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Review Article
Clinical management guidelines of pediatric septic
shock
Praveen Khilnani
Abstract
Septic shock in children is the prototype combination of hypovolemia,cardiogenic and distributive shock.
Recently published American college of critical care medinie(ACCM )recommendations for hemodynamic
support of neonatal and pediatric patients with sepsis,Surviving sepsis campaign and its pediatric consid-
erations and subsequent revision of definitions for pediatric sepsis has led to compilation of this review
article. Practical application of this information in Indian set up in a child with septic shock will be discussed
based on available evidence.Though guidelines mainly apply to pediatric age group,however a reference
has been made to neonatal age group wherever applicable.
Key Words: Pediatric, sepsis, septic shock, critically ill, management guidelines
Introduction small section based on the available evidence.
Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines for Manage-
ment of Severe Sepsis in Children Guidelines of hemodynamic support for pediatrics are
In 2003, critical care and infectious disease experts also published.[3] Practical application of this information
representing 11 international organizations developed in an Indian setup in a child with septic shock will be
management guidelines for other supportive therapies discussed. In 1992, the ACCP/SCCM consensus guide-
in sepsis, which would be of practical use for the bed- lines for definitions of sepsis were published by Bone et
side clinician, under the auspices of the Surviving Sep- al. [4] Definitions have also been recently revised for
sis Campaign, an international effort to increase aware- pediatrics recently, as follows.[5]
ness and to improve outcome in severe sepsis.[1] The
process included a modified Delphi method, a consen- Definitions
sus conference, several subsequent smaller meetings Hypovolemia is the most common cause of pediatric
of subgroups and key individuals, teleconferences, and shock.[5]
electronicbased discussion among subgroups and
among the entire committee. Pediatric representatives Septic shock is the prototype combination of
attended the various section meetings and workshops hypovolemia and cardiogenic and distributive shock.
to contrast adult and pediatric management. Following are the latest definitions published in 2005,
related to sepsis and septic shock.
Surviving sepsis campaign guidelines are now pub-
lished for adults,[1] with pediatric considerations,[2] as a Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome
At least two of the following four criteria are present,
From: one of which must be abnormal temperature or leukocyte
Apollo Center for Advanced Pediatrics, IP Apollo Hospital, New Delhi, India.
count.
Correspondence: 1. Core (b) temperature of more than 38.5°C or less
Dr. Praveen Khilnani, Apollo Center for Advanced Pediatrics, Indraprastha
Apollo Hospital, New Delhi 110044, India. Email: praveenk@nde.vsnl.net.in than 36°C.
Free full text available from www.ijccm.org
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Sepsis Hepatic
Total bilirubin of more than 4 mg/dl (not applicable for newborn),
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome in the pres- ALT 2 times upper limit of normal for age (BP, blood pressure; ALT,
ence of or as a result of suspected or proven infection. alanine transaminase)
a—see Table 2. b— ARDS must include a PaO /FIO ratio of less than 200
2 2
mm Hg, bilateral infiltrates, acute onset, and no evidence of left heart failure.
Severe Sepsis Acute lung injury is defined identically, except that the PaO /FIO ratio must
2 2
be less than 300 mmHg. c—Proven need assumes oxygen requirement was
Sepsis plus either cardiovascular organ dysfunction or tested by decreasing flow with subsequent increase in flow, if required. d—In
acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), or two or postoperative patients, this requirement can be met if the patient has
developed an acute inflammatory or infectious process in the lungs, which
more other organ dysfunctions. Organ dysfunctions are prevents him or her from being extubated.
defined in Table 1.
The detection of altered organ function in the acutely
Septic Shock ill patient constitutes multiple organ dysfunction syn-
Sepsis and cardiovascular organ dysfunction are de- drome (two or more organ involvement). The terminol-
fined in Table 1. Modifications from the adult definitions ogy dysfunction identifies this process as a phenomenon
are highlighted in boldface. (a) See Table 2 for agespe- in which organ function is not capable of maintaining
cific ranges for physiologic and laboratory variables, and homeostasis. This process, which may be absolute or
(b) core temperature must be measured by rectal, blad- relative, can be more readily identified as a continuum
der, oral, or central catheter probe). of change over time.
