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MR.BIIVICTOR
GEOGRAPHYNOTES

FORMIGEOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTIONTOGEOGRAPHY
ThemeaningofGeography
Scientificstudyoftheearthasahomeofman.
Studyofinterrelationshiponnaturalandhumanphenomenaon
theearth’ssurface.
Environment Thesurroundings
Allexternalconditionssurroundinganorganismwhichhas
influenceoveritsbehaviour.
Environmentcanbedividedintotwo:
1.ThePhysicalEnvironment
Naturalphysicalconditionsofweather,climate,vegetation,
animals,soil,landformsanddrainage. 2.TheHumanEnvironment
Humanactivitiessuchasfarming,forestry,mining,tourism,
settlement,transportation,tradeandindustry.
BranchesofGeography
1.PhysicalGeography
Dealswiththestudyofnaturalphysicalenvironmentofhuman kind.
Theareascoveredinclude:
a)Geology-studyoftheorigin,structureandcompositionof
theearth.Itincludesstudyofrocks.
b)Geomorphology-thestudyofinternalandexternalland
formingprocessesandlandforms.
c)Climatology-thestudyofclimateandweather
d)Pedology-thestudyofsoils
e)Biogeography-thestudyofsoils,vegetationandanimals.
f)Hydrology-thestudyofwaterbodies
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g)Spatialgeography-studyofspace
2.HumanandEconomicGeography
-Studyofpeopleandtheiractivitiesontheearth’ssurface.
Theareascoveredinclude:
a)Mining
b)Forestry
c)Agriculture
d)Fishing
e)Wildlifeandtourism
f)Industry
g)Energyetc.
1.PracticalGeography
-Asmallerbranchwhichequipsthelearnerwithpracticalskillsthat
enhancetheirunderstandingandinterpretationofhumanandphysical
geographicalinformation.
Theareasare:
a)Statisticalmethods
b)Mapwork
c)Fieldwork
d)Photographwork
ImportanceofStudyingGeography
1.Facilitatesgoodrelationshipamongnationsbystudyinggeography
ofotherregionsoftheworld.
2.It’sacareersubjectinthatitenablesonetogoforadvanced
studiesinspecialisedfieldse.g.geographyteachers,meteorology, surveyingetc.
3.Enablesustoappreciateotherpeople’swayoflifebylearning
economicactivitiesofdifferentcommunitieswithinourcountryand
otherpartsoftheworld.
4.Enablesustoconserveourenvironmentwhenwelearnnegative
andpositiveeffectsofhumanactivitiesontheenvironment.
5.Enablesustoconserveourresourceswhenwelearnwiseuseof
resourcesinconservationandmanagementofresourcese.g.
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wildlife,forests,energy,etc.
6.Inculcatesinusvirtuesofcooperationandpatienceasweworkin groups.
7.Makesustoappreciatemanualworkasweareinvolvedinpractical
geographywhichmayleadtoselfemployment.
8.Promotionofindustrysuchastourismbyguidingtouriststoplaces
ofinterestbyusingmaps,calculationsofdistancesetc.
RelationshipbetweenGeographyandOtherSubjects
1.Mathematics-mathematicaltechniquesareusedindrawinggraphs
andpiechartsandmathematicalformulaeareusedingeographyto
calculatedistances,areas,populationdensity,populationdensities, etc.
2.History-historyusesgeographicaltoolslikemaps,chartsand
graphstoshowwherepasteventstookplacee.g.themovementof
peopleinthepast.
3.Biology-Geographyexplainsthedistributionoforganismsand
factorsinfluencingtheirdistributionontheearth’ssurface.
4.Physics-geographyusesphysicsprinciplesandformulaeto
calculateanddescribeaspectssuchasmagneticfield,gravity,
vibrationsoftheearthetc.
5.Chemistry-geographyapplieschemistryinstudyingchemical
compositionandchemicalchangeswhichtakeplaceinsoilsand rocks.
6.Agriculture-geographystudiesfarmingsystems,theirdistribution
andfactorsaffectingfarmingactivities.
7.Meteorology-geographyusesmeteorologicalinformationinthe
studyofweatherandinclassifyingclimaticregionsandmapping them.
8.Geology-geographystudiesrocks.
TheEarthandtheSolarSystem
Solarsystemisthegroupofheavenlybodiescomprisingthesunand thenineplanets.
TheoriginoftheSolarSystem
Theories
Atheoryisasetofreasonedideasintendedtoexplainfactsorevents
1.PassingStarTheory
Astarwithagreatergravitationalpullpassednearthesun
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Itattractedlargequantitiesofgaseousmaterialsfromthesun
Thematerialssplit,cooledandcondensedtoformplanets
Theplanetsweresetinorbitbythepassingstar
Weaknesses
Doesn’texplaintheoriginofthesunandstar.
Minimalchanceofastarapproachinganother
Materialswoulddispersethancondense
2.CollisionTheory
Starwithgreatergravitationalpullpassednearthesun
Itattractedlargequantitiesofgaseousmaterials
Thematerialssplitintoportions
Largeportionscollidedwithsmalleronesandsweptthemtoform planets.
Theweaknessesarethesameasthepassingstar’sTheory.
3.NebulaClodTheory
TherewasaslowlyrotatingcloudofdustandgascalledNebula
Itcooledandbegantocontact
Rotationspeedincreasedandsuccessiveringsofgaseous materialswereformed.
Theringscondensedtoformplanets
Thecentralgaseousmaterialremainedasthesun
Evidence
Rotationandrevolutionofplanetsinanticlockwisedirection Weakness
Theoriginofnebularisnotexplained.
4.Supernova/explosionTheory
Therewasaviolentexplosionofastar.
Acloudofdust(nebular)remainedfromthestar.
Therewasfastmovementofthecloudduetotheforceofexplosion.
Rotationspeedincreasedduetogravitationalattraction
Thecloudflattenedintoadisc.
Thematterbegantoaccumulatetowardsthecentretoformaproto -
sunwhichlaterbegantoshine.
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Therestofthecloudcollapsedtoformplanets.
Weaknesses
Doesn’texplaintheoriginofthestar
Doesn’texplainthecauseofexplosion
CompositionoftheSolarSystem 1.TheSun
It’sthecentreoftheuniverse.
Characteristics
It’sastar.
Astarisaheavenlypossessingitsownlightwhichittransmits.
Nebula/galaxyisaclusterofstars.
TheearthisinagalaxycalledTheMilkyWay.
It’smadeofveryhotgasesmainlyhydrogen(70%)andhelium(30%).
Hasadiameterof1392000km.
Surroundedbyalayerofgaswhichhasboiledfromitssurface whichiscalledcorona.
Rotatesonitsownaxisinanticlockwisedirection.
Hasgravitationalpullwhichholdsalltheplanetsinorbitaroundit.
Anorbitisapathwhichaplanetorasatellitefollowsaroundastaror aplanet.
Temperatureatitscentreis15m◦candatthesurfaceis5500◦c.
Radiatessolarenergywhichisveryimportantforallformsoflifeon theearth.
2.ThePlanets
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Planetsarelargesphericalcelestial/heavenlybodiesinspace.
Thereare9planetsinoursolarsystem.
Characteristics Sphericalinshape
Don’thavetheirownlightbutreflectitfromthesun.
Revolvearoundthesuninanticlockwisedirection.
Havetheirownforceofgravity
Onlyoneisknowntosupportlife.
Thefollowingaretheplanetsarrangedinorderfromtheonenearest tothesun.

Mercury
Nearestfromthesun
Its58mkmfromthesun
Hasnosatellites
Takesapproximately88earthdaystorevolvearoundthesun
Venus
2ndplanetfromthesun
It’s108mkmfromthesun
Oneofthebrightestplanets
Canbeseenclearlywithnakedeyes
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Takesapproximately225earthdaystorevolvearoundthesun
Slightlysmallerthantheearth
Hasnosatellites
Togetherwiththeearththeyarecalledtwinplanetsduetohaving manysimilarities
Earth
The3rdplanetfromthesun
Theearthandtheheavenlybodiesmaketheuniverse
Theonlyplanetthatsupportslife
Thehomeofman
Approximately149mkmfromthesun
Takes365¼daystorevolvearoundthesun
Hasonesatellite,themoon
Mars
AlsocalledTheRedPlanetbecausewhenit’sobservedthrougha
telescopeitappearsreddish.
The4thfromthesun
Slightlysmallerthantheearth
Approximately228mkmfromthesun
Takes687earthdaystorevolvearoundthesun
BetweenMassandJupitertherearesmallcelestialbodiescalled planetoids.
Hasnosatellite.
Jupiter
5thplanetfromthesun
Approximately778mkmfromthesun
Largestintheuniverse
Rotatesonitsownaxisatveryfastspeed
Hasflattenedpolesduetoitsfastspeedofrotation
Hasverythicklayersoficeonitssurface
takes12earthyearstorevolvearoundthesun
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Has16satellites
Saturn
6thplanetfromthesun
Secondlargestplanet
Approximately1427mkmfromthesun
Takes29½earthyearstorevolvearoundthesun
Hasaringaroundit
Has18satellites
Uranus
7thplanetfromthesun
About4timesbiggerthantheearth
Approximately2870mkmfromthesun
Alsorotatesveryfast
Alsohasflattenedpolesduetofastspeedofrotation
Itappearsgreenishfoebeingsurroundedbymethanegas
Has8satellites
Takes84earthyearstorevolvearoundthesun
Neptune
Oneofthefarthestfromthesun
8thplanetfromthesun
Approximately4497mkmfromthesun
Has8satellites
Takes165earthyearstorevolvearoundthesun
Verysimilarinsize,colourandcharacterwithUranus
Pluto
9thplanetfromtheearth
Farthestfromthesun
Thesmallest
1/6thesizeoftheearth
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Approximately5900mkmfromthesun
Takes248earthyearstorevolvearoundthesun
Hasonesatellite
Verylittleisknownaboutit
OtherCelestialBodies
NaturalSatellites
Anynaturalheavenlybodythatorbitsaroundaplanete.g.moonfor
earth,tritanforSaturnandTritonforNeptune. Asteroids/Planetoids
Alsocalledminorplanets.
Aresmallfragmentsofrocksleftgoingaroundthesunwhenthe
solarsystemwasformed
FoundbetweenMassandJupiter
Are1500innumber
TheysometimescollidewitheachotherandplanetsduetoJupiter’s
gravitationalpullcausingthemtomoveinerraticorbits.
Comets
Heavenlybodieswhichappeartohaveaheadandalongtail
Madeofice,dustandfrozengas
Theheadismadeofmanyparticlesofdust,rockandfrozengases.
Theirtailismadeofgasesandpointsawayfromthesun.
Movearoundthesuninextremelylongandovalorbits
Theirorbitscrosstheearth’sorbitse.g.Halley’sCometwhich
appearsafterevery76years.
Meteoroid
Smallheavenlybodywhichstraysfromitsorbitinthesolarsystem
andenterstheearth’satmosphereatveryhighspeed.
Meteor
Ameteoroidwhichisburningoutduetofrictionafterenteringthe
earth’satmosphere.
Meteorite
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Remainsofameteoroidwhichhavereachedtheearth’ssurfaceor
incompletelyburntupmeteoroid.
Whentheyfalltheysinkintothegroundformingcraters
Theyarerichiniron
TheMoon
Anaturalsatellite
Receivesitslightfromthesunandreflectsitontotheearth.
Itrevolvesaroundtheearth
Takes29.5daystocompleteonerevolutionaroundtheearth
Itsorbitisalmostcircular
Asitrevolvesaroundthesunitappearsinvariousshapesranging
fromcrescent/newmoon,halfmoon,gibbonsmoonandfullmoon.
Hasgravitationalpullwhichcausestherisingandfallingofthe oceanlevel
Asthemoonorbitsaroundtheearthitcreatesaneventcalled eclipse.
Eclipse
-Phenomenonoccurringwhentheraysofthesunareblockedfrom
reachingtheearthorthemoon.
Solar/SunEclipse
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Themooncomesbetweentheearthandthesun
Themoon’sshadowiscastontheearth Thesunappearstobecoveredbydarkness
Lunar/moonEclipse
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Theearthcomesbetweenthemoonandthesun
Theearth’sshadowiscastonthemoon
Themoonappearstobecoveredbydarkness

TheOriginoftheearth
Astarwithagreatergravitationalpullpassednearthesun
Itattractedlargequantitiesofgaseousmaterialsfromthesun
Thematerialssplit,cooledandcondensed
Heaviermaterialscollectedatthecentretoformthecore
Lessdensematerialscollectedaroundthecoretoformthemantle
Thelightestmaterialsformedthecrust
Theshapeoftheearth

Theshapeoftheearthiscalledgeoid/ovoid/oblatespheroiddueto
beinganimperfectspherebybeingwideattheequatorandflatatthe poles.
Proofs/EvidenceThattheEarthIsSpherical
1.Ifonemovestowardstheeastinastraightlinehewillendupwhere hestarted.
2.Satellitephotographstakenfromspaceshowthattheearthislikea sphere.
3.Placesintheeastseethesunearlierthanthoseinthewest.
4.Whenashipisapproachingthesmokeisseenfirst,thenthemast
andfinallythewholeship.
5.Alltheplanetsaresphericalsotheearthbeingoneofthemisalso spherical.
6.Duringthemooneclipsetheearthcastsasphericalshadowonthe moon.
7.Theearth’shorizonappearscurvedwhenobservedfromaveryhigh pointlikeatower.

Thesizeoftheearth
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Equatorialdiameter-12756km
Equatorialcircumference-40085km
Polardiameter-39995km
Surfaceareaoftheearth-510×106km2
Watersurface-73%.
TheMovementoftheEarth
Thereare2movementsoftheearthnamely:
1.Rotationoftheearthonitsaxis
2.Revolutionoftheeartharoundthesun
RotationoftheEarth
-Movementoftheearthonitsownaxis(imaginarylinethroughthe
centrefromNpoletoSpole.
Rotatesthrough360◦.
Takes24hours(day)tocomplete1rotation.
Rotatesinananticlockwisedirection(westtoeast).
EffectsofRotationoftheEarth
1.Createsdayandnightbecauseatanyonetimeonesideoftheearth
facesthesun(day)andtheotherremainsindarkness(night).
2.CausesdeflectionofwindsandoceancurrentsintheNhemisphere
totheleftandintheShemispheretotheright.
3.Itcausesrisingandfallingofoceantides.
4.Causestimedifferencebetweenlongitudes.
Takesonehourtogothrough15◦.
4mintogothrough1◦.
CalculationofLocalTime
-Thetimerecordedinplaceswithinthesamelongitude.
AlongitudeisanimaginarylinerunningfromNtoSwhichshowshow
farEorWaplaceisfromtheprimemeridian.
GreenwichMeridian(0◦)longitudeisthepointofreferencewhen calculatingtime.
TimeisgainedtowardstheEandlosttowardstheW.
Examples
1.SupposethetimeatGWMis12noonwhatisthelocaltimeat Watamu40◦E?
Timegained=40×4=160min=2hours40min
LocaltimeatWatamuis12.00+2.40=14.40-1200=2.40pm.
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2.AtDar-es-Salaam40◦Etimeis12pmwhatisthetimeatEcuador 40◦E?
40◦+20◦=60◦
60×4=240min=4hours
Ecuadorisbehindintime=12.00-4=8am.
Iftheplacesareonthesamesidesubtractthedegreestogetthe
differenceandaddorsubtractfromthereferencetimedependingon
whichsidetheplaceis. CalculationofLongitude
Whatisthelongitudeofplacexwhoselocaltimeis8amwhenlocal timeatGWMisnoon?
Timedifference=12.00-8=4hours
Degrees=4×15=60◦
Sincexisbehindintimeitsthen60◦W.
StandardTimeandZones
Standardtimeistimerecordedbycountrieswithinthesametime zone.
Standardtimewascomeupwithduetoconfusionresultingfrom
timechangingateverylongitude.
Theworldhas24timezones. TheInternationalDateLine
It’sthe180◦longitude.
EffectsofCrossingIt
OnegainstimewhenhecrossesitfromWtoEandhastoadjust
theclockaheadby24hours.
OnelosestimewhenhecrossesitfromEtoWandhastoadjustthe
clockbackwardsby24hours.
RevolutionoftheEarth
Movementoftheearthinitsorbitaroundthesun.
It’sinanticlockwisedirection.
Theorbitoftheearth’srevolutioniselliptical.
Takes365¼daysinayearor366daysinaleapyear(every4years).
Thesunmovesfromthetropicofcancertotheequatorandthen
towardstropicofCapricornandbacktothetropicofcancer.
21stmarchand23rdSeptemberarecalledequinoxesbecausethe
lengthofdayandnightisequal.Thesunisverticallyoverheadat noonattheequator.
21stJuneiscalledsummersolsticebecauseitssummerintheN
hemisphere.Thesunisverticallyoverheadatnoonatthetropicof cancer.
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22ndDecemberiscalledwintersolsticebecauseitswinterintheS.
hemisphere.Thesunisverticallyoverheadatnoonatnoonatthe tropicofCapricorn.
Solsticeistheperiodofmaximumtiltingoftheearthtowardsthe sun.

EffectsoftheRevolutionoftheearth
1.Causesthefourseasonssummer,autumn,winterandspringdueto
themovementofoverheadsuncausingchangesintheheatbelt.
2.Causesvariationofdayandnight’slengthsduetotheearth’saxis
beinginclinedtothepathofrevolutionatanangleof60◦.
Equinoxeshaveequallengthsofdayandnight.
Summershavelongerdaysandshorternights.
Wintershavelongernightsandshorterdays.

3.Causeschangesinthealtitudeofthemiddaysunduetotheearth’s orbitbeingelliptical.
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Highestaltitudeduringequinox
Lowestaltitudeduringsolstices
4.Causeslunareclipseduetorevolutionbringingtheearthinlinewith
thesunandthemoon.
TheStructureoftheEarth

InternalStructureoftheEarth
Theevidenceusedtostudytheearth’sinteriorare
1.mining
2.drilling
3.quarrying/excavation
A.Crust/Lithosphere
Outermostlayeroftheearth
Madeofsoilsandotherloosedepositsofsand Thedominantrocksaregranites.
Extends0-50km
Has2layers
1.Sial
Alsocalledcontinentalcrust
Madeoflightcolouredrocks
Calledsialbecauseit’smadeupofsilicaandaluminium.
2.Sima
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Alsocalledoceaniccrust
Mainlymadeofbasalticrockswhicharebrittle.
Calledsimabecauseitismadeofsilicamagnesiumandiron.
MohorovicicDiscontinuity(Moho)
Adefinitezoneofdiscontinuitybetweenthecrustandthemantle.
WasdiscoveredbyDr.AndrijaMohorovicicin1909.
B.TheMantle/Asthenosphere
Layerlyingbetweenthecrustandthecore
Madeofironandmagnesium
Hastwolayers
1.Uppermantle
Rocksaremoreelasticthanthoseofsima.
Temperatureisabout1000◦c.
2.lowermantle
Rocksarelikeveryviscousliquid.
Temperaturerangesbetween1000◦cto3000◦c.
WhytheInteriorofEarthIsVeryHot
a)Dueradio-activedecaycausingmostoftheheating.
b)Duetogreatpressureasaresultofoverlyingcrustalmaterials.
c)Theoriginalheatresultingfromslowcoolingofthematerials
whichwerepulledoffthesun
GutenbergDiscontinuity
Adefinitezoneofdiscontinuitybetweenmantleandcore.
C.Core/barysphere/Centrosphere
Theinnermost/centrallayeroftheearth.
Has2layers
OuterCore
Composedofverydenserocks Madeupofnickelandiron
Temperaturesareupto3700◦c.
InnerCore
Asolidmassofmainlyiron
Temperaturesareestimatedtobe4500◦cto5000◦c.
ExternalStructureoftheEarth
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a)TheAtmosphere
Layerofgasessurroundingtheearth.
Theearthrevolveswithitbecauseitsheldontoitbygravity
It’sabout330kmthick.
CompositionoftheAtmosphere
a)Gases-existasamixture
b)Smokeparticles
c)Dustparticles
d)Watervapour
ThestructureoftheAtmosphere
It’sdividedinto4layers/zonesnamely:
1.Troposphere
-Lowestlayeroftheatmosphere
-Contains90%ofwatervapour
-Rainfallisgotfromit
-Temperaturedecreaseswithincreaseinaltitude(lapserate)
-Airisturbulentduetomixingofair
-Containsdustparticles
-Thereisazoneoftransitionbetweentroposphereandstratosphere calledtropopause.
2.Stratosphere/ozonosphere
-Layerlyingnexttotroposphere
-Haslayers
-Lowerisothermallayerinwhichtemperatureisconstant
-Upperlayeroftemperatureinversioninwhichtemperatureincreases
withincreasingaltitude -Hasozonelayerwhichabsorbsharmfulultravioletradiation.
-Airiscalmsoit’susedbypassengerjets
-Limitedamountsofwatervapour
-Thereisazoneoftransitionbetweenstratosphereandmesosphere calledstratopause.
3.Mesosphere
-Middlelayeroftheatmosphere.
-Temperaturedecreaseswithincreasingaltitude.
-Thereisazoneoftransitionbetweenmesosphereandthermosphere
calledmesopausewhichisaninversionlayer.
4.Thermosphere/ionosphere
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Highradiationispresent.
Thepressureisverylow.
Gasesandmoleculesinthislayerexistasionsduetohigh radiation.
Hasnodefinitetopbutmergesgraduallyintotheoutermostpart
oftheatmospherecalledexosphere.
Exosphereconsistsofraregaseslikehydrogenandhelium.
Beyondtheatmospherethereistheouterspace.
Outerspaceistheuniversebeyondtheatmosphereinwhich
otherplanetsandstarsexist.
SignificanceofAtmosphere
a)Animalsandplantsbreatheinfromitoxygenforrespiration.
b)Plantsusecarbondioxidefromitforphotosynthesis.
c)Watervapourintheatmospherecondensestoformcloudswhich giveusrain.
d)Ozonelayerinthestratosphereshieldsusfromultraviolet
radiationwhichmaycausecancers.
e)Carbondioxideandmethaneintheatmospherecauseglobal
warmingthroughthegreenhouseeffect.
b)TheHydrosphere
Partoftheearth’ssurfacecoveredbywatermassese.g.oceans,
seas,lakes,riversandevenundergroundwater.
Itcomprises73%oftheearth’ssurfacearea.
Theatmosphereandhydrospherearerelatedinthatatmospheric
gasespenetratetotheoceandepthinsolutionform.
Theloweratmosphere,hydrosphereandtheupperpartofthe
earth’scrustarecalledbiospheremeaningthesphereofthe
earthinwhichorganiclifeexists.

WEATHER
-Dailyatmosphericconditionsofaplaceataparticulartime.
ElementsofWeather
1.Temperature
2.Humidityprecipitation
3.Precipitation
4.Atmosphericpressure
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5.Wind
6.Sunshine
7.Cloudcover
AWeatherStation
-Aplacewhereobservation,measuringandrecordingofweather elementsisdone
FactorstoBeTakenIntoAccountWhenSittingaWeatherStation
1.Anopenplacewherethereislittleobstructionofweather elements.
2.Accessibleplacesothatrecordingcanbedoneeasily.
3.Afairlylevelorgentlyslopingground(5◦)sothatit’seasyto
positionweatherinstruments.
4.Theplaceshouldprovideawideviewofthesurrounding landscapeandthesky.
5.Thesiteshouldbefreefromflooding.
6.Theplaceshouldhavesecurity.
InstrumentsforMeasuringElementsofWeather
1.Thermometer-temperature
2.Hygrometer-humidity
3.Raingauge-rainfall
4.Barometer-airpressure
5.Sunshinerecorder-sunshinedurationandintensity
6.Windvane–winddirection
7.Anemometer-windspeed
8.Evaporimeter-rateandamountofevaporation.
TheStevensonScreen

-Awhitewoodenboxmountedon4legsusedtohousethermometers andhygrometers.
Theinstrumentswhicharefoundinitare:
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1.Maximumthermometer
2.minimumthermometer
3.Six’sthermometer
4.hygrometer-wetbulbanddrybulbthermometer
Importance
1.Provideshadeconditionsforaccuratetemperaturerecording.
2.Ensuresafetyofthermometersbecausetheyaredelicate.
QualificationsWhichMakeStevensonScreenSuitableForItsWork
1.Paintedwhiteforlittleabsorptionofsolarheatenergy.
2.Madeofwoodwhichisabadconductorofheat.
3.Wellventilatedtoalloweasierflowofairinsideit.
4.Raisedtopreventcontactwithterrestrialradiation.
5.Hasdoubleroofwhichactsasaninsulatortopreventdirect heatingfromthesun.
RecordingandCalculatingWeatherConditions
Temperature
-Degreeofhotnessofanobjectoraplace.
It’smeasuredusing3typesofthermometersnamely:
1.Maximumthermometer
2.Minimumthermometer
3.Six’sthermometer
MaximumThermometer

It’susedtomeasurethehighesttemperaturereachedinaday.
Itusesmercury.
HowIt’sUsed/Works
Temperaturerisescausingmercurytoexpand.
Mercurypushestheindexup.
Whentemperaturefallsmercurycontracts.
Themaximumtemperatureisreadfromthescaleatthelower endoftheindex.
Thermometerisresetbyshakingittoforcemercurybackintothe bulb.
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MinimumThermometer

It’susedtorecordthelowesttemperaturereachedinaday.
Itusesalcohol.
Howit’sUsed/Works
Temperaturefallscausingalcoholtocontract.
Alcoholpullstheindexdown.
Whentemperaturerisesalcoholexpandsandrisesinthetube.
Theindexremainswhereitwaspulled.
Minimumtemperaturereadingisobtainedfromthescaleatthe
lowerendoftheindex.

CalculatingTemperature
1.Diurnal/dailyTemperaturerange
-Differencebetweenthemaximumandminimumtemperatureforany oneday.
2.MeanDailyTemperature
-Averageofthemaximumandtheminimumdailytemperatures.
3.MeanMonthlytemperature
-Sumofmeandailytemperaturesinamonthdividedbythenumberof daysinthatmonth.
4.MeanMonthlyminimumTemperature
-Sumofdailyminimumtemperaturesdividedbythenumberofdaysin thatmonth.
5.MeanMonthlyMaximumTemperature
-Sumofdailymaximumtemperaturesdividedbythenumberofdaysin thatmonth.
6.MeanAnnualTemperature
-Sumofmeanmonthlytemperaturesdividedby12.
7.MeanAnnualTemperatureRange
-Differencebetweenthehighestandthelowestmeanmonthly temperaturesinayear.
8.◦k=◦c+273
 23

9.◦F=(◦c×1.8)+32derivetherestfromtheformulas.
Rainfall

Raingaugeistheinstrumentusedtomeasuretheamountofrainfall inaday.
Itshouldbemadeofimpermeablematerialwhichcan’tabsorbwater.
HowIt’sUsed/Works
It’stakentoanopenspacetopreventwaterfromdroppinginto thefunnel.
Itssunkintothegroundtopreventevaporation
Thefunneltopisleft30cmabovethegroundtopreventsplashes ofwaterandrunoff.
After24hourswaterisemptiedintothemeasuringcylinder.
Thereadingoftheamountofrainfallisgotfromthemeasuring
cylinderinmillimetres.
Thefigurerepresentsthemillimetresofwaterfallingoneach
squaremillimetreoftheground.
Itcouldbeusedtomeasuresnowfallbymeltingitbeforethe readingsaregotten.
CalculatingRainfall
1.MonthlyRainfallTotal
-Sumofrainfallrecordedinamonth.
2.AnnualRainfallTotal
-Sumofmonthlyrainfalltotalsfor12months.
3.MeanMonthlyRainfall
-Sumofrainfalltotalsforaparticularmonthoverseveralyearsdivided
bythenumberoftheyearsofobservation. 4.MeanAnnualRainfall
-Sumofmeanmonthlyrainfallfor12monthsoftheyear.
Sunshine
 24

DurationofsunshineismeasuredusingCampbellstokessunshine recorder.
HowItWorks
Sphericallensfocuseslightonsensitizedpaper.
Thepaperburnswhenthesunisshining.
Thetotalhoursofsunshineisgotbyaddingalltheburntsections
fromcalibrationsonthesideofsensitizedpaper.
Thesensitizedpaperischangedeveryday.
Humidity
Humidityistheconditionofatmospherewithreferencetoitswater content.
It’smeasuredwithhygrometerorpsychrometerwhichconsistsofwet
anddrybulbthermometerskeptinStevensonscreen.
Drybulbthermometerisathermometercoveredwithmuslinbag
immersedinwaterwhiledrybulbthermometerhasnomuslin. HowItWorks
Whenairisdrythereisalotofevaporationfromthemuslin.
Evaporationcoolsthebulbofthermometerresultinginalow temperaturereading.
Whenhumidityishighthereislittleevaporationfromthemuslin.
Thewetbulbthermometeriscooledataslowerrateandboth
thermometersshowalmostthesametemperaturereading.
Thedifferenceinreadingsbetweenthetwothermometersis
usedtodeterminerelativehumidity.
 25

InterpretationofHygrometerReadings
Whenthe2readingsarethesame,relativehumidityis100%i.e. theairissaturated.
Ifthedifferenceissmall,humidityishigh.
Ifthedifferenceisbig,humidityisverylow.
CalculatingHumidity AbsoluteHumidity
-Actualamountofwatervapouragivenvolumeofaircanhold.It’s expresseding/m3.
SpecificHumidity
-Massofwatervapourinagivenmassofair.It’sexpresseding/km. RelativeHumidity
-Ratiobetweentheabsolutehumidityandthemaximumamountof
watertheaircanholdexpressedinapercentage.
R.H.=A.H/Maximumamountofwatertheaircanholdatthesame temperature.
Example
Iftheairat20◦ccontains10g/m3andgivenaircanholda
maximumof20g/m3.calculatetherelativehumidity.
10×100/20=50%
Wind
Direction
 26

Winddirectionisdeterminedusingwindvane.
HowItWorks
Asthewindblowsthearrowswings.
Thearrowpointsintheoppositedirectionofthewindflow.
Thedirectionisreadfromthecardinalcompasspoints.
Thearrowwillpointinthedirectionfromwhichthewindis blowing.
ForinstanceifitpointsSthewindisblowingfromStowardsN. WindSock

-Usedtoindicatethegeneraldirectionofwindflow.
-Notkeptinaweatherstationbecauseitdoesn’tgivetheaccurate directionofwindflow.
-Seennearairstripsforthebenefitofpilots.
HowitWorks
Whenwindblowsthebasstretchesoutinthedirectionthatthe
windisblowing. Windspeed/Velocity
 27

-Measuredusinganemometer.
HowItWorks
Whenwindblowshemisphericalcupsrotate.
Thenumberofrotationsisobtainedfromthemetreonthelower
partoftheanemometer.
Theunitsformeasuringwindarecalledknots.
AtmosphericPressure
-Theforceexertedbygasesintheatmosphereonsomeareaorbody
ontheearth’ssurface.
-Measuredusingbarometersofthreetypesnamelymercury,aneroid
andFortinBarometers.
MercuryBarometer

HowItWorks
Airexertspressureonthemercuryinthebeaker.
Theheightofmercuryinthetubeisproportionaltothe atmosphericpressure.
ThereadingsaretakeninmmHg.
 28

Its760mmHgatsealevel
Advantage
Quiteaccurate
Disadvantage
1.Cumbersometocarryaround.
2.Canbedamagedquiteeasilywhilebeingcarriedaround.
AneroidBarometer
-Measureschangesinatmosphericpressure.
HowItWorks
Hasairtightcompartment(vacuum).
Compartmentexpandswhenpressuredecreases.
Itcollapseswhenpressureincreases.
Themovementistransmittedbylevertoapointeronadial.
Thereadingsareinkg/cm3.
Evaporation
Therateandamountofevaporationismeasuredusingpicheandtank
evaporimeters. PicheEvaporimeter

Whenthereisalotofsunshinewaterevaporatesfromthe blottingpaper.
Thelevelofwaterintheglasstubereduces.
Therateandamountofevaporationisgotbylookingatthescale
ontheoutsideoftheglasstube.
Theunitsareinmm.
TankEvaporimeter
 29

HowItWorks
Thetankwithwaterisputintheopen.
Waterevaporateswhenthereisalotofsunshine.
Waterinthetankreduces.
Therateandamountofevaporationisgotfromcalibrationsin
theinnersideofthetankinmm.
CloudCover
Theamountofcloudcoverisobservedusingeyes.
It’sgiveninoktas.
Okta=approximately1/8ofskyiscoveredwithclouds.
WeatherForecasting
-Predictionoftheconditionsoftheatmosphereforagivenplacefora certainperiod.
MethodsofWeatherForecasting
TraditionalMethods
-Predictionofweatherbasedontraditionalbeliefsandfacts.
Plantssheddingleavesindicatesperiodofdrought.
Safariantsindicateitwillrain.
Migrationofbutterfliesalsoindicatesitwillrain.
Croakingoffrogsduringdryseasonindicateitsgoingtorain.
Floweringofcertainplantsindicatestheonsetofrainfall.
Changesintheintensityofsunshineindicateitsgoingtorain.
ModernMethods
-Predictionofweatherusingmoderninstrumentsandnewtechnology
ofcollecting,transmitting,processingandanalysingweatherdata.
InstrumentsUsed
1.Satellites-electronicdeviceswhichorbittheearthwhichcollect
andtransmitweatherdatawhichisinterpretedbycomputers.
2.Radar-aninstrumentusedtoseecloudformation.
 30

3.Sensors/radiosodes-instrumentfixedonaballoonusedto
measureatmosphericpressure,temperatureandhumidity.
4.Computers-electronicdeviceusedtostore,analyseanddisplay
weatherinformation.
Significance/ImportanceofWeatherForecasting
1.Helpsustobeawareofnaturalcalamitiesrelatedtoweather
beforetheyoccursoastotakeprecautionarymeasures.
2.Guidingtouristsonwhentovisitnationalparks.
3.Helpsfarmerstoplantheiractivitiessuchasplanting,harvesting, etc.
4.Ensuresairandwatertransportiscarriedoutsafely.
5.Helpssportingpeopletoplantheirtrainingandcompetition schedules.
6.Helpspeopletoplanmanyotheractivitiessuchasmining,
electricitygeneration,holidayevents,etc.
7.Helpsfishingcommunitiestoplantheiractivities.
FactorsHinderingWeatherForecasting
1.Lackofskilledmanpowerduetolimitedtrainingfacilities.
2.Lackofmodernequipmentleadingtowrongforecasts.
3.Naturalcalamitiessuchasstormsandearthquakes.
4.Extremeweatherconditionswhichmaydamageordisplace instruments.
5.Useoffaultyinstruments.
6.Humanerror.
7.Poorsittingofinstruments.
FactorsInfluencingWeather
Temperature
Factorsinfluencingtemperature
1.Altitude
-Heightabovesealevel.
Temperaturedecreaseswithincreaseinheightduetoairat
higheraltitudebeingthinnerandhencethereislessparticlese.g.
gases,dust,smokeandwatervapourtostoreheatsoitsrapidly
losttotheouterspace. 2.Latitude
-Distancefromtheequator.
Temperaturedecreaseswithincreaseinlatitude.
 31

Placesneatequatorexperiencehightemperatureduetotherays
ofthesuntravellingashorterdistancefacinglessinterference
fromatmosphericconditionshencemoresolarenergyreaches
theearth’ssurface.Alsotheraysofthesunstriketheearthat
rightangleshencesolarenergyisconcentratedoverasmallarea.
Athigherlatitudestheraysofthesuntravelalongerdistance
facingmoreinterferencefromatmosphericconditionshenceless
solarenergyreachestheearth’ssurface.Alsotheraysofthesun
striketheearthatanacuteanglehencesolarenergyisspread overalargearea.
3.Aspect
-Directionofslope.
Athigherlatitudesslopesfacingtheequatorhavehigher
temperaturebecausetheyfacethesunwhilethosefacingthe
poleshavelowertemperaturehavelowertemperaturebecause
theyfaceawayfromthesun. 4.Winds
-Transferheatfromoneplacetoanother.
Whentheyblowfromcoolareastheytakethecoolingeffectto
theareastheyblowoverandwhentheyblowfromwarmareas
theytakewarminginfluencetotheplacestheyblowover.
5.DistancefromaLargeWaterBody
Areasnearalargewaterbodyexperiencelowertemperature
duringthehotseasonandhighertemperatureduringthecool
seasonduetoseabreezes,warmandcoldoceancurrentsand
windblowingoverwaterwhichcouldbeeitherwarmerorcooler
thantheadjacentland.
6.CloudCover
Cloudsreducetheamountofsolarenergyreachingthesurface
byabsorbing,scatteringandreflectingsolarradiation.
Whenthereareclearskiesduringthedaythetemperatureis
higherduetotheearthreceivingmaximumsolarinsolation.
Duringclearnightsthereareverylowtemperaturesduetoalotof
terrestrialradiationbeinglosttotheouterspace.
Cloudynightsontheotherhandarewarmerduetoclouds
radiatingtotheearthheatabsorbedduringtheday.
 32

7.LengthofDay
Thelongertheperiodofsolarinsolationthegreaterthequantity
ofradiationaplacereceivesandhencethemoretheheatthatwill
begeneratedbytheearthandviceversa.
8.SolarAltitude
Atequinoxwhentheearthisfarthestfromthesunthe
temperatureontheearthislowerduetolesssolarradiation
reachingtheearth’ssurfaceduetotravellingalongerdistance
andhencefacinggreatinterferencefromatmosphericconditions.
Atsolsticestheearthreceivesmoresolarenergyduetotravelling
ashorterdistanceandhencefacinglessinterferencefrom
atmosphericconditions.
9.SolarInput
Sometimesthesungivesoutmoreheatduetoreactionsbeing
violentcausingtemperatureontheearthtobehigher.
Whenitgivesoutlessheatthetemperatureontheearthislower.
10. SurfaceConditions
Lightsurfacese.g.smoothsurfacesreflectsunlightandhence
lesssolarenergyreachestheearth’ssurface.
Darkandirregularsurfacessuchaswithvegetationabsorbmore
heatleadingtohighersurfacetemperatures.
Humidity
FactorsInfluencingHumidity
1.Temperature
Placeswithhightemperatureexperiencehighhumiditydueto
highevaporationandairhavinghighcapacitytoholdmoisture.
Placeswithlowtemperaturehavelowhumidityduetolow
evaporationandairhavinglowcapacitytoholdmoisture.
2.SourceofMoisture
Areasnearwaterbodiese.g.KisumuandMombasaexperience
highhumidityduetoevaporationofwaterfromthewaterbody.
Placesnearthickvegetationalsohavehighhumiditydueto evapotranspiration.
Areasfarawayfromwaterbodiessuchasthemiddleofdeserts havelowhumidity.
 33

Areasreceivingheavyrainfallalsohavehighhumidity.
3.AirPressure
Thereishighhumidityatlowaltitudesbecausehighpressure
compressesairwarmingitincreasingitscapacitytohold
moistureandalsocauseshighevaporation.
Thereislowpressureathighaltitudesbecauseairexpandsand
coolsthusreducingitscapacitytoholdmoisture.
4.Latitude
Lowlatitudesexperiencehighhumidityduetohightemperatures
resultingintohighratesofevaporationandairhavinghigh
capacitytoholdmoisture.
Highlatitudesexperiencelowhumidityduetolowtemperatures
resultingintolowratesofevaporationandairhavinglowcapacity toholdmoisture.
SignificanceofHumidity/Moisture
1.Affectsrainformationinsuchaswaythatplaceswithhighhumidity
arelikelytoexperiencehigherrainfallthanthosewithlowhumidity.
2.Regulatestheheatlossfromtheearth’ssurfacebyabsorbing
terrestrialradiation(processinwhichtheearthgivesoffheatinto theatmosphere).
3.Itaffectssensibletemperatureinthatthehigherthehumiditythe
moreweexperiencesensibletemperature.
Precipitation
-Theformsinwhichtheearth’ssurfacereceivesmoisture.
1.Snow
Solidprecipitationformedwhentinywaterdropletsfreezeandform icecrystals.
Thecrystalsmayfusetoformflakes.
2.Sleet
-Precipitationwhichisamixtureofrainandsnow.
3.Hail
Roughlysphericallumpsoficeformedwhensupercooledcloud
dropletsmouldthemselvesaroundicecrystalsbeforecooling.It
destroyscropslifeandhouseroofs. 4.Dew
-Precipitationconsistingofwaterdropletsformedoncoldsurfacesat
nighte.g.ironroofsandglassblades.
HowIt’sFormed
 34

Inaclearnightthereisahighgroundradiation.
Temperatureoftheearth’ssurfacefallbelowdewpoint
(temperatureatwhichairbeingcooledbecomessaturated).
Excesswatercondensesoncoldsurfaces.
5.rain
-Precipitationconsistingofwaterdrops/dropletsformedwhentiny
waterdropletsmergearoundparticlesofmatterandbecomeheavy
andfalldowntotheearth.
Condensation
Turningofwatervapourintotinywaterdropletsascoolingcontinues belowdewpoint.
Thedropletsjointoformclouds. CausesofCondensation
1.Adiabaticcooling-coolingofmoistairasitrisesvertically.
2.Orographiccooling-coolingofmoistairasitclimbsahillor mountain.
3.Frontalcooling-coolingofwarmairmasswhenitblowstowards acoldairmass.
4.Advectioncooling-coolingasaresultofmoistairmovingovera coollandorsea.
HowCondensationTakesPlace/CloudFormation
Moistairrisestothecondensationlevel(altitudewhere
temperatureisbelowdewpoint.
It’scooledbelowdewpoint.
Tinywaterdropletscondensearoundtinyparticlessuchasdust,
smokeparticlesandpollengrainsandsaltparticles (condensationnuclei).
Thedropletsmergeandeventuallybecomebiggerandfallasrain.
Ifmoisturerisestoanaltitudewheretemperatureisbelow0◦c
thecondensedwaterdropletsfreezeformingiceparticlesor
supercooledwater(waterwhichhasremainedinaliquidstateat
temperaturesbelowfreezingpointduetolackofsufficient condensationnuclei.
Supercooledclouddropletsmaymouldthemselvesaroundice
crystalsbeforefreezingtoformhail.

