 46 percent of adults in the United States believe that there is alien fe on other Planets. UFOs and alien lige are topics typically categorized (albeit incorrectiy) as belonging to the field a9of parapsychology or anomalous psychology. Parapsychology Proper does not include these phenomena, although they have been known to be included in some popular books and articles on the subject. ‘Twenty-three percent of those polled believe in reincarnation. There are more people in the West who believe in reincarnation (27 percent) versus those in the Deep South (16 percent). Gallup and Proctor (1982) suggest that a possible reason for this variation may be that the West Coast is more susceptible to the influences of the Eastern religions, which include reincarnation as an article of faith. Curiously, however, southern ks showed an especially high belief in reincarnation at 32 percent, which poses some aircicuities ror Gaitup ana Proctor's interpretation. There was an age effect as woll, with thicty percent of those 18 to 24 years old responding affirmatively to belief in reincarnation as compared to the fifty and older group which had a belief rate of only 22 percent. Another main area of the occult and paranormal that was tapped was that of belief in the possibility of having contact with the dead. A significant number of Americans (26 percent), projected to be about 37 million adults, believe it is possible to contact the dead. A previous Gallup survey found that 11 pecent of Americans believed in ghosts (Gallup, 1976). One in three in the West 50believe in contact with the dead, while only two in ten of those in the South do, Another interesting finding is that as many as 38 percent of young adults under 30 years report a belief in contact with the dead, while only 12 percent of those over 50 years old hold this belief. As far as belief in the paranormal is concerned, both the physicians ana the scientists were again more skeptical than the general population. only eight percent of scientists said they believe in reincarnation and nine percent of the physicians hold this conviction versus 23 percent for the general population. Regarding contact with the dead, five percent of the scientists said they believe, whereas nine percent of the physicians believe as contrasted with 24 percent for the general population. Lastly, there were more scientists (35 percent) wno believe that there is 1ife on other planets, in comparison to physicians (25 percent). Forty-six percent of the general public believe in alien life. Many scientiste speculate that with such a large number of solar systens in the universe, there is a logical probability that lite similar to human form may have evolved Tere are many criticisms that can be levied against the survey research conducted by Gallup end Proctor (1982). There is always the problem of sampling error, that is, the extent to which the results may difter from what would be obtained if the total population surveyed 5hhad been interviewed. Moreover. the questions employed for this survey were very general, simplistic, and limited in both breadth and depth into any particular topic surveyed. On the positive side, however, the survey has provided a large amount of data that demonstrates the pervasiveness of belief by American adults in ESP, extraordinary phenomena and afterlife. ‘The latter survey with the physicians and scientists demonstrated that such professionals are more skeptical of such phenomena and, as a group, do not believe as much ina life after death. Also of importance were the results that strongly suggest that beliefs in ESP, extraordinary phenomena, ané the afterlife are well developed in younger adults, A “Bolie£-In-Afterlife” eucvay conducted by Thalbourne (1984), studied the survival beliefs of MENSA members in Missouri. Subjects were asked whether they agreed, @isagreed, or were uncertain about seven survival hypotheses from extinction to reincarnation on another planet. Sixty-two percent believed in some form of survival with twenty-seven percent disbelieving and six percent uncertain. ‘These general results with highly intelligent menbers resemble those figures obtained by Gallup (1982). More specifically, the reinearnation on earth hypothesis was believed by percent of the MENSA participants, which closely resemble Gallup's 23 percent (1982). Immortality ranked first, followed by 52resurrection of the dead, reincarnation on earth, lite-after-death, selective survival, and reincarnation on another planet. Age was not related to belief, while sex was related to some measures. Males were more likely to believe in the extinction of consciousness hypothesis, whereas women were more likely to believe in the immortality hypothesis Personality, Psvehopatholoay, Peychotherapeutics and Paranormal Beliefs Most of the Iiterature on the above titled subject cones from the clinical parapsychological literature and stresses the dynamics of psi events as they arise in the clinical context. Only a few researchers and writers have gone further to study and theorize about the role ostensibly psychic phenomena may play in the evolution of symptomatology of the major psychological or psychiatric Aisorders. Even fewer investigators have discussed the problems related to paranormal beliefs or experiences in the psychotherapeutic context. Although thie eection does not review the issue in great depth, it does provide an adequate sampling of the research interest in this area As Brink (1978) pointed out, the relationship betwen belief in psychic phenomena ané personality variables has been the subject of much speculation from Freud on, bat there has been no real empirical investigation. The 53off-the-cuff remarks of many psychologists run sonething Like thie: "Individuals who have defective reality-testing or who are driven by unconscious complexes, are attracted to belief in psychic phenomena’ (p. 22). The studies that have by design, or serendipitously @iscovered relationships