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Table 2: Agespecific vital signs and laboratory values
Age group Heart rate Respiratory rate Leukocyte count SBP
(tachycardia) (bradycardia) (breaths/min x 1000/m3)
0–1 >180 <100 >50 >34 <65
1 week to 1 month >180 <100 >40 >19,5 or<5 <75
1 month to 1 year >180 <90 >34 >17.5 or <5 <100
2–5 years >140 NA >22 >15.5 or <6 <94
6–12 years >130 NA >18 >13.5 or<4.5 <105
13–<18 years >110 NA >14 >11or <4,5 <117
Lower values for heart rate, leukocyte count, systolic blood pressure (SBP) are for the 5% and upper values for heart rate, respiratory rate, or leukocyte count
for the 95%.
Rapid Cardiopulmonary Assessment and Clinical Ex- pressure signifies decompensated stage of shock.
amination of a Patient in Shock
The most effective and sensitive physiological moni- In warm phase of septic shock, capillary refill time may
toring available is repeated and careful physical exami- be normal; however, signs of hyperdynamic circulation,
nation was done by an experienced and competent ob- widened pulse pressure, and hyperdynamic apex beat
server. Because the shock can be rapidly fatal, the child are important signs. Capillary refill time of more than 5 s
must be assessed immediately and comprehensively. is always abnormal.
In a healthy child the cardiovascular system has remark-
able compensatory capability, so there is generally a Respiratory
stability of blood pressure and only an increase in pulse Respiratory rate is increased to compensate for meta-
until there is sudden decompensation, which may lead bolic acidosis. Second, if ARDS is developing, progres-
to precipitous cardiac arrest. sive worsening of respiratory distress may occur .
Alteration in blood pressure is a late manifestation of For all forms of shock, treating the underlying cause is
hypovolemia in children, occurring faster in children. mandatory and speed is essential. Delays in making the
Diastolic blood pressure begins to fall early as vascular diagnosis and initiating treatment (fluid resuscitation as
tone begins to decrease. Systolic blood pressure is well well as appropriate antibiotics), as well as suboptimal
maintained initially and only begins to fall once resuscitation, contribute to the developments of periph-
hemodynamic compromise is severe. Decreasing blood eral vascular failure and irreversible defects in oxygen
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VIP approach can be used in initial treatment of shock, Preload optimization is the most efficient way of in-
in which “V” stands for ventilation, “I” for infusion, and creasing cardiac output. Rapid intravascular volume
“P” for pumping or cardiovascular support. expansion guided by repeated clinical examination and
urine output is frequently adequate to restore blood pres-
Initial resuscitation of a child in shock involves assess- sure and peripheral perfusion.
ment of airway, administration of oxygen, and establish-
ment of intravenous access. Pulmonary edema with volume overload is rare in child
patients. Volume replacement of 10–20 ml/kg with isot-
Airway and Respiratory Support (Ventilation) onic solutions such as normal saline or ringers lactate
The first priority is to secure the airway and ensure can be safely given and repeated if necessary (typically,
adequate oxygenation and ventilation. Highflow oxygen 40–80 ml/kg may be required). Controversy continues
system (e.g., Venturi masks) must be used. Oxygen about whether colloids or crystalloids are preferable.[5–8]
supply is optimized by maintaining arterial oxygen satu- At present, a judicious mixture of crystalloids, blood prod-
ration, by correcting anemia, and by increasing cardiac ucts to maintain hemoglobin and clotting factors, and
output and systemic blood flow. If airway is unstable and colloids to maintain colloid oncotic pressure seems most
adequate oxygenation and ventilation is not achieved, appropriate and reasonable. As well as being fundamen-
do endotracheal intubation and provide mechanical ven- tal to the management of hypovolemic shock, replace-
tilation. Because mechanical ventilation abolishes or ment of circulating volume is important in managing pa-
minimizes the work of breathing, reduces oxygen con- tients with distributive shock.
sumption, and improves oxygenation, early respiratory
support benefits patients with severe shock in addition The absolute contraindication of preload augmenta-
to those with ARDS or pulmonary edema. tion in children is a persistent elevation in ventricular
filling pressures without an increase in cardiac output.
Cardiovascular Support Further preload augmentation does not improve periph-
Tissue blood flow must be restored by achieving and eral perfusion and by increasing venous pressure may
maintaining an adequate cardiac output and by ensur- increase vascular leak, leading to increased tissue
ing that systematic blood pressure is sufficient to main- edema, most notably pulmonary edema. Chest Xray
tain perfusion of vital organs. Cardiovascular support (showing enlarged heart shadow and pulmonary edema)
involves manipulation of heart rate and rhythm and of or bedside echocardiography are useful adjuncts to clini-
three determinants of stroke volume (preload, myocar- cal examination to identify cardiac decompensation.
dial contractility, and afterload).