Typesofrainfall
1.Relief/Orographic/Mountainrainfall
 35

Rainexperiencedonthewindwardslopesofmountainsorhillsformed
whenmoistairisforcedtoriseoveramountainorahill. HowitForms
Moistairisforcedtoriseoverahillormountain.
Thetemperatureandairpressuredecreasesmakingittoexpand.
Aircoolsduetodecreasedtemperatureanddecreasedpressure
causingittoexpand.
Moisturecondensesformingtinywaterdroplets(clouds).
Thetinywaterdropletsincloudsmergeandbecometooheavyto
besuspendedinairandfallasrain.
Airproceedstotheleewardsidewithlowmoisturecontent.
Sinceitsheavierduetobeingcoolitdescendsoverthatsideand
getswarmedmakingittoholdontothelittlemoistureithad
causingthatsidetoreceivelowrainfall(rainshadow). 1.ConvectionalRainfall

Typeofrainfallcommonnearlargewaterbodiesformedasaresultof
convectiverisingandcoolingofmoistair.
It’saccompaniedbythunderstorms.
Howitforms
 36

Groundorwaterbodyisheatedcausingevaporation.
Thereisconvectiverisingandcoolingofmoistair.
Condensationtakesplaceformingtinywaterdroplets(clouds).
Thedropletsmergeandfallasrain.
Thecooleddryairdescendstothesurfacewhereitsheatedand
itscapacitytoholdmoistureisincreased.
Theprocessisrepeated.
2.Frontal/CyclonicRainfall

Typeofrainfallcommoninmid-latitudesformedwhenwarmairblows
towardsacoldareaorwhenwarmairmassmeetswithacoldair mass.
It’saccompaniedbycyclones(violentwinds).
HowitForms
Warmmoistairmassmeetswithacoldairmass.
Thewarmairisforcedtoriseasit’slessdense.
Itcoolsasitrisesatthelineofcontactwithcoldair.
Themoisturecondensesformingcloudsresultinginfrontalrain.
FactorsInfluencingRainfallTypesandAmounts
1.Relief/Topography
Relieffeaturessuchasmountainsandhillsresultsintherisingand
coolingofmoistwindstoformreliefrainfall. 2.Aspect
Windwardslopeswhichareonthepathofrainbearingwindsreceive
heavierrainfallthanleewardslopeswhichfaceaway. 3.ForestsandWaterBodies
Areasnearforestsandlargewaterbodiesexperiencehigherrainfall
andmoreoftenduetohighrateofevaporation. 4.airpressure
 37

Highpressureareasreceivelowrainfallthanlowpressureareasdue
topushingofairmassesfromhighpressuretolowpressure.Thehigh
pressureareashavedescendingdryair. 5.airmasses
Whenwarmandcoldairmassesmeetfrontalrainfallisformed.
6.OceanCurrents
Itinfluencesrainfallwherebycoastswashedbywarmocean
currentsexperienceheavyrainfallwhenmoistonshorewindsare
warmedbythecurrentandmadetoholdontomoisturewhich
theyreleaseonreachingtheland.
Thecoastswashedbycoldoceancurrentsontheotherhand
experiencelowrainfallasaresultofmoistwindsbeingcooled
andmoistureinthemcondensedresultinginrainfallingoverthe
oceantherebybringinglittleornoraintothecoastalareas.This
isthecauseofwesternmargindesertse.g.KalahariandNamib deserts.
Atmosphericpressure
FactorsInfluencingAtmosphericPressure
1.Altitude
Pressuredecreaseswithincreaseinaltitudebecausethecolumn
ofairbecomesshorterhenceitexertslessweight. 1.Temperature
Whenairisheateditexpandsandexertspressureoveralarge
arearesultinginreducedpressure.
Whenit’scooleditcontractsandexertspressureoverasmall
arearesultinginincreasedpressure. 2.Rotationoftheearth
Rotationpushesairmassesfrompolestowardstheequator
causingairtospreadoutandoccupymorespacecausingitto
expandmakingpressuretodecrease.
Whenairfromtheequatormovestowardsthepolesitoccupies
lessspacecausingittocontractresultingintohighpressure.

MistandFog
Mistandfogareamassoftinywaterdropletssuspendedinthelower
layersoftheatmosphere.
Fogisdenserthanmisti.e.hasmoremoisture.
 38

Bothhindervisibilityalthoughfogreducesvisibilitytolessthana kilometre.
Whenfogmixeswithsmokeit’scalledsmog.
HowTheyForm
Moistaircoolsbelowdewpoint.
Condensationtakesplace.
Theresultantwaterdropletsremainsuspendedintheair.
TypesofFog
1.RadiationFog
Typeformedwhenmoistairiscooledbelowdewpointasaresultof
intenseradiationonthegroundatnight. 1.AdvectionFog
Typeformedwhenmoistairfromtheseamoveshorizontallyovera
coldsurfacee.g.snowcoveredground. 2.Orographic/Hill/UpslopeFog
Typeformedwhenmoistairiscooledafterclimbingahillor mountain.
3.EvaporationFog
Typeformedwhenwatervapourisaddedtocoldairthatisalready
nearsaturationcausingexcesswatervapourtocondenseandform fog.
4.FrontalFog
Typeformedwhenwarmmoistairiscooledfrombelowasitrises
overacoldairmass. 5.SteamFog
Typeformedwhenmoistairpassesoverthesurfaceofamuch
warmerfreshwaterbody.
Thewarmwateriscooledfromaboveandcondensingwatervapour
formsfog.Itappearstobesteaming. 6.IceFog
Typeformedwhenwatervapourisconverteddirectlyintoice
crystalswhentemperaturesarebelowfreezingpoint.

Clouds
-Areamassoftinydropletsoriceparticlesformedwhenwatervapour condenses.
ThreeCloudForms
1.Cirroform
-Thinandwispycloudscomposedoficecrystals.
2.Stratiform
-Appearasgreyishsheetscoveringmostoftheskyandarerarely brokenintounits.
3.Cumuliform
 39

-Aremassiveroundedwithaflatbaseandlimitedhorizontalextent
andbillowupwardstogreatheights.
BasicCloudTypes
1.StratusClouds
-Arefoundinlayers,areflatinshapeandresemblefog.
2.NimbusClouds
-aredarkatthebaseandsometimeswhiteatthesidesandcauserain andthunderstorms.
3.Cirro-cumulus
-Arewhitecloudsconsistingofwhiteicecrystals.
4.Nimbostratus
-Araincloudwhichisdarkgreyandspreadsovertheskyinlow uniformlayers.
5.CumulusClouds
-Cloudswithaflathorizontalbase,massive,roundedandless horizontalextent.
6.Altocumulus
-Highcloudscomposedoficecrystalswhichindicatefairweather.
WorlddistributionofPressureZonesandthePlanetarywind
System/WorldPrevailingWinds
TheEquatorialLowpressureZone(ITCZ-low)
Foundbetween23½◦Nand23◦N Experienceshightemperatures.
Azoneoflowpressureanddoldrums(lightandintermediatewinds).
ZonewhereS.EandN.ETradeWindsconverge.
Associatedwithconvectionalrainandthunderstorms.
MigratestotheNandwiththeapparentmovementoftheoverhead sun.
TheSub-tropicalHighPressureZone Foundwithin30◦Nand30◦S.
Azoneofhighpressure.
Aregionofcalmdescendingair.
SourceofTradeWindsandWesteries.
ZoneofdivergenceofT.WindsandWesteries.
TheTemperateLowPressureZone Foundwithin60◦Nand60◦S.
Alowpressurezone.
Zoneofconvergenceofwesteriesandpolareasteries.
 40

ThePolarHighPressureZone Foundoverthepoles90◦Nand90◦S.
AhighpressureZone.
Zoneofdescendingcalmairoflowtemperature.
Sourceofpolareasteries.
TheWorldsPrevailingWinds
Thesearethemajorwindsblowingovertheearthfrequentlyand
consistentlyandwhichinfluencetheworldweather. 1.TradeWinds
Blowfromsub-tropicalhighpressurezoneandblowtothe
equatoriallowpressurebelt. 2.Westeries
Originatefromsub-tropicalhighpressurezoneandblowtothe
temperatelowpressurebelt. 3.ThePolarEasteries
Originatefrompolarhighpressurezoneandblowtotemperatelow
pressurezone. MonsoonWinds
Seasonalwindswhichreverseinthedirectionofflow.
Theyblowtowardsthelandduringsummer(onshore)andfromthe
landduringwinter(offshore).
Bringheavyrainswhenonshorewhichcancausesevereflooding.
WelldevelopedintheIndianSun-continent,china,JapanandS.E Asia.
AirMasses
-Distinctlargeparcelsofairmovinginonedirection
 41

-Originatefromareasofuniformweatherandtopographyfromwhere
theyderivetheircharacteristicse.g.flatareas,forests,deserts,and
snowcoveredareas. CharacteristicsofAirMasses Alargevolumeofair.
Coversanextensivearea.
Hasuniformtemperatureandhumidity.
Distinctfromthesurroundingair.
Retainsitscharacteristicswhenitmovesaway.
TypesofairMasses
1.EquatorialAirMass Originatefromequatorialoceans.
It’shotandunstable.
1.Sub-tropicalAirMass
Formsnearsub-tropicalhighpressurebelt.
2.PolarAirMass
Formsnearthepolesortemperatelowpressurezone.
It’scool.
3.ArcticandAntarcticairMasses
FormsovertheicesheetsofGreenlandandAntarcticarespectively.
4.EffectofairmassesonWeather
Whenwarmmoistairmassandcoolairmassmeetcyclonicrainfall
isformede.g.tropicalmaritimeandpolarmaritime.
Coolairmassestakecoolingeffecttotheareastheymovetoe.g. polarcontinental.
Iftheyarewarmtheytakewarminginfluencetotheareatheymove
toe.g.tropicalcontinental.
PressureSystemsintheWorld
1.Cyclone
 42

It’salowpressuresystemcharacterisedbylowpressureatthe
centreandincreasesoutwards.
Startsinareaswhereairascendsfromthegroundtothe
atmosphereanddescendsathighaltitude.
It’softwotypes.Tropicalcyclonese.g.hurricane,typhoonandwilly
williesanddepressionswhicharecharacterisedbytemperate latitudes.
ThemovementofwindisanticlockwiseintheN.hemisphereand
clockwiseintheS.hemisphere. 2.Anticyclone
Ahighpressuresystemcharacterisedbyhighpressureatthecentre
anddecreasesoutwards.


Itstartsinareaswhereairisdescendingfromtheatmosphereonto
thegroundandthenblowsoutwardsontheground.
ThemovementofwindisclockwiseintheN.hemisphereand
anticlockwiseintheS.hemisphere.
LocalWinds -Whichoccurregularlyforashortperiodoftimeaffectingalimited area.
-Modifytheweatheroftheareatheyblowto. 1.SeaBreeze
 43

-Alightandgentlewindwhichblowsfromtheseatotheadjacentland.
HowitForms
Duringthedaylandisheatedfasterthanthesea.
Airoverthelandiswarmedandrises.
Airfromtheseamovestothelandtoreplacetherisingair.
Therisingairfromthelandcoolsanddescendsovertheseaathigh altitude.
Circulationcontinuesuntilthepressuredifferenceisreversedat night.
Effectsonweather
Ittakescoolingeffectonlandonahotafternoon.
2.LandBreeze
-Alightandgentlewindwhichblowsfromlandtotheseaduringthe night.
HowitForms
 44

Atnightlandlosesheatfasterthanthesea.
Airovertheseaiswarmedandrises.
Airfromthelandmovestotheseatoreplacetherisingair.
Risingairfromtheseadescendsoverlandathighaltitude.
Circulationcontinuesuntilpressuredifferenceisreversedduringthe day.
Effectsonweather
Itcausesearlymorningshowersthroughmoisturebroughttowards landathighaltitude.
3.Anabaticwinds(ValleyBreeze)

-Coollocalwindswhichblowfromthevalleytothehilltopsduring summerafternoons.
HowitForms
Duringthedayhilltopsareheatedmorethanvalleybottoms.
Airoverthehilltopsiswarmedandrises.
Coolairoverthevalleymoveuptothehilltoreplacetherisingair.
Effectonweather
-Causeafternoonshowersonhillygrounds.
4.Katabatic/DescendingWinds
 45

-Coldlocalwindswhichblowfromhilltopstothevalleyduringthe night.
Duringthenighthilltopsloseheatfasterthanthevalley.
Airoverthevalleyiswarmedandrises.
Coolairoverthehilltopsmovetothevalleybygravitytoreplacethe risingair.
EffectonWeather
-Takeschillyconditionsonvalleybottoms.
5.HarmattanWinds
-N.EwindswhichoriginatefromSaharaandblowacrossW.Africa
betweenNovemberandMarchtakingdryconditionsthere. 6.FohnWinds(Alps)
-Localcoldwindswhichslidedowntheleewardsideofthemountain
athighspeedandarewarmedproducingatemperaturerise.
Duetothehighspeedandtemperaturetheyareassociatedwithwild fires.
TheyareknownasChinookinRockyMountains,SantaAnasin
CaliforniaandMistralinFrance.
FactorsinfluencingWindFlow(Speedanddirection)
1.PressureGradient
Ifthepressuredifferencebetweenhighandlowpressureareasishigh
thewindsblowathighspeed(strong)butifit’slowtheyblowathigh speed(aregentle).
2.distancebetweenPlacesofHighandLowPressure
Ifthehighandlowpressureareasareneareachotherwindsblowat
highspeedbutifdistantfromeachotherwindsblowatlowspeed. 3.Rotationoftheearth
RotationoftheearthdeflectswindstotherightintheN.hemisphere
andtotheleftintheS.hemisphere. 4.FrictionalForce
 46

Ifthesurfaceoftheearthisruggedorhasobstaclessuchashills,
mountains,valleysorvegetationthewindisblockedcausingspeed
reductionanditsdirectionofflowisalsochanged.

STATISTICS
Statistics-numericalfigurescollectedsystematicallyandarrangedfor
aparticularpurpose.
Statisticaldata-informationpresentedinformofnumberse.g.
1.No.ofstudentsinaschool
2.Meandailytemperatureofaplace
3.Amountofmilkproduceddailyfromafarm
4.Amountofmoneyearnedfromexportsannually.
Statisticalmethods-techniquesofcollecting,recording,analysing,
presentingandinterpretingstatisticaldata.
SignificanceofStatistics
-Illustratesrelationshipbetween2ormorevaryingquantitiese.g.
beansproductionandacreageundercultivation.
-Summarisesgeographicalinformationwhichsavestimeandspace. -
Makescomparisonbetweencomponentse.g.provincewiththe
highestnumberofpeople.
-Predictionoffuturetrendsofweatherandclimate.
-Predictionofnaturaldisasterse.g.droughtsandfloods.
-Planningforprovisionofsocialamenitiese.g.hospitalsandschools.
TypesofStatisticalData
PrimaryData
-Firsthandororiginalinformationfromthefielde.g.
-Meandailytemperaturefromaweatherstation
-Enumeration/census
Secondary/DerivedData
-2ndhandinformationavailableinstoredsourcescompiledbyother researcherse.g.
Textbooks
Referencebooks
Maps
Video/audiotapes
 47

Textbooks
Newspapers
Magazines
Censusreports
Slides
Censusreports
NatureofStatisticalData
1.DiscreteData
-Whichisgiveninwholenumberse.g.
16elephants
1093tonnesofwheat
2.ContinuousData
-Factsandfigureswhichcantakeanyvaluee.g.
Fractionse.g.23¼
Decimalse.g.6.20mm
Valueswithinrangee.g.0-30◦c
3.GroupedData
-Whichisnonprecise/exactbutvaluesrangeingroupse.g.
Agegroup Numberofboys
15-19 32
20-24 8
SourcesofStatisticalData
1.PrimarySources
-Peopleorplaceswhichhave1sthandororiginalinformation.
Theinformationcanbecollectedbyobservation,measuring,counting,
photographingetc.
Advantages
Givefirsthandinformation
Theinformationcan’tbegotfromothersources
2.Secondarysources
-Materialsinwhichinformationcollectedbyotherswasstorede.g.text
books,referencebooks,etc.
MethodsofCollectingData(statisticalTechniques)
 48

1.Observation
-Useofeyestoobservefeaturesorweathertheninformationis
recordedimmediatelye.g.cloudcover,rocks,soil,landforms, vegetation,etc.
Advantages
-Gives1sthandinformationwhichisreliable.
-Relevantmaterialtothestudyiscollected.
-Timesavingsinceonedoesn’thavetolookfordatainmanyplaces.
Disadvantages
a)Dataonpastactivitiesisn’tavailable.
b)Maybehinderedbyweatherconditionse.g.mistanddust storms.
c)Ineffectiveforpeoplewithvisualdisabilities.
d)Tiresomeandexpensiveasitinvolvesalotoftravelling
becausephysicalpresenceisrequired.

2.interviewing
-Gatheringinformationfrompeoplebydirectdiscussionsthen
answersarerecorded.Itmaybefacetofaceoronatelephone.A
questionnairepreparedinadvanceisused.
Guidelines
-Oneshouldbepolite
-Warmandfriendly
-Respondents/intervieweesshouldbeassuredinformationis confidential.
-Respondentshouldnotbeinterruptedwhenansweringquestions.
-Theyshouldnotbegivencluesbutanswersshouldcomefromthem. Advantages
-Reliablefirsthandinformationiscollected. -
Interviewercanseekclarificationincaseofambiguityofanswers.
-Canbeusedonilliterate.
-Interviewercangaugetheaccuracyofresponses.
Disadvantages
a)Timeconsumingsinceonepersoncanbehandledatatime.
b)Expensiveandtiresomeasextensivetravellingisrequiredto
meettherespondents.
c)Mayencounterlanguagebarrieriftherespondentdoesn’t
speakthesamelanguageastheinterviewer.
 49

d)Arespondentmaylie,exaggerateordistortfactsleadingto
collectionofwronginformation. 3.Administeringquestionnaires
-Setofsystematicallystructuredquestionsprintedonpaperusedon
interviewsorsenttorespondentstofillanswers.
Types
Open-endedquestionnaire-inwhichrespondentisgivena
chancetoexpresshisviews.Thedisadvantageisthat
differentanswersaregivenwhicharedifficulttoanalyse.
Closed-ended(rigid)questionnaire-inwhichrespondents
aregivenanswerstochoosefrom. Characteristicsofagoodquestionnaire
Short
Usessimplelanguage
Systematicallyarrangedfromsimpletodifficult
Clearquestions
Doesn’ttouchonrespondent’sprivacy
Advantages
a)Comparisonscanbemadesincequestionsaresimilar.
b)Firsthandinformationwhichisrelevanttocurrenttrendsand
situationiscollected.
c)Savesmoneyontravellingasphysicalpresenceisn’trequired.
d)Savestimeasallrespondentsarehandledatthesametime.
e)Alotofinformationcanbecollected.
Disadvantages
a)Difficultanalysisduetodifferentanswers.
b)Somequestionnairesmaybesentbackwhileblankbylazy respondents.
c)Can’tbeusedonilliteraterespondents.
d)Somerespondentsmaywritewronginformation. 4.Contentanalysis
-Techniqueofcollectingdatafromsecondarysources.
Thisisbyreading,watchingfilms,viewingphotographsandlistening
togetwhatisrelevant.
Advantages
a)Easytogetdataifanalysed.
b)Cheapasthereisn’textensivetravelling
c)Savestimeasallinformationisinoneplace.
 50

d)Possibletogetolddata
Disadvantages
a)Difficulttoverifyaccuracyofdata
b)Datamaybeirrelevanttocurrenttrends
c)Uptodatedatamaynotbereadilyavailable 5.Measuring
-Determiningdistances,areas,heightordepthusinginstrumentsand recording.
-Distancecanbeestimatedbypacingortakingstepsofequaland unknownlength.

6.CollectingSamples
-Gettingasmallparte.g.ofsoil,rockorvegetationtorepresentthe
wholetobeusedtocarryouttestsinthelaboratory. 7.Counting/censustaking
-Arithmeticalcountingandrecording.
8.Photographing
-Capturingonfilmorvideoandstillphotographs.
9.Digging
-Usingtoolssuchashoepickaxe,spadeorsoilaugertogetsamples ofsoilandrocks.
10.Feelingandtouching
-Usingfingerstofeelthesurfacesofsoilsandrockstogettheir textures.
11.sampling
-Examiningbytakingasample-apartrepresentingthewhole (population).
TypesofSampling
1.RandomSampling
-Selectionofmembersofagrouphaphazardlywhereeveryitemhas
anequalchanceofbeingselectede.g.toselect5studentstogofora tourfromaclass:
Classmemberswritetheirnamesonpiecesofpaper
Theyarefoldedandputinabasket
Thebasketisshakenandfivespapersaretakenout
2.SystematicSampling
-Selectionofmembersofasamplefromanevenlydistributed
phenomenaatregularintervalse.g.afterevery10items/members.
3.Stratifiedsampling
-Selectionofmembersofasamplebybreakingthepopulationinto
homogenousgroupse.g.toselect6studentstogoforatour:
Breaktheclassintoboysandgirls
 51

Select3studentfromeachgroupbyrandomorsystematic sampling
Combineunitsfromeachgrouptoformtherequiredsample.
4.ClusterSampling
-Selectionofsamplebydividingthesampleintoclusterswithsimilar
characteristicsthenasampleistakenfromeachclusterand
representativechoicesfromeachclusterarecombinedtoforma
samplee.g.tosamplethehousingcostanestateischosento
representeachgroupandrepresentativechoicesarechosenfrom
eachestateandcombinedtoformasample.
Advantages
a)It’slessexpensive
b)Itsavestime
c)Itavoidsbias
Disadvantages
a)Apoorselectedsamplecanleadtomisleadinginformation
b)Systematicsamplingtoanevenlydistributedpopulation
Experimentation
–Conductingatestorinvestigationtoprovideevidencefororagainst
atheorye.g.todeterminethechemicalcompositionofrocksandsoils.
Advantages
a)Firsthanddataisobtained
b)Givesaccurateresultsifproperlyconducted.
c)Itcanleadtofurtherdiscoveries
Disadvantages
a)Maybeexpensiveasitinvolvesuseofexpensiveequipment.
b)Maybetimeconsuming
c)Useofdefectiveinstrumentsmayleadtoinaccurateresults
d)Improperhandlingofequipmentandchemicalsmayleadto accidents
MethodsofRecordingData
-Methodsoffstoringinformationtoavoidlosingit.
1.NoteTaking
-Writinginanotebookwhatisbeingobserved,answersduring
interviewsandthennotesarecompiledinschoolorofficewhen writingreport.
2.FillingInQuestionnaires
 52

-Fillinganswersinquestionnaireswhichareresponsesfroma
respondentbyaninterviewerorrespondenthimselfwhichhe/shethen sendsback.

3.Tallying
-Making4verticalorslantingstrokesandthe5thacrossthe4torecord
dataobtainedbycountingormeasuringsimilaritems.

4.Tabulation
-Drawingoftablesandfillingindatasystematicallye.g.weather recordingsheets.
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp(◦c) 24 24 23 2 1 1 1 1 1 20 22 23
2 9 7 7 8 9
Rainfall(mm 10 12 13 7 5 3 2 3 7 10 12 12
) 9 2 0 6 2 4 8 8 0 8 1 0
5.FieldSketching
-Summarisinginformationobservedinthefieldbymakingarough
drawingoflandscapeandlabellingtheessentialinformation.

6.Mapping/DrawingMaps
-Drawingofaroughmapofanareaofstudyandlabellinginwordsor
symbolsaccompaniedbykey.
 53

7.TapeRecording
-Recordingimageofanobjectorlandscapeonafilmwhichis
processedtogetaphotographthenthephotographsarelabelledto
avoidmixupduringstorage. 8.Labellingsamples
-Recordingconversationsduringinterviewsonaudiotapesusinga taperecorder.
-Permissionshouldbegotfromtherespondenttorecordhis/her responses.
Advantages
It’susedifresponsesaretoomanytoberecordedonanote book.
Itallowssmoothflowofdiscussionasaskingrespondentsto
repeatanswerswouldirritatethem.
AnalysisofData
-Examiningthenumericalfiguresindetail.
TechniquesofanalysingData
1.CalculationofPercentages
-Ifinthestudyofafarm10hectaresaredevotedtocoffee,whatisthe
%oftheareaundercoffee?
10/100×10%
ThetablebelowshowsthenumberoftouristswhovisitedKenyafrom
variouspartsoftheworldin2006.

No.oftouristsperyear
PlaceofOrigin 2005 2006
Europe 942000 965000
Africa 120000 154000
 54

Asia 97000 128000

Total 1159000 1247000
a)CalculatepercentageincreaseoftouristsfromAfricabetween 2005and2006.
2.MeasuresofCentralTendency
-Outstandinggeneralcharacteristicsofthedata.
a)ArithmeticMean -Theaverage

Advantages
Easytocalculateforasmalldata
Summarisesdatausingasingledigit
Easytounderstandandinterpret
Disadvantages
Difficulttocalculateforgroupeddata Affectedbyextremevalues
b)Median
-Themiddlevalueinasetofdataarrangedinorder.
M=(N+1)/2
(I)20,50,90,100,150,180,200,220,240,300,360.
(II)20,50,90,100,150,180,200,220,240,300.
Advantages
Easytocalculateinasmalldataset
Easytounderstandasit’sthevalueatthemiddle
Disadvantages
Difficulttocalculateinalargedataset
Doesn’tshowdatadistribution b)CalculationofRanges
-Differencebetweenthelargestandsmallestvalues.Calculatethe
rangeofforthedataabove.
c)Mode
-Mostfrequentlyrecurringvalueinasetofdata.
10,2,5,9,10,11,20,15,18,10.
Themodeis10.
Advantages
Easytofindasnocalculationisinvolved
 55

Easytounderstand
Disadvantage
Rarelyusedasameasureofcentraltendency StatisticalPresentationofData

FIELDWORK
-Scientificstudyofgeographyusingtheenvironmentasalaboratoryor
sourceofinformation.
TypesofFieldWork
1.FieldExcursion
-Visitinganareanearorfarfromtheschooltoseegeographical
phenomenathennotedownanddiscusslaterinclass.
Aim
a)Reinforcewhathasbeenlearntinclass
b)Gainmoregeographicalknowledge
c)Identifyandappreciategeographicalfeatures
d)Identifyproblemsofgeographicalinterest 2.FieldResearch
-Systematicproblemsolvingdonebyexpertsinwhichscientific
methodsofcollecting,recordingandanalysingdataareused. 3.FieldStudy
-Studyconductedwithinaneighbourhoodinwhichonethemeis
pursuede.g.‘Astudyofalocalfarm’.
ImportanceofFieldWork
1.Reinforceswhathasbeenlearntinclass.
2.Enablesonetogainmoregeographicalknowledge.
3.Itbreaksthemonotonyofclassroomwork.
4.Itprovideslearnerwithpracticalskillsofcollecting,recordingand
analysingdataandreportwriting.
5.Givesstudentsanopportunitytogooutandpractisewhatthey havelearntinclass.
6.Enablesstudentstofamiliarisethemselveswiththeenvironment
anddevelopapositiveattitudetowardsit.
7.Enablesstudentstodevelopapositiveattitudetowardsmanual work.
8.Promotesdevelopmentofvirtueslikecooperationbyworkingin groups.
FieldWorkProcedure(StepsFollowed)
1.IdentificationofTopic/Theme
-Reasonwhyyouwanttocarryoutfieldstudye.g.‘Astudyofrocks aroundtheschool’
2.IdentificationoftheAreaofStudy
 56

-Determiningtheareatobeusedforstudy.
-Shouldbechosencarefullytoensurethatthefieldstudyissuccessful.
ConditionsItShouldMeet
a)Shouldcontainsufficientinformation
b)Shouldbewithinaconveniencedistancetoreduceexpenses
3.StatementofObjectives
-Statingaimsofcarryingthefieldstudy.
-Actasguidelinestoactivitiestobeundertakenduringfieldwork.
Theyshouldbesimple,brief,testableandachievable.E.g.forthetopic
‘Astudyofalocalfarm’objectivescouldbestatedasfollows:
Tofindoutmethodsoffarminginalocalfarm
Toidentifythecattlebreedsinthefarm
Toinvestigatetheproblemsfacingthefarm.
4.FormulationofHypotheses
-Assumptionssetbeforefieldworkwhosevalidityoracceptanceisto beproved.
TypesofHypotheses
NullHypothesis(Ho)
-Onestatedinnegativeforme.g.‘Thereisnorelationshipbetween
rainfallandcropyield’.
Alternative/Substantivehypothesis(H1)
-Onestatedpositivelye.g.‘mostfoodstuffssoldintheneighbourhood
don’tcomefromtheimmediateneighbourhood’.
Quantitativewordsshouldbeusede.g.more,most,majority.Itshould notbeobvious.
5.PreparationoftheFieldStudy Itinvolves:
a)SeekPermissionfromRelevantAuthorities
-Seekingpermissionfromschoolandauthorityintheareayouare visiting.
Itisimportantto:
Toavoidbeingdeniedpermissiontoenterthere
Enablesindividualstosetearlythesuitabledateandtimeof visit
Helpstoarrangeforaguidetoconductyouaround
b)ConductReconnaissance(Pre-Visit)
-Afamiliarisationtouroftheintendedareaofstudy. Itisimportantto:
Todetermineappropriateroutestobetaken
Enablestogetdocumentsfromofficials
 57

Helpsonetoidentifytheappropriatemethodsofdata collection
Helpstoidentifyappropriateequipmenttobeused
c)HoldDiscussionInClass
-Lookingthroughformulatedobjectivesandhypotheses. It’simportantto:
Determinetheirsuitability
Makeadjustments
Decideupondatarecordingmethods
d)PreparationofaQuestionnaire
-Importantwheretheinterviewerisnotabletobewithrespondentsfor alongtime.
e)DividingIntoGroups
Toeasecongestionintheareaofstudy
Tocreateorderduringfieldwork
Toreducefatigueamongparticipants
Tohelpparticipantscollectdatawithinthetimegiven
f)PreparationforDocuments
Topographicalmapstoshowtheroutesyouwillfollow
Tablesforfillingininformation Permissiondocuments
g)ReadingThroughRelevantBooks
-Readingaboutthetopicandtheareaofstudy
Importantinthatithelpsparticipantstoknow:
Thekindofdatatheyneedtocollect
Thetechniquestobeemployedinthefield.
h)PreparationofaWorkSchedule
-Atimetabletobefollowedonthedayoffieldstudy.
Itisimportantto:
Indicatethespecifictimewheneachactivityshouldtakeplace
Reducetimewastagebyensuringpropertimemanagement
Ensureallimportantareasarecoveredandnoneisforgotten
Provideanestimateoftotaltimerequiredforstudy
i)SelectionofImportantToolsandEquipment
-Tapemeasureandrulersformeasuring,pencilsfordrawingsketch
maps,notebooksforwritingnotes,polythenebagforsortingand
carryingsamples,camerasfortakingphotographs,geologicalhammer
 58

gettingrocksamplesandhoefordiggingtogetsoilsamples,etc.
6.CarryingOuttheFieldStudy
-Settingofftogototheareaofstudytolookfordatawhere
techniquesofcollectingandrecordingdataareapplied.
FollowUpActivities
-Afterdataiscollectedandrecordedit’ssummarisedinthefollowing ways:
Discussingthefindingsinclassgivingreportsthroughgroup leaders
Writingreportsinessayform
Calculationofpercentages,means,mediansandmodes
Laboratorytestingofsamples
Presentationofdatausingmethodssuchasgraphs,piecharts, etc.
ProblemsEncounteredinFieldwork
1.LanguageBarrier
-Inabilitytocommunicateduetotheinterviewerandtherespondent
notsharingthesamelanguageorrespondentsmaybeilliterateand
thusunabletofillquestionnaire.Theproblemsare:
Datamaynotbecollected
Illiteratepeoplemaygivewronganswerswhileattempting questionnaires
Aninterpretermayhavetobeengageswhowouldbepaid
whichwouldraisecosts.
Answersmaybedistortedbytheinterpreter
2.Hostility
Thosebeingapproachedtogiveanswersmaybecomeharshdue
tofeelingthattheirtimeisbeingwastedwhichwouldcause
thefieldstudytobeunsuccessful. 3.DishonestRespondents
-Respondentsgivingwronginformationduetosuspicionfearof
shameorsuperstition. 4.BadWeather
-Rainingheavilymakingitimpossibletoproceedwithdatacollection
anddifficultyinmovement.
-Becomingveryhotmakingparticipantsuncomfortableandthus
unabletoproceedwithdatacollectionsmoothly. -
Becomingmistyorfoggycausinginvisibilityproblems.
5.AccidentsintheField
 59

Onemayfallandgetinjuredwhenwalkingonruggedareas.
Injuriesmayresultwhenusingtoolstogetsamplesbycuttingusing
pangasorknivesanddiggingusinghoes. 6.AttacksbyWildAnimals
-Participantsmayencounterwildanimalswhencarryingoutthestudy
inbushyarease.g.snakeswhichmaybitethem,rhinoswhichmay chargeatthem,etc.
7.Inaccessibility
-physicalbarrierssuchasswamps,riverswithoutbridges,steep
slopesandthickvegetationmayhinderparticipantsfromreaching
areaswithvitalinformation.
MINERALSANDROCKS
Minerals
-Inorganicsubstancesoccurringnaturallyatorbelowtheearth’s surface.
CharacteristicsofMinerals
1.Differentdegreesofhardnesse.g.someareveryharde.g.diamond
whileothersareverysofte.g.talc.
2.Somehaveatomsarrangedinanorderlymannertoformcrystals
e.g.quartzforma6-sidedprism.
3.Varyingnumberofelementse.g.goldhasone(Av)whilequartzhas 2(SiO2).
4.Differentabilitiestoallowlighttopassthroughe.g.someare
transparent,opaqueortranslucent.
5.Specificcolourse.g.goldisshinyyellowwhilecopperisbrown.
6.Havespecificsurfaceappearance(lustre)whentheyreflectlighti.e.
metallic(shiny)ornon-metallic(glasslike).
7.Definitechemicalcompositionorconstantratioofelementse.g.
quartzhasoneatomofsiliconandtwoatomsofoxygen.
8.Tendencytobreakalongcertainlinesorcleavage)e.g.flinthas
cleavagelikethatofglass.
9.Differentdensitiese.g.someareveryheavye.g.leadwhileothers
arelighte.g.silicateminerals.
10.Somemineralsconductelectricitywhileothersdon’te.g.copper
conductswhilediamonddoesn’t.
11.Somecanbepressedintodifferentshapeswhileotherscan’te.g.
copperismalleablewhileflintisn’t.
TypesofMinerals
Metallicminerals
 60

-FerrousMinerals-limonite,magnetite,sideriteandhaematite. -Non-
ferrousMinerals-copper,aluminium,gold,lead,etc.
-Non-metallicMinerals-graphite,diamond,asbestos,coal,etc. -Energyminerals-
petroleum,coalanduranium. Rocks
-Aconsolidatedmaterialcomposedofgrainsofoneormoreminerals.
ClassificationofRocks
1.IgneousRocks
-Rocksformedwhenmoltenmaterialfromtheearth’sinteriorcools
andsolidifiesonorbeneaththeearth’ssurface.
TypesofIgneousRocks
a)IntrusiveIgneousRocks
-Rocksformedwhenmagmacoolsandsolidifiesbelowtheearth’s
surfacee.g.granite,diorite,gabbro,peridotite.
-Havecoarsetextureasaresultofslowcoolinggivingmineralsmore
timetoformlargecrystals. -Areclassifiedfurtherintotwo:
(i)Hypabyssalrocks-intrusiveigneousrockswhicharenearthe earth’ssurface.
(ii)Plutonicrocks-intrusiveigneousrockswhicharedeepbelowthe surface.
b)ExtrusiveIgneousRocks
-Rocksformedwhenlavasolidifiesontheearth’ssurface. -
Havefinetextureduetofastcoolinggivingmineralslesstimeto
collecttogethertoformlargercrystals.
Theyareoftwotypesnamely:
(i)VolcanicEjecta
-Extrusiveigneousrocksformedinthefollowingways:
Whenashandlavaejectedfromundergroundastheyfallonthe
earth’ssurfacee.g.pumice.
Whendustandashejectedsettleonthegroundandget
compressedtoformarocke.g.tuff.
(ii)LavaFlows
-Extrusiveigneousrocksformedwhenbasiclavaflowsovera
considerabledistancethencoolsandsolidifiese.g.basaltand obsidian.
2.SedimentaryRocks
 61

-Rocksformedwhenparticlesofotherrocksarelaiddownand
compressedintolayersorwhenplantandanimalremainsareburied
andcompressedandcompacted. Whentheyarelaiddownalayerisformed.
Asdepositioncontinuesadditionallayersareformedwhich
compressthelowerlayersintoahardmass.
TypesofSedimentaryRocks
a)MechanicallyFormedSedimentaryRocks
-Sedimentaryrocksformedwhenweatheredigneousormetamorphic
rocksaredepositedandcompactede.g.sandstoneandshale.
b)OrganicallyformedSedimentaryRocks
-Sedimentaryrocksformedwhenanimalandplantoranimalremains
areburied,compressedandcompacted.
ClassificationofOrganicallyFormedSedimentaryRocks
(i)Calcareousrocks-richincalciumcarbonatee.g.chalkandlimestone.
Coralrocksareformedfromremainsofseapolypswhichextractlime
fromthesea,buildshellsforprotection,attachthemselvestoeach
otherandrockstoliveincolonies,thendieandshellstoformcoral rocks.
(ii)FerruginousRocks-richinirone.g.ironstone.
(iii)SiliceousRocks-richinsilicae.g.diatomite.
(iv)CarbonaceousRocks-richincarbone.g.coal.
c)ChemicallyformedSedimentaryRocks
-Sedimentaryrocksformedwhenmaterialsdissolvedinwater
chemicallyreactformingnewsubstancesthenwaterevaporated
leavinglayersofthosesalts.
ClassificationofChemicallyFormedSedimentaryRocks
(i)Carbonatese.g.tronaanddolomite
(ii)Sulphates-sulphatecompounds
(iii)Chloridese.g.halite (iv)Silicatese.g.flint
(v)Ironstonese.g.haematiteandlimonite.
3.MetamorphicRocks
-Rockswhichhavechangedtheirphysicalappearanceandchemical
propertiesasaresultofsubjectiontogreatheatandpressuree.g.
Gneissfromgranite
Slatefromclay
 62

Marblefromlimestone
Quartzitefromsandstones
DistributionofMajorRocksinKenya
EasternKenyaregion
Themajorrocksaremetamorphicrockse.g.marbleinpartsof
MachakosandschistandgneissinpartsofKitui.
VolcanicrocksinYattaplateauandKapitiplans.
Sedimentaryrockse.g.limestonerocksusedinBamburifor cementmanufacturing.
CoastalRegion
Majorrocksaresedimentaryrockse.g.limestoneusedin
Bamburiforcementmanufacture.
TherearevolcanicrocksinTsavorichingroundwaterresources.

NorthernandN.ERegion
Dominatedbysedimentarysands.
TherearevolcanicrocksinMt.MarsabitandaroundRiftValley.
RiftValleyandKenyaHighlands
Dominatedbyvolcanicrocks
Therearemetamorphicrockswhichhaveresultedfromchanging ofigneousrocks.
L.VictoriaBasin
GraniteandgneissdominateWesternKenyawheretheyform
highrockyhillscalledgranitictorscommoninKisii,Maragoliand Bunyoreareas.
Sedimentaryrocksdepositedbyriverse.g.Nyando,Nzoia,Yala andSondu.
SignificanceofRocks
1.Rocksweathertoformsoilwhichisimportantinagriculture.
2.Formaquiferswhichstoregroundwaterwhichformssprings
whichformriversandwellswhichprovidewaterfordomesticand industrialuse.
3.Somerocksaresourcesofbuildingmaterialse.g.igneousrocks
areusedtomakeballastandlimestonerocksareusedasbuilding
blocksandrawmaterialincementmanufacturing.
4.Phosphateandnitraterocksareusedtomakefertiliserusedin agriculture.
5.GranitictorsofW.Kenyaandhighvolcanicpeakssuchasthoseof
Mt.Kenyaareatouristattractionwhichbringsforeignexchange.
6.Pumiceisusedasascrubbingstone.
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7.Arocksuchascoalisusedasfuelforheating,smeltingofiron
andthermalelectricitygeneration.
8.Sourceofmineralse.g.oilandcoalisassociatedwithsedimentary rocks.