between personality and the sheep-goat effect are few in number. Carpenter (1971) reported that goats scored significantly higher on Mosher's sex-guilt scale than did sheep. shiels and Berg (1977) found sheep to be less orthodox in their religious beliefs ad more likely to identify thonselves as non-Christians than goats. Kanthamani, Haight, and Kennedy (1979), using a large sample of high school students, compared subjects who reported that they had experienced psi with those reporting no such experiences. Utilizing the Cattell High School Personality Questionnaire (Cattell and Beloff, 1962), no personality differences were found. On the other hand, sandfora (1979) predicted on the basis of a pilot experiment thar persons reporting fewer experiences would score as nore adjusted than those reporting more psychic experiences Subjects (30 males, 30 females) were administered the california Personality Inventory (CPI). the Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI, Eysenck, 1959), and a psychic experiences questionnaire. As predicted, both males ané 54females in the hihg-experience groups scored lower than low-experience groups on CPI scales relating to degree of socialization and maturity. High-experience females also scored higher on the MPI's neuroticism scale, while both male and female high-experience subjects averaged higher score on the extraversion scale, but not significantly so. In a small sample study (10 subjects), Roney-Dougal (1979) obtained data which found sheep reporting more experiences relating to hypnotizability than did goats. Harding (1980) gave Shostron's Personal Orientation Invenory (POT) along with a sheep-goat scale developed by ‘Thalbourne (1961), and found that sheep were more likely to be self-actualizing people and to be more capable of warm interpersonal relationships than were goats. ‘Thalbourne and Haraldsson (1980) found, in four experiments, that sheep were more warm and outgoing than goats in hunan relationships and generally more exteaverted than goats. Bnne (1940) and Maller and Lundeen (1933) reported significant positive relationships between paranormal beliet and trait anxiety and maladjustment. However, later studies have reported that no such relationship exists (Tobacyk, 1982). Another major concern for the field of psychopathology and psychotherapeutics is the presumed relationship between belief in the paranormal and magical thinking 55Magical thinking is a belief in the possibility that events which, according to the causal concepts of this culture, cannot have a causal relation with each other, might nevertheless, somehow, do so (Eckblad and chapman, 1903). Magical beliefs overlap with many of those events and experiences that are included in a belief in the paranormal. Researchers have found magical thinking to be @ prominent symptom of borderline schizophrenia (spitzer, Endicott and Gibbon, 1979). The Diagnostic and statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (american Peychiatric Association, 1980) has relabeled the above syndrome as “schizotypal personality disorder" which includes the following as part of its diagnostic criteria: ‘magical thinking, e.g., superetitiousness, clairvoyance, telepathy, ‘6th sense,’ ‘othere can feel my feelings'™ (p. 313). According to psychiatrically-oriented skeptics, therefore, one of the signiticat sequelae for some of those who hold a belief in the paranormal may be a proclivity toward psychosis or other thought disorders Of course, much more research is needed ag to what comprises magical beliefs or magical thinking. The Eekblad and Chapman (1983) Magical Ideation Scale, for example, includes several items pertaining to psi beliefs. Thus, one who endorses telepathy and perhaps similar beliefs will £fné their scores approaching Giagnostic levels, 56‘The psychological mechanisns involved in occult beliefs may indeed present forms of sone mundane pathologies of reasoning. For example, to the extent that mundane beliefs and paranormal beliefs have similar determinants, the study of paranormal beliefs, which are at the outer limits of irrationality (Singer and Benassi, 1991), may throw light on more ordinary reasoning pathologies ‘There is substantial evidence, both clinical ané empicical, to support the proposition forwarded by Albert Ellis (1962) chat adherence to a system of ‘rational beliefs, like superstitions, results in psychopathological behavior. Be: iefs may be irrational depending on the extent to which they are not based on objective reality and cause the individual intrapersonal or interpersonal problems. Paranormal or occult beliefs have been systematically criticized as irrational or pathological throughout the literature. Therefore, the further understanding of relationships and determinants of belief in the paranormal will add to the newly growing litecature in this area, hopefully providing a more balanced view. ‘There are many more implications to the problem of paranormal belief and personality functioning. psychopathology and psychotherapy than has probably been suspected by the field of psychiatry/psychology and even by most clinically oriented parapeychologists 87For example, some people who possess paranormal beliefs are also seeking psychics to deal with mental health problems and have bypassed licensed and trained practitioners altogether (Galanti, 1981). Some therapists are taking advantage of this movenent by establishing "intuitive" counseling centers and “spiritual* emergency networks and hotlines. At an intuitive counseling center one can obtain “psychic readings" and astrological workups to help solve their mental health needs. It was presumed that believers are the ones who avail thenselves of such services, paying large donations for “psychic.” mediunistic," or “spiritual* counselors, believing they have access to other dimensions, including the spirit ‘the paranormal aspects of psychotherapy and peychopathology have poduced increased interest among