Choice of Fluid for Volume Replacement
Rate and Rhythm Blood
Assuring adequate heart rate and rhythm is the basic To maintain hemoglobin at around 10 g.
need for life support. Monitoring of heart rate is essen-
tial in guiding therapy. It is important to keep in mind Crystalloids
that heart rate varies according to age and are accept- Cheap, convenient to use, free of sideeffects. Rap-
able within a wide range of normal for age. That includes idly distributed across intravascular and interstitial
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spaces. A volume of two to four times of colloid required to desired effect. Dopamine (in doses of more than 5
for same volume expansion, transient volume expan- mcg/kg/min) should preferably be given via central line
sion. to prevent ischemic necrosis of the skin.
Colloids Dobutamine
Colloids such as starch and gelatin produce greater It is a selective β1 agonist. It causes an increase in
and more sustained increase in plasma volume. Fresh, cardiac contractility and reduces peripheral resistance.
frozen plasma supplies clotting factors. The reduction in afterload and improved myocardial per-
formance lowers ventricular filling pressures. The usual
Albumin dose is 5–20 mcg/kg/min. It should not be used alone in
Should be used only in special circumstances, e.g., septic shock owing to the risk of further drop in blood
burns and septic shock. The cost of therapy is an issue pressure. Dopamine or adrenaline can be used to pre-
while considering colloid solutions for expansion of vent hypotension owing to vasoconstrictive effect.
plasma volume.
Adrenaline (epinephrine)
Inotropic and Vasoactive Agents It is an a and âadrenergic agonist. It is used in situa-
Sepsisinduced myocardial depression is well docu- tions in which dominant hemodynamic feature is periph-
mented. Before cardiac output and perfusion pressure eral vascular failure, as in septic shock. At higher doses
are restored with drugs, electrolyte abnormalities (such severe vasoconstriction can lead to lactic acidosis and
as ionized hypocalcemia) that might impair cardiac per- renal and splanchnic ischemia. The usual dose is 0.1–1
formances should be corrected. Metabolic acidosis sec- mcg/kg/min. It should be titrated closely and the mini-
ondary to tissue hypoxia should be managed by treat- mum dose should be used as required.
ing the cause. Sodium bicarbonate should be given only
for severe acidosis that fails to respond to adequate re- Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
suscitation. It is an a and âagonist (aeffect being greater than â-
effect). Cardiac contractility is increased but also causes
If signs of shock persist despite adequate volume re- massive increase in myocardial oxygen consumption and
placement and perfusion of vital organs is jeopardized, afterload; so cardiac output may not actually increase.
inotropic drugs may be used to improve cardiac output.[9– The usual dose is 0.05–1 mcg/kg/min. In severe septic
11]
The effects of a particular drug in an individual patient shock with hypotension despite the use of adrenaline
are unpredictable and must be closely monitored. Drugs secondary to intense vasodilatation, noradrenaline may
commonly used in pediatric ICU to increase myocardial be useful in increasing peripheral vascular resistance to
contractility include the following: improve blood pressure.
Dopamine Vasopressin
It has a, â, and dopaminergic (ä) actions that are dose- In severe warm shock with hypotension resistant to
dependent. At low doses (<3 mcg/kg/min), it primarily noradrenaline, vasopressin may be tried.
causes weak renal and splanchnic vasodilatation, and
at 3–10 mcg/kg/min it exerts a positive myocardial ino- Afterload reduction
tropic efect. At higher doses (>10 mcg/kg/min), it has Caution should be used in using afterload reduction
strong vasoconstricting aeffect, in addition to positive indiscriminately in septic shock without simultaneous
inotropic effect. The socalled “renal dose” of dopamine inotropic support. Both nitroprusside and nitroglycerin
(2–5 mcg/kg/min) for renal vasolidation has been over- lower systemic vascular resistance in children and are
emphasized and is of less practical significance in clini- useful afterloadreducing agents. These agents act via
cal setting. The primary indication for dopamine is the the generation of nitric oxide. Nitroprusside has potent
need to increase myocardial contractility after preload peripheral arterial vasodilating effects. Nitroglycerin is a
restoration. The usual dose is 5–20 mcg/kg/min titrated more potent venodilator and pulmonary vasodilator.