MINING
-Processofextractingvaluablemineralsfromtheearth’ssurface.
FormationsinWhichMineralsOccur
1.VeinsandLodes
-Occurrenceofmineralsincrevices,cracksorfaultsinigneousrocks.
Theyaresaidtooccurinveinsiftheyoccurthereinsmall quantities.
Saidtooccurinlodesiftheyoccurthereinlargequantitiese.g.
zinc,copperandsilver. 2.Reefs
-Veinsandlodeswhichareexposedonthesurface.
3.Seams/Layers/Beds
-Occurrenceofmineralsassedimentaryorasaresultofcompression
ofaccumulatedorganicorinorganicmateriale.g.coalandhalite. 4.AlluvialDeposits
-Occurrenceofmineralswhilemixedwithmaterialssuchassand, gravel,silt,etc.
Theseweremineralswhichweredetachedfromtheveinsby
weatheringandcarriedawaybystreamsandriversandgotdeposited
e.g.gold,diamondandplatinum. 5.WeatheringProducts
-Mineralsformedbydeepweatheringofrocksthenleachingcarried
mineralsfromthetoptolowerlayerswheretheyaccumulatede.g.
aluminium,nickel,ironandmanganese. 6.Oilpools/Wells
-Occurrenceofmineralsinpoolsorwellsinsedimentaryrockse.g.
petroleumandnaturalgas.
ConditionsNecessaryforFormationofPetroleum

a)Presenceoffossilsororganicremains
 64

b)Presenceofsedimentaryrocksforburyingorganicremains.
c)Presenceofpressuretocompressorganicremainstocookthe
oilandnaturalgasoutoforganicmatter.
d)Presenceofaporousreservoirrocktostoreandtransmit
petroleumtotheoilpoolse.g.limestoneandsandstone.
e)Presenceofatraplikeasynclinetoholdpetroleuminareservoir
topreventitsescape.
f)Presenceofimpermeablerocksbelowthetraporsynclineto
preventpetroleumfrompercolatingfurtherunderground.
FactorsInfluencingExploitationofMinerals
1.ValueofMineral
Mineralsofhighvaluewillbeminedeveniftheyoccurinsmall
quantitiesbecauseonesolditwillbepossibletooffsetminingcosts
andmakeaprofitandviceversa. 2.QualityofOre
Miningcanbedoneifthemineraldepositshavehighmineralcontent
becausetheyareeconomicaltoworkonbutdepositswithlowmineral
contentarerarelyworkedonexceptifthemineralinthemisraree.g.
uranium.
3.SizeofDeposit
Mineralswhicharen’tofhighvaluehavetooccurinlargequantitiesfor
themtobeminedsothatitwillbeapossibletorecoverminingcosts andmakeaprofit.
4.Capital
Lackofcapitalcausesdevelopingcountriesnottoexploitminerals
andleaveittointernationalcompaniesbecausealotofmoneyis
neededforexploration,infrastructure,salaries,energyetce.g.titanium
miningatKwaleisbeingdonebyTiomincompanyfromCanada.
5.MethodofMining
Amineralrequiringopencastminingwillbeminedevenifthemineral
depositislargebutonerequiringundergroundminingwillbeextracted
ifitsinlargedepositorifitsofhighvalueorrare. 6.Transportcosts
Mineralsoccurringinremoteareasfarfromthemarketsarenotlikely
tobeexploitedifthetransportsystemispoorlydevelopedsince
mineraloreisheavyandbulkyandtransportingitbyroadandrailway isexpensive.
 65

7.MarketfortheMineral
Miningcanbedoneifthemineralisindemandandifthepricesare
reasonablesothatminingcostsareoffsetandaprofitisrealised. 8.PoliticalInfluence
Mineraldepositsatthebordersoftwocountriesmaynotbeexploited
asadisputemayariseconcerningwhommineite.g.disputebetween
IraqandKuwaitoverRumailashouldoilfield.
9.Labour
Exploitationofsomemineralsrequireskilledworkersandiftheylackit
maynotbedoneasisthecaseindevelopingcountriesbecause
expatriateshavetobeengagedandareveryexpensivetopaywhich
mayreducestheprofitsaccruingfrommining.
MethodsofMining
1.OpenCastMining
-Methodofextractingmineralswhichareneartheearth’ssurface.
Types
a)Stripping
-Strippingoffoftheunwantedmateriallyingontopofthemineral
depositandthendiggingtoremovethemineralbearingrockifit’ssoft
orifit’shardexplosivesmaybeusedtoloosenitandthenhugepower
shovelsareemployedtodigupthemineraldeposits.
b)Hill-slopeBoring
-Usingboringinstrumentsknownasaugerstodrilloutmineraldeposit
andbringittothesurface.
2.undergroundMining
-Methodemployedwhenthemineralliesverydeepbelowthesurface
andtheoverburdenistoothicktoberemovedbymechanicalmeans.
Types
a)ShaftMethod
-Methodemployedwhenthemineralbearingrockdoesn’toutcrop.
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Howit’scarriedOut
Verticalshaftsaresunkintotheearth’scrusttoreachthelayer withthemineral.
Horizontaltunnelsaredugfromtheverticalshafttoreachthe mineral.
Propsareerectedtosupporttherooftopreventitfrom collapsing.
Themineralbearingrockisblastedloosebyexplosives.
Thedepositistransportedonlightrailorconveyorbelttothe bottomoftheshaft.
Itisthenbroughttothesurfaceinacraneoraliftcalledcage.
a)Drift/AditMining
-Methodemployedwhenthemineraldepositcanbereachedfromthe valleysides.
Horizontaltunnels(adits)areconstructedfromthesideofthehill.
Railwaylineisconstructedintotheminetobringoutthemineral
e.g.miningofcopperatKilembeinUganda.
b)SolutionMethod
-Methodusedinminingsolublemineralssuchassulphur,salt,potash, etc.
Superheatedwaterisejectedintosaltdeposits.
Themineraldissolvesormelts. Thesolutionisthenpumpedintothesurface.
c)Drilling
-Methodemployedinexploitationofpetroleum.
Wells(oilderricks)aredrilled.
Oilandnaturalgasarebroughttothesurfaceundertheirown
pressureorbypumping. 3.Alluvial/PlacerMining
-Methodusedtoextractmineralsoccurringinalluvialdepositse.g.
gold,tin,diamondsandplatinum.
Types
 67

a)Panning Itinvolves:
Diggingamixtureofsand,gravelandmineralfromtheriverbed.
Puttingitinapanandrotatingthepanwhiletilted.
Thelightersandorgraveliswashedonthesideleavingthe
heaviermineralatthebottomofthepane.g.goldminingin
MigoriandR.MorunBedsinW.Pokot.
b)Dredging
Adredgerscoopswaterloggedalluviumfromthebedofalake.
Thealluviumispassedoverslopingchannelswithseriesoftraps.
Wastesarewashedawayanddensermaterialsareleftatthe
bottomofthetrape.g.miningofsodaashatL.Magadi.
c)HydraulicMining
-Methodusedwhenalluvialdepositoccursonavalleyside.
Apowerfuljetofwaterisdirectedatthedeposit.
Gravelandmineralcollectatthevalleybecauseofthegreat pressure.
Themineralgrainsarerecoveredandwashedout.
d)Sub-marineMining
-Methodemployedinextractingmineralsinalluvialdepositslyingdeep
downtheoceanfloor.
Asub-marinedredgergoesdowntheoceanfloor.
Itscoopsmineraldepositandrisestothesurface.
Thealluviumispassedoverslopingchannelswithseriesoftraps.
Wastesarewashedawayanddensermaterialsareleftatthe bottomofthetrap.
SignificanceofMinerals/MininginKenya
1.Kenyaearnsforeignexchangefromexportationofmineralswhichis
usedtoimportgoodsandservicesandfunddevelopmentprojects.
2.Miningisasourceofemploymenttopeoplesuchasthosewho
workinmines,incementfactories,intransportsector,etc.
3.Mininghasledtodevelopmentofindustriesbyprovidingraw
materialsusedinthoseindustriese.g.limestoneusedincement
factories,coalusedinironandsteelindustries,sodaashusedin glassindustry,etc.
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4.Mininghasledtodevelopmentoftransportsystemtomakemining
areasaccessiblee.g.Magadisodamineisconnectedtothemain Mombasa-
Nairobirailwayline.
5.Mininghasledtodevelopmentofsettlementse.g.Magaditown
whichoriginatedfromtheminingofsodaash.
6.Miningisasourceofmarketforgoodsandservicese.g.thereare
shopsandmarkets,bankingandinsuranceservicesofferedto
peopleworkinginminesandrelatedindustries.
7.Hasledtodevelopmentofsocialamenitiesbyprovidingsocial
facilitiessuchashousing,health,electricity,waterandeducation
alongsideinfrastructure.
DistributionofMineralsinE.Africa
-Phosphatesusedinthemanufactureoffertiliser-TororoinUganda
andMajinguHillinTanzania.
-Limestoneusedincementmanufacturing-HimainN.WUganda,
TangainTanzania,AthiRiverandBamburiinKenya.
-Fluorsparasourceoffluorineusedinchemicalindustries-KerioValley inKenya.
-Commonsaltusedforconsumption-KilifiandMagadiinKenyaandL. KitweinUganda.
-Diatomiteusedinmakinginsulators–KariandusinearGilgiland GicheruinNyandarua.
-StonesinMachakos,MutongaandMbeere.
-Carbondioxideusedinmakingdryiceandinbeerandsoftdrinks industry-
EsagariinBaringoandKagweinKiambu.
-Diamondusedtomakeornaments,glasscuttersanddrills-Mwaduiin Tanzania.
-Titaniumusedinthemanufactureofinsulatorsforaircraft-Kwale district.
-GemstonesnearVoiandMwatate.
-Soapstoneusedforsculpture-TabakainKisii.
-Copperusedtomakeelectricalwiresandcoins-KilembeinUganda.
-Goldusedtomakemedalsandjewelleryandasabasisofworld currency-
MusomainTanzania,KakamegaandMigoriinKenya.
-Coalusedinsmeltingofironandgenerationofthermalelectricity-in
RuvumaRiverBasinandKiviraSongweinTanzania.
ProblemsFacingMiningIndustryinKenya
1.InadequatecapitalmakingKenyanottobenefitfrommineral
resourcesbecauseminingislefttomultinationalcompanieswho
pocketallthemoneytorecoverminingcost.
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2.Areaswheremineraldepositsareinaccessibleduetopoor
transportandinfrastructurewhichmakesprospectingandmining difficult.
3.Insufficientskilledpersonnelcausingdependenceonexpatriates
whoareexpensivetopaywhichreducesprofitsaccruingfrom mining.
4.Mostofminingiscontrolledbyforeigncompaniessomostofthe
mineralrevenueendsuptothemassalariesanddividends.
5.Occurrenceofmineralsinverysmalldepositswhicharenot economicallyviable.
6.Lackofpowersupplyespeciallyinremoteareaswithminerals.
7.Landuseconflictswhichaffectmininge.g.inKwalebetween
Tiominandthelocalpeopleduetoinadequatecompensation.
EffectofminingontheEnvironment
1.Renderslanduselessforothereconomicactivitiessuchas
agriculture(dereliction)duetoopenpitsleftonlandandheapsof
rockwastelitterdumpedonland.
2.Pollutestheenvironmente.g.atmosphericpollutionfromdustand
smokefromtractorsandtrucks,waterpollutionfromspillingofoil
fromoffshoreoildrillingandsoilpollutionfromchemicalsand
explosivesusedinmining.
3.Leadstolossofbio-diversityduetodestructionvegetationwhich
alsodestroyshabitatsofvariousanimalsleadingtotheir destructionalso.
4.Causessoildegradatione.g.bylooseningthesoilwhichmakesit
vulnerabletoagentsoferosionlikewindandwater,tractorsand
truckscompactthesoilmakingwaterinfiltrationdifficultand
chemicalsusedinterferingwithsoilchemicalcompositionmakingit
unsuitableforagriculture.
5.Causesmasswastingwhenexplosivesandheavyequipmentused
inminingshakethegroundmakingweatheredmaterialstomove
fasterdownslopeundertheinfluenceofgravity.
TronaminingonL.Magadi
Location
-L.Magadiis120kmS.WofNairobiontheflooroftheGreatRiftValley.
Occurrence
-Tronadepositsoccurasasolutionofsodiumsaltsthemainones
beingsodiumsequicarbonateandsodiumchloride.
ModeofFormation
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Rainwaterdissolvessodasaltsinvolcanicrocks.
Thesolutionpercolatesthroughtherocksandsoilandgets beneaththebasin.
Theaccumulatedsolutionisheatedbythehotrocksbeneath.
Pressurebuildsupandtheheatedsolutionispushedtothe surface.
Itcomesoutofthegroundinformofhotspringsbeloworonthe sidesofthelake.
Duetohightemperaturewaterevaporatesleavingbehindcrystals oftrona.
ExtractionandProcessing
Adredgerscoopstronaoutofthelake.
Itcrushesitintosmallerpiecesandseparatesitfromrockdebris.
Thematerialismixedwithwatertoformslurryandtransported
tofactoryonthelake’sshore.
Inthefactorytheslurryismixedwithwatertowashout
impuritiessuchasmudandsaltanddried.
Itissenttodesiccatorsandheatedtoremovemoistureand
hydrogentoformsodaash.
Sodaashiscooledandgroundintopowderandsieved.
It’spackedintopaperbags,weighedandtransportedtothe market.
UsesofSodaash
Usedinthe:
a)Glassindustryinthemanufactureofglassesandbottles.
b)Manufactureofsoapsanddetergents.
c)Softeningwaterinpapermaking.
d)Intextileindustry.
e)Inoilrefining.
BenefitstotheEconomy
1.HasledtogrowthofMagaditownship.
2.Hasledtodevelopmentofsocialamenitiessuchashospitalsand
schoolsandwaterfromOloibortotoRiverwhichhasbenefitedthe localpeople.
3.Hasledtodevelopmentofinfrastructuree.g.railwaylinefrom KonzatoL.Magadi.
12.TheMagadiSodaCompanyemploysmanyKenyansincludingthe nomadicMaasai.
13.ExportsofsodaashearnKenyaasubstantialamountofforeign exchange.
Problems
1.Stiffcompetitionfromdevelopedcountrieswithlargesodadeposits
 71

e.g.U.S.AandIsrael.
2.Lowvalueofsaltisinsufficienttomeetitsproductioncost.
3.Highlabourcostsduetoincentivesgivensothatworkersagreeto
workinthehostileenvironmentofL.Magadi.
GoldinS.Africa
Goldoccursassmallgrainsinahardrock.
It’sminedbyshaftminingsinceitsbearingrocksaredeepbelowthe surface.
ThemainminingareaistheWitwatersrandandothersare Ogendaalrusandlydenburg.
Processing
Oreiscrushedtoafinepowderydust.
Mixedwithwateruntilitisfluidmud.
Cyanideisaddedtodissolvegold.
Thefluidisrunoffwithgolddissolvedleavingbehindwastesalts.
Zincdustisaddedtofiltergoldforsolidification.
Goldsinksasitisdenser.
Goldissmeltedandcastintoingots.
SignificancetotheEconomyofS.Africa
1.Earnsthecountryforeignexchangeusedforpayingforeigndebts.
2.Offersemploymenttomanypeopleraisingtheirlivingstandards.
3.Hasledtowidespreadurbanisationcontributingtoformationof
Witwatersrandconurbation.
4.Hasformedabroadmarketforotherindustriese.g.engineering,
footwear,electricalandconstructionindustries.
5.Hasledtoimprovementofinfrastructureandsocialamenitiese.g.
roads,schools,hospitals,etc.
6.Ledtodevelopmentofagriculture.
ProblemsFacingGoldmining
1.Expensivetomineforlyingdeeply.
2.Largecapitalisrequiredtostartmines.
3.Complicationofminingbyfoldsandfaultsinthecrust.
4.Lowgoldcontentintheore.
5.Problemofremovalofundergroundwater.
6.Lackofadequatesupplyoffreshwateronthesurfaceinmining areas.
7.Accidentsresultingfromcollapsingofmineroofs.
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DiamondMininginS.Africa
Diamondisthehardestknownsubstance.
-MinedinKimberly,BloemfonteinandAlexanderBay.
-Minedbyundergroundminingoralluvialmining.
Processing
DiamondbearingKimberliteiscrushed
Crushedrockismixedwithwater
Diamondsinkstothebottomasit’sdenser
Waterandlessdenseresiduearedrainedoff
Remainingmaterialisputonheavilygreasedtraysandwashed
Diamondrepelswatersoitstickstogreasewhileremnantsare drainedoff
Diamondsarethensortedoutandgradedintogemdiamonds
andindustrialtype(forcuttingpurposes).
ContributiontotheEconomy
1.Providesemploymenttothousandsofpeople
2.Earnsthecountrysubstantialforeignexchange
3.Hasledtogrowthofurbancentrese.g.PretoriaandKimberly.
4.Hascontributedtodevelopmentofinfrastructure
ProblemsFacingDiamondMining
1.Fluctuationintheworldmarketprices
2.Highcostofminingandprocessingdiamond
3.depletionofmines
4.Lowmineralintheoremakingminingexpensive
5.labourcompetitionwithothersectorse.g.manufacturingandgold mining
PetroleumintheMiddleEast
Oilisathickblackstickyliquidcalledcrudeoil
Itwasformedfromsmallcreaturesthatlivedinshallowlagoons about100-
200mago.
Decayingremainsofthosecreaturesmixedwithmudatthe bottomassediments
Thesedimentspiledoneachotherandslowlytransformedinto sedimentaryrocks
Graduallytheremainswereconvertedintooilandgas.
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MajoroilproducersintheMiddleEastareSaudiArabiawiththelargest
reserves,Iraq,KuwaitandUnitedArabEmirates.
MiddleEastaccountsfor64%ofworldoilreserves.
ThereareseveralgiantoilfieldsinGhawarinSaudiArabiaandKirkuk inIraq.
Processing
Crudeoilisprocessedbyrefiningusingatechniquecalledfractional distillation.
Theprocesstakesplacenearaspossibletothemarketasit’scheaper
totransportcrudeoilthanthedifferentrefinedproducts.
It’sprocessedintosecondaryproductssuchaspetrol,paraffin,
lubricatingoils,dyes,fertilisersandplastics.
Impuritiesareremovedfromthecrudeoil
Crudeoilisheatedbeforeenteringfluctionatingcolumn
It’sturnedintovapourorgas
Differentingredientsturnbacktoliquidatdifferenttemperatures.
Ingredientsgraduallycool,condenseandcollectinvarioustrays
andallowedtooverflowuntiltheyreachanoutlet.
ContributiontotheEconomies
1.Arab’sinvestmentsoverseashaveincreasedduetooilreserves.
2.Highincomepercapitaduetooilprofits.
3.Hasledtodevelopmentofcitiese.g.TripoliinLibya.
4.Investmentofoilmoneyinothersectorse.g.powerstations,
cementfactoriesandexploitationofotherminerals.
5.Earnsthecountriessubstantialforeignexchange
6.Increasedpoliticalandmilitarypower.
7.Artesianwaterismadeavailablefordomesticandirrigation purposese.g.inLibya.
8.Oilcompanieshelpinfixingdownthesanddunesandplantingtrees inthedeserts.
 74

FORM2GEOGRAPHY

INTERNALLANDFORMING/ENDOGENETICPROCESSES
-Processesoperatingintheinterioroftheearthresultinginthe
formationofnaturalphysicalfeaturesorlandforms.
Theyarecausedbyearthmovements.
Examplesoftheseprocessesarefolding,faultingandVulcanicity.
Formationoflandformsbyinternallandformingprocessesis determinedby:
Natureandageofearthmaterials
Typeofmovementinvolved
Intensityandscaleofmovementinvolved
CrustalEarthMovements
-Displacementoftheearth’scrustalrocks.
Theyarebroughtaboutbytectonicforceswhichoriginateandoperate
intheinterioroftheearthe.g.tensionalforces(whichoperatealong
horizontalplanemovingawayfromeachother),compressionalforces
(whichoperatealonghorizontalplanemovingtowardseachother),
shearforces(whichmovepasteachotherwithunequalstrength)and
gravitationalforces(whichattractsthingstotheearth’scentre).
Earthmovementsareof2types:
1.Horizontal/lateral/orogenicmovements
2.Vertical/epeirogenicmovements
HorizontalEarthMovements
-Movementswhichactalongahorizontalplanewithincrustalrocks.
Theyarecausedbytensionalandcompressionalandshearforces.
Effects Theycause:
Strainandstretchingofcrustalrocksduetostretchingcausedby
tensionalforceswhichcauseformationofcracksorfaults.
Squeezingandshorteningofcrustalbycompressionalforces
rockswhichcausethemwhichalsocauseformationoffaults.
Crustalrockstoshearbyslippingpasteachotherorbydividing
intolayerswhichiscausedbyshearforces.
ResultsofHorizontalEarthMovements
-resultsintheformationofthefollowingfeatures:
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1.Faults 5.Basins
2.Riftvalleys 6.Tiltblocks
3.foldmountains 7.Blockmountains
4.Escarpments
VerticalEarthMovements
-Movementswhichoccuralongtheearth’sradiusortowardsthe
earth’ssurfaceortowardsitscentre.
Effects
Causes:
Subsiding/sinking/downwarpingorpullingofcrustalrocks downwards.
Uplifting/upwarpingorpushingofcrustalrocksupwards
Tiltingofcrustalrocksorshearinginverticaldirectiondue
togreaterupliftononeside.
ResultsofVerticalEarthMovements
1.Raisedcliffs 5.Plateaus
2.Tiltblocks 6.basins
3.Riftvalleys
4.Faultscarps/escarpments
CausesofEarthMovements
(a) Magmamovementwithintheearth’scrust.
(b) Gravitationalforce
(c)Convectionalcurrentsinthemantle
(d) Isostaticadjustment
MagmaMovementwithintheEarth’sCrust
Whenmagmamoveswithforcepushingcrustalrocks
horizontallyorvertically.
Whenmagmamovesfromreservoirandleavesempty
spacesontowhichcrustalrocksarepulledinwards.
GravitationalForce
-Whentheattractiveforceoftheearthpullscrustalrocksintoempty
spacesleftaftermagmaescapingfromthereservoir.
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ConvectionalCurrentswithinMantle

-Whenconvectionalcurrentsinmagmainmantledrugcrustalrocksby friction.
Horizontalmovementofcurrentscausehorizontalmovementswhile
verticalcauseverticalmovements.
IsostaticAdjustment
-Risingofcontinentalmassestorestoretheupsetstateofbalance
betweensialandsimalayers.
-Isostacyisthestateofbalancebetweensialandsimalayers.
Itcanbedisturbedbyerosiononcontinentsandmeltingofcontinental icesheets.
Thereducedweightcausescontinentalmassestorise.
TheoriesExplainingtheEarthsMovements
Atheoryisreasonedideasintendedtoexplainfactsorideas.
Thereare2theorieswhichexplaintheearth’smovementsnamelythe
ContinentalDriftTheoryandthePlatetectonicstheory. i)TheoryofContinentalDrift
ItsproponentwasA.Wegener.
Itexplainstheoriginof6continents.
Itstates:
TheearthwasasinglesialiclandmasscalledPangaea
surroundedbyahugeoceancalledPanthalasawhosefloorwasa massofsima.
PangaeabrokeintotwopartscalledLaurasia(N.Hemisphere)
whichlayaroundequatorandGondwanaland(S.Hemisphere)
whichlayaroundsouthpolewhichwereseparatedbyanarrow
oceancalledTethys(thepresentMediterraneanSea).
LaurasiabrokeintoLaurentianShieldandFennoscandia(Europe,
AsiaandN.America)andmovednorthwardstotheirpresent positions.
GondwanalandbrokeintoAfrica,Australia,S.Americaand
AntarcticaandIndiasubcontinent.
AfricaandIndiadriftednorthwards.
 77

EvidencesSupportingtheTheory
1.FittingofwesterncoastofAfricaandS.Americaintoa jigsaw.
2.Discoveryofcoal40◦Nand55◦Nwhichwasformedby
buryingoftropicalvegetation.
3.Considerabledisplacementofrocksalongsomefaultse.g.
alongtheGreatGlenFaultofScotland.
4.CapeandBuenosAiresfoldsresembleoneanotherby havingeastwesttrend.
5.Redseashoresshowevidenceofhavingundergonelateral
displacementanindicationthatitwasformedbymovement
oftheearth’scrust.
6.EvidenceofancientGlaciationtothesouthofequatorin
AfricainMadagascarandIndiawherethereispresenceof
ancientglacialdepositssuggestingtheseareaswereonce
aroundSouthPole.
ii)PlateTectonicsTheory Itstatesthat:
Theearth’scrustismadeofblockscalledplates.
7LargeOnes
1.Eurasianplate 5.N.Americanplate
2.Australianplate 6.S.Americanplate
3.Africaplate 7.Pacificplate
4.Antarcticplate
SmallerOnes
1.Indian
2.Arabian
3.Caribbean
4.Cocos
5.Somaliplates
6.JuandeFuca
7.Nazca
8.Philippine
9.Scotia
Theseplatesaretwotypes:tectonicplates:
1.Oceanicplateswhichformmajorareasoftheoceanfloor
includingcoastallowland.
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2.Continentalplateswhichformthebulkofthecontinentalland mass.
TheplatesfloatonmoltenmantlelayercalledAsthenosphere.
Theplatesmoverelativetoeachotherduetoconvectionalcurrentsin themantle.
Theymoveawayfromeachotherformingextensionorconstructive
boundarycalledsobecausemagmafillsthespacebetween.

Theymovetowardseachotherformingcompressionalordestructive
boundarycalledsobecausematerialsbetweenarecrushed.The
movementsofthosetwotypesofplateshavethefollowingeffects:
1.Whentwooceanicplatesmeet

Thereissubductionandtheoceanfloorispulledinwardsforminga
trenche.g.JavaTrench.Subductionisthepassingofedgeofoneplate
beneaththeedgeofanother.
Sedimentsontheseafloorintheregionofsubductionarecompressed
toformFoldMountains.
1.Whenanoceanicplatemeetsacontinentalplatetheedgeofthe
oceanicplateslidesbeneaththecontinentalplateinamovement
calledsubduction.
Sedimentsontheseafloorintheregionofsubductionare
compressedtoformFoldMountains.
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FoldMountainsarealsoformedattheedgeofthecontinent
whenthesiallayeriscompressed.
Theedgeoftheoceanicplatebendsintothemantleforminga trench.

2.Whentwocontinentalplatescollidethesiallayerisfoldedinto mountains.

Theymovepasteachotherformingtransformorconservative
boundarycalledsobecausethereisneitherconstructionnor
destructionwhichoccurswheretheplatesareseparatedbyamajor fault.

SignificanceofPlateMovements
1.AresourcesofearthquakesandVulcanicity.
2.CausesformationoflandformssuchasFoldMountainsand oceantrenches.
3.Spectacularlandscapesformedareatouristattraction.
4.Eruptionofmagmacanresultinformationofvaluableminerals.

FOLDING
-Processinwhichcrustalrocksaredistortedbycompressionalforcesby
beingcausedtobendupwardsanddownwards.
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-Itoccursonfairlyyoungsedimentaryrocks.
PartsofaFold

(a)Anticlines(upfolds)-partsoftheearth’ssurfacewhichbend
upwardswhenfoldingoccurs.
(b)Synclines(downfolds)-Partsoftheearth’ssurfacewhichbend
downwardswhenfoldingoccurs.
(c)Crest-uppermostpartofAnticline.
(d)Trough-lowestpartofasyncline
(e)Limp-rocklayersslopingonbothsidesofafold
(f)Axis-imaginarylinedrawnverticallythroughthecentreofthe anticline.
TypesofFolds
1.SimpleSymmetricalFolds

-Whicharesymmetricalabouttheanticline.
-Formedby2compressionalforcesofequalmagnitude.
2.AsymmetricalFolds
-Whichareasymmetricalabouttheanticlinesaxisorinwhichonelimpis
steeperthantheother.
-Formedbytwocompressionalforcesofunequalmagnitudeinwhichoneis
strongerthantheother.
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3.OverFolds

-Inwhichanticlineofonefoldispushedoverthelimpoftheother.
4.IsoclinalFolds

-Whicharepackedcloselytogetherandwithlimpsalmostparalleltoeach other.
-VerticalIsoclinalfoldsareformedbycompressionalforcesofequal
magnitudewhileinclinedIsoclinalfoldsareformedbyforcesofunequal magnitude.

5.RecumbentFolds
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-Whichlieinahorizontalmanner.
-Formedbytwocompressionalforcesoneofwhichisverystrong.
6.Nappe/OverthrustFold

-Inwhichonelimpispushedovertheotherlimp.
-Theforcesareverystrongandtheycauseafracture/faulttodevelop.
7AnticlinoriumandSynclinoriumComplex

-Foldscharacterisedbyminorupfoldsandminordownfolds.
Landisfirstsubjectedtoweakcompressionalforcesresultinginto minorfolds.
Laterthelandissubjectedtomuchgreatercompressionalforces
resultingintonewupfoldswithminorfolds(Anticlinorium)andnew
downfoldswithminorfolds(Synclinorium).

ResultantFeaturesDueToFolding
1.FoldMountainsandTheirDistribution
-Worldshighestandmostimpressivemountainsandthemostconspicuous
featureoffolding.
Himalayas-Asia
Everest-Nepal-Tibetborder-highestpoint.
Andes-PeruinS.America
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Alps-SouthCentralEurope Rockies-W.N.America
Atlas-N.W.Africa.
Appalachian-E.N.America
TheoriesofOriginofFoldMountains
1.ContractionTheory
Duringtheearth’sformationsurfacerockscooledfasterandwrinkledto
formFoldMountains.
2.ConvectionalCurrentsTheory
Horizontalconvectionalcurrentsinthemantleexertedfrictionalpullon crustalrocks.
Continentalcrustswerepulledtowardseachother.
Sedimentsbetweenthemweresqueezedintofolds.
3.ContinentalDriftTheory
DuringbreakofGondwanalandIndiadriftednorthwardsandcollided withEurasia.
Sedimentsbetweenweresqueezedtoformfoldmountainse.g.
HimalayasandEverest.
4.PlateTectonicsTheory
Whenanoceanicplatemeetsanotheroritmeetsacontinentalplate
thesedimentsundertheseaarecompressedtoformFoldMountains.
Whentwocontinentalplatesmeetthesiallayeriscompressedtoform foldmountains
-E.g.AlpswasformedwhenAfricaplatepushedagainsttherigidEuropean plate.
2.Escarpments

-Arelativelycontinuouslineofsteepslopesfacingthesamedirection.
Formedonecompressionalforcecausesfoldingresultinginonesteeplimp
oftheanticlinewhichformstheescarpment.
3.Depressions
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Formedwhennotverystrongforcescausefoldingcausingsomepartsof
theearth’ssurfacetoformsynclinesformingbasins.
4.RidgesandValleys

Whenfoldingoccursanticlinesformuplands/ridges/hillswhilesynclines formvalleys.
5.RollingPlains

-Plainswhichappeartoriseandroll.
-Formedwhenplainsareacteduponbyweakcompressionalforcesresulting
intogentlyslopinganticlinesandverywidesynclines.
6.Inter-montanePlateaus

-Ahighfairlylevellandbetweenmountains.
-Formedwhenrocksattheedgesofaregionbecomeintenselyfoldedand
themiddlepartsresistfoldingresultingintomountainswhichencloseahigh
fairlylevelland. 7.Inter-montanebasins
-Formedwhensomepartsofinter-montaneplateausinkmoretoform basins.
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SignificanceofFolding
ToHumanActivities/Economicsignificance
Positive/advantages
1.FoldMountainsareatouristattractionwhichbringsforeignexchange.
2.FoldMountainsarewatercatchmentareasandsourcesofrivers.
3.Somefoldmountainshavevaluablemineraldepositssuchascoaland petroleum.
4.FoldMountainsactasprotectivebarriersduringwar.
5.Somefoldmountainsonthepathofrainbearingrainfallinfluence
rainfallcausingthewindwardslopestoreceiveheavierrainfall.
6.Foldingcanleadtoformationofvaluablemineralsdueto metamorphism.
7.Foldingbringsvaluablemineralstothesurfacemakingthemeasily available.
Negative/disadvantages
8.FoldMountainsonthepathofrainwindscausetheleewardslopesto
receivelessrainfall.
9.FoldMountainsdiscouragesettlementduetocoldtemperaturesand ruggedterrain
10. Foldingcanleadtoburyingofminerals.
11. FoldMountainsareabarriertoroadandrailwaywherethereare
nopassesandwheretherearepassestheymaybecoveredbysnow.
Orographicfoghinderspilot’svisibility.
ToPhysicalEnvironment
1.Foldingcanresultinsubmergedcoastalzoneswhichareusedas harbours.
2.Canleadtometamorphismofrockschangingtheiroriginalstateand
makingthemmoreresistanttoerosion.
3.Depressionsformedbyfoldingturnintowetlandimportantforwater purification.
4.Foldingleadstofaultingandmagmamayescapethroughfaultsleading
toVulcanicityandearthquakes.

FAULTING
Faultingisthecracking/fracturingofthebrittlecrustalrocksduetotectonic forces.
Faultsarefracturesorcracksthatdevelopinthecrust.
Whentensionalforcescausecrustalrockstostretchandfractureatthe
regionofmaximumtension.
Whencompressionalcausessqueezingofcrustalrockstofractureat
theareaswheretheyareintenselysqueezed.
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Whenverticalmovementsexertpressureonrocksleadingtofracturing.
Whenshearforcescausecrustalrockstotear.
PartsofaFault

1.Upthrow-partofthelanddisplacedupwards.
2.Down-throw-partofthelanddisplaceddownwards.
3.Throw-verticaldisplacement.
4.Heave-horizontaldisplacement
5.Hade-inclinationoffaulttoverticalplane
6.Faultline-faultpath
7.Faultplane-separationoflandcreatedbythefault
TypesofFaults
NormalFaults
Typeformedbytensionalforcesinwhichoneblockslidesdownwardsin
relationtotheother.
Rocksaresubjectedtotensionalforces

Anormalfaultdevelops
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Oneblockslidesdownwards.

ReverseFault
Typeformedbycompressionalforcesinwhichoneblockoflandispushed
upwardsinrelationtotheother.
Rocksaresubjectedtocompressionalforces.

Areversefaultdevelops.

Oneblockispushedovertheother.
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Shear/TearFault

Typeformedbyshearforcesinwhichadjacentblocksoflandslidepastone
another.Ifashearfaultoccursbetweencontinentsit’scalledaTransform
faulte.g.SanAndreanfaultofCaliforniaandgreatglenfaultofScotland. ThrustFaults

Typeformedwhenverystrongcompressionalforcescausealmost
horizontalfaultstodevelopandoneblockoflandispushedovertheother.
Anticlinalfault
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Typeformedwhenanticlinesarecompressedfurtherandcracksformonthe crest.

FeaturesResultingFromFaulting
FaultScarp/Escarpment

Steeplineofslopesformedbyverticalmovementofearthalongafaulte.g.
Mau,Nguruman,NyandaruaandNandi.
-Areexposedpartsofafaultplane.
Itmaybeformedduetonormalfaultingorreversefaultingwhen
overhangingblocksareeroded.
FaultSteps
-Landresemblingthestaircaseorstepsofahousewithaseriesoffault
scarpsatdifferentlevels.
Parallelverticalfaultsdevelop.
Landbetweenthefaultsisunequallydisplaceddownwards.
Aseriesoffaultscarpsatdifferentlevelsisformed.
-E.g.KeiyoescarpmentandatKijabe.
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FaultBlocks/Block/HorstMountains
Blocksoflandraisedabovethesurroundingland.

Wheretectonicforcescausefaultingandlandononesideofthefault
getraisedorsinkalongthefaultplanes.
ExamplesoffaultblocksareAberdare/Nyandaruaranges,Mauescarpment
andNandiHills.
2.
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WhereBlocksoflandborderedbynormalfaultswhicharealmost
paralleltoeachothersinkleavingthemiddleblockstanding.
ExamplesofhorstsareRuwenzoriofW.UgandaandUsambaraandPare
mountainsofTanzania.
TiltBlocks
-Faultblockswhichareinclinedononeside.
Occurswhenthefaultblock,horstorfaultstepshavegreateruplifton
onesideandasaresulttheyarenotflatatthetopbuttilted.The
resultantfeaturesaretiltedfaultblocks,tiltedhorstandtiltfaultsteps
whichformridgesandfaultguidedvalleys.
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RiftValley
-Alongnarrowtroughwithsteepescarpmentsonbothsides.
TheoriesofFormation
TensionalTheory
Rocksaresubjectedtotensionalforces.

Normalfaultswhicharealmostparalleldevelop.

Oneblockslidesdownwardsformingtheriftvalley.
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CompressionalTheory
Rocksaresubjectedtocompressionalforces.

Reversefaultwhicharealmostparalleldevelop.

Thesideblocksarepushedoverthemiddleblock.

Overhangingblocksarewornoutbydenudationtoformescarpments

AnticlinalTheory
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SuggeststheriftvalleywasformedbyAnticlinalarching.
Upwardforcespushedsedimentaryrockstrataupwards.
Therocklayersbentintoabigarch.
Agaping/hugecrackdevelopedatthecrestofthearchduetotension
formingtheriftvalley.
TheGreatRiftValley/TheGreatE.ARiftValley -Theworld’sbiggestriftvalley.
ItstartsinSyriaandendsinMozambique.
It’sdividedinto4parts.
1.EthiopianRiftsystem-startsfromAfarinEthiopiatotheKenyanborder
aroundL.Stephanie.
2.GregoryRiftsystem-StartsfromthenorthernborderofKenyawith
EthiopiatoTanzania.IthasasmallN.E-S.Wbranches:
KanoRiftvalleyinKenya
L.EyasiRiftValleyinTanzania
3.WesternRiftvalley-StartsatSudanbordertosouthofL.Rukwa.
FeatureswhicharehereareRuwenzoriMountainandLakesAlbert,
Edward,Kivu,TanganyikaandRukwa.
4.MalawiRiftvalley-acontinuationofGregoryRiftsystemtoZambezi
RiverinMozambique.IthasasmallN.E-S.WbranchcalledLuangwa valley.
TheGregoryRiftValley
-NamedafterageologistcalledGregoryJ.Wwhocarriedoutextensive studiesinthisarea.
It’swheretheRiftValleyfeaturesaremorepronounced.
Featuresassociatedwithit
Faultblocks-Aberdarerange,Mau,NandiandCheranganihills.
Stepfaults-KijabeandTambach
Tiltblocks-AberdarerangeupliftedandtiltedeastwardsandMau
escarpmentupliftedandtiltedwestwards.
Lavaflowsandvolcanicconese.g.MenengaiandNgorongorocrater.
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RiftValleylakesformedwhenunequalsinkingcreatedfaultswhich
werelaterfilledwithwater.Thelakesaredeepandelongated.
ExamplesareLakesNaivasha,Nakuru,Elementaita,Baringo,Bogoria,Ol
BolossatandTurkana.MostofthelakesaresaltywithexceptionofL.
Naivashawhichhasfreshwater.
WhyMostRiftValleyLakesAreSalty
(a) Lackofoutletstodrainawaysaltscontainedinthem.
(b) Lackofenoughwatertodilutesalinityduetolittlerainfallandlack
ofriversflowinginthem.
(c)Highratesofevaporationcausingincreasedaccumulationofsalts.
(d) Lake’swaterbeingincontactwithrockswithmineralsaltswhichit
directlydissolves.
(e) Washingintothelakeofmineralrichsoilsbysurfacerunoff.
WhyL.NaivashaHasFreshWater
(a)IthasundergrounddrainagetotheIndianOcean.
(b)Thereisinflowoffreshwaterfromriversandrain.
(c)Thelatestvolcaniceruptioncoveredthebedrockwithlava.
MajorFaultedAreasoftheWorld
(a)TheGreatRiftValleyfromSyriatoMozambique.
(b)NorthernEnglandandtheGreatGlenFaultofScotland.
(c)TheCentralMassifofEurope.
(d)ThemiddleRhineRiftValleyregion.
SignificanceofFaulting
ToHumanActivities
1.Riftvalleylakesareimportantforfishing,irrigationanddomesticuse.
2.TheRiftValleyandassociatedfeaturesareatouristattractionwhich
earnsforeignexchange.
3.Hotspringsandgeysersformedduringfaultingcanbeharnessedfor geothermalpower.
4.BlockMountainsarewatercatchmentareasandsourcesofriversdueto
theheavyrainfalltheyreceiveonthewindwardside.
5.FaultingresultsintheexposureofmineralssuchasdiatomiteinGilgiland
FluorsparinKerioValley.
6.Faultscarpsmayexposeundergroundwaterresultingintheformationof scarpsprings.
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7.Unequalsubsidencecausedbyfaultingmaycauseformationof
depressionswhichmayformlakeswhichusefulforfishing,transportand
mininge.g.L.Naivasha.
Negative
1.Faultingdisruptstransportandcommunicationbydisjointingland.
2.Faultingmayleadtolossoflifeandpropertybycausinglandtosink.
3.Faultingmaycausearivertodisappearorchangeitscourseandflow alongthefaultline.
4.Steepscarpslopesformedbyfaultingarepronetosoilerosion.
5.Faultinghasgivenrisetosemi-desertconditionsinsomeareaswhen
BlockMountainsonthepathofrainwindscauseleewardsidestoreceive littlerainfall.

VULCANICITY
-Processinwhichsolid,liquidorgaseousmaterialsareforcedoutofthe
interioroftheearthintotheearth’scrustorontotheearth’ssurface.
Thesematerialsaremagma,lava,gases,dust,ashandcinder.
CausesofVulcanicity
Magmaunderhightemperatureandpressuremovingthroughlinesof
weaknessorfaults.
Whentectonicplatesmoveawayfromeachotherandboundariesgive waytomagma.
Undergroundwatercomingintocontactwithhotmaterialshence
changingintogaseousform.
Thereare2typesofVulcanicity:
ExtrusiveVulcanicity(volcanic):inwhichmaterialsintrudecrustalrocksand
don’treachtheearth’ssurface.Magmaisthemoltenmaterialwhileit’s underground.
IntrusiveVulcanicity(plutonic):inwhichmaterialsreachtheearth’ssurface.
Lavaisthemoltenmaterialafteritreachesthesurface.
Therearetwotypesoflavaandmagma,acidicandbasic.Acidiclavais
viscousandsolidifiesquicklyanddoesn’tspreadfarbutaccumulates
aroundthevent.Basiclavaismorefluidorlessviscousandtakeslonger
beforecoolingandspreadsforgreatdistancesbeforedoingso.Other
materialsemittedaregases,ashes,dustandcinder.Thesolidmaterialsare
calledpyroclasts.Materialscomeoutthroughahole/vent(venteruption)or
crack/fissure(fissureeruption).
FeaturesResultingFromVulcanicity
-Dividedintointrusiveandextrusivefeaturesorlandforms.
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Intrusive/PlutonicFeatures

-FeaturesformedbyintrusiveVulcanicitywhenmaterialsintrudetheearth’s crust.
Sill
-Anigneousintrusionwhichliesalongabendingplaneofrockstrata. -
Formedwhenmagmaforcesitswaybetweenrocklayersthencoolsand solidifies.
-Itformsridgelikeescarpmentswhenexposedbyerosione.g.FoutaDjalon
highlandofGuineaand3sistersofS.Africa.
Dyke
-Awall-likeigneousintrusionwhichliesacrossthebeddingplaneofrock strata.
-Formedwhenmagmaintrudescracksorfaultscuttingacrossbedding
planesofrocksthencoolsandsolidifies.
-Canbeverticalorinclined.
Whenexposeditformsridgese.g.KaapValleyinTransvaalS.AfricaandJos
PlateauinNigeria.
Laccolith
-Amushroom-shapedigneousintrusionlyingbetweenbendingplanesofa countryrock.
-Formedwhenviscousmagmapushesitswaythroughaventand
accumulatesaroundtheventbeforereachingtheearth’ssurfacepushingthe
overlyingrockintoadomeshape.
-It’ssohighthatlandisturnedintomountainse.g.ElKoubHillinAlgeria,
HenryMountainsinUtahU.S.AandFonjayMassifinMadagascar.
Batholiths
-Largestigneousintrusionformedundergroundformedwhenveryhot
magmaintrudesbeddingplanesofrocksandreplacesormetamorphosesit
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e.g.ChailaMassifinGabon,Ikhonga-MurweinKakamegaandthelargestis
inBritishColumbia.
Lopolith -alargesaucershapedigneousintrusionformedwhenviscousmagma
intrudesintobeddingplanesofacountryrock.Theyformshallow
depressionsontheearth’ssurfaceoftheearthe.g.BushveldcomplexinS.
AfricaandDuluthGabbromassinU.S.A.
Phacolith

-Alensshapedigneousintrusionwhichformsinthecrestortroughofan
anticlinee.g.CorndonHillinEngland.
Extrusive/VolcanicFeatures
-Formedwhenmagmareachestheearth’ssurfacethroughventsorfissures.
Volcanoes
Avolcanoisaconeshapedhillformedwhenvolcanicmaterialsflowoutand
accumulatearoundavent.Volcanoesareclassifiedintothreegroups:
1.Activevolcano-whichisknowntohaveeruptedinrecenttimese.g.OL
DonyoLengaiinTanzaniaandMt.Cameroon,andMaunaLoainHawaii.
2.Dormantvolcano-notknowntohaveeruptedintherecentpastbut
showsignsofvolcanicactivitysuchaspresenceofhotsprings,
geysersandfumarolese.g.Mt.Kilimanjaro,LongonotandMenengai.
3.Extinctvolcano-whichhasnotshownsignsofpossiblefutureeruptions
e.g.MountainsKenyaandElgon.