parapsychologists in the past few years as demonstrated by a growing number of articles, books and symposia on the subject (Devrereux, 1953; Mintz, 1983: Munson, 1986: Rogo, 1981). Parapeychologists have attmpted to deal with the problems of cubjects who present themselves with teoublesone psi experiences and with the general community members who cone to them for help thinking they have a sympathetic ear. Some parapsychologists have assected that ic is their duty to counsel those who come to then for mental health reasons (Weiner, 1978). Tt may be the 58case that some traditional clinicians are all too ready to Aiagnose as schizophrenic or another catch-all category those individuals who report any experiences that border on the occult or psychic. ‘These individuals tend to seek help outside the traditional psychotherapy circles, which serves to perpetuate the problem. Some investigators have found that belief in, and involvement with, occult practices like seances and Ouija boards can lead to serious personality disintegration (Bender, 1960). There are several case histories on record where playing with Ouija boards or other psychic tools have initiated brief psychotic or near psychotic episodes (Ebon, 1976; Vaughan, 1973). Seances have also been known to lead to some very troublesome and lasting emotional experiences. Keene (1977), a reformed fraudulent medium, has written in detail about how seances and other maneuvers have been used to exploit the often fragile conditions of those in mourning over a deceased loved one. In hag also been suggested that psychotics may be drawn to the psychic community. such a community might support the schizophrenic's delusions by convincing him that his experiences are psychic in nature, thus relieving the patient's anxiety over his mental state (Uilman, 1977). This, of course, is a ment: health problem in its own right. Along the above lines, Neppe (1983) has 59introduced a separate psychopathological entity entitied "payehic psychosis. * These are people who regard themselves as psychic and report "feelings" and "impressions" about the past, present and future. They not only believe that they relate to another reality at times, but they tend to overinterpret most events as psychic. Sone therapists may have feed into such belief systens by promoting the ideas that various behavioral and personality disorders and certain psychoses are related somehow to paranormal involvement. &hrenwala (1971) was one of the first contemporary psychiatrists to take a serious look at the "telepathy" hypothesis as a partial explanation for sone cazan of paranoia ad sehizophrenic. whereby the patient sensing his or her vulnerability to unpredictable threats and assaults upon his or her isolation, relies on magical thinking to manage present reality. The patient's weakened concern with real time and events is further augented by a "paranormal sensing” of the sources of possible danger in the future. Uliman surmises the precognition is more characteristic of schizophrenia (although for purposes of avoidance rather than for manipulation, as might be the case for the antisocial), telepathy and/or clairvoyance of the manic state, and retrocognition of the depressive psychosis Eisenbud (1970), Albert (1974), Schwarz (1967) and many 60other clinicians have promoted other psi interpretations for psychiatric disorders from depersonalization and psychosomatic problems to various addictions. ‘The point was that reality testing is further complicated by therapy done under the auspices of the magical context. Past-lite therapies and pseudo-exorcisms for mental health problems are currently popular and there is little decline in sight. Perhaps the mental health community needs to address more of. the transpersonal and spiritual aspects of human needs and experiences. At the very least. psychotherapists need to be informed about the nature of paranormal beliefs and the phenomena that make up the context for that belief. ‘one ma: ive attention given by the media to psychic and nonpsi paranormal claims, along with many professionals promoting magical therapies. must have increased the plausibility of the paranormal in the minds of the public. For example, there are thousands of people willing to place their lives in the hands of a "psychict healer or psychic surgeon even before attempting to work within the context of traditional or conventional medicine. Thousands of people consult psychics, astrologers, and mediuns for their mental health needs, including nelp for relationships. Some people are also eager to put down hundreds of dollars for purported development courses on psychic ability when academic 61parapsychology itself admits to not having a handle on how to develop psi, nor even the know-how to consistently demonstrate psi with so-called “gifted* subjects. ‘Thus, another important contribution of this study will be to understand more about the characteristics of those who believe in the paranormal and who are potentially susceptible to participation in the magical milieu, Also, this study will distinguish between th various categories of belief in the paranormal, adding much more clarity to this issue, including whether or not those who hold a belief in psi and not the nonpsi paranormal, are different from those with larger scale paranormal beliefs, and from those skeptical of all such peliers. Ganeral Context of Bolief in the Paranormal What is meant by the term "belief?" As is the case for most social psychological constructs, the definitions and descriptions are as numerous as they are nebulous. In very general terms, a belief can be defined as a imple expectancy regarding a property of an object or series of objects or events" (Rotter, 1972, p.336). We expect walls to be hard, water to be wet, and fire to be hot. We are quite certain about some beliefs (e.g., the South Pole exists) and not very confident about others (e.9.. intelligence is genetic). Basically, we can only assign a 62