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tension when fluid bolus has been initiated. Dopamine and central pulses, warm limbs, urine output of more
is the first choice of support for the pediatric patient with than 1 ml/kg/h, normal mental status, decreased lac-
hypotension refractory to fluid resuscitation. The choice tate, and increased base deficit and superior vena cava
of vasoactive agent is determined by the clinical exami- or mixed venous oxygen saturation of more than 70%.
nation. Dopaminerefractory shock may reverse with When employing measurements to assist in identifying
epinephrine (adrenaline) or norepinephrine (noradrena- acceptable cardiac output in children with systemic ar-
line) infusion.[16] Pediatric patients with low cardiac out- terial hypoxemia such as cyanotic congenital heart dis-
put states may benefit from use of dobutamine. The use ease or severe pulmonary disease, the arterialvenous
of vasodilators can reverse shock in pediatric patients oxygen content difference is a better marker than mixed
who remain hemodynamically unstable with a high sys- venous hemoglobin saturation with oxygen. Optimizing
temic vascular resistance state, despite fluid resuscita- preload optimizes cardiac index. As noted above, blood
tion and implementation of inotropic support. [9,16] pressure by itself is not a reliable endpoint for resuscita-
Nitrosovasodilators with a very short halflife (nitroprus- tion. Rarely, if a pulmonary artery catheter is utilized,
side or nitroglycerin) are used as firstline therapy for therapeutic endpoints are cardiac index of more than
children with epinephrineresistant low cardiac output 3.3 and less than 6.0 l/m/m2 with normal perfusion pres-
and elevated systemic vascularresistance shock. In- sure (mean arterial pressure minus central venous pres-
haled nitric oxide reduced extracorporeal membrane sure) for age. Use of pulmonary artery catheter has de-
oxygenation use when given to the term neonates with clined over the years owing to no welldemonstrated
persistent pulmonary artery hypertension of the newborn therapeutic benefit in patients with septic shock. Table
and sepsis in a randomized, controlled trial.[17] When 3 shows a flow diagram summarizing an approach to
pediatric patients remain in a normotensive, lowcardiac– pediatric septic shock.[3]
output, and highvascularresistance state, despite
epinephrine and nitrosovasodilator therapy, the use of a Electrolyte Balance
phosphodiesterase inhibitor should be strongly consid- An attempt should be made to check and correct com-
ered, such as milrinone. [12,18,19] Vasopressin therapy mon electrolyte problems related to sodium
should be considered in warm shock unresponsive to (hyponatremia), potassium, and ionized calcium (ionized
fluid and norepinephrine. hypocalcemia).
Table 3: ACCM recommendations for neonatal and pediatric septic shock management[3]
0 min Recognize mental status,poor perfusion
5 min Maintain airway,establish access, push 20 ml/kg up to 60 ml/kg fluid. Observe in picu if positive response
15 min Recognize fluidrefractory shock, start central line, dopamine, establish arterial monitoring if fluid-
refractory dopamineresistant shock (10 mcg/kg/min). Start epinephrine for cold, norepinephrine for
warm shock. If risk of adrenal insufficiency (38–39), give hydrocortisone.
Normal BP, cold shock SVC O2 Add vasodilator, consider volume
saturation less than 70
Low BP, cold shock, SVC O 2 Titrate volume and epinephrine
saturation less than 70
Low BP, warm shock Give norepinephrine, fluid, consider vasopressin
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sensus for the role of steroids or best dose of steroids in neonatal patients in septic shock. Crit Care Med 2002;30:1365–
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in cortisol of <9 µg/dl (248 nM/l) also makes that diag- organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies
nosis. There are two randomized, controlled trials that in sepsis. Chest 1992;101:1644–55.
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the stress dose) in children, both in dengue fever. The sepsis consensus conference: definitions for sepsis and organ
results were conflicting.[22,23] Dose recommendations vary dysfunction in pediatrics. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2005;6:2–8.
from 1 to 2 mg/kg for stress coverage (based on clinical 6. Griffel MI, Kaufman BS. Pharmacology of colloids and crystal-
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troversial. gested protocol. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2005;6:412–9
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Conclusions al. Acute management of dengue shock syndrome: A randomized
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ventional study. Chest 1996;109:1302–12
Decreased cardiac output and increased systemic vas- 11. Lindsay CA, Barton P, Lawless S, et al. Pharmacokinetics and
cular resistance tends to be the most common pharmacodynamics of milrinone lactate in pediatric patients with
hemodynamic profile. Dopamine is recommended as the septic shock. J Pediatr 1998;132:329–34.
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