TypesofVolcanoes
AcidicLavaDomes
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-Asteepdomeshapedvolcanichillmadeofacidiclava.
 100

Viscouslavaflowsoutthroughavent.
Itaccumulatesaroundtheventbecauseit’sviscous.
Eruptionsoccurlaterandlavaflowsoutcoveringthelayersbelow.
Asteepsideddomeshapedmoundofvolcanoisformede.g.Itasy
MassifofMadagascar,Mt.KenyaandKilimanjaro.
Characteristics
(a)Itsdome-shaped
(b)Hassteepslopes
(c)Madeofacidiclava
(d)Haslavalayers
(e)Hassteepslopes
(f)Hasanarrowbase
BasicLavaDomes/ShieldVolcanoes

-Alowlyingvolcanichillmadeofbasiclava.
Basicmagmaflowsouttothesurfacethroughavent.
Thelavaflowsfarbeforesolidifyingbecauseitsfluid.
Eruptionsoccurlaterandlavaspreadsovertheoldlava.
Ashieldshapedmoundofvolcanoisformede.g.CanaryIslands,Cape
VerdeandSaoTomewhicharevolcanicIslandsintheIndianOcean.
Characteristics
(a)Dome/shieldshaped
(b)Hasgentleslopes
(c)Madeofbasiclava
(d)Haslavalayers
(e)Hasabroadbase
AshandCinderCones
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Avolcanobuiltfromashandcinderorsmallfragmentsoflava.
Violentventeruptionoccurs.
Ashandpyroclastsareemittedandthrownhigh.
Somematerialsfallandsettlearoundtheventformingahill.
Lightmaterialsareblownbywindtotheleewardsidee.g.ChyuluHills,
TelekiandLikaiyunearL.Turkana.
Characteristics
(a)Madeofpyroclasts
(b)Asymmetricalabouttheaxis
(c)Coneshaped
(d)Hassmoothslopes
(e)Hassteepwindwardslopeandgentleleewardslope
Composite/Complex/StratifiedVolcanoes

Avolcanomadeofalternatinglayersoflavaandpyroclastsandconelets.
Thefirsteruptionthrowsoutpyroclasts.
Thenviscouslavaflowsoutandsolidifiesonthem.
Eruptionoccurslaterblowingtherockssealingthevent.
Thepiecesofrocksettleonearliersolidifiedlava.
Anothermassoflavaflowsoutandspreadsoverpyroclastsand solidifies.
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Theprocessisrepeatedcausingthevolcanotobuildupwards
Theconeletsareformedwhenmagmaisunabletoovercomethe
plugandfindsitswaythroughweaklinesatthesidesandthen
pyroclastsandlavaaccumulatearoundthesidevente.g.
MountainsKenya,Longonot,ElgonandKilimanjaro.
Characteristics
(a)Coneshaped
(b)Stratified(madeofalternatinglayersoflavaandpyroclasts.
(c)Ithasconelets(parasiticcones). (d)Ithassteepslopes.
(e)Madeofacidiclava
PlugDome/volcano/Spine

-Acolumnofveryviscouslavawhichsticksabovetheground.
Acolumnofveryviscousmagmaflowsoutoftheground.
Itcoolsandhardensrapidlyasitrisesvertically.
Piecesofrockbreakfromtheplugandaccumulateonthesidese.g.
MontPeleeinWestIndies,HyraxandFischer’sToweratHellsgatein
NaivashaandDevilsTowerinU.S.A. Characteristics
(a)Madeofveryviscouslava.
(b)Itisdomeshapedlikeamushroomgerminatingoutoftheground.
(c)Hasdebrisonitssides.
(d)Hasverysteepsides
(e)Cylindricalinshape
(f)Disintegratesfastduetorocksundergoingrapidcooling.
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VolcanicPlug

-Stumpofrockformedwhenmagmawhichsolidifiedinsideavent(plug)is
exposedbydenudation.
Avolcanoisfirstformed.
Lavaonthesidesofthevolcanoiserodedfastduetocoolingfast.
Thelavaintheventwhichishardduetoslowcoolingisexposed
formingastumpofrocke.g.PeaksofMt.Kenya,RangwaHilland TororoRock.
Characteristics
(a)Itresemblesastumpofatree.
(b)Itsdomeshaped.
(c)Verysteepatthetopandlesssteepatthebottom
(d)Madeofhard/resistantrock
LavaPlainsandPlateaus

Lavaplain:fairlylevellowlandbelow500mabovesealevelcoveredbythin lavalayers.
Lavaplateau:fairlylevelhighland/uplandabove500mabovesealevel
coveredbythicklayers.
-Formedbyfissureeruption.
Magmaoflowviscositycomesoutofthegroundthroughafissure.
 104

Itflowsforalongdistancebeforecoolingandsolidifyingfilling
depressionsandvalleysformingaplain.
Eruptionoccurslaterandlavaflowsoutthroughlinesofweaknesson
crustalrockandsolidifiedlava.
Thenewlavaspreadsontopoftheoldlavaforminganewlayer.
Theprocessisrepeatedandaplateauisformede.g.Mwea,Nandiand
LaikipiaPlainsandYattaandUasinGishuPlateaus.
Craters
-Afunnelshapeddepressionfoundontopofavolcano.
ModesofFormation
CoolingandContractionofMagma
Eruptionoccursandavolcanoisformed.
Magmaintheventcoolsandcontracts.
Itwithdrawsintotheventleavingadepressionattheventsmouthe.g.
NgorongoroandMenengaicraters.
Rainwaterorwaterfrommeltingsnowmaycollectintocraterstoform
craterlakese.g.L.ParadiseonMt.Marsabit,L.MagadionNgorongoro
CraterandL.ChalaonKenyanTanzanianborder. Explosion
Gasesundergroundexpandduetoheatfrommagma.
Theyforcetheirwayoutthroughaweaklineinthecrustalrocks.
Anexplosionoccursleavingaholeinthegroundcalledaringcratere.g.
GhamaandDobotcratersinTanzaniaandHoracratersinEthiopia.
Waterfromundergroundorriversmayaccumulateintoringcratersto
formlakescalledmaarse.g.LakesKatweandNyunguinUganda.
FallingofaMeteorite
Ameteoritefallsontheearth’ssurface.
Itsinksintotherocksleavingadepression.
Watermaycollectintothedepressionformingalakee.g.L.Bosumtwi inGhana.
Calderas/BasalWreck
-Averylargebasin-shapeddepressiononthesummitofavolcano.
ModesofFormation ViolentExplosion
Gasesandwaterheatedbymagmaexpand.
Theyforcetheirwaythroughavent.
 105

Therocksatthetopofthevolcanoareblownoffformingalarge
depressione.g.NyirarongoCalderainDRCandSabiroCalderain Uganda.
BlockSubsidence/Cauldron

Eruptionoccurstoformavolcano.
Anemptyspace(cauldron)isleftinthemagmareservoirinthemantle.
Therocksformingthemiddleofvolcanoarepulledinwardsbygravity.
Themiddleofthevolcanocollapsesformingalargedepressionatthe
tope.g.MenengaiCalderanearNakuruandNgorongorocalderawhich
isthelargestinE.Africaand6thlargestintheworld.
Waterfromrainorundergroundmayfillcalderastoformlakese.g.L.
MagadiintheNgorongorocalderaandL.NgoziinTanzania.
OutwardCollapsing
Ashandpyroclastsvolcanogrowshigh.
Materialsontopexertpressureonthosebelow.
Materialsatthebasebegintospreadoutwards.
Thetopofvolcanocollapsesinwardsformingacollapsecalderae.g.
NapakCalderainUganda.
-Aventinavolcanowhichemitsgases.
Fumaroles
Thegasescomefromchemicalreactionsincrustalrockswhenheatedby
magmaorwhenmineralsinrockscomeintocontactwithhotairandsteam underground.
Theyareoftwotypes:
Mofette:fumarolewhichemitscarbondioxide.
Solfatara:fumarolewhichemitsgaseswithsulphurouscompounds.
HotSpringsandGeysers
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Hotspringisaplacewherehotwaterisemittedfromthegroundquietlye.g.
attheshoresofLakesMagadiandBogoria.
Ageyserisajetofwaterandsteamwhichareviolentlyejectedfromthe
grounde.g.atOlkariaandwesternshoresofL.Bogoria.
HowTheyAreFormed
Percolatingwaterisheatedbyhotrocksormagma.
Somecollectintochamberscalledsumpswhereitdevelopspressure
causingittobesuperheatedsuperheated.
Thepressureforcesthesteamoutwardstowardstheearthssurface
throughholesandcracksinrocks.
Thesteamcomesoutofthegroundwhichreducespressureinsumps
causingthewatertoexpand/boilandcometothesurface.
Thesteamcomesoutwithawhistlingsoundaccompaniedbywater formingageyser.
Theescapingsteamheatsgroundwaterinsurroundingrock.
Theheatedwatermayfinditswaytothesurfacewhereitquietlycomes
outofthegroundformingahotspring.
Differences
Hotspring Geyser
-Watercomesout quietly. -Waterandsteamcome
outviolently.
-onlywatercomesout. -waterisaccompaniedby
-watermayjustbewarm. steam.
-waterisveryhot.
PoolsofBoilingWater
-Smallareaofstillwaterwhichappearstobeboiling.
Actualheatingofpoolwaterbygasesandsteamcausingthewaterto boil.
Gasesandsteamcomingoutbelowthepoolofwatercausingthepool
tobubbleandappearasifit’sboiling.
WorldDistributionofVolcanoes
(a)Regionsoffaultinge.g.theGreatRiftValleyofE.Africa.
(b)Mid-Atlanticoceanridge.
(c)ThewesterncoastofAmerica.
(d)Zonesofrecentmountainbuildinge.g.foldmountainsofS.EAsia.
SignificanceofVulcanicity
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Positive
(a)Volcanicrocksweathertoformfertileagriculturallyproductivesoilse.g. basalt.
(b)Geysersaresourcesofgeothermalelectricitye.g.atOlkaria.
(c)Hotspringswaterispumpedintohousesforheatingduringwintere.g. Iceland.
(d)Volcanicfeaturesareatouristattractione.g.hotsprings,geysersand
snowcappedMt.Kenya.
(e)Igneousrockse.g.phonolitesarecrushedtomakeballastforbuilding roads,bridges,etc.
(f)Craterlakesareasourceoffishe.g.L.KatweinUganda,sourcesof
mineralse.g.L.Magadiandsourcesofwaterfordomesticuse.
(g)Volcanicmountainsarecatchmentareas,sourcesofriversandhabitats forwildlife.
(h)Pumiceavolcanicrockisusedasascrubbingstone.
(i)Vulcanicityisusefulforproductionofgasese.g.carbondioxideusedin
softdrinksmanufacture.
Negative
(a)Volcaniceruptionscauseoflifeanddestructionofpropertye.g.sulphur
dioxide,ash,cinderandlavamayburyhousesandfarmland.
(b)Volcanicmountainsarebarriertotransportandcommunication.
(c)Volcanicmountainsonthepathofrainwindscauseleewardslopesto
receivelittlerainfallbypreventingrainbearingwindsfromreachingthere.
(d)Volcaniceruptionscauseenvironmentalpollutionfromdust,ashand sulphurdioxide.

EARTHQUAKES

-Suddenandrapidmovementoftheearth’scrust.
-areaspronetothemarecalledseismiczonesandthosenotproneare calledaseismiczones.
It’scausedbyshockwaves.
Thereare3typesofearthquakewavesnamely:
1.Primarywaves-whichtravelfastestandcausetherockparticlesto
vibrateinapushandpullmannerandcanpassthroughgases, liquidsandsolids.
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2.Secondarywaves-whichcauserockparticlestovibrateatright
anglestothedirectionofwavemovement.

3.Surfacelongitudinalwaves-whichcausesurfacerockstoshake
sometimescausingbuildingstocollapse.
i.Rayleighwaves-Whichcausesurfacerockstomovein ellipticalorbits.

ii.Lovewaves-whichcauserockparticlestomoveina
horizontalmanneratrightangletothedirectionofwave.

Earthquakeoriginatesfromapointknownasseismicfocus/origin.
Thepartoftheearthverticallyabovetheseismicfocusandwheretheshock
wavesarefirstexperiencediscalledepicentre.
CausesofEarthquakes
NaturalCauses
(a)Tectonicmovementse.g.movementoftectonicplates.Theycause
tectonicearthquakes.
(b)Vulcanicitywhenmagmamovementdisplacesrockssuddenlyshaking
andshutteringthem.
(c)Gravitativeforcewhencrustalrockscollapseintocauldronduetogravity.
(d)Energyreleaseinthemantlewhenradioactivitytakesplaceinmantle
releasingexplosiveenergywhichsendsshockwavesoutwards.
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(e)Isostaticadjustmentwhenthecontinentalmassesrisetorestorethe
upsetstateofbalancebetweensialandsimalayers.
HumanCauses
(a)Explodingnuclearbombsundergroundwhichcausesshockwaves
whichspreadoutwardsandarefeltintheneighbourhood.
(b)Whenatrainrollsonitsrailscausingthegroundtovibrate.
(c)Explosionofexplosivesusedinminingandquarryingwhichcause
vibrationstobefeltintheneighbourhood.
(d)Whenlargereservoirsareconstructedandtheheavyweightofwater
reactivatedormantfaultscausingtremors.
MeasurementofEarthquakes
Seismographisapendulumbasedinstrumentusedtomeasureearthquakes.
Itrecordsseismicimpulsesonagraph-likerecordcalledseismogram mountedonit.
Earthquakesaremeasuredbytheirintensityandmagnitude.
Intensity
-Measureofhowstrong/hardthequakeshakestheground.
It’sseenfromtheeffectstheearthquakehasonpeople,buildingsandother structures.
It’smeasuredontheMercalliScalewhichusesascalerunningfromRomani -xiiie.g.
I-description-imperceptible
V-ratherstrong-sleepersareawakenedandthereisswingingofobjects.
VIII-destructive-gapingcracksinwallssomebroughtdown.
XII-majorcatastrophe-everybuildingdestroyed.
Magnitude
-Measureofamountofenergygivenoffbyanearthquake.
It’smeasuredonRitcherScalewhichrangesfrom0-8.9.
Intensityvaluesdependonhowfaraplaceisfromepicentre.
Thehigherthescalethemoreseveretheearthquakeis.
IntensityI-magnitude2 IntensityVIII-magnitude6
IntensityXII-magnitude8.5.
WorldDistributionofEarthquakes
(a)Withinthezonesofmajorfaultinge.g.RiftValley.
(b)InareasofVulcanicitye.g.OldonyoLengaiinTanzania.
(c)Alongboundariesoftectonicplatese.g.Japan,Philippines,EastIndies
andwestcoastofnorthandSouthAmerica.
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EffectsofEarthquakes
(a)Cancauselossoflifeandpropertywhenbuildingscollapseburying people.
(b)Disrupttransportandcommunicationbyverticallyandlaterally
displacinglandwhichdisconnectspipelines,electricitylines,roadsand railways.
(c)Causeslandslideswhichalsocauselossoflifeandpropertyanddisrupts communication.
(d)Causesraisingandloweringoftheseafloorandthecoastalregions.
(e)CausehugeseawavescalledTsunamiwhichmayfloodthe neighbouringcoastalareas.
(f)Triggerfolding,Vulcanicityandfires.
(g)Giveoffalotofexplosiveenergymorethananatomicbomb.
(h)Causefearandpanic.
(i)Hindersettlementasitisrestrictedtoaseismicareas.
(j)Causeviolentmotionsoftheearth’ssurface.

MAPWORK Map-representationofthewholeorpartoftheearth’ssurfacedrawnto scale.

Showsoutlineofobjectsontheground
Drawnasifthedrawerwasabovetheground
Itshowsdetails
Mostofthefeaturesareindicatedbysymbols. Picture:imageofarealobject.
Givesdetailsintheirvisibleshapesandsizes
Canbeinformoffreehand,drawing,paintingoraphotograph
Notdrawntoscale
Plan:outlineofsomethingdrawntoscale.
Alsodrawnasifapersonwasdirectlyabovetheground
Itrepresentsaverysmallplace
Thescaleislargetoshowdetailse.g.houseplan
Givesspecificinformation TypesofMaps
Classifiedaccordingtothepurposeforwhicheachmapisdrawn.
TopographicalMaps:Thisshowsselectednaturalphysicalfeaturesona
smallportionofacountry.
Atlasmaps:thisisacollectionofmapsinonevolume.
Sketchmaps:mapswhichareroughlydrawn.Agoodsketchmapshould
havethefollowingcharacteristics:
1.neatandclear
2.title
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3.frame
4.key
5.compassdirection UsesofMaps
1.Sketchmapsareusedtosummariseinformationforeasyreference.
2.Usedforlocatingothercountries.
3.Usedforcomparingsizesofcountries.
4.Forlocatingclimaticregionsofdifferentpartsoftheworld.
5.Giveinformationondistributionofgeographicalphenomenae.g.
vegetationontheearth’ssurface.
6.Helptravellerstofindtheirway.
7.Usedtocalculatedistanceofacertainplace.
8.Usedtolocatephysicalfeatureslikelandforms.
MarginalInformation
Informationcontainedintheareasurroundingthemap.
1.Mapnamee.g.Yimbo.
2.Sheettitlee.g.EastAfrica1:50000(Kenya).
3.gridsystemnumbers
4.latitudesandlongitudes
5.Compassdirectionwithgrid,trueandmagneticnorth.
6.scales
7.key
8.publisherandcopyright
9.Mapidentification
Mapseries
Sheetnumberorsheetindex
MapScales
Ascaleisaratioofadistanceonamaptoacorrespondingdistanceonthe ground.
TypesofScales
-Statementscale–expressedinwordse.g.1cmrepresents1km,1cmto1km. -
RepresentativeFraction(RF)-expressedasafractionorratioe.g.1/200,000 or1:200,000.
-Linearscale-shownbyalinewhichissubdividedintosmallerunits.
ConversionofScales
StatementscaleintoRF 1cmrep1kmtoRF
Multiplythenumberofkilometresby100,000(1km=100,000cm)i.e.
 112

1×100000=100,000.Statementscaleis1/100,000or1:100,000. 2cmrep1km
Dividebothsidesbytwotoget1cmrep½kilometres.
Multiply½by100,000toget50,000.
RFis1/50,000or1:50,000.
RFtoStatementScale
-Dividethedenominatorby100,000.
-Writethescaleinstatementform.
LinearScaletoStatementScale
Measureaunitdistanceoffalinearscalee.g.

Thedistanceis4-3=1kmwhichisrepresentedby2cm.
Usethemethodsin(1)and(2)above.
Q.Giventhatthegrounddistanceis200kmwhilethedistanceonmapis
20cmcalculatethescale.
SizesofScales
1.Smallscales-showalargeareaoflandonasmallsizeofpaper.
Theyshowlimiteddetailse.g.1:250,000,1:500,000,1:1,000,000.
2.Mediumscales-usedtorepresentarelativelysmallerareaonagiven
sizeofpapere.g.1:50,000,1:100,000,1:125,000.
3.Largescales-usedtorepresentasmallareaoflandonagivenpiece
ofpaper.Theyshowalotofdetailse.g.1:2,500,1:10,000,1:25000
ArrangingScalesinOrder
AscendingOrder-smallesttolargest
DescendingOrder-largesttosmallest
(1)1/500,000
(3)1:25,000
(4)1/10,000
(2)1cmrep500m
UsesofScales
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1.Estimatingdistancesonmaps
2.Measuringdistancesaccurately-usedividersandruler,pieceofstringor
threadforcurveddistancesorstraightedgeofpaper.
E.g.calculateactualdistanceofaline8.5cmlongonamapusingthe
followingscales. (i)2cmrep1km
(ii)1:100,000
3.Calculationofareas-no.offullgridsquares+numberof½grid
squares/2oruseofrectangles(l×b)ortriangles(½b×h).
Direction
-Courseuponwhichsomethingispointingto.

MethodsofShowingDirection
TraditionalMethods
1.UseofStars

-E.g.useofgroupsofstarscalledploughtofindnortherndirectionby
locatingthepolestaranduseofSouthernCrossbyusingthebrighteststar
whichisoverSouthPoletofindnortherndirection. 2.UseofShadows
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-E.g.morning,shadowofflagpolecasttoyourleftyouarefacingnorth,etc.
3.LandMarks
-Usingconspicuousfeaturessuchashills,buildingsevenroadstoget direction.
ModernMethods
1.LandMarks
2.CompassDirection.
-Useofmagneticcompasswhichhasaneedlewhichalwayspointsnorth.
Ithas16cardinalpointsand4arebasic.
Bearing
-Expressionofdirectionindegreesofanangle.
It’smeasuredfromnorthinaclockwisedirection.

CalculationofBearing

DrawN-Slinethroughobservationpoint.
Jointhetwopoints.Ifit’safeaturethelineshouldendatthecentreof thatfeature.
UsingaprotractormeasuretheanglebetweentheN-Slineandtheline
joiningthe2pointsinaclockwisedirection.
 115

Bearingisexpressedindegrees,minutesandseconds.1◦=60’(min),1 min=60”(sec)
Thedegreesarealwaysexpressedin3figurese.g.030◦
TypesofNorths

1.TrueNorth
-PositionontheglobewherealllongitudesmeetorthedirectionofN.Pole.
2.GridNorth
-PointwhereEastingsmeetattheN.Pole.
3.MagneticNorth
-Pointwhichthemagneticneedlerestswhenlefttoswingfreely.
TypesofBearing 1.GridBearing

-BearingcalculatedfromGridNorth.
Jointhetwopointsonthetopographicalmapusingaline.
MeasuretheanglewheretheEastingsintersectthelinejoiningthetwo pointse.g.030◦.
2.TrueBearing
-BearingcalculatedfromTrueNorth.Itscalculatedwhenthetypeofbearing isn’tspecified.
-E.g.fromourcompassdiagramtruebearingwillbe30◦-1’=29◦59’
 116

3.MagneticBearing
-BearingcalculatedfromMagneticNorth.
PositionofMagneticNorthchangesslightlyeveryyear.
Steps
Yearswhichhaveelapsed×Annualchange.(Noneedifannualchangeis
negligible).E.g.fromourcompassdiagramannualchange=(2009-
1991)×4.8’=18×4.8’’=86.4’’=1◦26.4’
Addtotheanglebetweenthegridandmagneticbearing1.e. 1◦26.4’+2◦30’=3◦56.4’
AddtotheGridbearing(ifchangeistowardsE)orSubtract(ifchangeis
towardsW).30◦+3◦56.4’=33◦56.4’
LocationofPlaces
-Showingofpositionofaplaceorfeatureonatopographicalmap.
Methods
UseofPlaceNames
-Locatingafeaturebyusingthenameoftheplaceit’sate.g.ariverin
Kisumu,Nakuru,etcorifitisn’tatanamedplacelocatebythenearestname
placee.g.ameandernearGarissatown.
UseofDirection,BearingandDistance
Thisisfromastatedpositione.g.LocateNakurufromNairobi.
Nakuruis157kmN.WofNairobi.
LatitudesandLongitudes
ThemainlongitudesareI.D.LandGreenwich/PrimeMeridian.
Themainlinesoflatitudes:
Theequator/GreatCircle(0◦)whichisthelongest.
TropicofCancer(23½◦N)ofequator.
TropicofCapricorn(23½◦)southofequator.
TheArcticCircle(66½◦N).
AntarcticCircle(66½◦S).
Theyaremarkedatthemargins.Latitudeisstatedfirst(NorS)and
longitudelater(EorW)e.g.X◦NY◦E
Identifyaplace.
Identifythenearestnumberedlatitudeandlongitude.
Estimatetothenearest1◦.
GridReference
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Gridlines:networkoflinesontopographicalmaps.
-Numberedinsmallandlargenumbersandthelargeonesareused.
Eastings:N-Sgridlinescalledsobecausetheyarenumberedeastwards.
Northings:W-Egridlinescalledsobecausetheyarenumberednorthwards.
Gridreferenceisgivenin4figuresorsixfigures.In4figurethenearestgrid
lineisstatedwhilethe6figureisestimatedinfractionsbydividingthespace
betweengridlineinto10equalparts.
Eastingisstatedfirstfollowedbynorthing.
Intheexamplebelowthe4figuregridreferencesare:
A-6856 B-6856
C-6857
6figuregridreferencesare:
A-675555 B-680560
C-682568

MethodsofRepresentingReliefonTopographicalmaps
Reliefisthenatureoflandscapee.g.plain,plateau,valleys,hills,etc.
SpotHeights
-Pointsonmapwhosepositionsandheightshavebeendeterminedby
surveyors.Theyareshownbyadotandafiguree.g.(.1827).
Advantage-showactualheights
Disadvantage-can’tbeusedtoidentifylandforms.
TrigonometricalStations/Points
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-Carefullychosenpointscarefullychosenandtheiraltitudedetermined which---
Areusedasabasisforsurveyinganarea.
Theyaremarkedonthegroundbyconcretepillarorslab.
Theyareindicatedontopographicalmapsby:
Isohypes/ContoursandFormLines
Acontourisalineonamapjoiningallpointsofthesameheightabovesea
level.Theyarebrownerincolourandhaveheightswrittenonthem.
Formlinesarelinesdrawnonamapjoiningplacesofapproximatelythe
sameheightabovesealevel.Theyarelessbrownthancontoursandnotall
havevalueswrittenonthem.
Bothcontoursandformlinesarereferredtoascontours.

Contour/Verticalintervalisthedifferenceinheightbetweenanytwo successivecontours.
Advantagesofcontours:
Theyshowactualheights.
Canbeusedtoidentifylandforms.
Pictorials
-Showingreliefbydrawinglandformsatapproximatepositionswherethey
arefounde.g.mountains,hills,valleys,etc. Disadvantages:
Theyobscuredetailsbehindthem.
Don’tgiveheightabovesealevel.
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Limitedvarietyoflandformscanbeaccommodated. Hachures

-Shortlinesdrawntorepresentdirectionofslope.
Onsteeplandtheyarethickandclosetogether.
Ongentleslopestheyarethinandwideapart.
Theirdisadvantageisthattheycan’tbedrawnonflatland.
HillShading
-Showingreliefbyshadingtoshowshadowswherebysteepestslopes
whicharelistlithavedarkershadewhilehilltops,surfacesofplateausand
plainsandvalleybottomsarewelllithavelightershade.
LayerTinting
-Colouringorshadinglandwithinacertainrangeofaltitudeorusingasingle
colourwithvaryingtoneswherethecolourgetsdarkerwithincreasing altitude.

PHOTOGRAPHWORK
Aphotographisanimageofanobject,personorscenerecordedbya
cameraonalightsensitivefilmorpaper.
TypesofPhotographs
1.GroundPhotographs
-Takenfromtheground.Theyareof2types:
GroundHorizontals-takenwiththecameraatthesamelevelastheobject.
Theyareof2types.
Groundcloseups/particularviewphotographs-takenfromthegroundwitha
camerafocusedononeparticularobject.
GroundGeneralViewPhotographs-takenfromthegroundwithcamera
focusedongeneralscenery.
GroundObliques-takenfromthegroundwithacameraslanting/heldatan angle.
2.AerialPhotographs
-Takenfromtheaire.g.fromaircrafts,balloonsorsatellites.Theyareof2 types:
 120

AerialObliques-takenfromtheairwithcameratiltedtowardstheground.
VerticalAerialPhotographs-takenfromtheairwiththecameradirectly
abovetheobjectorscenery.
PartsofaPhotograph
Leftback Centre Right
ground background background
Leftmiddle Centremiddle Leftmiddle
ground ground ground
Left Centre Right
foreground foreground foreground
UsesofPhotographs
-Usedinlearninggeographybecausetheybringunfamiliarfeaturesinthe
classroomenablingthestudentstounderstandthembetter. -
Photographsshowingvegetationandhumanactivitiescanbeusedto
deducetheclimateofanarea.
-Aerialphotographsshowvitalinformationonlanduse.
-Photographsshowinglandformingprocesseshelpustounderstandthose processes.
LimitationsintheUseofPhotographs
-Colouredphotographsaregenerallyexpensivetoproduce.
-Blackandwhitephotographsdon’tshowtherealcoloursofobjectsor
scenerye.g.it’sdifficulttodistinguishripecoffeeberriesfromgreenones. -
Someaerialphotographshaveobjectswhicharefarawayandhence
unclearwhichmayleadtothewronginterpretation.
-Verticalaerialphotographsaredifficulttointerpretwithoutspecial
instrumentslikestereoscopes.
-Photographsaredifficulttointerpretiftheyareblurredbecauseit’sdifficult
todistinguishobjectswhichlooksimilare.g.wheatandbarley.
InterpretationofPhotographs
-Meanstoexplainthemeaningoftheobjectsorfeaturesonaphotograph.It
involvesthefollowing:
DeterminingtheTitle
Photographsshowhumanactivities,physicalfeatures,naturalcatastrophes
etce.g.nomadicpastoralism,drought,flooding,etc.whendeterminingthe
titleexaminethephotographcarefullyandapplytheknowledgeyouhave
learntingeography.
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EstimatingTime
-Inthetropicstheshadowsareshortatnoonandlongestinthemorningand afternoon.
Ifthecameraisfacingsouthandtheshadowiscasttotherightit’sinthe
morningandifcasttotheleftit’sintheafternoon.
EstimatingSeason
Dryseason
Brightclearskies
Dryvegetation harvesting
Lightclothese.g.shirtsandT-shirtssincetemperatureishigh(alsoan
indicationofhightemperature.
Rainyseason Rainclouds
Luxuriantvegetation
Youngcrops
Floweringplants
Weeding
Heavyclothinge.g.pulloversorjacketssincetempsarelow(alsoan
indicationofcoolseason).
DeterminingCompassDirection
Itit’sinthemorningandtheshadowofflagpoleiscasttotheleftthe
photographerisfacingnorthandifcasttotherighthewasfacingsouth.
Itit’sinthemorningandtheshadowisfacingtowardsyouthephotographer
wasfacingeastandittakenintheafternoonandtheshadowisfacing
towardsyouthephotographerwasfacingwest.
InterpretationofPhysicalFeaturesonPhotographs
Relief
Flatland
Ricecrop
Irrigation
Combineharvesters
Swamps
Meanders
Oxbowlakes
Inselbergs(isolatedhills)
Hilly/Mountainouslandscape/HighlandArea
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Steepslopes
Terracedlandscape
Tea,wheatcropswhichgrowathighaltitude
rapids Waterfalls
Interlockingspurs Drainage
YouthfulStage Rapids
Waterfalls
Interlockingspurs
MiddleStage
Meanders
Oxbowlakes
LowerStage
deltas
distributaries
meandersandoxbowlakes
floodplain
Vegetation
Natural
Indigenousspecies
Denseundergrowth
Treesgrowhaphazardly
Differentspeciesoftrees
Notofthesameheight
Planted
Exoticspecies
Inrows
Littleundergrowth
Samespecies
Sameheights
TropicalRainForests
Trees
Broadleaves Umbrellashaped
Marshes
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swamps
SavannahGrassland
Grassandshorttrees(woodland).
DesertVegetation Thornyleaves
Baobabandacacia Scrub-
landcoveredwithshrubsandunderdevelopedtrees(shrubs).
Climate
HighTemperaturesandlowrainfall
Sugarcane
Grass
Sisal
Scrubandbushlandvegetation
Denseforests
Lightclothes
CoolTemperatureandHighrainfall(Sufficient,Reliableandwelldistributed)
Tea
Coffee
Wheat
Dairyfarming Soils
AcidicandVolcanicSoils
Coffee
Tea
ClaySoils
Rice
BlackCottonSoils
Cotton
Rice
LoamySoil
Horticulturalcrops
HumanActivitiesandevidence
Settlement
-Groupofdwellingswherepeoplelive.
RuralSettlements
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Semipermanenthouses
Farmingorfishingactivity
Unevendistributionofsettlements
Presenceofvillages
UrbanSettlements
Permanentbuildings
Storiedbuildings
Heavytrafficpresence
Regularstreetpatterns
Agriculture/Farming
SubsistenceFarming
Temporaryandpermanenthouses
Smallpiecesofland
Mixedcropping
Simpleimplements
Localandexoticbreedsoflivestock
Cropfarming
Crops
PeoplepreparinglandorweedingorHarvesting
CommercialCropFarming
cashcrops
machinery
feederroutes
processingfactories
PlantationFarming
Singlecroponextensivepieceoflande.g.tea,coffee,etc.
Manylabourers
Nucleatedsettlementwithinfarms LivestockRearing
NomadicPastoralism
Cattlegrazinginagrasslandorsemi-aridregion
DailyFarming
Zerograzing
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Cattlewithbigudders
Ranching
Paddocks
Windmills
Mining
Quarry
Largeopenpits
Largeexcavators
Lorriescarryingloadsofrocks IndustrialManufacturing
Buildingswithlargechimneys
PeopleengagedinaprocessingactivitysuchasJuakaliartisans.
Lumbering
Peoplecuttingtreesusingpowersaws
Peopleloadingtimberintolorries
Logspillednearasawmill
Forestswithstumps
Logsfloatingonariver
Transport
Motortransport
Vehiclesonroads
RailwayTransport
Railwayline
Trains
AirTransport
Flattarmackedpieceofland
Aircraft
WaterTransport
Boats
Ships
Ferries
Communication Telephonelines
Telephonebooths
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Postoffice
Satellitemasts
T.Vandradiostations
SketchingDiagramsfromPhotographs
Drawarectanglethesamesizeasthephotograph.
Divideitintosquaresusingfaintlines.
Subdividethephotographinto9sections.
Insertthefeaturesintheirexactpositionsusingsimplelinesbeing guidedbythesquares.
Labeltheimportantfeaturese.g.vegetation,landuse,prominent
buildings,transport,andcommunication.
Givethesketchasuitabletitle.
Graphs
-2dimensionaldrawingswhichshowrelationshipsbetween2typesofdata
representingtwoitemsalsocalledvariables.Thesearedependentvariable
whichisaffectedbytheothere.g.temperature(onyaxis)andindependent
variablewhosechangeisnotaffectedbytheothere.g.altitude(onxaxis).
Steps
Drawxandyaxis.
Choosesuitablescaletoaccommodatethehighestandlowestvalue.
Plotthevaluesaccuratelyusingfaintdots.
Jointhedotsusingcurvedline.Ifit’sabargraphthedotsshouldbeat
themiddleofthetopline.Yearsshouldalsobeatthemiddle.You
shouldhavealsodecidedonthewidthofthebars.
Indatawithoutcontinuitye.g.cropproductionthereshouldbegaps
betweenbarsandforonewithcontinuitye.g.rainfallbarsshouldnot havegaps.
Drawverticallinesoneithersideofthedotthendrawhorizontallineto
jointhemwiththedot.
Shadeuniformlyiftheyarerepresentingonlyonetypeofdataand
differentlyifrepresentingonetypeofdata.
Incombinedlineandbargraphtemperaturefiguresareplottedonthe
righthandsideofy-axiswhilerainfallontheleft Don’tstartexactlyatzero.
Includetemperatureandrainfallscales.
Startwherethelongestbarends. WhataWellDrawnGraphShouldHave
 127

Title
Scale/scales
Labelledandmarkedxandyaxisstartingatzero.
Keyifrequirede.g.incomparativebargraph.
Accuratelyplottedandlines,curvesorbarsproperlydrawn.
SimpleLinegraph
Advantages
Easytoconstruct
Easytointerpret
Easytoread/estimateexactvalues.
Showstrendormovementovertime.
Disadvantages
Doesn’tgiveaclearimpressiononthequantityofdata.
Maygivefalseimpressiononthequantityespeciallywhentherewasno production.
Poorchoiceofverticalscalemayexaggeratefluctuationsinvalues.
Difficulttofindexactvaluesbyinterpolation.
SimpleBarGraph/histogram
Advantages
Easytoconstruct.
Easytointerpret.
Easytoread.
Givesaclearvisualimpressiononthequantityofdata.
Disadvantages
Poorchoiceofverticalscalemaycauseexaggerationofbars.
Doesn’tshowcontinuity/variationofdataovertime.
Unsuitabletechniquewhenvaluesexistincontinuity.
Notpossibletoobtainintermediatevaluesfromthegraph.
CombinedLineandbarGraph
Advantages
-Easytoconstruct.
-Easytoread.
Itshowsrelationshipbetweentwosetsofdata.
Disadvantages
 128

Difficulttochoosesuitablescalewhenvaluesofvariablesdifferby greatmagnitude.
Considerablevariationofdatarepresentedbythelinemaycausethe
linethebarsthusobscuringtherelationship.
Doesn’tshowrelationshipbetweenthesamesetsofdataofmorethan oneplace.
TemperatureandRainfallforThika
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp(◦c) 24 24 23 22 19 17 17 18 19 20 22 23
Rainfall(mm) 109 122 130 76 52 34 28 38 70 108 121 120
AnalysisandInterpretation
ThemonthwithheaviestrainfallisMay.
ThemonthwithlowestrainfallisJuly.
ThehottestmonthwasJanuaryandFebruary.
ThemonthswithlowesttemperaturewereJuneandJuly.
CropProductioninKenyaintheYears2001and2002

crop Amountinmetrictonnes
2001 2002
Tea 300,000 500,000
Coffee 120,000 80,000
wheat 120,000 150,000
Maize 250,000 400,000
ValueofexportCropsfromKenya(kshmillion)
Crop 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Tea 24126 32971 33065 35150 34485
Coffee 16856 12817 12029 11707 7460
Horticulture 13752 14938 17641 21216 19846
Ifthedatahaslargefigurese.g.195262plotin1000s=195,184,988=185.
Youcandrawcomparative/group/multiplelineandbargraphsfromthedata.
Comparative/Group/MultipleLineGraph
 129

Advantages
Simpletoconstruct
Suitablewhencomparingtrendsormovements
Comparisonofitemsiseasybecausethegraphsaredrawnusing commonaxis
It’seasytoreadexactvaluesfromeachgraph
Disadvantages
Numberofitemswhichcanberepresentedarelimited
Crossingoflinesmaymakeinterpretationandcomparisondifficultand confusing.
Totalamountofvariablecan’tbeestablishedataglance.
ComparativeBarGraph
Advantages
Easytoconstruct
Easytoreadandinterpret
Easytocomparesimilarcomponentswithindifferentbars.
Givesagoodimpressionoftotality.
Individualcontributionmadebyeachcomponentisclearlyseen.
Differencesinquantityofcomponentsareclearlyseen.
Disadvantages
Doesn’tshowtrendofcomponentsovertime.
Noteasytocomparecomponentswherebarsaremany
Notsuitableformanycomponents.
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DividedBarsorRectangles
ProductionofSugarcanein1000tonnesof5majorfactoriesinKenya
Factory Production(ooo Lengthincm
tonnes)
Sony 50 0.5
Nzoia 100 1
Chemilil 200 2
Muhoroni 250 2.5
Mumias 400 4
Total 1000 10
ReportedVisitorArrivalsbyContinentfortheYear2000
Continent No.of Lengthof
visitors strip(cm)
Africa 153904 1.5
America 77271 0.8
Asia 58784 0.6
Europe 663906 6.6
Other 82672 0.8
Total 10.3
Lookforaconvenientscalesay1cmrep100000visitors
Drawadividedrectangle10cmlongtorepresentthedata.
Showyourcalculations. -Itshouldhavethefollowing:
Title
Differentshades
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Key
Widthof2cm
AnalysisandInterpretation
-Togetthemeaningof FactoryleadinginsugarproductionisMumias.
The2ndleadingisMuhoroni.
FactorywiththelowestproductionofsugarisSony.
Calculationof%s.
Advantages
Easytoconstruct
Easytocomparecomponentsbecausetheyarearrangedinascending
ordescendingorder.
Takeslessspacethanwhenthedataispresentedusinggraphs.
Eachcomponentproportiontothetotalcaneasilybeseenataglance.
Disadvantages
Can’tbeusedforalargedata.
Onlyoneunitofmeasurementcanbeused.
Difficulttoassessvaluesofindividualcomponents.
Thevisualimpressionisn’tasgoodaspiecharts.
Exercise
TemperatureandRainfallforKisumu
1.
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp(◦c) 19 20 20 18 20 19 19 18 18 18 18 18
Rainfall(mm) 18 38 66 127 114 84 112 104 69 56 38 31
()Drawabargraphtorepresentrainfallfigures.
(b) Calculatethemeanmonthlytemperaturefortheplace.
(c)Calculatethemeanannualtemperaturerange.
()Calculatetheannualrainfalltotals.
2.
Temp/Day Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun
Max◦c 28 27 28 26 29 29 26
Min◦c 18 18 20 16 22 21 19
()Calculatethediurnal/dailytemperaturerangeforTuesday.
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(b)CalculatethemeandailytemperatureforSunday.
.Supposeat40◦caircanhold60g/m3ofwatervapourandthe
maximumvapouritcanholdis70g/m3.Calculatetherelative humidity.
.(a)CalculatethetimeatLamu70◦EwhentimeatGWMisnoon.
(b)CalculatethelongitudeofWatamuwhosetimeis6pmwhen
timeatGWMis9am.
.Studentsfromacertainschoolobtainedthefollowingmarksin
theirendoftermgeographyexamination.
74,52,48,60,48,32,80,67and85.
Calculatethefollowing:
(a)Median
(b)Mode
(c)Mean
(d)Statetheiradvantagesanddisadvantages.
6.(a)Calculatethescalegiventhatthegrounddistanceis200km
whilethedistanceonthemapis20cm.
(b)AstudentmeasuredthelengthofaroadonamapfrompointA
toBandfoundittobe3.6cm.Useascaleof1:50000calculate
theactual/grounddistanceinkm.
7.Studentsintendtocarryoutfieldstudyofaforestaroundtheir school.
(a)Statetwowaysinwhichthey’dpreparethemselves.
(b)State2objectivesthey’dhaveformulatedfortheirstudy.
(c)Listtwoproblemsthey’dhaveencounteredinthefield.
(d)Statetwofollowupactivitiestheywouldhaveafterthefield study.

CLIMATE
-Averageweatherconditionsofagivenplaceoveralongperiodoftime usually30-
35years. FactorsInfluencingClimate
Latitude
Itinfluencestemperaturewherebylowlatitudeshavehightemperature
andhighlatitudeshavelowtemperatureduetotheangleatwhichthe
sunraysstriketheearthandthedistancetravelledbythesun’srays.
Italsoinfluencesrainfallwherebyplacesintheequatorreceiverainfall
intwoseasonswhenthesunisoverheadtherewhilenorthernand
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southerntropicalareasreceiverainfallwhenthepositionofthesunis
overheadinthoseareas.
Inter-TropicalConvergenceZone
It’salowpressurebeltaroundequatorwheretradewindsconverge.
Itinfluencesrainfallinthefollowingways:
Placesfurtherfromequatorexperienceonerainyseasonwhenthesun
isoverheadandalongdryseasonwhenthesunisintheS.hemisphere.
Regionsnearequatorhave2seasonsofheavyrainfallbecausethey
experiencepassageofITCZtwice.
Altitude
Itinfluencestemperaturewherebyatlowaltitudetemperatureishigh
whileathighaltitudeitslowerduetothethicknessofatmosphere
determiningthenumberofparticlestostoreheatanddistancefrom
spacewhereterrestrialradiationislost.
Italsoinfluencesrainfallwherebymountainsonthepathofrainwinds
receiveOrographicrainfallandthewindwardslopesreceiveheavier
rainfallthanleewardslopes.
DistancefromtheSea
Itinfluencestemperaturewherebyplacesintemperateregionsnearthe
seaexperiencelowtemperatureduringsummeronshorewindsblowing
overcoldoceanwaterandtakingthecoolinginfluenceonadjacentland
becausethewaterisheatedataslowerratethanland.
Placesneartheseaalsoexperiencehighertemperaturesduringthe
winterorcoolseasonduetoseabreezescarryingwarmerairtothe
landbecausewaterlosesheatataslowerratethanland.
Temperaturesintheinteriorofcontinentstendtobehighinsummer
andverylowinwinterduetolackofmarineinfluence.
Italsoinfluencesrainfallwherebycoastalregionsreceivealotofrain
whenthewindsareonshoreandthecontinentalinteriorsreceiveless
rainmainlyinsummerbecauseonshorewindswillhavedroppedmost
ofmoisturealongtheway.
OceanCurrents
Itinfluencestemperaturewherebycoastswhicharewashedbywarm
oceancurrentsarewarmerwhilethosewashedbycoldoceancurrents
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arecoolerduetotheonshorewindsbeingeitherwarmedorcooledand
thentakingthewarmthorcoolnesstotheland.
Itinfluencesrainfallwherebycoastswashedbywarmoceancurrents
experienceheavyrainfallwhenmoistonshorewindsarewarmedbythe
currentandmadetoholdontomoisturewhichtheyreleaseonreaching theland.
Thecoastswashedbycoldoceancurrentsontheotherhand
experiencelowrainfallasaresultofmoistwindsbeingcooledand
moistureinthemcondensedresultinginrainfallingovertheocean
therebybringinglittleornoraintothecoastalareas.Thisisthecause
ofwesternmargindesertse.g.KalahariandNamibdeserts.
Aspect
-Directionofslopeinrelationtosunlightandtherainbearingwinds.Itseffect
ontemperatureismorepronouncedinthenorthernandsouthern hemisphere.
IntheNandShemispherestheslopesfacingsunarewarmerwhile
thosefacingawayarecooler.
Theslopesinthedirectionofrainwindsi.e.thewindwardslopes
receiveheavierreliefrainfallthantheleewardside.
WindsandAirMasses
Windblowingfromawarmregionwarmstheregionitspassingoverandif
blowingfromacoolregioncoolstheregionit’spassingoversincewindisa
mediumoftransferofheat.
Seabreezestakecoolinginfluenceonlandduringhotafternoons.
Katabaticwindscauselownighttemperaturesonvalleysandfootof mountains.
FohnandChinookwhicharedescendingdrywindstakedrynesstothe
leewardsidesofAlpsandRockies.
Windsinfluencerainfallinthefollowingways:
Anabaticwindscauseafternoonshowersonmountainousregions.
Moistureladenwindscauseheavyrainfall.
Persistentdrywindscausedesertlikeconditionsintheareatheypass
overe.g.HarmattanwindsfromSaharawhichblowoverW.Africa.
Regionsaroundlargewaterbodiesexperiencehighrainfallbecauseof
theeffectoflandbreezes.
ConfigurationofCoastline
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Coastalregionsacrossthepathofmoistureladenwindsreceivehigher
rainfallbecausewindsdepositmoistureonlande.g.Mombasawhilethose
lyingparalleltothepathofthosewindsreceivelessrainfallbecause
moistureisdepositedontheseae.g.Lamu.
Forests
Forestedareasexperienceamicroclimatewhereby:
Temperatureislowerduetoshadesoftreesreducingsolarinsolation
reachingtheground.
Rainfallisheavierduetohighrateofevapotranspirationandfriction
betweentreesandrainbearingwinds.
HumanActivities
Manhascauseddeforestationintheprocessofcreatingroomfor
settlementandagriculturewhichhascauseddropinrainfallamounts leadingtosemi-
aridconditions.
Manhasconstructeddamsacrossriversanddoneafforestationwhich hascausedsemi-
aridregionstobecomewetland.
Gasesespeciallyco2emittedfromburningfossilfuelsand
chlorofluorocarbonslayercauseglobalwarmingthroughthegreen
houseeffectanddestructionofozonelayerrespectively.

TheClimaticRegionsofKenya
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ModifiedEquatorialClimate
-ExperiencedalongthecoastandalongthecoastfromSomali-Tanzanian
borderandL.Victoriabasinregionsaroundthelake.
AlongtheCoast
Characteristics
Hightemperaturesthroughouttheyearmeanannualabout27◦c.
Smallmeanannualrangeoftemperatureabout4◦c.
HottestmonthsareDecemberandJanuary.
Experiencesrainfallthroughouttheyear/norealdryseason.
Doublemaximarainfallregime(2rainseasons)inMayandOctober.
Highhumidityduetohightemperaturecausinghighratesof
evaporationandnearnesstothesea.
L.VictoriaBasin
Characteristics
Temperatureislowerthanthetrulyequatorialclimateduetomodifying
influenceofthelake(meanannualrangebetween22-26◦c).
Therearenorealdrymonths.
Heavyrainfallrangingfrom1000-600mm.
Doublemaximarainfallregime.
Receivesconvectionaltypeofrainfallwhichfallsmainlyinthe afternoons.
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Highrelativehumidityduetohightemperatureandnearnesstothelake
whichisasourceofmoisture.

ModifiedTropicalClimate -ExperiencedincentralhighlandsEandWofR.Valley.
Characteristics
Meanannualtemperaturesaveragesbetween17-24◦c.
Lowerwarmerslopesandcoolerhigherslopesduetomodificationby altitude.
Receivesrainfallthroughouttheyear(1000-2000mm).
ReceivesOrographicrainfallcausedbyS.ETradeWinds.
Doublemaximarainfallregimeineasternhighlandsandsingle
maximumintheW.highlands.
Humidityismoderate.
TropicalContinental/desertClimate
-Experiencedinabout½ofKenyainmostofN,N.E,mostofEandSKenya. Characteristics
Hightemperaturesthroughouttheyearwithmeanbetween22and27◦c.
Generallydrywithlessthan500mmofunreliablerainfall.
Largediurnalrangeoftemperature.
Theskiesaregenerallyclear.
Lowhumidity.
Temperaturehasbeenmodifiedbyreliefinsomearease.g.Voi-25◦c andGarissa-
28.5◦c.
TropicalClimate
-ExperiencedinNarok,S.TaitaandKwaleregion. Characteristics
Hightemperatures(meanannualtemp-16.5◦c).
Temperatureismodifiedbyreliefinsomearease.g.Loita,Taitaand
Narokwhichhasmadetheplacesuitableforhumanhabitation.
Generallylowrainfallamounts.
Rainfallsinoneseason.
Alongdryseasonlastingupto6months.
TropicalNorthernClimate
-experiencedinasmallareaintheN.WpartofKenyaborderingUganda. Characteristics
Highaveragetemperatures.
Temperaturesaremodifiedinsomeplacesbyaltitude.
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Lowmeanannualrainfallofabout850mm.
RainfallsmainlyinJuneandSeptember.
Experiencesalongdryseasonofupto6months.

DesertClimate
-ExperiencedincentralnorthernKenyawheretherearepuredesertssuchas
Chalbi,KaroliandKaisutdeserts.
Characteristics
Temperaturesareveryhighthroughouttheyearaveraging30◦cdueto cloudlessskies.
Verylowrainfalloflessthan250mmperyear.
Characterisedbydivergingordescendingwindswhichdon’tbringany rain.
Nighttemperaturesareextremelylow.
Humidityislow.
Sandstormsarecommonoccurrences.
WorldClimaticRegions
Classifications
1.Hotclimates
2.Warmclimates
3.Coolclimates
4.verycoldclimates
5.Mountainclimates
6.micro/localclimates
Hot/TropicalClimates
-Experiencedwithinthetropicallatitudes.
-Subdividedinto:
(a)Equatorialclimate
(b)Tropicalmonsoonclimate
(c)Savannahclimate/Sudantype
(d)Tropicaldesertclimate
(e)Tropicalmarineclimate
Equatorialclimate
-Experiencedinthefollowingareas:
(a)AmazonbasininS.America.
(b)AlongwestcoastofAfricafromguineatoCoted’Ivoire.
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(c)SouthernpartofNigeriathroughCameroon,Gabon,CentralAfrican
Republic,CongotoZaire.
(d)S.EAsiainMalaysia,IndonesiaandastretchbetweenBurmaand Vietnam.
Characteristics
Hightemperaturesthroughouttheyear(between24-27◦c).
Temperatureneitherrisesnordropstoolowduetothickcloud
coverallyearround.
Heavyrainfallthroughouttheyear(meanannualofabout 2000mm).
Doublemaximarainfallregime.
Experiencesconvectionalrainfallinlowlandsandreliefrainfallin
areasofhighrelief.
Highrelativehumidityofover80%duetoconvergenceofmoistair
massesandhighevapotranspirationrates.
Lowpressureallyearround.
Therearenoseasons.
TropicalMonsoonClimate
It’sfoundinthefollowingareas:
(a)S.EAsiainpartsofPakistan,India,Bangladesh,S.chinaand Philippines.
(b)AlongthenortherncoastalregionofAustralia. Characteristics
Highmeanannualtemperaturesofabout28◦c.
Seasonalreversalofwinds.
Heavyrainfallwhenmonsoonwindsareonshore(600-1300mm) climate.
Rainfallsinafewmonthsandtherestoftheyearisdrydueto influenceoflatitude.
Lowpressureinsummerwhenwindsblowonshore.
Highpressureinsummerwhenwindsblowoffshore.
Cloudyskiesinsummerandclearskiesinwinter.
TropicalMarineClimate
It’sfoundonwindwardslopesofislandsandcoastalareasontheeastof
continentsundertheinfluenceofS.ETradeWindsinthefollowingareas:
(a)C.AmericainS.MexicothroughGuatemala,Nikaraguaand Panama.
(b)N.coastofS.America.
(c)CaribbeanislandsofCuba,HaitiandJamaica.
 140

(d)CoastlandsofE.AfricafromKenya,Tanzaniathrough
MozambiqueandE.Malagasy.

Characteristics
Summertemperaturesareveryhighapproximately30◦c.
Highrainfalltotalsinsummerwhenwindsareonshore(10002000mm).
Orographicandconvectionalrainfallinsummer.
Drywintersduetowindsbeingoffshore.
Highhumidityduetocoastallocation.
Experiencestropicalcyclonestowardsendofhotseason.
Wintersarecool(about21◦c).
TropicalContinental/Savanna/Sudantype -ThelargestnaturalclimaticregioninAfrica.
It’sfoundinthefollowingareas:
(a)InAfricaitextendsfromSenegalthroughE.Africatothenorthern partofs.Africa.
(b)WesternMadagascar.
(c)AbroadbeltinN.Australia.
(d)N.WandS.EofAmazonBasincalledLlanosandCampos.
Characteristics
Highertemperaturesofupto32◦inhotseason.
Largediurnalrangeoftemperatureindryseason.
Convectionalrainfallinsummeraveraging765mmannually.
Highhumidityduringthehotwetseason.
Lowhumidityincoolerdriermonths.
Prevailingwindsaremainlytradewinds.
Typesofdeserts oErg-Sandydesertswithlargeamountsofdepositedsand. oHamada-
Rockydesertsmadeofbaresurfaces. oReg-
Rockydesertscoveredwithangularpebbles,gravelsandboulders.
oHotcontinentalinteriordesertsfoundontheinteriorofcontinentsonthe
leewardsidesofhighmountainse.g.SaharaandArabianDesert.
oCoastaldesertsofwesternmarginscharacterisedbyoffshoretradewinds
andcoldoceancurrentse.g.AtacamaofS.America,NamibinNamibia andArizonainU.S.A.
oMidlatitudedesertsofcontinentalinteriorswithhighsummerandlow
winterlikeGobiinC.Asia.
IceandsnowdesertsofpolarlandslikeGreenlandandAntarcticadesert.
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TropicalDesertClimate
-Foundonthewesterncoastsofcontinentswashedbycoldoceancurrents.
Theyarethefollowing:
(a)ArabianDesertofthemiddleEast
(b)Sahara,KalahariandNamibdesertsinAfrica.
(c)AtacamaDesertinS.America.
MohaveandColoradodesertsofU.S.A.andMexicandesertsinNandC America.
(d)Jordan,Syria,Iran,Iraq,SaudiArabia,IsraelandAfghanistan.
(e)ThegreatAustraliandesertinthegreaterwesternpartofthe continent.
Characteristics
-Hightemperaturesduringthedayandverylowtemperaturesduringthe
nightduetohighterrestrialradiation. oLargediurnalrangeoftemperature.
oClear/cloudlessskies. oReceiveslessthan250mmofrainfallannually.
oRainfallislocalised,shortandtorrentialandaccompaniedbystorms
whichcauseflashfloods. oRainfallsforashortperiodandtherestoftheyearorevenseveral
yearsaredry.
oHighwindvelocityduetolittlefrictionalforce.
oSomeareasexperiencetemperaturesbelowzeroinwinterwithice formingontheoasis.
oHumidityislowandevaporationrateishigh.
oSandstormsareverycommoni.e.sandbeingblownthroughtheairby thewind.
WarmClimates
Theybordertropicalclimatesandtheyexperiencemoderatetemperatures
lowerthanoftropicalclimates.
Theyaresituatedinthezoneofdivergenceoftradewindsandwesteries
(subtropicalhighpressurebelt).
Subdividedinto:
1.WarmtemperateWesternmargin/MediterraneanClimate.
2.WarmTemperateInterior/continentalClimate.
3.WarmtemperateEasternmarginalClimate.
4.WarmtemperateDeserts. WarmTemperateWesternMargin
-AlsoknownasMediterraneanClimate.
-Foundonthewesternmarginorsidesofcontinentsinthefollowingareas.
(a)SouthernEuropeandN.Africainthelandsbordering MediterraneanSea.
(b)S.WtipofAfricaaroundCapeTown.
(c)CentralChileinSAmerica.
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(d)S.WandSAustralia.
Characteristics
Hotsummerswithtemperaturesofabout21◦c.
Mildwinterswithtemperaturesofabout10◦c.
CharacterisedbyhotandcoldlocalwindscalledMistralandSirocco.
Thereishighsunshinedurationandintensityinsummer.
Experiencescyclonicrainfallinwinterwhenwesteriesareonshore.
Rainfalldecreasesinland.
Summersaredryduetotradewindsblowingoffshore.
Therearedistinctseasonsi.e.summer,autumn,winterandspring.
WarmtemperateInteriorClimate -AlsocalledSteppeType.
It’sfoundintheinteriorofcontinentsinthefollowingareas(grasslands):
()SteppeLandofU.S.S.R.
(b) VeldtofSAfrica.
(c)PrairielandsofCanadaandU.S.A.
()PampaslandsofArgentina.
(e) DownsofAustralia.
Characteristics
Warmshorttemperaturesbetween18-21◦c.
Longwinterswithextremelylowtemperaturesdueto
continentalitywhichcanfallupto-20◦c.
Precipitationisreceivedalltheyearround.
Mostrainfallisreceivedinsummerandsnowprecipitationin winter.
Rainfallismoderatewithannualmeanof500mm.
Summerrainfalliscausedbyconvectionanddepressions.
Thereishighhumidityinsummer.
WarmtemperateEasternMarginclimate -AlsoknownasChinaType.
It’sexperiencedontheeasternmarginsofcontinentsinthefollowingareas.
()S.EChinaandS.Japan.
()S.EAustralia.
(c)SandS.EstatesofU.S.A.
(d) S.AmericainS.Brazil,Uruguay,E.Paraguayandcoastof Argentina.
Characteristics
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Hotsummerswithameanannualofabout26◦c.
Mildtocoolwintersduetomarineinfluenceandlocalwinds(413◦c).
Receivesrainfallthroughouttheyear(about1000mm).experiences
hurricanesandtyphoons.
Convectionalrainfalliscommoninsummer.
Rainfallismoderatebetween760and1500mm.
WarmTemperateDeserts
-AlsoknownasMid-LatitudeDesertclimate.
It’sexperiencedinthefollowingareas:
1.NevadaandUtahstatesofU.S.A.
2.PentagoniainS.America.
3.GobiDesertextensivedesertareaofsouthernMongoliaandnorthern
ChinaandthelargestdesertinAsia.
4.Turkey,Turkmenistan,UzbekistanandKazakhstan. Characteristics
Highsummertemperatures(27-37◦c).
Coldwintersaslowas-7◦c.
Verylargediurnalandannualrangesoftemperature.
Lowandunreliablerainfallduetogreatdistancefromthesea
about250mmannually.
Mostrainfallfallsinlatewinterorearlyspring.
CoolClimates
Theydifferfromwarmclimatesbyhavingdefiniteseasonalvariationsin
temperature. Subdividedinto:
1.CoolTemperateWesternMargin
2.CoolTemperateContinentalInterior
3.CoolTemperateEasternMargin CoolTemperateWesternMarginClimate -
AlsoknownasBritishType.
It’sundercoastalinfluence.
-Foundinthefollowingareas:
(a)BritishIsles(Island)
(b)CentralandN.WEurope
(c) N.WU.S.A.andBritishColumbiainCanada.
(d) S.Chile
(e)TasmaniainAustralia Characteristics
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Warmsummers(13-15◦c).
Coolwinters(2-7◦c).
Smalltemperaturerange.
Welldistributedrainfallthroughouttheyear(760-2000mm).
Cyclonicrainfallinthecoastallandsandreliefrainfallin mountainousareas.
Highhumidityinwinters.
Longsummerdayswithirregularthunderstorms.
Convergenceofsub-tropicalandpolarairmasses.
Onshorewesterlywindsaredominant.

CoolTemperateContinentalInteriorClimate -AlsocalledSiberiantype.
-Foundinthefollowingareas:
(a)AlaskaandmostofCanada
(b)EurasiacoveringSweden,Finland,Poland,Germany,acrossformer
U.S.S.R.uptoKamchatkaPeninsulaintheeast. Characteristics
Warmsummerswithtemperaturesofabout18◦c.
Generallyshortsummers.
Extremelycoldwintertemperatureswhichgobelow20◦c.
Longwinterswithlongnights.
Precipitationismainlyinformofsnowduringwinter(annual precipitation400-
500mm).
Convectionalrainfallinsummerisaccompaniedbythunderstorms.
CoolTemperateWesternMarginClimate It’salsoknownasLaurentianType.
Areas:
(a) N.U.S.A.andSCanada.
(b) S.Argentina.
(c)N&SKorea,N.China,CandNJapanandE.Siberia. Characteristics
-Longwarmsummerswithtemperaturesofabout18◦c.
-Coldwinters(-40-0◦c).
-Precipitationallyearround(600-1000mm).
-Snowprecipitationinwinter.
-Highhumidityinsummer.
ColdClimates
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-AlsoknownasPolarDesertClimatesorArcticandAntarcticClimates.
-FoundbeyondArcticCirclei.e.66½◦NandSofequator.
-ClassifiedintoTundraandPolarClimates.
TundraClimate Areas:
(a) CoastofN.AmericaborderingArcticOcean.
(b) NpartofAmericafromAlaskathroughCanadatoGreenland.
(c)FromNcoastofScandinaviatotheN.EofRussia.
(d) BaffinIsland.
Characteristics
Shortcoolsummerswithaveragetemperaturesofabout10◦c.
Longcoldwinters(-29--40◦c).
Continuousdaysinwinterandsummerforseveraldays.
Lowannualprecipitationofabout250mm.
Precipitationinformofrainandsnowinwinter.
PolarClimate -ExperiencedatthepolesintheinteriorofIceland,GreenlandandAntarctica.
Characteristics
Temperatureispermanentlybelowfreezingpoint.
Thereispermanentsnowcoverandiceontheground(permafrost).
Snowstorms(blizzards)arecommon.
Continuouswinternightsandsummerdayswithexceptionofequinox
whensunrisesabovehorizon.
MountainClimates
-Experiencedonhighmountainrangesoftheworld.
Areas:
1.Mt.Kenya(5199)
2.Mt.Ruwenzori(5109)
3.Mt.Kilimanjaro(5895)
4.Mt.Everest(8848)
5.AtlasmountainsinAfrica
6.RockiesofN.America
7.AlpsofEurope
8.HimalayasinAsia
Characteristics
Temperaturedecreaseswithincreasingaltitude.
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Temperaturerangesfromcooltocold.
ExperiencesOrographicrainfall.
Rainfallincreaseswithaltitudeupto3000mmandstartstodecrease
becauseairiscoldandhencehaspoorcapacitytoholdmoisture.
Windwardslopesarewetterthanleewardslopes.
Atmosphericpressuredecreaseswithincreasingaltitude.
Localwindsarecommonandblowuptheslopeduringthedayand downslopeatnight.
Intemperateregionsslopesfacingtheequatorarewarmerthanthose facingthepoles.
AtlasmountainsinAfrica
RockiesofN.America
AlpsofEurope
HimalayasinAsia
Local/MicroClimates
Climateexperiencedwithinasmallareawhichisslightlydifferentcompared
tothegeneralclimateofthearea.
Itoccursontheimmediatesurroundingsandwithinsomephenomenonon
theearth’ssurface.
Micro-climatescanbefoundinthefollowingareas:
(a) Withinandaroundaforest
Experiencelowtemperaturesduetotreespreventingsolarinsolation
fromreachingtheground.
Experienceshighrainfallduetohighratesofevapotranspiration.
(a) Urbanareas
Highertemperaturesduetogreenhouseeffect(situationwhere
atmosphericgasesabsorbheatthatisgivenoffbytheearth(terrestrial
radiation)beforeitssentbacktospacecausingthetemperatureofthe
loweratmospheretoincrease.
(b) Aroundmanmadelakes
Experiencehighconvectionalrainfallduetohighmoisturecontent.
Aroundnaturallakesexperienceslandbreezeswhichcauseearly
morningshowersandseabreezeswhichlowertemperaturesduringthe hotseason.
AridityandDesertification
-Aridity-stateoflandbeingdeficientofmoistureleadingtolittleorno vegetation.
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-Desertification-processinwhichdesertlikeconditionsslowlyandsteadily
encroachonformerlyproductiveagriculturalland.
CausesofAridityandDesertification
1.Lowandunreliablerainfallbelow250mmperannumcausinglittle
ornovegetationandabsenceofanimalandbiologicallifecausing
soilformingprocessestobeincomplete.
2.Hightemperatureswhichcausehighratesofevaporationwhich
exceedevaporationorlowtemperatureswhichreducesair
capacitytoholdmoisturecausingaplacetoreceivelittleorno rain..
3.Whereaplaceiswashedbyoceancurrentscausingmoistonshore
windstocoolandthendropmoistureovertheseaandreachthe
landasdrywindse.g.Kalahariwhenonshorewesteriescrossthe
coldBenguelaCurrent.
4.Wherereliefbarrierssuchashillsormountainscausesomeareas
tolieontherainshadowhencerainwindsdropmostoftheir
moistureonthewindwardsideandtheydropontheleewardside,
arewarmedandholdontomoisturecausingdryconditionse.g.
KalahariandNamibontherainshadowofDrakensbergmountains.
5.Locationofsomeplacesveryfarfromtheseacausingthemtobe
farremovedfromwetonshorewindse.g.GobiDesert.
6.Wherehotdrywindsblowoveraregioncausingdryingeffecton
lande.g.HarmattanoverWestAfrica.
7.Wherecoolairdescendscausingnorainbecausecoolairhasto
risebeforecondensationtakesplace.
HumanActivities
8.Whenpeopleclearforestswhichcausesrunofftoexceed
infiltrationwhichinterfereswiththewatercycle.
9.Keepinglargenumberofanimalswhichexceedthecarrying
capacityoflandtheyeatvegetationleavingthelandbearexposing
thelandtosoilerosion.
10. Pooragriculturalpracticessuchasovercultivation,
monocultureandslashingandburningwhichleadtosoilerosion.
11. Industrialisationwhichreleasesgreenhousegasessuchas
co2totheatmospherewhichabsorbmoreheatmakingtheearth’s
temperaturetorise.
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12. Reclamationofwaterloggedareaswhichlowersthewater
tablecausingaridconditionstosetinplantswhenplantscan’t
accessgroundwater.
13. Poorirrigationmethodswhenevaporationtakesplaceand
saltfrombelowarebroughttothesurfaceandaredepositedon
thetopsoilmakingthesoilsaltyandhenceunabletosupport plants.
EffectsofAridityandDesertification
1.Infertilesoilswhichsupportlittleornovegetation.
2.Lowagriculturalproductionduetoinsufficientrainfallleadingto famine.
3.Shortageofwaterfordomesticandindustrialusewhichmayalso
leadtoshuttingdownofmysons.
4.Migrationofpeoplefromareasaffectedbyaridityand
desertificationleadingtopopulationpressureandeventually conflicts.
5.Destructionofvegetationwhichexposeslandtosoilerosion.
6.Canleadtoextinctionofsomeplantsandanimalspeciescausing
lossofbiodiversity.
SolutionstoAridityandDesertification
1.Afforestationandreafforestationbecausetreesprotectsoilfrom
erosion,increaserunoffandreleasemoisturetotheatmosphere
leadingtoincreasedrainfall.
2.Adoptingsoilconservationmeasuressuchasterracing,contour
ploughing,plantingcovercropsetc.
3.Rearinganumberofanimalswhichisproportionaltothecarrying capacityofland.
4.Irrigatingdrylands.
5.Introductionofenergysavingstovestoreducedemandforwoodfuel
whichwillreducedeforestation.
6.Useofalternativesourcesofenergywhichdon’tpollutethe
environmente.g.solarandwater.
7.Introducingdroughtresistantcropsinthearidareas.
8.Controllingindustrialisationbysettinglawsgoverningpollution.
ClimateChange
-Establishmentofanewclimaticstate.
-Continuouschangesinclimaticstatessuchastemperatureand precipitationovertime.
CausesofClimateChange
NaturalCauses
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1.VariationsintheEarthsOrbitalCharacteristics
-Changingorearthsorbitalcharacteristicswithin1000yearsfromelliptical
(aphelion)tonearlycircular(perihelion)whentheearthisnearesttothesun
andreceivesmaximumsolarenergyandbacktoellipticalwhentheearthis
farthestfromthesunandreceivesleastsolarenergy.
2.VariationintheAtmosphericCarbonDioxide
-Whennaturalriseintemperaturecausecarbondioxideheldupincold
oceanwaterstobereleasedtotheatmosphereafteroceanswarmed.
3.VolcanicEruptions
Whenlargequantitiesofvolcanicashanddustthrownoutofthe
groundblocksomeofthesolarinsolationfromreachingthe
earth’ssurfacecausingtemperaturesontheearth’ssurfaceto
dropforashortperiod.
Whensulphurdioxidegivenoffduringvolcaniceruptionsreacts
withwatervapourformingabrightlayerwithinstratosphere
reducingtheamountofsolarradiationreachingthesurfaceby
reflectingsomeofitbackwhichalsolowerstemperaturesonthe surface.
4.VariationinSolarOutput
-changesintheamountofsolarenergygivenoffbythesunwherebyattimes
itslesscausingdropoftemperatureontheearth’ssurfaceandatothersits
givesoffmorecausingriseintemperatureonthesurface.

HumanCauses
1.Burningoffossilfuelsinindustries,transportation,electricity
generationetc.whichcontributes65%ofadditionalco2inthe
atmospherewhichisthemaingreenhousegas.
2.Burningofvegetatione.g.inshiftingcultivationandforestfireswhich
alsoaddsco2intheatmosphere.
3.Clearinglargetractsofforestsfoeagriculture,settlementetc.which
reducesthemaindeposalsystemforco2fromtheatmosphereby photosynthesis.
4.industrialdevelopmentswhichaddgaseslikemethane,nitrousoxide
andthosecontainingchlorineandchlorofluorocarbonswhichdamages
ozonelayerwhichfiltersagreaterpercentageofultravioletradiation
givenoffbythesunwhichcausestheaveragetemperaturesonthe earthtorise.
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ConsequencesofClimateChange
1.Globalwarmingduetogreenhouseeffectbygasesaddedintothe
atmosphereanddestructionofozonelayer.
2.Increasedrainfallasaresultofhightemperaturescausinghighratesof
evaporationcausingwetareastobecomewetteranddryareasto becomedrier.
3.Effectonagriculturebycausingcropgrowingareastoshifttocooler
altitudesandlatitudese.g.wheatgrowingareasofCanadashiftingto
thepolesandcausingdroppingorfailureofcropyieldsinareawhere
temperatureshaveincreased.
4.Watershortagewhenclimatebecomesdriercausinglesswaterto
infiltrateundergroundandhencelesswatertofeedrivers.
5.SubmergenceofcoastalareascausingfloodingwhenAntarcticand
Arcticglaciersmeltandwaterisaddedtotheoceans.
6.Heatwavesduetoincreasedtemperaturewhichleadstodeathof people.
7.Recedinganddisappearanceoficecapsonmountainse.g.Mt. Ruwenzori.
8.Abnormalgrowthofplantsduetoincreasedamountsofco2causing
increasedrateofphotosynthesiswhichmayleadtoincreasedyieldsof
majorcrops,poorsoilsduetosoilshavingtosustainhighratesofplant growth.
9.increasedlevelsofultravioletradiationwhichcauseshumandiseases
suchasskincancer,loweringcropproductionbyslowing
photosynthesisandgermination,loweringfishpopulationbydamaging
planktonwhichfisheatsanddegradationofpaintandplastics.

SolutiontoClimateChange
Afforestationandreafforestation.
Useofenergysavingstovestoreducetherateofdeforestation.
Useofalternativesourcesofenergywhichareenvironmentallyfriendly
e.g.solarandwaterinsteadoffossilfuels.
Propermaintenanceofvehicletoreduceemissionsfromtheirexhausts.
Useofpublictransporttoreducetheamountoffossilfuelusedand
hencetheamountofco2addedintotheatmosphere.

VEGETATION
-Plantcoverontheearth’ssurface.
TypesofVegetation
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1.NaturalVegetation
-Whichgrowsbynaturalmeansofseeddispersalwithoutinterferenceand
modificationbyman.
2.Semi-Natural/DerivedVegetation
-Naturalvegetationwhichisintheprocessofrecoveringfrominterference byman.
3.Planted/CultivatedVegetation
-Vegetationplantedbypeoplee.g.forestsofexotictrees,treesin
Agroforestryandplantsusedashedgese.g.cypress.
FactorsInfluencingTypesandDistributionofVegetation
TopographicalFactors
1.Altitude
Coniferoustreesarefoundathighaltitudesbecausetheyareadapted
tocoolconditions.
Thereisnovegetationonmountaintopsbecausethereareverylow
temperatureswhichinhibitplantgrowth.
2.Terrain
Gentleslopeswhichhavedeepandwelldrainedsoilsarebestsuited
forplantgrowththansteepslopeswhichhavethinsoilsduetosevere
erosionandlesssoilwatertosustainplantgrowthduetohighrunoff.
Flatareashavepoordrainagehenceareswampyandcanonlysupport swampplants.
3.Aspect
Thereareawiderangeofplantsontheslopefacingthesunandinthe
directionofrainbearingwindsastheyarewarmandwetter.Grasslandsare
dominantontheleewardsidebecausetheyaredrier. 4.Drainage
Thereisalargevarietyofplantsonwelldrainedsoilswhilewaterlogged
soilshaveswampplantssuchasreedsandpapyrus.
ClimaticFactors
1.Temperature
Plantsinwarmareasarelargeinnumberandgrowfastere.g.inthe
tropicallands.Alsotherearedeciduoustreeswhichshedleavesto
reducetherateoftranspiration.
Inareaswithlowtemperaturesthereisslowgrowthofplantsand
coniferousforestsarefoundthere.
2.Precipitation
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Therearealargenumberofplantsinareaswithhighprecipitationand
theseareasaredominatedbyforestswhicharebroadleavedto
increasetherateoftranspiration.
Areaswithmoderaterainfallaredominatedbygrasslandsandthose
withlittlerainfallhavescantyvegetationofscrubanddeserttypes.
3.Sunlight
Thereislargenumberofplantsinareasexperiencinglongsunshine duration.
Thereislittleundergrowthintropicalrainforestsbecausethecanopy
preventssunlightfromreachingtheground.
4.Wind
Thereisheavyrainfallinareaswherewarmmoistblowtoandhencea
largenumberofplantswhichmaybebroadleavedtoincreasethe
surfaceareafortranspiration.
Edaphic/SoilFactors
Fertilesoilshavealargernumberofplantswhileinfertilesoilshave scantyvegetation.
Soilpollutione.g.oilspillagecausedryingupofplants.
Deepsoilshavedeeprootedplantssuchastreeswhileshallowrooted
soilshaveshallowrootedplantssuchasgrassesandshrubs.
Biotic/BiologicalFactors
1.LivingOrganisms
Bacteria,earthwarmsandburrowinganimalsimprovesoilfertility
resultingintomorevegetationgrowth.
Insectandbirdspollinateplantsenhancingtheirpropagation.
Bacteriaandinsectscauseplantdiseasesofplantsresultingindeath
ofsomee.g.aphidswhichaffectedcypressinlate80s.
Largeherdsofwildanimalscandestroyvegetationthroughovergrazing
andcanturngrasslandsintodeserts.
2.HumanActivities
Clearingofnaturalvegetationforsettlement,agricultureetc.canleadto
desertification.
Bushfiressuchasburninggrasslandsforthegrasstosproutcan
causeextinctionofsomeplantspecies.
Overstockingcanleadtoovergrazingturninggrasslandsintodeserts.
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Rehabilitationofdeforestedareascanstopthespreadofdeserts.
VegetationinKenya

1.Forests
Theareaunderforestislessthan7%.
ThebulkisfoundinCentralHighlands
(a) PlateauForests
ItusedtocoverextensiveareasaroundL.Victoriabuttodaytherearefew
patchesaroundthelakeinMaragoli,Kakamega,Kaimosi,Malava,Turboand
Tinderetforests.
Theyaretropicalrainforestswithtalltreesstandingamongshortertrees
intertwinedwithcreepers.
(b) LowlandForests -FoundalongtheKenyancoast.
Themaintypesare:
Mangroveforestswhichgrowinshallowwatersand
TropicalrainforestsinShimbahillsinKwaleDistrictandArabuko SokokeinKilifi.
(c)Highland/MountainForests
-FoundontheslopesofMt.Kenya,Aberdareforests,Iveti,Mbooni,Kilalaand
Marsabitforests.
Indigenoushardwoodsareolive,Meruoak,mvule,Elgonteakandcamphor
whileindigenoussoftwoodsarepodocarpusandAfricanpencilcedarand bamboo.
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Theyhavebeenplantedwithexotichardwoodtreese.g.eucalyptusand
silveroakandexoticsoftwoodssuchaspines,cypress,firandwattle. 2.Savanna
-Mostwidespreadvegetationcoveringabout65%ofthetotalarea.
(a) Wooded/TreeGrassland
-Foundalongthecoastalstripandontheplateauborderinghighlandseastof riftValley.
-Consistsofgrassof1mmixedwiththornyacacias.
Whereraindecreasestreesbecomefewerandshorterandthegrassland
becomesmoreopen.
Therearemanylargetreesalongwatercoursesduetoabundantmoisture
(riverineorgallerieforests).
Thetreesshedleavesduringthedryseasontoreducethelossofwaterby transpiration.
(b)BushlandandThicket -Coversabout48%ofsavannah.
-FoundbetweencoastallandandMachakosandextendsintoKitui,Mwingi,
Garissa,WajirandManderadistricts.
-Consistsofamixtureofthornyacaciasandshorterthornyshrubsbetween
formingthornbushwithgapsbetweenbusheswhicharebareorcoveredby
scatteredvarietiesofgrasses.
Plantsareadaptedby:
Havingthinleavesandhardcuticletoreducetranspirationrate.
Baobabhaslargetrunktostorewaterforuseduringlongdryperiod.
Sheddingofleavestoconservewater.
(c)HighlandGrassland
-Foundontheundulatingslopesofgrasslands.
-Grassesaresuchasredoat,wire,ManyattaandKikuyugrasswhereforests
havebeencleared.
-Clovergrowsalongkikuyugrasswhererainfallisover1000mm. 3.Semi-
DesertandDesertVegetation -Coversabout21%ofKenya.
It’sfoundonthepartsofN.EandNKenyaincludingMarsabitandTurkana districts.
Itreceivesinsufficientrainfalloflessthan380mmannually.
Ithasmainlyscrubtypeofvegetation(coveredwithunderdevelopedtreesor
shrubs).Ashrubisaplantlowerthanatreewithasmallwoodystem
branchingneartheground.
Theshrubsareupto1mandgrassesareupto3mandinbetweenthereis bareground.
Treespeciesareacaciaandcomiphora.
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Realdesertshardlyhaveanyvegetation.
Adaptationsplants(Xerophytes)
Somehavethickleavestostorewater.
Longtaprootstoaccesswaterfromrocksbelow. Needlelikeleavestoconservewater.
Sheddingofleavestoconservewater(deciduous).
4.HeathandMoorland
-Vegetationfoundtowardsthemountaintops.
Atloweraltitudesthereisgroundsel,lobeliaandheather.
Wherethereispoordrainagethereismountainswampvegetation referredtoasbogs.
Athighaltitudesthereistussockgrasses,floweringplantsand
alchemillashrubs.Thisvegetationisadaptedtocoldwindyconditions
towardsthesummit.
5.SwampVegetation
-Vegetationfoundinareaswithflatreliefinwetareasalongrivercourses
andareasexperiencingperiodicfloodinge.g.alongthecourseofR.Tana,
LorianswampinIsiolo,WajirandGarissaandthemangrovebeltalonghe coast.
Vegetationfoundtherearemarshes,grasseswithsmoothsurfacesandlong
bladesandpapyruswhichisdominant.
VegetationZonesoftheWorld
A.Forests
Aforestisacontinuousgrowthoftreesandundergrowthscoveringlarge tractsofland.
1.TropicalRainForests
-KnownasSelvasinS.America. It’sfoundinthefollowingareas:
1.CongoBasin
2.AmazonBasin
3.WesternsidesofIndia,BurmaandVietnam.
4.CoastallandofQueenslandAustralia.
Characteristics
Closelysettreeswiththreedistinctcanopies.
Thereislessundergrowthontheforestfloorduetolightbeing obstructedbycanopies.
Treestakelongtimetogrow.
Treeshavelargetrunkswithbuttressroots(radiatingwalllikeroots).
Treeshavebroadleavestoincreasethesurfaceareaforefficient
transpirationduetohighprecipitation.
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Thereisvariednumberofplantsspeciesoverasmallportion.
Treesaretall,havesmoothstemsandstraighttrunks.
Sometreesareevergreensheddingafewleavesatatimewhileothers
shedleavesandareleftbare. Sometreesareveryheavyanddon’tfloatonwater.
Treestakeverylongtimetomaturebetween70-100years.
Typesoftreespresentaremahogany,ebony,ironwood,rosewood,camphor andSapele.
Treecreepetsandparasitesarefoundaroundtallmaintrees.
UsesoftropicalrainForests
(a) Treesarevaluablesourcesoftimberforfurniture,building
andconstruction.
(b) Oilpalmsareforproductionofpalmoil.
(c)Cacaocropsforproductionofcocoabeansusedtomakecocoa
usedtomakechocolatesandbeverages.
(d) ChiclefromthebarkofZabotetreeisusedtomakechewing gum.
(e) Ivorynutsareusedformakingbuttons.
(f)Fibresfromtorquillapalmareusedformakinghats,mats,baskets
andthatchingmaterials.
(g) Cinchonatree’sbarkcontainsquinineusedinmalarial treatment.
2.MangroveForests
-Foundinlowlyingmuddycoastsoftropicalseaswithshallowsaltywaters.
Areas
1.AlongtheeastcoastofAfrica.
2.NeartheestuaryofAmazonRiverinS.America. Characteristics
Dominatedbymangrovetreesand30otherspeciesoftrees.
Mangrovetreeshavespecialrootswhicharepartlyaerialtoaid
breathing.Somegrowhorizontallyandthenverticallydownwards
intomudwhilesomegrowhorizontallyinmudandbendupwards
toaidbreathingandothershavenetworkofrootsresembling stilts.
UsesofmangroveForests
1.Mangrovetreesprovidetanninusedfortanningleather.
2.Mangrovepolesareusedforbuildingandconstructionbecausethey areverystrong.
3.Mangrovetreesarealsousedforfirewood.
4.Mangroveforestsarehabitatsformarinelifeusedfortouristattraction.
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3.TropicalMonsoonForests
Location
1.S.WandScoastofMexico
2.partsofIndia,Bangladesh,Burma,VietnamandIndonesia
3.MonsoonlandsofAustralia
Characteristics
Mosttreesshedleavesduringdryseasonandgrowduringhotwet season.
Smallernumberoftreespeciesthantropicalrainforests.
Tallspeciesoftreesrisingupto30m.
Treesdon’tgrowtogether.
Treeshavemorebranchesbecauseoflightpenetratingatlowerlevels.
Denserundergrowththantropicalrainforests.
Particularspeciesoftreesdominateanarea(pure/definitestands)e.g.
-LeakinBurma
-SalinIndia
-EucalyptusinQueenslandAustralia
-BambooinS.EAsia
Dominanttreespeciesareleak,bamboo,acacia,camphor,ebony,
SapeleandPyinkaido.
UsesoftropicalMonsoonForests
(a) TeakinBurmaandThailandisusedforbuildinghousesand
boatsbecauseit’shardandresistanttotermites.
(b)Bambooandrattancreeperareusedformakingfurniture, basketsandweaving.
(c)Youngtendershootsofbambooareconsumedasvegetables.
4.MediterraneanForests
Areas
1.S.EuropeandN.AfricaareasborderingMediterraneanSea.
2.AroundCapeTownonS.WendofAfrica.
3.CentralcoastofCalifornia.
4.AroundPerthinS.WAustralia. Characteristics
Forestsareopenwoodlands.
Manytreesaredeciduous.
Sometreesareevergreene.g.oak
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Thereiswoodyscrubvegetationinareaswhicharedryandwithpoor
soilswhichiscalledmarquisinFrance,ChaparralinCaliforniaand MachiainItaly.
Manyplantsaresweetsmelling(aromatic)e.g.rosemary,lavender,
oleander,broomandmyrtle.
Manytreesarexerophytese.g.
-Treeshavelongtaprootstoreachthewaterdeepbelowduringlongdry spells.
-Waxyleavestoreducetranspiration
-Storingwaterintheirthickleavesorstems
-Smallspinyleaves
Typesoftreesareolive,sweetchestnut,beech,cedar,cypress,sequoia, eucalyptus
Uses
(a)Corkoakisusedtomakecorksforbottlingwine.
(b)Olivetreefruitsareusedforcookingandextractionofoliveoil.
(c)Timberfromsweetchestnut,beech,cedar,cypressandpineisused
forbuildinghousesandmakingfurniture.
(d)Shrubsandgrassesareusedaspastureforgoats.
5.TemperateEvergreenForests
-FoundinareasexperiencingwarmtemperateeasternmarginorChina Climate.
Areas
1.AlongNatalcoastinS.Africa
2. S.chinaandS.Japan
3. S.EAustralia
4. S.EandS.statesofU.S.A.
Characteristics
Evergreenbecauseofabundantrainfallthroughouttheyear.
Mosttreeshavebroadleavestoincreasethesurfaceareforefficient transpiration.
Manyevergreentreesarehardwoods.
Uses
(a)Hardwoodssuchasoakandironwoodareusedforfurnitureand buildingmaterials.
(b)Softwoodssuchascypressandpinesareusedforfurniture.
(c)Wattletrunksareusedinthecoalminesofnatal.
(d)BambooisusedformakingfurnitureandbuildinginChinaand Japan.
(e)Walnutsprovidenutsusedformakingchocolate.
(f)Ivorynutsareusedformakingbuttons.
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(g)Youngshootsofbambooareeatenasvegetablesinchinaand Japan.

6.TemperateDeciduousForests
-Foundinareasexperiencingcooltemperatewesternmarginalclimate.
Location
1.C.andW.Europe.
2.MostofE.statesofU.S.A.
3.ChileinS.America.
Characteristics
Treesaredeciduousandshedleavesinautumnandbecomegreenin summer.
Individualspeciesoftreesarescatteredandtheirdensityperunitarea issmall.
Treesaresmallerinsize.
Treesarebroadleaved.
Mostofthetreesarehardwoods
Thereisrichundergrowthbecauseofbeingfairlyopen.
Treesgrowinpurestandsinsomeregionsandatotherstheyaremixed.
Treesareeasiertoexploitthantropicalhardwoods.
Uses
(a)Hardwoodssuchasoakandbirchareusedfortimber,woodfueland charcoal.
(b)Chestnutandwalnutnutsareedible.
(c)Oaktreefruitsareusedforfeedingpigs.
(d)Tungtreeyieldsoilformakingpaintandfurnish.
(e)Maplesapisusedformakingmaplesyrup.
Treesincludeeucalyptus(bluegum),olive,birch,walnut,elmandash.
ConiferousForests
It’sdominantincoolclimates.It’sknownasTaigaandBorealinRussia.
Location
1.W.coastofCanada.
2.ScandinaviaacrossRussiatothePacificcoast.
Characteristics/ofsoftwoodsinCanada Theirseedsareconeshaped.
Mosttreesaresoftwoodsandarelightinweight.
Treesmaturefasterthanhardwoodsoftropicalregions.
Treeshavebigproportionofstemcomparedtoleaves.
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Mosttreespeciesareevergreenwithfewsheddingleavese.g.larch andfir.
Treespeciesoccurinbigpurestands.
Verylittleundergrowthduetoacidichumusfromleaffall.
Treeshavestraighttrunks.
Treesmatureafteralongperiodoftime(50-70years)duetothecold
conditionsespeciallyinwinter.
Speciesoftreesfoundherearepines,Fir,spruce,larchandHemlock.
Adaptations
Needle-likeleavestoreducetranspiration.
Leaveswithtoughwaxyskintoprotectthemfromwintercold.
Treecrownsareconeshapedandflexiblecrownstoallowsnowtoslide
offtopreventitfromaccumulatingonthebranches.
Treesareevergreentohavemaximumutilisationofsunlightduringthe shortsummers.
Flexibletreetrunkstoallowswayingsoastoallowswayingsoasnotto
breakduringstrongwinterwinds.
Widelyspreadrootsystemformaximumutilisationofmoisturefrom
topsoilbecausesubsoilispermanentlyfrozen.
Used
Softwoodssuchasspruce,fir,pineandlarchareusedforconstruction,
woodpulpusedinpapermanufacture.
7.MixedForests
-Foundatthezoneoftransitionbetweentemperatedeciduousand coniferousforests.
Location
1.SaskatchewanandAlbertaprovincesofCanada
2.ScottishregionsinEurope
3.lowlyingMediterraneanregions
Characteristics
-Amixtureofbroadleaveddeciduousandconiferoustrees. Uses
-Cedarandhazelareusedforfencingposts.
-Grazingactivitiesarecarriedoutwhereforestsareopen.
-Softwoodssuchasspruce,firandpineareusedtomakewoodpulpused
forpapermanufacture.
-Hardwoodssuchasoakandbircharevaluablesourcesoftimber,woodfuel andcharcoal.
-Mapletreesyrupisusedformakingmaplesyrup.
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B.Grasslands
-Foundinclimaticregionswhereaseasonalpatternoccurswithaprolonged
droughtofabout5-7months.
TropicalGrasslands/Savanna
-Foundinareasexperiencingtropicalcontinentalclimate.

Areas
1.NandSofCongoBasin.
2.BetweenSahelandequatorialforestsinE.Africaplateau.
3.N.EofAustralianDesert.
4.Brazilianhighlands It’sdividedinto:
(a) Opengrasslandswheregrassisdominantand
(b) Woodlandsinareaswhichreceivemorerainfall. Characteristics
Grasslandswithwidelyspacedtreessuchasacacias.
Grassesdieindryseasonandsproutquicklywhenitrains.
Grassesaretall(upto3mwithstiffbladesandelephantgrassistallest reachingupto4m.
Treesareofmediumsizeupto13m
Treecrownsareumbrellashapedtoprovideshadearoundrootsto reduceevaporation.
Mosttreesaredeciduousandshedleavesduringdryseason.
Treeshavesmallleavesandthickbarkstoreducetranspiration.
Treeshavelongtaprootstoreachthewaterdeepbelowduringlongdry spells.
Uses
(a) Grassisforgrazingandcommercialranchingthoughit’soflow
nutritionalvalueduetolackofphosphorous.
(b)Cerealse.g.wheatfarmingbecausethesoilisrichinhumus
resultingfromthegrasscover.
(c)Vegetationactsassoilcovertoreducesoilerosion.
(d) Homesofwildanimalswhichattracttouristse.g.E.andC.African savannas.
(e) Treesarehabitatsforbeeswhichprovidehoney.
(f)Someshrubsandherbsareusedformedicine.
(g) Treessuchasacaciaprovidefuelwoodandcharcoal.
TemperateGrasslands
-Foundincontinentalinteriorsoftemperategrasslandswhererainfallisn’t
sufficienttosustainforests.
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Location
ThePrairies
Areas
-CanadianprovincesofAlberta,Saskatchewan,Manitobaandneighbouring statesofU.S.A.
Characteristics -Continuoustuftgrass
-Grassesarenutritious.
-Grassisshort
-Grassisinterspersedwithbulbousandleguminousplants.
-Grassismixedinsomeareaswithspeciessuchasstipa,buffaloand gammagrasses.
-Tallgrassesinareaswithrainfallofover500mm.
TheSteppes
-FoundinEurasia-temperateinteriorsofEuropeandAsia.
Characteristics
-TrueSteppes-richcarpetofgrassandsomefloweringplants.
-Desertsteppes-Coarsegrassgrowingintufts -
Grassdoesn’tformacontinuouscoveontheground.
-Shortgrasswhichgrowsveryclosetotheground.
ThePampas
-FoundinArgentina.
Characteristics
-Feather-likegrass
-Grassformsindividualtussockswithpatchesofbaresoil.
-Forestsarepresentinsomeareasduetoincreasedmoisture.
-Xerophyticordroughtresistantplantsarepresentinsomeareas.
TheVeldt
-FoundinS.Africa. Characteristics
Grassesareextensivelyspread.
Thereislittleornomixtureoftreesorshrubs.
Thereisauniformcoverofgrassonhighplateaus. TheDowns
-FoundinAustraliaandNewZealand. Characteristics
Tallgrassmixedwithtrees.
Semidesertareashavepatchesofdominantgrass.
Mixtureoftemperateandtropicalgrassspecies.
Grassisnutritiousandnutritiousforlivestock.
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NaturalgrassesofArgentinahavebeenreplacedbyAlfalfaandinNew
ZealandBritishmeadowgrassesnowdominate.
UsesofTemperateGrasslands
(a) Forgraincultivatione.g.wheatwhichrequiresaslowas325mm ofrainfall.
(b)Forcultivationofothercropse.g.oilseeds,Soyabeans,
vegetablesandmilletandsorghumwidelygrownintheVeldt.
(c)Forlivestockfarminge.g.cattle,sheep,goatsandhorses.Thereare
scientificallymanagedranchescalledEstanciasinArgentina.
DesertVegetation TropicalDesertVegetation -
Foundintropicaldeserts.
Characteristics
Vegetationispresentexceptinbarerockandsandcoveredareas.
Therearemoreplantsonoasise.g.datepalmsandavarietyofshrubs.
Someplantsaresucculenttohavehighwaterstoragecapacity.
Somehavespinestoprotectthemfromanimals.
Somehavethorn-likeleavestoreducerateoftranspiration.
Somehavelongrootstoenablethemtotapwaterfromdeeperpartsof rocks.
Someshedleavesduringdryseasonandgrownewleavesduringwet
periodstoreducewaterloss.
Somearesalttolerant(halophytic)byhavingmanywaterstoringcells
tocountersoilsalinityoralkalinity. TemperateandArcticDesertVegetation
-Foundinwarmtemperatedesertsandarcticclimates. Characteristics
Grassesandwoodyplants.
WoodyplantswhichareXerophyticandhalophytic.
Shrubshaveshallowrootsduetopermafrost.
Plantsflowerandproducefruitswithinshortwetseason.
ThereisscarcevegetationinTundra.
Plantspresentinarcticdesertsaresuchaslichens,mossesand
floweringplantssuchasanemonesandmarshmarigold.
UsesofDesertVegetation
(a) Bilberriesintemperatedesertsbearediblefruits.
(b) SmalltreesaresourceoffuelfoeEskimoswholiveinarcticregion.
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(c)Vegetationintropicaldesertsisimportantinarrestingsanddunesto
preventthemfromburyingoasisandsettlements.
(d) Intropicaldesertsfringesvegetationisvaluablefoodforanimals. (e)
Datepalmiscultivatedforitsfruit.
MountainVegetation
-Vegetationfoundtowardsthetopofthemountain.
UsesofMountainVegetation
(a)Grasslandsareusedforgrazing.
(b)Alpinemeadowsintemperateregionsprovidesummergrazing pastures.
(c)Mountainforestsprovidetimber,buildingmaterials,fuelwoodand charcoal.
(d)Mountainforestsarehabitatsforwildanimalse.g.elephants.
(e)Mountainvegetationmakesmountainstobewatercatchmentareas.
(f)Mountainforestshelptopurifyairbyabsorbingcarbondioxideand providingoxygen.
(g)Mountainvegetationisusedforresearch.

SignificanceofVegetation
(a)Forestsaddbeautytocountry’slandscape.
(b)Vegetationprotectssoilfromerosionbywindandrainwater.
(c)Vegetationpartlydecaysforminghumusmakingthesoilfertile.
(d)Someplantsroots,barksandleavesareusedformedicine.
(e)Forestsmodifytheclimateofthesurroundingareabyincreasing
rainfallandreducingtemperatures.
(f)Someplantssuchasbambooshootsandwildfruitsareconsumedas food.
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(g)Somefibrousplantssuchassisalandjuteareusedformakingropes, sacks,mats,etc.
(h)Latexfromrubbertreeisusedformanufactureofrubberusedintire manufacture.

FORESTRY
Forestryisthescienceofdevelopingandmanagingforestsincluding cultivatingthem.
TypeofForests
1.Naturalforests-whichgrowbynaturalmeansofseeddispersal.
2.Semi-natural/derived/cultivatedforests-whichisintheprocessof
recoveringfrominterferencebyman.
3.Planted/cultivatedforests-whichhavebeenplantedbyman.
4.Indigenousforests-whicharenativetoaregionorwhichhavegrownin
aregionfromthebeginning.
5.Exoticforests-whichhavetreeswhichhavebeenintroducedtoaplace
fromothercountries.
6.Othertypeshavebeendiscussedinthechapterofvegetation.
FactorsInfluencingTypesandDistributionofForests
Temperature
Hightemperaturecausesfastgrowthoftreeswhilelowtemperature
causesslowgrowth.
Rainforestsarefoundatlowaltitudeswhicharewarmerwhile
coniferousforestsarefoundathighaltitudeswhicharecooler.
Aspect
Denseforestsarefoundonwindwardslopesofmountainsbecause
theyarewetterthanleewardslopesandtheystartatalowerlevelthan
ontheleewardslopes.
Intemperateregionslopesfacingequatorhavedenseforestsbecause
theyarewarmerwhilethosefacingthepoleshaveconiferousforests
whichareadaptedtolowtemperatures.
Precipitation
Therearedenseforestwherethereisheavyprecipitationwhilethereis
lessforestcoverconsistingofstuntedtreesinareaswithlittle precipitation.
Coniferousforesthavecone-shapedcrownstoallowsnowtoslideoff
soasnottoaccumulateonthebranchesandcausethemtobreakoff.
Soil
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Deepsoilssupporthugetropicaltreeswhileshallowsoilssupport
coniferoustreeswhichhaveshallowandwidespreadrootsystemtobe
abletomaximallyutilisewateronthetopsoilsincethesubsoilis permanentlyfrozen.
Poororinfertilesoilshavestuntedtrees.
HumanActivities
Deforestationandshiftingcultivation-manhasclearedforeststo
createroomforagriculturesettlementetc.whichhasreducedforest
coverontheearth’ssurface.
AfforestationandAgroforestry-manhasplantedtreesinareaswhere
theyneverexistedestablishingforeststhere.
Reafforestation-manhasreplantedforestswhichhehasclearedwith
indigenousandexotictreescausingnaturalforeststobecomeseminatural/secondary
orderivedforests.
ImportanceofForeststoKenya
1.Forestsarewatercatchmentareaswhichsupportsagricultureand H.E.P.generation.
2.Forestsprovideuswithwoodfuele.g.firewood,charcoalandsawdust.
3.Forestspreventsoilerosionbytheirrootsbindingthesoiltogether,
reducingrunofftherebyreducingincidentsoffloodinganddam siltation.
4.Forestsarehabitatsofwildanimalswhichareatouristattractionwhich
bringsforeignexchangeusedtoimportgoodsandservicesandfund
developmentprojects.
5.Forestsareadisposalsystemforcarbondioxidewhichtheyusein
photosynthesisandreleaseoxygentherebypurifyingairandreducing
globalwarming.
6.Forestsincreasesoilfertilitywhenleavesfallandrotforminghumus.
7.Forestsregulatetheclimateofanareabycreatingamicroclimate
causingheavyandfrequentrainbyevapotranspirationandlowering temperatures.
8.Forestsareasourceoftimberforconstructionandfurnituremaking.
9.Forestsbeautifytheenvironmentbyflora(plants)andfauna(animals).
10. Someforest’streesareasourceofmedicine.
11. Presenceofforestshasledtothedevelopmentofinfrastructure
asroadshavebeenconstructedtomakeforestsaccessible.
12. Forestsprovideemploymenttopeoplee.g.forestguards,forest
officers,lumberjacks,carpentersandtimbermerchants.
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ImportanceofForestProducts
1.Forestsareasourceoffoode.g.fruits,honey,mushroomsandbamboo
tenderleaveswhichareusedforvegetables.
2.Forestsprovidewoodusedformanufactureofpaper,softboards,ply woodetc.
3.Animalsinforestsarehuntedforfood,skinsandhorns.
4.Leavesoftreesandforestundergrowthareusedaslivestockfodder.
5.Forestsprovidewoodwhichisusedincottageindustriesformaking
carvingsandwoodenutensilswhicharesoldlocallyandexported.
6.Forestfloraandfaunaarearichreservoirforresearch.
ProblemsFacingForestryinKenya
1.Encroachmentbypeoplebyclearingthemtocreateroomfor
agricultureandsettlement,grazingetc.whichputssomeplantsand
animalspeciesindangerofextinction.
2.Destructionespeciallyofyoungtreesbyherbivorouswildanimalssuch
aselephantsduetorapidincreaseinthepopulation.
3.Destructionofhugetractsofforestsbyfirescausedbypoachers,
honeyharvestersetc.especiallyduringthedryseason.
4.Pestsanddiseasesoutbreakwhichcanresultindestructionoflarge
tractsoflandwithvaluabletreespeciese.g.therewasanoutbreakof
aphidsin1980swhichdestroyedcypress.
5.Overexploitationwherebythetreesareharvestedatahigherratethan
whichtheyarebeingreplacednaturallyandalsoharvestingofimmature trees.
6.Excisionofforestse.g.byconvertingsomepartsofforestsintoprivate
land,governmentlandlikeNyayoTeaZonesandpublicutilitieslike
AgriculturalShowGroundswhichhasresultedintoreductionofthearea underforests.
7.Poormanagementofforestse.g.clearcuttingwhichmayleadto
harvestingofimmaturetreesinfuture,governmentofficialscarrying
outillegalloggingandgovernmentinthepasthavingnotbeenstrictin
forestconservationofforestswhichledtodestructionoflargeareasof forests.
ManagementandConservationofForests
Conservationofforestsisprotectionofforestsagainstinterferenceand
destructionbymanwhileforestconservationiseffectiveplanningand
controlofforestsandforestresources.
ConservationMeasures
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1.Creationofforestreservestoprotectindigenousforestsfrom
extinctione.g.Mt.Kenyaforest,ShimbaHillsandArabukoSokoke.
2.Settingofforestguardpostsintheforeststoprotectforestsagainst
illegallogging(treefelling).
3.SettingNyayoTeaZonestoactasprotectivebeltstopreventpeople
fromtrespassingintotheforests.Theyarealsoasourceof
employmentandforeignexchange.
4.Afforestationandreafforestation.
5.Agroforestry(intercroppingofvariouscropswithtrees)which:
Supplieswoodresources
Providesanimalfodder
Providefoode.g.fruitse.g.mangoesandavocadoesforgood
healthandnutrition Actsaswindbreakersand
Shadeforcrops.
ManagementMeasures
1.Researchtodeterminewhichtreespeciesaresuitableforwhicharea
andhowtocombatpestsanddiseasesoutbreak.
2.Carryingoutpubliccampaignsthroughmassmediaontheimportance offorests.
3.Useofalternativesourcesofenergye.g.sun,wind,biogasandwaterto
reducetherateoftreefelling.
4.Useofenergysavingstovestoreducetherateofoverexploitationof woodfuel.
5.Improvementoncuttingpracticesbyselectivefallingoftreesand
replantingmoretreesthanthosecut.
6.Controlofpestsanddiseaseswhichaffecttrees.
ImportanceofForestManagementandConservation
1.Areasourceofutilityproductse.g.firewoodforfuelandfoodfrom fruitsandnuts.
2.Forecologicalreasonsinthattheyhelpinthefollowingways:
Topreservefloraandfauna
It’sawatercatchmentarea
Moderatingtheflowofwaterreducingsoilerosionandfloods
whichalsopreventssiltationofdams.
3.Forposterityi.e.sothatthefuturegenerationwillhaveforestresources
availablefortheiruse.
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4.Industrialreasonsbecauseforestproductsareusedasrawmaterialsin
theindustriessuchasfurniture,papermaking,etc.
5.Forestsareimportantforscientificresearchsuchasonherbal
medicineandgeneticmappingofthespeciesofplantsandanimals
whichhaven’tbeenidentified.
SoftwoodForestsinKenyaandCanada
FactorsFavouringtheDevelopmentofSoftwoodForests
Kenya
1.CoolclimateofKenyahighlandswhichenablesconiferousforeststo
thrivee.g.Mt.KenyaandAberdares.
2.HeavyrainfallreceivedinKenyahighlandsandlowevaporationrates
whichsupportsforestgrowth.
3.RuggednessandsteepnessofsomepartsofKenyahighlandsmaking
themunsuitableforsettlementtherebyleavingforeststothrive.
4.Highdemandfortimberandwoodproductslocallyandoutsidethe
countrywhichencouragestreefarming. Canada
1.Coolandcoldclimatewhichfavoursgrowthofconiferousforests.
2.Verylowaveragetemperaturesintheinteriorwhichfavoursthegrowth
ofconiferousforests.
3.RuggednessandsteepnesssuchasofBritishColumbiawhich
discouragesagricultureandsettlementleavingforeststothrive.
4.Verylowpopulationdensityleavingalotoflandavailableforforests.
5.HeavyrainfallonthewindwardslopesofmountainrangesofBritish
Columbiaandlowevaporationintheeastgivingsufficientmoistureto sustainforests.
ModeofExploitation
Kenya WorkersaretransporteddailytologgingsitesinKenyawhileinCanada
settlementissetforworkerswithinforests.
Powersawsareusedinbothcountriestofelltreesbutaxesareusedto
alimitedextentinKenya.
InKenyatransportationoflogsisbytractorsandlorrieswhilein
Canadariversarewidelyusedtotransportlogsbyfloating.
Inbothcountriesloggingissystematicanditisdoneinblocks.
FactorsFavouringExploitationofSoftwoods Kenya
1.Doesn’texperiencewintersologgingcangoonthroughouttheyear.
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2.SoftwoodforestsinKenyaareeasiertoexploitbecausetreesare
plantedinrowsunlikeinKenyawheretheyarenaturalandtreesgrow haphazardly.
3.InKenyaforestsareaccessiblethroughouttheyearunlikeinCanada
whereforestsinthenorthareinaccessibleduringseverewinterand ruggedness.
4.InKenyaloggingcangoonthroughouttheyearbecausethereisno winter.
5.AvailabilityofwaterfromR.Nzoiaforpulpandpapermanufactureat Webuye.
6.Readymarketduetohighdemandforwoodproductslocallyand outsideinCOMESA.
Canada
1.MildwintersinBritishColumbiawhichmakesitpossibletotransport
logsthroughouttheyear.
2.Availabilityofwaterfrommanyriversprovidingplentyofwaterfor
paperandpulpmanufacture.
3.CheapH.E.P.forfactoriesfrommanyriversinCanada.
4.Cheapandefficientlandandwatertransportsystemeasingtransport
oflogstofactoriesandtomarkets.
5.Coastallocationofmajorproducingareasmakingexportationoftimber
toU.S.A.andJapaneasy.
6.HighdemandforforestproductsintheneighbouringU.S.A.andlocally
duetohighpurchasingpower.
7.Existenceofnaturalconiferousforestsinpurestands(onetreespecies
coveringalargearea)makingexploitationeasy.
8.Absenceofundergrowthwhichmakesexploitationeasy(duetodead
leavesresultinginacidichumus.
PlantedsoftWoodsinKenya Plantedinclearrows.
Clearcutting
Matureatthesametime.
Products
InKenyaandCanadaproductsarepolessawntimber,pulp,paper,block
board,plywood,clipboardetc.
EconomicSignificanceofSoftwoodForestsinbothCountries
1.Providesemploymenttopeoplee.g.lumberjacks,treefarmersandin
timberrelatedindustries.
2.Hasledtodevelopmentoftimber/woodrelatedindustriese.g.furniture,
papermanufactureetc.
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3.AforeignexchangeearnerwheninCanadatimberisexportedtoU.S.A.
andwhenproductsinKenyaareexportedtoCOMESA.
4.Savingsomeforeignexchangewhenthecountryproducewood
productstocaterfortheirneedsonwhichthey’dotherwisespend foreignexchange.
5.Infrastructuraldevelopmentwhenroadsareconstructedtoease
transportationoflogstoindustriesandproductstomarkets.
6.Provideincometotreefarmers.
ProblemsinKenyaandCanada
1.ForestfireswhichdestroylargetractsoflandwhereinCanadathe
greatestnumberoffiresarecausedbylightingwhileinKenyatheyare
causedbyillegalloggers,poachers,etc.
2.Pestsanddiseasese.g.aphidswhichdestroyedcypressin1980s.
3.Overexploitationleadingtosoilerosionastreestakeslongtimeto
matureandprovidesufficientcovertothesoilafterplanting.
4.Canada’streestakelongtimetomature(50-60yearsduetosevere
winterswhichslowtheirgrowth.InKenyatheytake12-35years.
5.InCanadathereisproblemofinaccessibilityofforestsinthenorthern
partinwinterandduetoruggedterrainwhileinKenyatheyareplanted
andeasilyaccessible.
ComparisonofsoftwoodforestsinKenyaandCanada
Similarities
Softwoodforestsinbothcountriesexperiencetheproblemsofpests
anddiseases,fires,soilerosionandoverexploitation.
Softwoodforestproductsaresimilare.g.sawntimber,woodpulp, paper,poles,etc.
Softwoodforestsinbothcountriesgrowinplaceswithheavyrainfall,
cooltemperatures,heavyrainfallandruggedterrain.
Forestproductsearnforeignexchangeinbothcountries.
Treespeciesaresimilare.g.thereispineinbothcountries.
Differences
Speciesoftreesdiffere.g.inKenyathereisKenyacedarandpodo
whileinCanadathereisDouglasfirandwhitepine.
Canada’ssoftwoodsaremainlynaturalwhileKenya’saremostly planted.
Kenya’ssoftwoodforestsarefoundinhighlandswhileCanada’sare
foundinlowlandsduetocooltemperatures.
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Canada’ssoftwoodforestscoverlargetractsoflandthanKenya’s.
InKenyasoftwoodforestsarepropagatedbyafforestationwhilein
Canadait’sbyleavingsometreesuncutsothattheyproduceseedsto
bedispersednaturally.
Canada’ssoftwoodforeststakelongertomaturethanKenya’sdueto
severewintertemperatures.
Kenya’ssoftwoodforestsareplantedinrowsandeasilyexploitable
unlikeCanada’swhichgrownaturallyandhaphazardly.

F3GEOGRAPHY

STATISTICS
COMPOUND/CUMULATIVE/DIVIDEDBARGRAPH
MajorcashcropsexportedinKenyaintonnes
CROP 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
COFFEE 4500 5000 5200 6000 5900
TEA 1300 1100 2500 2100 2200
MAIZE 800 900 500 400 400
WHEAT 600 500 600 700 500
Steps
CROP 19 CT 199 CT 199 CT 199 CT 199
90 1 2 3 4
COFFE 45 450 500 500 520 520 600 600 590
E 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TEA 13 580 110 610 250 770 210 810 220
00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
MAIZE 80 660 900 700 500 820 400 850 400
0 0 0 0 0
WHEA T 60 720 500 750 600 880 700 920 500
0 0 0 0 0
TOTAL 7200 7500 8800 9200 900
0
1.Setcumulativetotalsforthedataeachyear
2.Drawverticalaxis(Y)torepresentdependentvariable
3.Drawhorizontalaxis(x)torepresentindependentvariable
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4.Labelbothaxisusingsuitablescale
5.Plotthecumulativevaluesforeachyear
6.Usevaluesforcomponentstosubdividethecumulativebar
7.Thesubdivisionsareplacedindescendingorderwiththelongestatthe bottom(coffee)
8.Shadeeachcomponentdifferently
9.Puttitleandkey
Advantages
1.It’seasytoconstruct
2.Ithasgoodvisualimpression
3.Thereiseasycomparisonforthesamecomponentindifferentbars
becauseofuniformshading
4.Easytointerpretbecausebarsareshadeddifferently
5.Totalvalueofthebarcanbeidentifiedeasily
Disadvantages
1.Itdoesn’tshowthetrendofcomponents(changeovertime).
2.Can’tbeusedtoshowmanycomponentsasthereislimitedspace upwards
3.Tediousasthereisalotofcalculationworkinvolved.
4.Noteasytotraceindividualcontributionmadebymembersofthesame bar
5.Poorchoiceofverticalscalecausesexaggerationofbarslengthleading
towrongconclusions

Analysis
-Coffeewastheleadingexportearnerinthefiveyears.
-Teawasthesecondleadingexportearner.
 174

-Wheathadthelowestexportquantity. -1993recordedthehighestexportquantity.
-1990recordedthelowestexportquantity. N.b.-leavehalfapageforexample2
PIECHART/DIVIDEDCIRCLES/CIRCLECHARTS
-Acirclewhichhasbeensubdividedintodegreesusedtorepresent
statisticaldatawherecomponentvalueshavebeenconvertedindegrees.
Majorcountriesproducingcommercialvehiclesintheworldin000s
USA FRANCE JAPAN UK GERMANY RUSSIA
1800 240 2050 400 240 750
Steps
a)Convertcomponentsintodegrees
USA1800×360/5480=118.2◦
FRANCE240×360/5480=15.8◦
JAPAN2050×360/5480=134.7◦
UK400×360/5480=26.3◦
GERMANY240×360/5480=15.8◦
RUSSIA750×360/5480=49.3◦
b)Drawacircleofconvenientsizeusingapairofcompasses.
c)Fromthecentreofthecirclemarkouteachcalculatedangleusinga protractor.
d)Shadethesectorsdifferentlyandprovidethekeyforvariousshadings.
Advantages
1.Givesagood/clearvisualimpression 2.Easytodraw.
3.Canbeusedtopresentvaryingtypesofdatae.g.minerals,population,etc.
4.Easytoreadandinterpretassegmentsarearrangedindescendingorder
andarealsowellshaded.
5.Easytocompareindividualsegments.
Disadvantages
1.Difficulttointerpretifsegmentsaremany.
2.Tediousduetoalotofmathematicalcalculationsandmarkingoutof anglesinvolved.
3.Can’tbeusedtoshowtrend/changeoveracertainperiod.
4.Smallquantitiesordecimalsmaynotbeeasilyrepresented.
Analysis
1.ThemainproducerofcommercialvehiclesisJapan.
2.ThesecondlargestproducerisUSAfollowedbyRussia.
3.ThelowestproducerswereFranceandWestGermanywith.
 175

PROPORTIONALCIRCLES
Thisisuseofcirclesofvarioussizestorepresentdifferentsetsof statisticaldata.
TableshowingmineralproductionInKenyafromyear1998-2000
MINERALS QUANTITYINTONNES
1998 1999 2000
Graphite 200 490 930
Fluorspar 30 255 450
Sodaash 270 300 350
Diamond 500 870 1270
TOTAL 1000 1915 3000
Steps
1.Determiningtheradiiofcirclesbyfindingthesquarerootsofthetotals

2000 3000=54.77=55
2.Scale:1cmrepresents10tonnes
1998=3.2cm
1999=4.4cm
2000=5.5cm
3.Usingapairofcompassesdrawcirclesofdifferentradiirepresenting
mineralproductioninKenyabetween1998and2000.
4.Convertcomponentvaluesintodegrees Componentvalue/totalvalueofdata×360
1998:Graphite-200/1000×360=72◦ Fluorspar-30/1000×360=10.8◦
Sodaash-270/1000×360=97.2◦
 176

Diamond-500/1000×360=180◦
1999:Graphite-490/1915×360=92.1◦
Fluorspar-255/1915×360=47.9◦
S
`300/1915×360=56.4◦
Diamond-870/1915×360=163.6◦
2000:Graphite-930/3000×360=11.6◦ Fluorspar-450/3000×360=54◦
Sodaash-350/3000×360=42.1◦
Diamond-1270/3000×360=152.3◦
5.Ontheproportionalcircleforeachyearuseaprotractorandmarkoutthe angles
6.Shadethesegmentsandthenprovideakey.
Advantages
1.Theygiveagoodvisualimpression.
2.Easytocomparevariouscomponents.
3.Simpletoconstruct.
4.Easytointerpretassegmentsarearrangedindescendingorder.
5.Canbeusedtopresentvaryingtypesofdata.
Disadvantages
1.Tediousincalculationandmeasurementofangles
2.Actualvaluesrepresentedbyeachcomponentcantbeknownataglance
3.Difficulttoaccuratelymeasureanddrawsectorswhosevaluesaretoo small.
4.Comparisoncanbedifficultifthecirclesrepresentvalueswhichare almostequal.
Analysis/Conclusions
1.Diamondwasleadinginproduction.
2.Thesecondleadingmineralinproductionwasgraphite.
3.Themineralwiththelowestproductionwasfluorspar.

MAPWORK
DescriptionofRelief
a)Describethegeneralappearanceoftheentireareae.g.hilly,mountainous,
plain,undulatinglandscape,hasmanyhills,isolatedhills,etc.
b)Statethehighestandlowestpartsofthearea.
c)Lookoutforvalleyswhichareoccupiedbyrivers.
d)Divideintoreliefregionssuchasplateau,escarpmentandlowland.
e)Explainthetypeofslope.g.gentle,steep,evenorirregular.
 177

f)Directionofslope.
g)Identifythelandformspresentinthearea.
GentleSlope
Slopeisthegradientoflandsurface.
Gentleslopeisoneinwhichlanddoesn’triseorfallsteeply Contoursarewideapart

SteepSlopes
-Wherelandrisesorfallssharply
-Contoursareclosetoeachother

EvenSlopes
-Shownbycontourswhichareevenlyspaced.
 178

UnevenSlopes
-Indicatedbyunevenlyspacedcontours.

ConvexSlopes
-Onecurvedoutwards
-Indicatedbycontourswhichareclosetogetheratthebottomandwidely
spacedtogetheratthetop.

ConcaveSlopes
-Onecurvedinwards.
 179

-Contoursareclosetogetheratthetopandwidelyspacedatthebottom.

AValley
-Alowareabetweenhighergrounds.
-IndicatedbyU-shapedcontourspointingtowardsahigherground.

ASpur
-Landwhichisprojectedfromhightolowground.
-IndicatedbyU-shapedcontoursbulgingtowardslowerground.

InterlockingSpurs
-Spurswhichappearasiftofittogether.
 180

TruncatedSpurs
-Spursinglaciatedhighlandswhosetipshavebeenerodedand straightened.

ConicalHills
-Hillsareuplandswhichriseaboverelativelylowerground
-Conicalhillsaresmallroundedhills

IrregularShapedHills
-Ahillwithsomesideswithunevengentleandotherswithunevensteep slopes.
 181

Ridges
-Arangeofhillswithsteepslopesonallsides.
-Aridgecancontainhills,cols,passesorwatershed.

ACol
-Alowareawhichoccursbetweentwohills. APass
-Anarrowsteepsidedgapinahighland.
AWaterShed
-Theboundaryseparatingdrainagesystemswhichdrainsintodifferent directions
-Escarpmentandridgesoftenformwatersheds.

Escarpment
-Arelativelycontinuouslineofsteepslopesfacingthesamedirection -
Hastwoslopes:alonggentleslope(dipslope)andshortsteepslope (scarpslope).
 182

APlateau
-Ahighflatlandboundbysteepslopes.

DescriptionofVegetation
Naturalvegetationisclassifiedaswoodlands,thickets,scrubsorgrasslands.
Symbolsaregivenaspicturesofvegetation.
Typespresent
Distribution
Reasonsfordistributione.g.seasonalstreams,scrubor
grasslandduetolowrainfall.
a)Forests
Likelyindicationsofthefollowinginthearea:
Heavyrainfall
Fertilerainfall
Cooltemperaturedependingonaltitude
b)Thicketsandshrubs
Seasonalrainfall
Poorsoil
Hightemperature
c)Riverinetrees
Highmoisturecontentintherivervalley
DescribingDrainage
 183

Identifydrainagefeaturespresent
Naturaldrainagefeaturesincludelakes,rivers,swamps,sea,rapids,
waterfalls,cataracts,springs,deltas,fjords,sandormud,andbays
Artificialfeaturesincludeponds,wells,boreholes,waterholes,cattledips,
cattletroughs,canals,reservoirs,irrigationchannels,aqueducts,water
treatmentplantsandmanmadelakes.
Identifymainriversbyname
Sizeofrivers-bigorsmall-shownbythicknessofbluelines.
Givethegeneraldirectionofflow.
Locationofwatershedifany Characteristicofeachfeature
a)PermanentRivers
-Whichflowthroughouttheyear
-Shownbycontinuousbluelines

Likelyindicationof:
-Heavyrainfall -Impermeablerocks
b)SeasonalRivers
-Whichflowseasonallyorduringtherainseason
-Shownbybrokenbluelines

Likelyindicationof:
-Lowrainfall
 184

-Riverdoesn’thavearichcatchmentarea
c)DisappearingRivers -Bluelinesendingabruptly

Likelyindicationof:
-Permeablerocks
-Verylowrainfall
-Undergrounddrainage Identifydrainagepatternsanddescription
-Drainagepatternisthelayoutofariveranditstributariesonthelandscape. a)Dendritic
-Resemblesatreetrunkandbranchesorveinsofaleaf. -
Tributariesjointhemainriveratacuteangles.

a)Trellis
Tributariesjointhemainriverandothertributariesatrightangles
ofhardandsoftrocks)
Commoninfoldedareaswhereriversflowdownwardsseparatedby
verticaluplands.

b)RectangularPattern
 185

-Lookslikealargeblockofrectangles.
-Tributariestendtotakesharpangularbendsalongtheircourse.

c)ParallelPattern
-Riversandtributariesflowvirtuallyparalleltoeachother
Influencedbyslope
-Commononslopesofhighmountainranges

d)CentripetalPattern
-Riversflowfrommanydirectionsintoacentraldepressionsuchasalake, seaorswamp.
-ExamplesareriversflowingintosomeoftheRiftValleylakessuchas NakuruandBogoria.

e)AnnularPattern
Streams(riverswhicharesmallinsize)arearrangedinseriesofcurves
aboutabasinorcrater It’scontrolledbytheslope. f)Radial
-Resemblesthespikesofabicycle
-Formedbyriverswhichflowdownwardsfromacentralpointinall
directionssuchasonavolcanicconee.g.onMt.Kenya,Elgonand Kilimanjaro.
 186

g)Fault–GuidedPattern
-Flowofriverisguidedbydirectionoffaultlines

Human/EconomicActivities
DescriptionofHumanActivities
Identifytypes
Evidence–manmadefeatures
Reasonse.g.tea-cooltempsandheavyrainfall
Agriculture
a)Plantationfarming Evidencedbypresenceof:
-“C”-coffee
-Namedestatese.g.Kaimositeaestate
b)Smallscalecropfarming
-Cottonginneryorsheds
-Coffeehullerlies
-Poshomillsformaize,millet,sorghum
-Teafactory/store
LivestockFarming
-Dairyfarms
-Veterinarystations
-Cattledips
 187

-Creameries
-Waterholes
-Dams
-Butcheries
-Slaughterhouses
Mining
-Symbolforamine/mineralworks
-Nameofthemine
-Particularminerale.g.sodaash
-Quarrysymbol
-Processingplantofaminerale.g.cementindicatescementis minedinthatarea
Forestry/Lumbering
-Sawmills
-Forestreserves
-Foreststation
-Forestguardpost
-Roadsendingabruptlyintoaforestestateusedtotransport logstosawmills
Fishing
-Fishtraps
-Fishingco-operativesociety
-Fishponds
-Fishhatcheries
-Fisheriesdepartment
-Fishlandinggrounds(banda)
Manufacturing/ProcessingIndustry
-Sawmillsforlumberproducts
-Ginneryforcottonprocessing
-Millformaize,millet,wheatprocessing
-Creameriesformilkprocessing
-Factoryformanufacturingorprocessingaknowncommodity. Services
a)Trade
-Shops
-Markets
-Stores
-Tradingcentres
 188

b)Transport
i)Land -Roads
oAllweatherroads-whichareusedallyearroundi.e.tarmacand murramroads.
oDryweatherroads-whichareusedreliablyduringdryseasons.
oMotorabletrucks-roughroadswhichareusedbypeopleonfoot
andbyvehiclesondryseason.
-Othertrucksandfootpaths
-Railways,station,sliding,levelcrossinglinesandrailwayslight
ii)Air
-Airfields
-Airports
-Airstrips
iii)Water
-Ferries
-Bridges
c)Communication
-Postoffices(P.O.)
-Telegraph(T.G.)
-Telephonelines(T)
d)Tourism
-Campingsites
-Touristclasshotelsandrestaurants
-Nationalparks
-Gamereserves
-Curioshops
-Museums
-Historicalmonuments
e)Administration
-DO,DC,PC,policepost,chiefscamp.
SocialServices
a)ReligiousServices
-Church
-Mosque
-Temples
 189

b)Education
-Schools
-Colleges
-Universities
c)HealthServices
-Hospitals
-Dispensaries
d)RecreationalServices
-Golfclubs/courses
-Stadiums
DescriptionofSettlement
Asettlementisaplacewithhousingunitswherepeoplelivetogether
Denselydistributedsettlements-highconcentrationof settlements(blackdots)
Moderatelydistributedsettlements-settlementsmoderatein quantity
Sparselydistributedsettlements-fewsettlementsspreadoveralarge area.
Verysparseifveryfew
Identifytypeofsettlementpatternspresent
TypeofSettlements
a)Ruralsettlements
Consistofvillagesandhomesteadsandhomesteadsinwhichpeople
areinvolvedinsubsistenceagricultureandtraditionalactivitiessuchas
potteryweaving,curving,etc.
b)Urbansettlement
Consistofdensepermanentandsometimeshighbuildingsand
populationengagedinnonagriculturalactivitiessuchasindustrial activities.
FactorsInfluencingSettlement 1.PhysicalFactors
a)Climate
Areaswithmoderatetempsandadequaterainfallaredenselysettled
whilethosewithextremelyloworhightempshavefewersettlements. b)Relief
Terrain:Steepslopesarelesssettledduetothinsoilsanddifficultyto erectbuildings.
Aspect:Slopesfacingawayfromthesuninhighlatitudesarelesssettled
thanthosefacingthesun.
Windwardslopesofmountainsonthepathofrainbearingwindsare
moresettledduetoheavyrainfallmakingthemidealforagriculture. c)Drainage
 190

Riversandspringsattractsettlementsbecausetheyprovidecleanwater.
Areaswithdrainageswampsarelesssettledbecauseit’sdifficulttoerect
buildingsandtheyalsoharbourmosquitoesandsnailswhichcause diseases.
d)Vegetation
Denseforestsdiscouragesettlementsbecauseofwildanimalsandalso
harbourdiseasevectorssuchastsetsefliese.g.Miombowoodlandof
TanzaniaandLambwevalleyinKenya.

e)Pestsanddiseases
Areaspronetopestsanddiseasesarelesssettledbecausepeopleliketo
liveinhealthyenvironment.
f)Naturalresources
Settlementsstartwherethereismineralextraction.e.g.Magadi
Lakeswithabundantfishmayalsoattractsettlement. g)HumanFactors
i)Politicalfactors
-1967TZsettledpeoplesinvillagesandtherestoflandwasleftfor
farming(Ujamaavillages)
-AfterindependenceKenyasettleditslandlessinsettlementschemes
e.g.Mwea,Laikipia,Nyandarua. -
Settlementofrefugeesinrefugeecampsduetopoliticalupheavals ii)Historicalfactors
-Weakercommunitieswereforcedtomoveelsewherebywars.
-Settlementofcommunitiesinstrategicsitessuchashilltopsor
plateaustoseeapproachingenemiese.g.FulaniofNigeriainJos plateau.
iii)Culturalfactors
-Farmingcommunitiessettledinagriculturallyproductiveareas.
-Pastoralistssettleinareaswithenoughlandtoprovidepasturefortheir animalsatease.
iii)Economicfactors
-Ruraltourbanmigrationforemploymentandtrading.
-Miningactivitiesmayleadtodevelopmentofsettlementse.g.Magadi
duetotronamining.
TypesofSettlementsPatterns
a)Nucleated/ClusteredSettlementPattern
 191

-Buildingsareclosetoeachother
Factors
Availabilityofsocialamenitiessuchasschoolsandhealthcare
Shortageofbuildingland
Favourableclimateleadingtohighagriculturalpotentiale.g.Kenya highlands.
Fertilesoils.
Presenceofnaturalresourcese.g.mineralsinMagadi,Mwadui, Kimberly.
Securityconcernespeciallyinbanditryproneareas
b)LinearSettlement

-Buildingsarearrangedinaline
Presenceofatransportlinee.g.roadorrailway.
Presenceofariveroraspringtoprovidewaterfordomesticor commercialuse
Presenceofacoastlinewhichhasafavourablefishinggrounde.g.
shoreofE.Africancoast.
Suitableterrainforcultivationofcropssuchasatthefootofascarp
c)Dispersed/ScatteredSettlement
-Buildingsarescattered
Plentyoflandtobuildwhenevertheywant
Avoidanceofharshclimatee.g.aridandsemi-aridareas.
Poorinfertilesoils.
Pestsanddiseases.
 192

Physicalfeaturessuchasridges,valleyswhichseparatehouses.

d)RadialPattern

Buildingsarearrangedlikeastar -
Commonatcrossroadswherehousingunitspointinalldirections.
EnlargementandReductionofMaps
Steps
1.Identifythearearequiringtobeenlarged
2.Measureitslengthandwidth
3.Multiply(E)ordivide(R)thebythenumberoftimesgiven.Thescale
alsochangese.g.1:50000/2(enlarged)×2(reduced)
4.Drawthenewframewithnewdimensions
5.Insertthegridsquarese.g.2×2cm,2/2,etc.
6.Drawdiagonalsontheframe
7.Transferfeaturesexactlywheretheywere
 193

DrawingaCrossSection/Profile
-Linedrawnonapieceofpapershowingthenatureofreliefofaparticular area. Steps
1.IdentifythegivenpointsandnamethemAandB
2.JointpointAandBusingapencil
3.Takeapieceofpaperandfolditintotwoparts
4.PlacethepapersedgealongthelinejoiningAandB
5.Markallcontoursandtheirheights
6.MarkfeaturesalongA-Be.g.R-river,H-hill,M-mountain
7.Determinethehighestandlowestcontourheighttodeterminethe
appropriateverticalscale
8.DrawhorizontalaxisandmarkitA-B
9.DrawverticalaxisfromAtoB
10.Placetheedgeoffoldedpaperalonghorizontalaxis
11.Usevaluesalongverticalaxistoplotcontourheights.Rememberto
showfeaturesmarkedalongA-B
12.Joinplottedpointsusingsmoothcurve(cross
Section)
13.Includetitleontopverticalandhorizontalmapscale.
CalculationandInterpretationofVerticalExaggerationandGradient VerticalExaggeration
Numberoftimesthattheverticalscaleislargerthanhorizontalscale
V.E.=DenominatorofH.S./D.ofV.S.(crosssectionscale.
e.g.V.S.=1:20M
H.S=1:50000
V.E.=50000/20×100(Toconvertintocm)=25
Interpretation
Theverticalheighthasbeenexaggerated25timescomparedtothe horizontaldistance
Intervisibility
-Abilityofoneplacetobeseenfromanother
Steps
Drawcrosssection
JoinpointsA-Busingvisibilityline
Ifthevisibilitylineisabovethecrosssection,thetwopointsare
intervisible.Ifbelowtheyarenotintervisible.
Gradient
 194

Degreeofsteepnessofaslopebetweentwogivenpoints
STEPS
1.Identifythetwopoints
2.Calculatedifferenceinheightbetweenthetwopoints(VerticalInterval) e.g.500m
3.Jointthemwithalightline
4.Measuregrounddistancebetweenthetwopoints(Horizontal
Equivalent)e.g.12cm G=V.I./H.E.
=500×100/12×50000=50000/600000=1/12=1:12
Interpretation
Forevery12mtravelledontheGround,thereisaverticalriseof1m

EXTERNALLANDFORMINGPROCESSES
-Processesoperatingontheexterioroftheearthresultingintheformation
ofnaturalphysicalfeatures.
Theseare:
1.weathering
2.masswasting
3.erosion
4.transportation
5.deposition
Weathering
-Mechanicalbreakdownorchemicaldecayofrocks“insitu”(without movement)
Agentsofweathering
-Thingsthatworktocauseit:
1.Weatherelements:
-rainfall
-temperature
-frost
-gasese.g.CO2,O2
2.Plants
3.Animals
4.People
FactorsThatInfluenceWeathering
Climate
 195

-Differentareaswithdifferentclimaticelementsexperiencedifferenttypes
ofweatheringe.g.blockdisintegrationareexperiencedinaridareaswhile
frostactionisexperiencedintemperateregionsandmountainousregions oftropics.
-Topography
-Weatheringisfasteronsteepslopesthanongentleslopesbecause
weatheredmaterialiswashedawayquicklyexposingtherockonceagain
toagentswhileongentleslopesmaterialsremaininoneposition
shieldingtherockfromweatheringagents.
-Natureofrocks
-Darkcolouredrocksabsorbmoreheatthanlightcolouredoneshence
breakfasterduetoexcessiveexpansionandcontraction.
-Arockwithdifferentmineralsmaydisintegratefasterduetodifferential
expansionandcontractionofminerals.
-Awelljointedrockwillbreakfasterbecausephysicalandchemicalagents
canpenetratefastere.g.byfreezingandthawing.
-Finetexturedrockshavealargesurfaceareaonwhichchemical
processescanacte.g.Limestone.
Biologicalorganisms
-Bacteriafacilitaterottingoforganicmatterproducingorganicacidswhich
reactswithsomemineralscausingtherocktobreakup.
-Plantrootsandburrowinganimalspenetraterocksresultingincracks
providingpassageforagentssuchaswatertoactonrocks.
-Peopleacceleratetherateofweatheringbyexposingrocksburieddeep
belowbydigging,blastinganddrilling.

TypesofWeathering
1.MechanicalWeathering
-Physicalbreakupofrockswithoutchangeintheirchemicalcomposition.
Processes
a)BlockDisintegration/Separation
 196

-Breakingofrocksintoblocksalongthejoints.
-It’seffectiveinaridareasbecauseofgreatdiurnaltemperaturerange.
oDay,welljointedrocksaresubjectedtointenseheatingcausing mineralsinittoexpand.
oInthenighttherockiscooledcausingittocontract.
oTherockjointsenlargeduetothealternatingcoolingandcontraction.
oTheprocessisrepeatedoveralongtimecausingtherockto
disintegrateintoblocksalongthejointse.g.MundandarockinTsavo East.
b)Exfoliation

-Peelingoffoflayersofrocks.
-Alsocommoninaridareas.
oDay,rocksurfaceisheatedmorethaninnerlayersbecauserocksare
poorconductorsofheat.
oThesurfaceexpandsmorethaninnerlayerscausingstrainbetween thetwolayers.
oWithtimeouterlayerdevelopscracksandlaterpeelsoffandpieces
ofrocksfalldownundergravitye.g.alongMombassa-Nairobiroad
betweenMtitoAndeiandVoi.
c)GranularDisintegration
-Disintegrationofrocksintograins.
-Occursinrockswithdifferentminerals.
 197

oWhentherockisheated,differentmineralsexpanddifferently.
oInternalstressresultsandwithtimetherockdisintegratesintograins.
d)PressureRelease/Sheeting/Unloading
-Disintegrationofrocksduetoexpansionwhenweightisremovedfrom overit.
oSoilandothermaterialslyingontopofarockareremovedbyerosionand
masswasting(denudation).
oTheexposedrockexpandswhentheweightthatwaspressingitis removed.
oTheouterlayercurvesandeventuallyshellsarepulledoutfromtherock.
oTheresultisformationofahighrockyhillscalledgranitictorse.g.
MaragoliandpartsofMachakos.
e)FrostAction

-Breakingofrocksintoangularblocksduetorepeatedfreezingand thawing.
-Commonintemperateregionsormountainousregionsoftropicswhere
temperaturefallbelowzero.
oWaterfrommeltingicecollectsintosmallcracksofrocks.
oItfreezesandexpandsandexertspressureoncrackswideningthem.
oRepeatedfreezingandthawingcausestherockstobreakintoangular
blockse.g.onMt.Kenya,KilimanjaroandRuwenzori.
f)CrystalGrowth
-Breakupofrocksduetocrystalgrowth.
-Itoccursinaridareas.
oHighrateofevaporationdrawsoutmoistureanddissolvedmineralsfrom
 198

therockinteriorthroughcapillaryaction.
oThemoistureevaporateswhenitgetstothesurfaceoftherockleaving
behindcrystalsinthecracksandporesofrocks.
oThecrystalscontinuetogrowexertingpressureonthecracksorpores
wideningthemandeventuallycausingtherocktobreakdowne.g.atHells
GatenearNaivasha.
g)Slaking/RainWaterAction
-Breakingupofsedimentaryrocksduetoalternatewettinganddrying.
oWhenitrains,therockabsorbswaterandswells.
oWhendryseasoncomes,therockloseswaterandtheoutersurface shrinks.
oTheprocessisrepeatedandthemineralsbecomelooselyattachedto
anothere.g.inKenyanCoastatTudorandMiritiniareas.
2.ChemicalWeathering
-Weatheringinvolvingchangesinthechemicalcompositionofminerals makinguprocks
Processes
a)Solution
-Breakupofrocksasaresultofdissolvingofmineralsinwaterwithout
chemicalchangeinthem.
oRainwaterfallsonrockswithsolubleminerals.
oThemineralsaredissolvedandcarrieddowninsolution.
oTherockgetsweakenedandcrumbles. b)Carbonation
-Weatheringcausedbyreactionofcalciumcarbonateinrockswithrain
watercontainingaweakcarbonicacid.
-Commonintemperateregions.
oRainwaterabsorbssmallquantitiesofcarbondioxideformingaweak carbonicacid.
H2O+CO2H2CO3
oTheweakcarbonicacidfallsonlimestonerocksreactingwithcalcite
formingcalciumbicarbonate.
CACO3+H2CO3CA(HCO3)
oCalciumbicarbonateisremovedfromtherockinsolution. c)Hydrolysis
-Weatheringcausedbyreactionofhydrogenionsofwaterandionsofrock minerals.
-Igneousrocksaregreatlyaffected.

d)Oxidation
 199

-Weatheringinwhichmineralsinrockscombinewithoxygeninthe
presenceofmoisturetoformnewminerals.
-Rockscontainingironareaffected.
-Ferricoxideisformedontherocksurfacewhichappearsasasoftbrown
orredearthwhichcanbescoopedbyhands.
e)Hydration
-Weatheringinwhichhygroscopicmineralsinrockstakeupwatercausing
themtoswellandexpandcausingdisintegrationofrockduetointernal stress.
3.BiologicalWeathering
-Weatheringofrocksduetoactionoflivingorganismsonthem.
a)Actionofplants Mechanical
oTherootsgrowbiggerintothecracksandjointsofrockswideningthem.
oWithtimetherockseparateintoblocks(wedgingmechanism).
oThewidenedjointsandcracksalsoprovidepassagesformoistureandair
topenetratedeeperintocracksfacilitatinghydrolysisandsolutiontoact atdeeperlevels.
oBurrowinganimalsdigandbreakupsmallbitsofrockfromthemainrock
massandbringthemtothesurface.
oBydiggingtheyalsoprovidepassagesforotherelementslikegasesand
moisturetoreachrocksthataredeep.
oLargeherdsofanimalssuchascattle,zebraetc.poundtherockswith
theirhoovesastheymoveresultinginresultinginmechanicalbreakdown ofrocks.
oPeoplebreakuprocksbyusingexplosivesinminingbyexplodingbombs
onthegroundandduringbuildingofhousesandconstructionofroads.
Chemical
a)Plantsrotonrockinthepresenceofmoistureandproduceorganicacid
b)Itreactswithsomemineralswithintherockcausingdecay.
c)Animalsexcreteonrocksandreleasechemicalsubstanceswhichreact
withsomemineralsinrockscausingthemtobreakup.
d)Chemicalsubstancesreleasedfromtheindustriestoriverscausethe
watertoactonrocksoverwhichitflows.
e)GasessuchasCO2emittedfrommotorvehiclesandindustriesare
f)Absorbedbyrainandacidssuchascarbonicorsulphurouswhichreact
withmineralscausingrocktodecay.
SignificanceofWeathering
Positive
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1.Leadstosoilformationwhichisimportantforagriculture.
2.Producesothernaturalresourcessuchasclayusedinpottery,brick making,etc.
3.Weatheredrocksformbeautifulsceneryfortouristattractione.g.Hells
GateandcryingstonesofKakamega.
4.Weakensrockseasingtheirexploitationbyquarryingandmining Negative
1)Mayweakentheearth’scrustresultinginunstablefoundationsof
buildingsandroadsandeventuallyleadtotheircollapse.

MASSWASTING
-Movementofweatheredmaterialdownslopeundertheinfluenceof gravity
FactorsInfluencingMassWasting a)Degreeofslope
-Movementofweatheredmaterialisfasteronsteepslopesthanongentle
slopesduetotheinfluenceofgravity.
b)Climate
-Weatheredmaterialinareasreceivingheavyrainfallmovefastersincewet
materialshavelesscohesion.
c)Natureofthematerial
-Materialsaturatedwithwaterismorelikelytomovedownslopeasits heavy.
-Masswastingismorelikelytooccurinareaswheretheweathered materialisdeep.
-Weatheringismorelikelywheremassiverockslieonweakrockssuchas
clays,shalethanwherefinematerialslieoverweakrocks.
Vegetation
-Surfaceswithvegetationexperiencelessmasswastingbecauseitbinds
weatheredmaterialtogether.
Tectonicmovements
-Earthmovementssuchasearthquakes,volcaniceruptionsorfaulting
causelargeandwidespreadmasswasting.
Humanactivities
-Explosivesusedinminingandquarryingshakethegroundinitiating
downwardmovementofmaterials.
-Miningandquarryingalsointerfereswiththestabilityofthesurfaceby
looseningitmakingiteasyfortheloosenedmaterialstomovedownslope.
TypesofMassWasting
1.SlowMassWasting
-Slowbutsteadymovementofsoilorlooserockdebrisdownslope.
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Processes
a)SoilCreep

-Slowandsteadymovementofsoilandotherfinematerialsalongavery gentleslope.
Causes
1)Alternateheatingandcoolingcausingexpansionandcontractionof
particlescausingthemtochangetheirpositions.
2)Alternatewettinganddryingofsoilwherebywhenit’swetitscompactand
whendrytheparticlesareloosenedandtendtomoveawayfromeach other.
3)Tramplingandburrowingofanimals.
4)Externalforcese.g.shakingbyearthquakes,explosives,heavyvehicles, etc.
5)Ploughingdownhill
6)Freezingofsoilwatercausingittoexpandwhichliftsparticlesatright
anglestotheslopeinaprocesscalledheaving.
b)Solifluction
-Movementofsaturatedsoil,gravelandweatheredrockdownamoderate slope.
-Commoninmountainousandverycoldclimates
oThawingoccursduringspringcausingtopsoiltobecomesaturated.
oSaturatedsoilbeginstocreepoverthesubsoilwhichstillremains frozen(permafrost).

c)TalusCreep
 202

-Slowandgentlemovementofthemassofbrokenrockparticleswhich
accumulateatthebaseofcliffs(scree)downhill.
d)RockCreep

-Slowmovementofindividualrockswhichlieonclayataverylowspeed
downslopeinthepresenceofmoisture.
2.RapidMassWasting
-Typeofmasswastinginvolvinglargeamountsofweatheredmaterial
movingsuddenlyandfastdownslope.
a)MudFlow
-Movementofoversaturatedweatheredmaterialinformofliquiddown slope.
-Itoccursmainlyindryareasafterheavyrains.

b)EarthFlow
 203

-Movementofsaturatedearthmaterialonhillsidesdownslope. c)LandSlide
-Suddenslippingoflargequantitiesofloosenedsurfacerockorsoildown aslope.
d)Slump

oErosionoccursontheweakrocksatthebaseofacliffundercuttingthe
weakrock.
oTheoverlyingrocksbreakoffcausingtheoverlyingrockstoslidedownhill
rotatingaroundacurvedplane.
e)DebrisSlide
-Suddendownhillmovementofaccumulatedrockdebrisandotherloose
materialdownhillasawhole

f)Debrisfall
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-Suddenfreefallofdebrisfromaverticalorhangingclifftothebaseofthe slope.
g)RockSlide

-Slidingdownofmassesofrockasteepslopealongabendingplane,joint offault.
h)Rockfall

-Fallingorrollingofindividualrocksorbouldersdownasteepslopeora cliff.
-Mostrapidofallmasswasting. h)Avalanche
-Suddenslippingandfallingofalargemassofsnow,iceandlooserock
materialsdownamountainside.

i)RainWash
-Typeofmasswastinginvolvingremovalofweatheredmaterialsbyrain water.
 205

oWhenrainscome,thefirstdropsscattersoilparticlesthathavebeen loosenedbydrying.
oTheincreasingdownpourthenwasheslargequantitiesofloosenedsoil downhill.

Types
a)Sheetwash
-Uniformremovalofsoilfromalargearea.
oRainfallwithuniformdropsfallonloosenedsoilonalandwithuniform slope.
oThewaterfromtherainfallthenflowsdownslope.
oAsitdoesso,ituniformlysweepsalltheloosesoilfromthesurface.Its
commonaroundL.BaringoandMarigat.
b)Gulleying

-Removalofsoilthroughwideanddeepchannelscalledgullies. oRainfallsonanevenslope
oThewaterirregularlyrunsdownslopealongspecificchannelscalledrills.
oThechannelsarewidenedanddeepenedbythewatertoformgullies.
oNeighbouringgulliesarewidenedandtheridgesbetweenthemare
reducedtoformearthpillars.
d)Splasherosion
-Removalofsoilbyraindropsscatteringlooseparticlesandcarryingthem
downslopebyrunoff.
EffectsofMassWastingOnPhysicalandHumanEnvironment
Positive
1.Makethesoiltobecomefertilewheresoilfromfertileareasisdeposited.
2.Leadstoformationofnewlandformssuchasscars,depressions,lakes, rockpillars,etc.
Negative
1.Soilcreepmaydestroywallsbuiltacrosstheslopewhencreepingsoil
exertspressureonthem.
2.Decreasesoilfertilitywherefertilesoilmovesdownslope.
3.Makesthegroundpronetosoilerosionespeciallywherescarshave formed.
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4.Hinderstransportandcommunicationbyblockingrailwaylinesmaking
maintenancetobecostly.
5.Hindersmechanisationofagriculturee.g.gulleyingdoesnotallow
movementofvehiclesandmachineryonfarms.
6.Leadstodestructionofpropertyandlossoflivebyburyingpeopleintheir
housesandstonesfallingonescarpmentsalongroadscausingaccidents.
7.MayCauseRiverstochangetheircoursese.g.mudflow.

HYDROLOGICAL/WATERCYCLE

-Endlessinterchangeofwaterbetweenthesea,atmosphereandland.
ProcessesinWhichCirculationIsCarriedOut
1.Evaporation
-Changingofwaterintowaterintowatervapourwhenit’sheatedby solarradiation.
-Evapotranspiration:Combinedlossofwaterfromthesoilthrough
directevaporationandtranspirationbyplants.
2.Cooling
-Reductionofwatervapourtemperatureasitrisesintotheatmosphere
whenitexpandsduetoreducedtemperatureandpressure.
3.Condensation
-Turningofwatervapourintotinywaterdropletswhichformclouds
whencoolingcontinuesbelowdewpoint.
4.Precipitation
-Theprocessinwhichtheearthreceivesmoisturefromtheatmosphere.
 207

Itoccurswhendropletsformedbycondensationcombineforming
heavierdropswhichfallonthegroundasrainormaybecomefrozento
formsnow,hail,sleet,etc.
5.Surfacerunoff
-Someofthewaterfromprecipitationthatflowsonthesurfaceinto
valleys,ponds,lakes,etc.

6.Infiltration
-Entryofwaterintothegroundthroughpores,jointsandcracksinrocks.
7.Percolation
-Downwardsandsidewaysmovementofwaterthathasenteredintothe ground.
8.Overlandflow
Surfacerunoffmakestheoverlandflow.
Riverwaterflowsbacktotheoceanswhereevaporationtakesplace
againandwatercycleisrepeated.
SignificanceofHydrolologicalCycle
Positive
1.Provideswatertomanfromprecipitationandundergroundwater.
2.Providesraintomanwhoisusefulinagriculture.
3.Atmosphericwaterisimportantinregulatingheatlossfromtheearthby
absorbingterrestrialradiationandreflectingitbacktotheearthkeeping
theloweratmospherewarm.
Negative
1.Mayleadtoshortageofwaterwhenevaporationrateexceeds precipitation.
2.Mayleadtodecreasedagriculturalproductionasaresultofexcessive
evaporationcausingweatheringofcrops.
3.Mayleadtofloodingwhenexcessiveevaporationcauseincreasedrainfall.
4.Mayleadtoshortageofrainfallifthereislessevaporationduetolow temperature.

ACTIONOFRIVERS
Ariverisamassofwaterflowingoverthelandinadefinitechannel.
WorkofaRiver
1.Drainexcesswaterfromtheland.
2.Sculpturinglandthrougherosion,transportationandtransportation.
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RiverErosion
-Removalbyriverwaterofmaterialsfromthesidesandbedoftheriver channel.
FactorsInfluencingRiverErosion
1.Rivervolume
-Ariverwithalargevolumehasagreaterkineticenergytoerodethanone withasmallvolume.
2.Slopeofland
-Ariverflowingonasteepchannelhasgreatervelocityandthereforemore
energytoerodeitschannelthanoneflowingovergentleorflatland. 3.Riversload
-Ariverwithlarge,roughandheavyloade.g.treetrunksandboulders
erodesmorethanonewithlight,fineandsmoothmaterialse.g.sand.
-Arivercarryingmoreloaderodesmorethanonewithlessloadasithas moreabrasivetools.
4.Natureofbedrock
-Erosionisfasterwhereariverflowsoversoftbedrockandlesswhereit flowsoverhardrock.
Processes/Waysofrivererosion
1.Solution/Corrosion
-Riverwaterdissolvingsolublemineralsandcarryingthemaway.
2.HydraulicAction
-Erosionbytheforceofriverwaterwhenitthrustsitselfintocracksand
jointsofrocksonthesidesofthechanneldislodginglumps.
-Alsobypushingairintothecracks,compressingitincreasingpressure
whichwidensthecrackseventuallydislodginglumps.
3.Abrasion/Corrosion
-Abrasionisscratchingofthebedandbanksbymaterialsarecarriedaway bytheriver.
-Corrosionishurlingofrockfragmentscarriedbytheriveragainstrocks
whichweakenandeventuallybreakthem.
4.Attrition
-Hittingagainstoneanotherofrockfragmentscarriedbyriverwater
breakingoneanotherintosmallerpieces.
TypesofRiverErosion
1.VerticalErosion
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-Erosioninwhichtherivercutsdownwardsintoitschannel.
2.LateralErosion

-Erosioninwhichtherivererodesthesidesofthechannel.
3.HeadwardErosion

-Erosioninwhicharivercutsbackatitssource. a)Wherethereisawaterfall.
oTheriverundercutsatthebaseofawaterfall. oTherockabovetheundercutcliffcollapses.
oThepositionofwaterfallshiftsupstream.
b)Wheregulleyingorsoilcreepoccurswherethereisaspringcausingits
positiontoshiftupstream(springsapping).
ResultantFeaturesofRiverErosion
1.StreamCutValleys
-ValleyswithV,openVorUshapedcrosssectionsalongtheriverchannel.

oInthesourceregionarivercutsitselfachannelwhichstartsasagulley.
 210

oThechannelisdeepenedbyverticalerosionresultingintoav-shaped valley.
oInthemiddlestagelateralerosionwidensanddeepensthevalleyresulting inamoreopenv-
crosssection.
oIntheoldstagelateralerosioncreatesaverywidechannelwithaUshapedcrosssection.
2.Gorges
-Narrow,deep,steep-sidedvalley.
Ways/modesofformation
a)Whereariverflowsalongafaultorasectionofsoftrockserodingthe
channelverticallythroughthesoftrocksorfault.
b)Byheadwarderosionatawaterfallwhentheriver’serosiveactivityis
increasedduetoincreasedgradientcausingtherivertoundercutatthe
baseofthewaterfall,thentherockabovetheundercutbasecollapses
causingthewaterfalltoshiftupstreamresultinginagorgebelowthe waterfall.
c)Whereariverflowsacrossaplateauwithalternatinghorizontallayersof
hardandsoftrockserodingthemresultinginagorgewithsteppedsides
calledacanyone.g.GrandcanyononR.ColoradoinUSA.
d)Duetoriverrejuvenationwhentheriver’serosiveactivityisrenewed
causingtherivertovigorouslyerodedeepintoitschannel.
e)Wherearivermaintainsitscourseacrosslandwhichisbeinguplifted gradually.
Rapids
-Asectionoftheriverscoursewherethebedissuddenlysteepened
causingthewatertosuddenlyflowswiftly.
Howtheyareformed
a)Wherealesshardrockliesbelowasoftrockandthesoftrockiseroded
moreresultinginasteepslope.

b)Whereawaterfallhasbeenerodedbyheadwarderosionreducingits height.
 211

c)Whereresistantrockdipsdownstreamandisunevenlyeroded.

WaterFalls
-Aplaceonariverscoursewhereariverbedisverticalornearlyvertical.

Formation
a)Whereariverdescendsoverasharpedgeofaplateauencounteringa sharpdrop.
b)Whereariverdescendsacliffintothesea.
c)Whereariverdescendsafaultscarp.
d)Whereariverdescendsasharpedgeofaplateau.
e)Whereariverisblockedbylavaflowcausingwatertoaccumulateonthe
upstreamsideandawaterfallformsatthepointofoverflow.
f)Wherearesistantrockliesacrossariverwithalessresistantoneonthe
downstreamsideandthelessresistantoneiserodedfastercausinga
rapidtobefirstformed,thenawaterfall.
 212

PotHoles
-Circulardepressionsonariverbed.
-Formwhereariverflowsovershallowdepressionanddevelopsstrong
circulatingcurrentswhichcausetheloadtoscratchthebedincircular motion.

InterlockingSpurs

-Highlandprojectionswhichappearastheyfittogether.
Formation
-WhereIntheyouthfulstage,ariverflowsaroundspursundercuttingthe
outerbankmorethantheinnerbankcausingthebendstobemore
pronouncedmakingthespurstoappearasiftofittogether.Theouter
bankbecomesrivercliff/bluffandtheinnerbankslipoffslope.
RiverTransportation
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-Rivercarryingawaymaterialsthatitswaterhaserodedfromthechannel.
FactorsInfluencingRiverTransportation a)RiversVolume
Ariverwithlargevolumeofwaterhasmoreenergyandthereforegreater
carryingabilitythanonewithasmallvolume. b)Gradient
Ariverflowingonasteepchannelhasgreaterabilitytotransportthanoneon
agentleslopebecauseitflowsfastduetogravity. c)RiversLoad
-Smallandlightparticlesaretransportedoverlongdistanceswhileheavy
materialsaretransportedforashortdistance.
-Dissolvedloadiscarriedallthewaytotheriversmouth.
-Smallamountofloadistransportedforalongdistancewhilelarge
amountsofloadcollidereducingthespeedandthereforeriversabilityto
transportcausingsomeoftheloadtobedroppedalongtheway.
Processes/waysofRiverTransportation a)Suspension
-Rivertransportationoflightandinsolublematerialsinformofamixture.
b)Saltation/HydraulicLift
-Rivertransportationoflargeparticlesthroughaseriesofjumpsandhops.
oMaterialsareliftedbyforceofmovingwaterandpushedforashort
distanceandlandbackontheriverbedbygravity. o
Theprocessisrepeatedcausingtheloadtobetransported downstream.
c)Traction
-Rivertransportationofheavymaterialslikebouldersbyrollingthembythe forceofwater.
d)Solution
-Rivertransportationofloadinsolutionform.
Loadtransportedbysuspension,Saltationandtractioniscalledclastic
loadwhilethatbysolutioniscalleddissolvedload.
Deposition
-Layingdownofsomeoftheloadcarriedbytheriverwhenenergy decreases.
FactorsInfluencingDeposition a)Gradient
Whengradientreducestheriver’sspeeddecreasesandhenceitsenergyis
reducedcausingittodropsomeoftheheavyload. b)RiversVolume
Whenriversvolumedecreasesitsenergyalsodecreasescausingitto
depositheaviestloadthenlighterones. c)Obstacles
Obstaclessuchasswampvegetationandrockoutcropreducetheriver’s
speedandalsotrapsomeoftheloadtherebyfacilitatingdeposition.
d)RiverBedWidthandDepth
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Whereariverschannelbecomeswideandshallowthereislesswaterper
unitareaandhencetheriverhaslowercapacitytotransportsodepositionof
excessloadbegins.
ResultantFeaturesofRiverDeposition a)AlluvialFansandBajadas

-Fanshapeddepositsofalluvium. Formation
oTheriverflowingthroughanarrowchannelentersaplainfromahigher
groundandsuddenlyspreadsout.
oThereisasuddenlossofvelocitycausingtherivertoscatteralluviumall
aroundtoformanalluvialfan.
oAlluvialfansmergetoformacontinuousfeaturecalledbajadaor piedmontfan.
b)MeandersandOxbowLakes
Meandersareloop-likebendsinariverscourse.
Oxbowlakeisahorseshoeshapedsectionofaformerriver. Formation
oInmaturestageriverflowssluggishlyduetoreducedgradient.
oItmeetsanobstacleandflowsaroundit.

oErosionisgreaterontheouterbankanddepositionontheinnerbank
causingtherivertoformlooplikebends.
 215

oErosioncontinuesontheouterbank(bluff)narrowingthelandbetween

thetwoouterbanksformingapronouncedmeandere.g.onriversYala, NzoiaandTana.

oDuringthefloodswhentheriverhasmoreenergyitcutsacrossthe narrowland.

oTheformerbendsarecutoffbydepositiontoformanoxbowlakee.g.

KanyabolionR.YalaandShakababoonR.Tana.

FloodPlains
 216

-Widegentlyslopingplainofalluviumonthefloorofarivervalley.
Formation
oArivermeanders. oThereiserosiononouterbankanddepositionontheinnerbank.
oTheprocesscontinuesandlayersofalluviumdepositedoninnerbankjoin
toformaplaine.g.NzoiaandYalafloodplains.
RiverBraids

-Networkofdivergingandconvergingchannelsalongariverscourse.
Factorsfavouringformationofbraids a)Rivermustbecarryinglargeload.
b)Reducedgradientonthesection.
c)Reducedamountofwatersuchasindryseasonoraridconditions.
d)Presenceofobstaclessuchasrockoutcrops. Formation
oRiverflowssluggishlyduetolowgradient. oDepositsofalluviumarelaidonriverbed.
oThedepositsraisetheriverbedcausingthechanneltobesubdividedinto
channelsordistributaries.

NaturalLevees

-Raisedriverbankswhicharemadeofalluvialmaterials.
 217

Formation oRiverfloodsandspillsoveritsbanks.
oDepositionofcoarsematerialsnearthebanksandfinematerialsare
carriedfurtheronthefloodplain.
oCoarsematerialsaccumulateraisingthebanksabovethegenerallevelof thefloodplain.
EffectsofLeveeFormation
a)Creationofdifferedtributariesandconfluences.
Differedtributary:Tributaryblockedfromjoiningthemainriverbylevees.
Differedconfluence:Newpointwherethedifferedtributaryjoinsthemain
riverdownstream.
b)Destructiveflooding.
oDuetotheriverburstingitsbanksduringthefloodseasonduetothebed
beingraisedabovethegenerallevelofthefloodplain.
oDuetodifferedtributariesflowingintothefloodplains.
oBecausetheriverchannelhasbecomenarrowerandshallowerdueto depositedalluvium.
Estuaries
-Broadchannelatthemouthofariverwheretheriverenterstheoceanas awhole.
-Somearedeepandnarrowbecausesedimentsarecarriedawaybyocean
currentswhileothersarewideandshallowduetosedimentscoveredby
watere.g.onR.CongoandGabon.
Deltas
-Lowlyingtractofalluvialdepositsformedattheriversmouth.
IdealConditionsforFormationofADeltaAtARiversMouth
1.Largeloadsuchasfromalargecatchmentareawhereerosionistaking placeactively.
2.Theriverscoursetobefreefromobstaclessuchasswampssoasnotto
filtersedimentsbeforetheyreachthemouth.
3.Lowspeedatthepointwheretheriverisenteringaseaorlakefor depositiontotakeplace.
4.Therateofdepositionshouldbehigherthantherateoferosionbyseaor lakecurrents.
HowaDeltaForms oThespeedoftheriverischeckedbyseaorlake.
oHeavyloadisfirstdeposited.
oLighterloadiscarriedfurtherintotheseacausingthatpartoftheseato
becomeshallower.
oThepartiscolonisedbyplantsmakingitswampybutfirmer.
oPlantstrapmorealluviummakingthedeltatogrowinheight.
oTheriverbuildsleveesmakingitnarrower.
 218

oTheriverburstitsbanksandsmallchannelsbranchoffthemainriverand
carrieswaterintotheseaorlake(distributaries).
TypesofDeltas
1.Marine:Typeformedatsea.
2.Lacustrine:atalake.
3.InlandDelta:Deltaswhichformalongariverscoursebeforeitreachesthe lakeorsea.
Formation
oThevelocityoftheriverischeckedonenteringarelativelyflatswampy land.
oTheriverbuildsuplevees. oTheriverburstsbanksformingdistributaries.
oAlluvialdepositsarespreadovervastareaswhenriverfloodse.g.Niger
andOkavangodeltas. 4.ArcuateDelta

-Adeltawithaconvexshorelineontheseawardendduetostrongcurrents
spreadingmaterialsoverawideareaonseawardside.
-Hasmanydistributariese.g.TanaandRufijideltas.
5.BirdsFootDelta

-Typeofadeltawithapatternresemblingthefootofabird.
-Hasfewdistributaries.
-Formedonarivercarryinglargequantitiesoffinealluviumintowater
wherethereislowwaveenergye.g.OmoandMississippideltas.
6.EstuarineDelta
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-Deltawhichhasformedonanestuary. Formation
oTheriversloadisdepositedontheestuarywhenthespeedischeckedby sea.
oTherivercutsacrossinasinglechannelthatmaybeborderedbylevees
e.g.onR.VoltainGhanaandonR.Zambezi.
DevelopmentofaRiverProfile
-Longitudinalsectionofariverfromsourcetomouth.
1.Youthful/TorrentStage
Characteristics
a)Steepgradient.
b)Theriverflowsveryfast.
c)Verticalerosionisdominant
d)Headwarderosionisevident.
Features
a)V-shapedvalleys
b)Waterfalls
c)Rapids
d)Potholes
e)Gorges
f)Interlockingspurs. 2.Mature/ValleyStage
Characteristics
a)Lowandalmostregulargradient.
b)Theflowislessswift.
c)Theriveriswiderduetobeingjoinedbytributaries.
d)Lateralandverticalerosionbutlateralismoreactive.
e)Depositionstartsatsomesections.
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Features
a)Wideropenv-shapedvalley
b)Meanders
c)Riverbluffs/cliffs
d)Slipoffslopes 3.Old/PlainStage
Characteristics
a)Verygentle/almostlevelgradient.
b)Veryslowflowofriver.
c)Themainworkoftheriverisdeposition.
d)Somelateralerosionoccurs.
e)Seasonalfloodsarecommon.
Features
a)Shallowbroadflatbottomedu-shapedvalley.
b)Meanders
c)Oxbowlakes
d)Naturallevees
e)Differedtributaries
f)Differedconfluences
g)Braidedchannels
h)Floodplains
i)Deltas
j)Distributaries
RiverCapture/Beheading/Piracy/Abstraction
-Diversionofheadwatersofoneriverintothesystemofanadjacent
powerfulriverduetoerosion.
Theriverthatcapturesiscalledpirate.
Thecapturedoneiscalledvictim.
Howitoccurs
 221

oAtfirstthereareapowerfulriverandaweakerriverflowingadjacentto eachother.

oThepowerfulrivererodesverticallyandlaterallythantheweakriver

makingittoflowatalowerlevel.

oAtthesametime,itextendsitsvalleybackwardsbyheadwarderosion.
oThestrongerrivereventuallyjoinsthevalleyoftheweakriver.
oTheheadwatersoftheweakerriverstartflowingintothevalleyofthe
strongerrivere.g.R.TanoinGhanawascapturedbytheBlackVoltaRiver
andR.EyongwascapturedbyImoinS.Nigeria.
Theremainingsectionofthebeheadedriveriscalledamisfit/beheadedriver.
Thedryvalleybetweentheelbowofcaptureandthenewcourseofthemisfit
streamiscalledawindgap.
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RiverRejuvenation
-Renewaloferosiveactivityofariver.
-Happensintheoldstage.
Causes
A.ChangeintheBaseLevel
Baselevelisthelowestleveltowhicharivercanerodeitsbed.
Rejuvenationresultingiscalleddynamicrejuvenation
1.Dropinsealevel oTherivermouthmovesfurtherseawards.
oAsteepgradientoccursbetweentheoldandthenewmouthscausingthe
rivertostartstomoveswiftly.
oVerticalerosionresumesextendingbacktothefloodplain.
2.Upliftofasectionoflandalongtheriverscourse.
oFaultingorfoldingmayoccur. oAsectionoflandalongariverscourseisuplifted.
oThegradientisincreasedcausingtherivertoflowswiftlyandundercut
throughtheupliftedsection. oAnantecedentgorgeisformed.
3.Unequalsinkingoflandalongariverscourse.
oThedownstreamsidesinksmorethantheupstreamone.
oAnincreaseingredientoccurscausingtherivertoflowswiftly
oTheriverstartstoundercutmorevigorouslythanbefore.
B.IncreaseinRiversDischarge
Rejuvenationresultingiscalledstaticrejuvenation
oTheriversdischargeincreasesduetohighprecipitationorcapture.
oTherateoferosionbecomeshigherduetoincreaseddischarge.
oTheriverstartstoundercutmorevigorously. C.ChangeinRockStructure
oAriverpassesaresistantrockandstartsflowingoveralessresistant rock.
oTheriverstartserodingmorevigorouslyintothesofterrocks.
 223

FeaturesofRiverRejuvenation 1.KnickPoints

-Asuddenbreakofslopeinariversprofileasaresultofchangeinsea level.
2.RiverTerraces
-Steplikefeaturesformedwhenariverrejuvenatesandcutsanewvalley
throughthefloodplaincausingaplatformwillformwherethefloorofthe
formerfloodplainwas.
3.WaterFalls
-Areformedwhenknickpointsaredeepenede.g.CharlottefallsinSierra Leone.
4.AntecedentGorges
-Gorgeswhichformwhereariverundercutsthoughasectionoflandthat
isbeingupliftede.g.Turkwelgorge.
5.IncisedMeanders
-Meandersthathavebeencutdeeperintobyarejuvenatedriver.
Types
a)EntrenchedMeanders

-Formedfromverticalerosioncausingbothvalleystobesteepand symmetrical.
b)IngrownMeanders
-Formedbylateralandverticalerosioncausingonevalleysidetobe
steeperthantheotherandhenceasymmetricalincrosssection.
 224

6.AbandonedMeanders

-Meandersabandonedduringformationofoxbowlakeswhentheriver takesashort-
cutleavinganenclosedportionoflandsurroundedbyan oxbowlake.
DrainageSystems
-Mainrivertogetherwithitstributaries.
Types
1.AccordantDrainageSystem
-Drainagesysteminwhichariverflowsaccordingtoslopeandrock
structurebyfollowingareasofweaklines.
2.DiscordantDrainageSystem -
Drainagesystemsinwhichriversdon’tflowinaccordancewiththeslope,
rockstructureandlandformingprocesses.
Types
a)AntecedentDrainageSystem
 225

-Drainagesystemwherearivermaintainsitscoursewhilethesurrounding
landisbeinguplifted.
b)SuperimposedDrainageSystem
-Drainagesystemwhichdevelopswherearivermaintainsitsflowovera
newsetofrocksafterremovingaformersetofrocks.
3.BackTilted/ReversedDrainageSystem
-Drainagesystemwheredirectionofflowisreversedbeduetocapture,
upliftingordownwarpinge.g.R.Kagera,KatongaandKafu.
SignificanceofRiversandTheirFeatures
Positive
a)Riversaresourcesofwaterfordomesticandindustrialuse.
b)Riverswaterisusedforirrigation.
c)Theyprovideportfacilitieswheretheyhaveriasandestuaries.
d)Someriversareusedfortransportatione.g.R.CongoandNile.
e)Someriversarefishinggroundse.g.Tana.
f)RiversaredammedandusedforH.E.Pgeneration.
g)Featuresformedbyriveractionsuchaswaterfalls,gorgesandoxbow
lakesareatouristattraction.
Negative
a)Riversfloodcausinglossoflifeandproperty.
b)Riversmayleadtodrowningaccidentsespeciallywhentheyareflooded.
c)Riverwatercanbeamediumofspreadingdiseasessuchasbilhaziaand malaria.
d)Somewideriversarebarrierstotransportandcommunication.
e)Someriversalsoharbourdangerouswildanimalswhichcankillhumans
e.g.crocodiles,hipposandsnakes.

LAKES
Alakeisadepressionontheearth’ssurfacewherewaterhasaccumulated.
REASONSWHYSOMELAKESARESALTY
1.Somelakeslackoutletsintheformofriverswhichwoulddrainaway
someofsaltscontainedinthemleadingtoaccumulationofsaltsinthem.

2.Inareaswhicharehotanddry,therateofevaporationisveryhighresulting
inhighevaporationofwaterfromLake,increasingconcentrationand
accumulationofdissolvedmineralsaltsinthelake.
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3.Somelakesdonothaveenoughfreshwaterriversemptyingintothem.This
watercontainsahighconcentrationofsaltswhichincreasethesalinityof waterinthelake.

4.Surfacerun-offandriversmaydissolvealotofsaltfromtherockson
whichtheyflowdepositingthissolutioninthelakes.

5.Therocksoverwhichthelakewaterisincontactwithmaycontainalotof
mineralsaltsthusdissolvinginthelakewater.

Classification/TypesofLakes
-AccordingTotheNatureofWater
a)Freshwaterlakeswhichcontainfreshwater.
b)Saltylakeswhichhavesaltywater.
-AccordingTotheModeofFormationofDepressionTheyOccupy
1.byEarthorTectonicMovements
a)FaultedorRiftValleyLakes
oDuringRiftValleyformationsomepartsoftheriftvalleyfloorsunkmore thanothers.
oAlongnarrowanddeepdepressionformed.
oWaterfromseepageandrainaccumulatedintothesedepressionstoform lakes.
b)DownWarpedandTiltedLakes

oTensionalandcompressionforcescausedsomepartsoftheearthscrust
toupwarpwhileothersdownwarped.
oAshallowdepressionformed.
oThedepressionmayalsobefilledwithwaterfromrainorgroundwater.
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oInthecaseofL.VictoriaRiversKafu,KageraandKatongaweretilted
eastwardsandNyando,YalaandNzoiacontinuedflowingwestwards
addingwaterintothedepression.
-L.VictoriaisthesecondlargestfreshwaterlakeafterL.Superior.
-Hasamaximumdepthof87mdeep.OtherexamplesoflakesareL.Kyoga andWamala.
Playas/sebkhaisalakecontainedinaninlanddrainagebasininadesert
formedwhenrainorfloodwaterflowsintoabasinformedbycrustal
warpinge.g.ChemchaneSebkhainMauritania. 2.byVulcanicity
i)CraterLakes
-Lakeformedbywateraccumulatingintoacrater.
-Areusuallysalty.
-Acraterlakeformedonanexplosioncrateriscalledmaar.
-ExamplesareLakesMossokoinTanzania,ParadiseinMarsabitand MyunguinUganda.

ii)LavaDammedLakes

-Formedasaresultwateraccumulatingontheupstreamsideofalava barrieracrossariver.
oHighlyviscouslavaeruptsacrossariverscourse.
oItsolidifiesandblockstheriverformingalavadam.
oTheriverswateraccumulatesbehindthelavadam.
oAnarrowandwindinglakeisformede.g.LakesBunyonyi,Mutandaand BulerainUganda.
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3.byErosion
a)GlacialErosion (i)Corrie/TarnLakes

-Lakeformedwhenwaterfrommeltingsnowaccumulatesintoa
corrie/cirquee.g.Teleki,NanyukiandHiddentarnsonMt.Kenya.
(ii)RibbonLakes
-Fingerlikeonaglaciatedvalley.
oGlaciererodesthefloorofau-shapedvalley.
oItoverdeepenssomeofitssections. oElongatedhollowresults.
oWaterfrommeltingiceaccumulatesintoitformingalake.

b)WindErosion
-Lakesformedwhengroundwateraccumulatesinadepressionformedby
winddeflationandabrasion.
oWindcontinuouslyerodestheearth’scrustbydeflationandabrasion.
oThewaterbearingrocksarereached.
Wateroozesfromthewatertableintotheholloworwaterfromflash
floodsmayaccumulateinittoformtemporarylakescalledpanse.g.in
QuattaradepressionbetweenEgyptandLibyaandEtoshapaninNamib. c)SolutionLakes
-Lakesformedwhenrainorgroundwateraccumulatesindepressions
formedinlimestonerockswhenrainwatercontainingaweakcarbonic
aciddissolveslimestonerockse.g.LakesBarberinMorroccoandOjikoto inNamibia.
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4.byDeposition
a)RiverDeposition
-Formedwhenriverdepositionoccurcuttingoffasectionofapronounced
meandere.g.oxbowlakesShakababoandMukunguyaatlowerpartof Tana.
b)WaveDeposition

-Lakesformedwhenwavedepositionoccursacrossariversmouthor
wherethecoastlinechangessuddenlyenclosingabodyofcalmwater.
oWavesbreakatanangle.
oThelongshoredriftcausesmaterialstobeprogressivelyarrangedacross
ariversmouthresultinginabodyofcalmwatercalledalagoon/sound.
5.byMan
a)DamsareLakesformedwhenwateraccumulatesbehinddams
constructedacrossriversresultingintoalargemanmadereservoircalled
manmadelakee.g.behindSevenForksDamandLakesVoltainGhanaand NasserinEgypt.
b)Barrageisabankofearthorstonesbuiltacrossarivertoprovidewater forfarming.
SignificanceofLakes
Positive
1.Freshwaterlakesprovidewaterfordomesticandindustrialuse.
2.Freshwaterlakesalsoprovidewaterforirrigatione.g.Naivashafor
horticulturalfarmsaroundit.
3.Manmadelakesandsomeotherlakese.g.Victoria(Owenfalls)areused
forgenerationofH.E.P.
4.Lakesareusedfortransport.
5.Somelakescontainvaluablemineralse.g.tronaatL.MagadiandsaltatL. KatweinUganda.
6.Manylakeshavefishwhichisasourceoffoodandemploymentto fishermenandtraders.
7.Lakesarealsoatouristattractionbyprovidingrecreationalfacilitiesand
beinghabitatsforwildlife.
8.Somelakesaresourcesofriverse.g.VictoriaforWhiteNileandL.Tana forBlueNile.
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9.Lakesmodifytheclimateofsurroundingareasbyseabreezesand convectionalrainfall.
Negative
1.Lakesarehabitatsfordiseasevectorse.g.mosquitoesandsnailswhich
transmitMalariaandbilhazia.
2.Lakesmaycausefloodingduetoexcessiverainfallorwhendamsbreak
leadingtolossoflifeandproperty.
3.Lakesarehabitatsfordangerousanimalslikecrocodiles,hipposand
snakeswhichkillhumans.
4.Lakescausedrowningaccidentstopeopleintimeofstorms.

OCEANS,SEASANDTHEIRCOASTS
Anoceanisalargeandextensivebodyofsalinewateroccupyingabasin
betweencontinentswhileaseaisalargebodyofsalinewateronthe
marginsofcontinents. NatureofOceanWater
1.Oceanwaterissalty
-Duetoabundantsodiumchloridewhichriversdissolvedfromland,from
rocksthatthewaterisincontactwithandvolcanicmaterialsontheocean floor?
-Oceanwaterhashighsalinityinareaswherethereisadditionoflittle
waterandhighrateofevaporationleadingtohighsaltconcentratione.g.
DeadSeaandlowerwherethereislowtemperaturesandadditionoffresh
waterfromrivers,rainorsnowmeltse.g.BalticSea.
2.SurfacewateriswarmerthanthatatthebottomexceptinPolar
Regionswhereathinlayerofcoldwatermayoverliewarmer water.
3.Oceanwaterisahabitatforlivingorganisms
Planktonsareplantsandanimalsoccupyingoceansurface.
a)Phytoplanktonareoceanplantse.g.algae.
b)Zooplanktonareoceananimalse.g.lobsters,jellyfish,crabs,etc.
Types
i)Nektonsareallformsoffish.
ii)Benthosareoceancreatureswhichliveonlyatthebottomofmarginsof
continentswheresunlightreachesSeafloore.g.snails,starfishandsea anemones.
4.Oceanwaterispollutede.g.byindustrialeffluents,pesticidesand
herbicidescarriedbyriversandrunofftothesea.
5.Oceantopographyiscomposedofseveralfeatures
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a)Continentalshelf-Relativelyflatpartofthecontinentcoveredbyocean water.
b)Continentalslope-Steeplydippingsurfacebetweencontinentalshelf
andtheoceanbasinproper.
c)Abbysalplain-Almostlevelareaoftheoceanwheresedimentsare deposited.
d)Midoceanridges-Rangeofhillswhicharesubmergedformedby
volcanicandseismicactivities.
e)SeaIslands-piecesoflandsurroundedbywater.
i)Continentalislands-Onesrisingfromcontinentalshelf. ii)Oceanicislands-
Oneswhichrisefromtheseafloore.g.Canaryand CapeVerde.
iii)Coralislands-Onesmadeofcoral.
f)Deepseatrenches-narrowsteepsidedsubmarinevalleysontheocean floor.
g)Guyots-submergedatollsforminganunderwatermountain.
h)Seamount-avolcanowhichdoesn’triseabovetheseafloor.
6.Aportionofoceanwatermoves
Therearetwotypesofmovementsnamely:
VerticalMovements
-Movementofoceanwaterfromsurfacetobottomandviceversa. Howtheyoccur
1.Coldpolarwatersinkingbeforemovinghorizontallytowardsequator.
2.Oceancurrentsconverge
3.Whenoceanwatersinksatlowerdepthsafteroceancurrentsconverge.
4.Whenoceanwaterrisestothesurfaceinaprocesscalledupwelling.
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Significanceofverticalmovements
i)Carriesnutrientsforseaanimalsbyupwelling. ii)Oxygenationofwatervitalforfishsurvival.
HorizontalMovements
Itoccursinthefollowingways:
1.OceanCurrents
Anoceancurrentisalargemassofsurfaceoceanwaterwhichismovingin
aparticulardirectione.g. oMozambique-warm oCanaries-cold oBenguela-cold
oN.Atlanticdrift-warm oGulfstreamdrift-warm
Factorsthatinfluencingformationofoceancurrents
a)Windbyblowingoverwatercausingamassofsurfaceoceanwaterto
moveinitsdirectionformingdriftcurrents.
b)Rotationoftheearthbycausingdeflectionofoceancurrents.
c)Shapeoflandmassbyinfluencingcurrentdirectionandcausingitto
flowfollowingthecoastaloutline.
d)Differencesintemperaturebycausingcoldpolarwaterwhichisdense
duetolowtempmovestowardstheequatorpassingontheoceanfloor
andwarmwaterofthetropicstomovetowardsthepolespassingon thesurface.
2.Tides
-Periodicriseandfallinthelevelofoceanandotherlargewaterbodies.
-Occurswhenthemoonandtosomeethesunexertgravitationalpullon
thewaterbodiesontheearth.

oMoonsgravitationalpullisexertedontheearthcausingthewateronthat
sideAtobulgeresultinginhightide1
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oSomewaterflowsfromsidesCandDtosideBtooccupyspacecreated
bythemoonspullresultinginhightide2andlowtides1and2atCandD.
RotationoftheEarth
-Itbringsanylongitudeundertheinfluenceof2highand2lowtidesina lunarday.
-Similartidesoccuratanintervalof12hrs26minutes.
-Alunardayistimetakenbytheearthtocompleteonerotationwith
respecttothemoon(24hrs52min)
-Lunarmonthistimetakenbythemoontocompleteonerevolutionaround
theearth(27.3days)
-Themoonisalwaysaheadoftheearthby52minutesduetoitsrevolution
e.g.ifNairobiisoppositethemoonat6pmthefollowingdaythehightide willbeat6.52pm.

Tidalrangeisthedifferencebetweenthehighestlevelreachedbyhightide
andlowestlevelreachedbylowtide.
Typesoftides
-Causedbyrelativepositionsofthemoonandthesunfromtheearth.
-Sometimesthemoonandtheeartharenearerorfartherfromeachother
duetotheirellipticalorbits.
a)SpringTides

-Inwhichthehighestandlowesttidesoccur.
-Occurswhenthesun,moonandtheearthareinaline(syzygyposition)
andpullinginthesameplanecausingpullingforcetobegreatest.
b)NeapTides
-Inwhichhightideislowerthannormalandlowtideishigherthannormal.
-Occurswhenthesun,moonandearthformarightangleandpullingwater tothemselves.
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c)PerigianTides

-Inwhichtidalrangeis20%higherthannormal.
-Occurwhenthemoonisnearesttotheearth(perigeeposition)causing
pullingforcetobegreatest.
d)ApogeanTides
-Inwhichtidalrangeislowerthannormal.
-Occurwhenmoonisfarthestfromtheearth(apogeeposition)causing
pullingforcetobeweakest.
e)DiurnalTides
-1H1Linalunarday f)SemiDiurnalTides
-2H2Linalunardaywhichmayriseordropatthesamelevel.
-OccurinmostofPacificOcean. g)MixedTides
-2H2Linalunardaywhereonepairmayfluctuateinlevelwhiletheother remainsconstant.
3.Waves
-Awaveisamovingridgeofwateronthesea.
-It’sformedwhenwindblowsoveranopenwaterbodycausingoscillation ofwaterparticles.
Partsofawave

Crest-thetopofawave.
Trough-thebottomofawave.
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Wavelength-horizontaldistancebetweentwosuccessivecrests.
Height-differenceinheightbetweencrestandtrough.
oWhenawavereachestheshore,thewaterparticlesbelowthesurface
starttouchingtheoceanfloorcausingittobreak.
oThereisforwardmovementofwatertothebeachwhichiscalled swash/send .
oThereisbackwardmovementofwatertotheseaduetogravitycalled backwash.
oTherestflowsatthebottombackintotheseainawatercurrentcalled undertow .
Typesofwaves
a)ConstructiveWaves
-Wavesinwhichswashisstrongerthanbackwashresultingindeposition.
b)DestructiveWaves
-Wavesinwhichswashisweakerthanbackwashresultinginerosion.
WaveErosion
ProcessesofWaveErosion a)Abrasion
-Scratchingofoceanfloorbymaterialscarriedbythebackwash.
Corrasion
-Hurlingofpebblesandrockfragmentsagainsttherockscausingsome particlestobreakoff.
c)Attrition
-Rockfragmentsdraggedupanddownbytheswashandbackwashhitting
againsteachotherbecomingsmallerinsize.Itprovidestoolsforabrasion andcorrosion.
d)HydraulicAction
-Removalofmaterialsfromthecoastbyactionoftheforceofmoving water.
i)Directwaveforce
-Largeamountsofwavewatercrushagainstarockfaceweakeningand
eventuallybreakingoftherock. ii)Compressedairaction
a)Wavescrushagainstarock.
b)Theforceofwaterpushesairintocrackscompressingitandexerting
pressurecausingthemtowiden.
c)Waveretreatscausingtrappedairtoexpandresultinginsuddenpressure
releasecausingcrackstoexpandfurther.
d)Theprocessisrepeatedseveraltimescausingtherockstoshatter. e)Solution
-Somesolublemineralsinrocksdissolvedirectlyinwaterandarecarried
awayinsolutionleavingcavitiesinrocks.
f)Corrosion
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-Somemineralssuchaslimestonereactingwithseawaterwhichhas
dissolvedcarbonicacid. Factorsinfluencingwaveerosion
a)Wavesmusthavestrongbackwashandaweakswash
b)Slope-Thecoastthatslopessteeplyintotheseafavourserosion.
c)Load-largeamountprovidesmoreabrasivetools.Angularshapedloadis
moreeffectiveinabrasion.
d)Amountofwaterinawave-thelargertheamountthegreaterthe hydraulicforce.
FeaturesResultingFromWaveErosion a)CliffandWaveCutPlatform
Cliff–Asteeprockfacewhichbordersthesea.
WaveCutPlatform-Afairlyflatpartoftheshoreformedwhenacliff retreatsinland.
oBreakingwaveseroderocksurfaceofasteepcoastcuttinganotch.

oErosioncontinuescausingthebaseoftherocktobeundercutresulting
intoanoverhangingrock.

oUndercuttingcontinuescausingtheoverhangingrocktoeventually
collapseformingacliff.

oTheprocessisrepeatedandafairlyflatpartoftheshoreisformed
betweenthenewandtheformercliff.
b)BaysandHeadlands
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Bay–Pieceofseawaterjuttingintothelandoracurvedinletofsea.
Headland-apieceoflandjuttingintothesea.
oAtfirstthereisacoastwithhardandsoftrocks.
oSoftrocksareerodedmorebywaveactiontoformseainletscalledbays.
oResistantrockscalledheadlandsareleftstickingintothesea.Abigbayis calledagulf .
c)Caves,BlowHoleandGeos

Cave-Naturalcylindricaltunnellikechamberextendingintotheclifforinto
thesideofaheadland.
oAsmallhollowformonaweakareaofthecliffafterlimestoneisacted uponbycarbonation.
oCorrosionanddirectdissolvingactonthehollowextendingitintothecliff formingacave.
BlowHole/Gloup-Verticalholeformedonthesideofcliffborderingtheland.
oFormedwhenacavereachesthesurfacesomedistanceinlandasa verticalpit.
It’scalledablowholebecausewhenthewavesbreakwaterisforcedout ofthehole.
Geos-Narrowseainletformedwhentheroofofacavebetweentheblow
holeandtheseacollapses.

d)NaturalArch,stackandstump
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Naturalarch–Openingfromonesideofaheadlandtotheother.
oFormedwhenacaveextendsintotheheadlandtotheotherside.
oOrwhencaveswhichhavedevelopedonbothsidesofheadlandjoin eachother.
Stack-Pillarofrockleftstandingontheseawardside.
oFormedwhencontinuouswaveerosioncausestheroofofthearchto collapse.
Stump-Thebaseofstackleftwhenitcollapsesasaresultoferosionatthe base.
WaveTransportation
Typesofloadmovedbywavesaresuchasshingle,sand,mudandother
objectsdumpedintothesea.
Howtheseaacquiresitsload
1.Materialsbroughtbyriversandwind.
2.Productsofweathering.
3.Materialsbroughtbyriversandwind.
4.Debrisfromvolcaniceruptionsintheseaoronlandborderingthesea.
Wavestransportloadbyaprocesscalledlongshoredrift.Longshoredriftis
progressivedraggingofmaterialsalongthebeachasaresultofwaves breakingatanangle.
oWavesbreakatanangle. oSwashpushesmaterialsupthebeachatanangle.
oBackwashbringsthembackatrightangletotheedgeofwater.
oProcessisrepeatedcausingmaterialstobeprogressivelydraggedalong thebeach.

FactorsInfluencingWaveTransportation
a)Strengthofwaves
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Strongwavescarrylargequantitiesofloadoveralongdistancewhile
weakwavescarrysmallquantitiesofloadoverashortdistance. b)Tides
Tidescausewavestobreakfartherinlandcausingmaterialsthatwerenot
incontactwithbreakingwavestobemovedabout. c)Oceancurrents
Oceancurrentscausemovementofmaterialsfromonepartoftheocean
toanothere.g.coconutfruitsfromsouthernpartofAfricatoGulfof
GuineabyBenguelacurrent.
d)Gradientoftheshore
Ongentlecoaststransportationofmaterialsisfavouredbylongshore
driftwhileonasteepcoasttheybounceoffcliffsandremainfloating.
e)Orientationofcoastline.
Transportationbylongshoredriftisfavouredwherecoastisaligned
obliquelytothedirectionofbreakingwaveswhileontransverselyaligned
coastswashmovesmaterialsbackandforthalongthesameline.
f)Natureoftheload.
Lightermaterialssuchassandarecarriedoverlongdistanceswhileheavy
loadistransportedoverashortdistance.
Deposition
-Processinwhichmaterialstransportedbywavesarelaiddownonthe shore.
FactorsInfluencingWaveDeposition a)Load

Depositionoccursinselectivemanner:
oBouldersaredepositedatfarthestendoflandbecausetheyareswept
towardsthelandbypowerfulswashduringhightidefollowedbypebbles.
oThensandandfinallymudbecausetheweakbackwashbringsthemback
towardstheseaastheyarelight.
b)Waves
Wavesmusthaveastrongswashandaweakbackwashinordertocause
excessloadtobeleftbehindontheshore.
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c)Gradientoftheshore
Thecoastmustbeslopingtoreducethevelocityandhencetheenergyof
wavessothatdepositingoccurs.
d)DepthofWater
Depositiontakesplacewherewaterisshallowforwavestocomeinto
contactwithoceanfloorandbreakthecyclicmotionofwater.
FeaturesResultingFromWaveDeposition
a)Beaches
-Gentlyslopingmassofaccumulatedmaterialssuchassand,shingleand
pebblesalongthecoast.
oFormedbyconstructivewavesduringarelativelycalmweatherwhen
backwashisweakestresultinginmaterialsaccumulatingattheshore.
Duringstormsdestructivewavesdestroybeachescreatingotherminor
featuressuchas: i)Beachcusps

-Hornlikeprojectionsofsandandgravelwhichgivesthecoastlineaseries ofcurves.
oWavesbreakatrightangles.
oPowerfulswashinformofeddiesscourdepressionsmovingcoarse
materialstoeithersideformingheadlikeprojectionscalledcuspsleaving
finermaterialsformingbaylikeinlets. ii)BeachRidgesandBeachBerms

BeachRidges-Lowridgesofcoarsesand,bouldersandshingledeposited
roughlyparalleltotheshoreformedbywavesapproachingthecoastatright angles.
iii)BeachBerms
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-Narrowterraceofshinglethrownupthebeachbystormwavesformed
wheretidalrangeishigh.
iv)BeachRockShells
Massesofsand,shellsandpebblescementedtogetherbycalcium
carbonateformingprojectionsabovethebeach. b)Spits

-Lowlyingridgeofsand,shingleandpebbleswithoneendattachedtothe
coastandtheotherprojectingtothesea.
oMovementofmaterialsbylongshoredriftishaltedcausingdeposition
duetocoastchangingitsdirectiontowardsthelande.g.acrossestuaryor entranceofabay.
oTheprocesscontinuesandtheaccumulationgrowstowardsthesea.
oWavescarrysandtotheinnerendofthespitcreatingahooklikefeature
e.g.atthemouthofR.Senegal.
c)Tombolo
-Spitthatgrowsoutfromthecoastintotheseaandjoinsanislande.g.Ras
HafurinSomaliaandNgomenionKenyancoast.

d)Bars
-Ridgeofsand,shinglesandmudwhichliesalmostparalleltothecoast.
Types
i)Baybar–Barwhichformsacrosstheentranceofabay.
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Offshorebar-Barwhichformsoffaveryshallowcoastline.

oWaveisforcedtobreakoffshoreduetowatershallowness.

oTheythrowuparidgeofmaterialsoffthecoast.

oBetweenthebarandthecoasttherewillbeashallowlagooncolonisedby marshplants.

e)Cuspateforeland
-Broadtriangularshapeddepositsofsandorshingleprojectingfromthe
mainlandintothesea.
oTwospitsgrowtowardseachotheratanangle.
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oAtriangularfeaturecalledcuspatebarrierdevelopswhichenclosesa lagoon.

oThelagoonisfilledwithmudandsandtoformtheforeland.

oVegetationgrowsonthemarshandwithtimedriesupe.g.‘A’Lareein Malagasy.

f)DuneBelts

-Beltoflowlyingmoundsofsandfoundonextremelandwardsideofthe
beachabovethehightidelevel.
oSandonthebeachdriesupduringthehightide.
oIt’spickedbyonshorewindsanddepositedatadistanceawayfromthe
reachofbreakingwaves.
oItcollectsbehindobstacleslikegrassorothervegetationandgradually
buildsupformingadune. oThedunesmaybecoveredwithvegetationtoformmarshes.
g)MudFlatsandSaltMarshes
Mudflats-Platformofmudconsistingoffinesiltandalluviumdepositedin
seainletssuchasbaysandriverestuaries.
Saltmarshes-Vegetationsuchasgrassesandmangrovethatgrowsona mudflat
oFinesiltandriveralluviumaredepositedinseainletsbytides.
oAplatformofmudbuildsupandiscolonisedbyvegetationforminga
swampcalledsaltmarsh.
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oThedensenetworkofplantsrootstrapmoremudandalluviumcausing
themudflatstoextendseawards.
FactorsDeterminingtheTypeofCoasts
a)Waveaction
Waveerosionmakesacoasttohaveerosionfeatureswhiledeposition
causesdepositionalfeatures.
b)Tidalcurrents
Wheretidalrangeishighmoresurfaceareaisexposedtowaveaction. c)Natureofrocks
Weakrocksareerodedtoformbays(inlets)whileresistantonesare
leftstandingtoformheadlands.
d)Alignmentofcoast
Thereismoreerosiononexposedcoastswhiledepositionoccurs
wherethecoastisobliquelyalignedtothebreakingwaves.
e)Changeinsealevel
Fallinsealevelleadstoemergenceandrisetosubmergence.
TypesofCoasts
AccordingTotheAlignmentofCoast
1.discordant/transverse/irregularcoast
-Coastwhichliestransverselytothecoastline.
-Hasalargenumberofinletsandreceivesheavyrainfallbecausewinds
blowonshoree.g.Mombasa.
2.Concordantcoasts/regular/longitudinalcoasts -
Onewhichliesalmostparalleltothecoastline.
-Almoststraightandlacksinletsandreceiveslittlerainfallduetowinds
blowingoffshoree.g.Lamu.
AccordingToFeaturesPresent
1.SubmergedCoasts
-Coastswhereapartofcoastallandliesunderthesea.
Causesofsubmergence
a)Riseinsealevele.g.whenlargequantitiesofmeltwaterwerereleasedto
theseacausingitsleveltoriseduetoclimatechangeattheendoficeage.
Sinkingofcoastallandandapartoftheseafloor.
Types
a)SubmergedHighlandCoasts
-Foundwheresubmergenceoccursonacoastcharacterisedbysteep slopes.
 245

-Characterisedbydrownedfeatures. i)RiaCoast

ARiaisadrownedrivermouth.
Characteristics
a)Funnelshaped
b)U-shapedincrosssection.
c)Deeperandwiderontheseawardsideandshallowerandnarrowerinland
e.g.theKenyancoastatKilindiniandMtwapa. ii)Fiord/Fjordcoast

Afiordisasubmergedglaciatedvalley.
oIcedeepensandwidensglacialvalleysuntilthefloorliesbelowthesea level.
oWhentheiceretreatsseawaterflowsindrowningthevalleyforming inletscalledfiords.
Characteristics
a)Deeperinland.
b)Shallowerattheseawardendduetoterminalmorainedepositedwhen
glacierwasmelting.
iii)Longitudinal/DalmatianCoasts
-Coastwhereridgesandvalleyslyingparalleltothecoastlinearedrowned.
-Valleysforminletscalledsoundswhileridgesformislands. b)SubmergedLowlandCoasts
-Foundwheresubmergenceoccursonacoastcharacterisedbygentle slopes.
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Types
i)EstuarineCoast
-Coastcharacterisedbybroadshallowestuariesandmudflatswhichare visibleatlowtide.
-Widerandshallowerthanriase.g.coastlinesofGuineaandSenegal. ii)FjardCoast
-Coastcharacterisedbynumerousinletsformedbysubmergenceof
glaciatedrockylowlandcoasts.
-Havenumerousislandsandaredeeperthanriase.g.S.E.coastofSweden.
2.EmergedCoasts
-Coastwherepartofseafloorhasbecomepermanentlyexposed.
CausesofEmergence
1.Decreaseinsealevelduetodeclineinthesourceofwatere.g.waters
beingheldupinaglacierinsteadofitflowingbackasriverstotheocean.
2.Upliftofthecoastallandbyfaulting,foldingorisostaticadjustment.

Types
i)EmergedHighlandCoasts
-Foundwhereemergenceoccursonacoastcharacterisedbysteepslopes.
-Characterisedwaveactionfeatureswhichareisolatedonlande.g.raised
beaches,raisedcliffs,raisedwavecutplatformsandraisedarches.
ii)EmergedLowlandCoasts
-Foundwhereemergenceoccursonacoastcharacterisedbygentleslopes.
-Characterisedbyexposeddepositionalfeaturese.g.spitsandoffshore
barswhicharefoundonlandandacoastalplainformedasaresultofa
partofcontinentalshelfbecomingexposed.
3.CoralCoasts
-Coastscomposedofcoralrockswhichareexoskeletonsofmarine
organismscalledcoralpolyps.
-Theyliveincolonies/groups,feedonplanktonandextractlimefromthe
seaandbuildshellsforprotection. ConditionsNecessaryforCoralGrowth
a)warmwater(25-29◦C)
b)Salineandclearwater.
c)Sunlightshouldpenetrateatleasttoadepthof50mtoallowplankton growth.
d)Plentifulsupplyofplanktonwhichtheyfeedon.
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e)Shallowwater. Typesofcoralreefs
i)FringingReefs

-Platformofcoralformedwhencoralpolypsstartbuildingareefnearthe shore.
Characteristics
a)Flatorconcaveshaped
b)Higherontheseawardside
c)Outeredgefallssteeplyintothesea

ii)BarrierReefs

-Platformofcoralformedalongdistancefromtheshore.
oFormedwhenpolypsstarttogrowandextendseawardswhere
conditionsarefavourable.
Characteristics
a)Itscoralisjoinedtotheshore.
b)Itsouteredgefallssteeplyintothesea. iii)AtollReef
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-Coralringformedaroundasubmergedisland.
Characteristics
a)Circularinshape.
b)Enclosesafairlydeeplagoon.
TheoriesofFormation Darwin’sTheory oFringingreefdevelopsaroundanisland.
oTheislandstartstosink.
oCoralcontinuestogrowupwardstokeeppacewithrisingsealeveland
seawardsbecausethereismorefoodandwaterisclear.
oThereefextendsgreatdistanceawayfromthelandtobecomebarrierreef.
oTheislandcontinuestosinkbecomingcompletelysubmerged.
oThebarrierreefformsaringofcoralcalledatolls. Murray’sTheory
oFringingreefgrowsonasubmarinehill. oItdisintegratesduetowaveattack.
oCoralfragmentsaccumulateontheseawardend.
oPolypsstartbuildingonitupwardswherethereismorefoodandclear
watertoformbarrierreef.
oThebarrierreefformsaringofcoralcalledatolls. Daly’sTheory
oDuringiceagetherewaswithdrawalofwatercausingglobalfallinsea level.
oCoralgrowthwasretardedbylowtemperatures.
oWavespoundedcoralreefsandislandsandflattenedthemtothesame levelasthesea.
oAttheendoficeagetemperaturesbegantoriseagainfavouringthe
growthofcoralonceagain.
oMorewaterwasaddedtooceanscausingpolypstocontinuetogrow
upwardstokeeppacewiththerisingsealevel.
oTheywerepermanentlyexposedonthesurfacetoformatolls
SignificanceofOceans,CoastsandCoastalFeatures
Oceans
Positive
a)Influenceclimatebycontributingthebulkofprecipitation,warmingeffect
incoolseasonandcoolingeffectinhotseasonbybreezesandocean currents.
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b)Usedfortransportbymeansofboats,steamersandferries.
c)Touristattractionbybeingsiteforrecreatione.g.swimmingandsport
fishingandmarinelifeinparkssuchasinMombasaandLamu.
d)Oceansareasourceoffishwhichisasourceoffood,incomeand employment.
e)Sourceoffreshwaterwhenitswaterisdistilled.
f)Tropicalseashavemangroveforestswithmangrovetreeswhichprovide
strongbuildingandfencingpostsandtanninfortanningleatherandalso
habitatformarinelifewhichisatouristattraction.
g)Sourceofsaltwhichcrystallizesnaturallyafterwaterevaporatesin
constrictedbaysinhotclimates.
Negative
a)Tsunamisfromoceansfloodtheneighbouringcoastalareascausing
greatlossoflifeandproperty.
b)Oceansmayalsofloodtheneighbouringcoastalareasasaresultofrise
insealevelcausedbymeltingofglacierscausedbyglobalwarming.
c)Alsoharbourdangerousanimalssuchassharksandcrocodileswhich
mayattackandhurtorkillpeople.
d)Drowningaccidentswhenthereisbreakdownofvesselsorshipwrecking.
CoastsandCoastalFeatures
Positive
a)Fiords,riasandlagoonsfavourdevelopmentofdeepandwellsheltered harbours.
b)Fiordsarealsoagoodbreedinggroundforfishastheirshallow
continentalshelfencouragegrowthofplanktonwhichisfoodforfish.
c)Coralrocksareusedlocallyasbuildingmaterials.
d)Coralrocksarealsoasourceofcorallimestoneforcementmanufacture.
e)Featuressuchascoralreefs,caves,cliffsandfiordsareatourist attraction.
Negative
a)Someemergedcoastallandshaveinfertilesoilsunsuitableforagriculture
forbeingcoveredbysand,gravelandbarerock.
b)Depositedsands,barsandcoralreefsarebarriertotransportastheycan
causeshipwreckingifvesselshitthem.

ACTIONOFWINDANDWATERINARIDAREAS
Anaridareaisalandwhichisdeficientofmoistureleadingtoscantyorno vegetation.
ActionofWindinAridAreas
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WindErosion
Physicalweatheringistheinitialprocessthenit’sfollowedbywinderosion.
Windismoreeffectiveintropicaldesertsdueto:
a)Presenceoflooseunconsolidateddrymassesofmud,sandandgravel.
b)Occurrenceofstrongtropicalstorms.
c)Absenceofvegetationleadingtohighwindvelocityduetolittlefrictional force.
Factorsinfluencingwinderosion
a)Windspeed-windwithhighvelocityhasmoreenergytoerodethanwith lowvelocity.
b)Load-angularshapedloadprovidemoreeffectiveabrasivetoolsthanone
whichisroundshaped.
c)Natureofsurface-Winderosionisfasterwherethesurfaceconsistsof
unconsolidatedmaterials.
Processes/WaysinWhichWindErodesDeserts a)Abrasion
-Materialscarriedbywindsuchassandgrainsscratchingrocksurfaces
acrossthepathofwind.
-Greaterclosetothegroundbecauseit’swhereheavyandmoreeffective
abrasiontoolsareliftedandcarried.
b)Deflation
-Removalofunconsolidatedmaterialssuchassandanddustrollingand
liftingorscoopingandblowingaway.
c)Attrition
-Sandgrainscarriedbywindknockingagainsteachothercausingeach
othertobecomesmallerandroundedinshape. ResultantFeaturesofWindErosion
a)Milletseeds

-Sandgrainswhichhavebeenroundedtotheshapeofmilletseedsbywind attrition.
b)Ventifacts
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-Boulders,stonesandpebbleswhichareflattenedbywindabrasiononeor
moresidesduetochangesinwinddirection.
-Dreikanter-Ventifactwiththreewindfacetedsurfacesformedwhenwind
isblowingindifferentdirections.
c)MushroomBlock

-Mushroomshapedrockindesertlandscape.
oWindabrasionactsonarockwithuniformhardness.
oIt’sintenselyundercutatthebaseandtoppartisslowlypolishedbylight
andlesseffectiveabrasivematerials.
oThereresultsarockwithbroadsmoothedroundedtopandanarrowbase
resemblingamushroom

d)RockPedestal
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-Irregularrockpillarwithabroadtopandanarrowbasefoundinthedesert landscape.
oWindabrasionactsuponrockwithalternatinghardandsoftlayers.
oSoftlayersareerodedmorethanhardlayersleavinghollowsand protrusions.
oThereismoreundercuttingatthebasewherethereismoreabrasion.
oThereresultsanirregularrockwithanarrowbase.
e)DeflationHollows

-Shallowdepressionsfoundindesertlandscapesformedbydeflation.
oWindscoopsandblowsawayunconsolidatedmaterialssuchasdustand sandinadesert.
oCirculatingwinddeepenthedepression.
oThehollowreachthewatertableforminganoasis.
oIfthedepressiondoesn’treachthewatertableflashfloodswatermay
accumulateintothemtoformtemporarylakescalledpanse.g.Etosha paninNamib.
f)Zeugen(Singularzeuge)

-Ridgesonaridgeandfurrowdesertlandscape.
oFirstthereisalandscapewithhorizontalalternatinglayersofhard andsoftrocks.
oWeatheringopensjointsandcracksonthetopresistantlayer.
oAbrasionerodestheopenedjointswhiledeflationcarriesawaythe
erodedmaterials. oTheprocesscontinuesandwithtimecausesaridgeandfurrow
landscapetodevelop.Theridgesarezeugen.
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g)Yardangs

-Narrowelongatedrockridgesabout6mhighonadesertlandscape.
oAtfirstthereisasurfacewithverticalalternatinghardandsoftrocks
lyingparalleltowindpath.
oWindabrasionactsmoreonsoftrocksanddeflationcarriesawayworn outparticles.
oTheundercutrocksareleftstandingformingridgescalledYardangs.
WindTransportation
FactorsInfluencingWindTransportationandDeposition
Windvelocity:whenspeeddecreasesstrengthalsodecreasesanditsability
totransportsowindstartstodepositmaterials.
a)Winddirection-Windsblowingfromdifferentdirectionconvergeand
causeloadtocollidecausingsomeofittobedeposited.
b)Natureofdesertsurface:
-Windtransportationismoreefficientonbaresurfacesandhenceless depositionthere.
-Watersurfacessuchasoasisandmoistsurfacesimpedetransportation
throughfrictioncausingwindtodepositmaterials.
-Lesstransportationonsurfaceswithvegetationasitreduceswindspeed
andalsobindssandparticlestogether.
c)Obstacles-Objectssuchasrockmasses,landformsandvegetationblock
andreducewindspeedcausingdeposition.
d)Changesinweatherconditionssuchassuddenshowershalts
transportationandcausesdepositionbywashingdownsuspended materials.
e)Load-Heavyloadisdepositedbeforelightloadwhenwindenergy
decreases.Whenmanymaterialsaretransportedbywindtheycollide
causingeachothertobedeposited.

Processes/WaysinWhichWindTransportsLoad i)Suspension
 254

-Windliftingandholdingparticlessuchasdustsbyaircurrentsand
transportingthemoverlongdistances.
ii)Saltation
-Windtransportationofheavyparticlesbyaseriesofjumpsandhops.
oTheyarerolled. oTheycollide. oBounceandgetlifted.
oTransportedshortdistanceahead.
iii)SurfaceCreep
-Windtransportationofheavyparticlessuchasgravelandpebblesby
pushingandrollingalongthedesert. ResultantFeaturesofWindDeposition
1.SandDunes
Dune-Lowridgeofsandaccumulatedbywinddeposition.
Types
i)Barchans

-Crescentshapedmoundofsandinadesert.
oSandaccumulatesaroundanobstaclelyingonthepathofwind.
oDepositioncontinuesmakingthemoundtogrowbigger.
oWindblowssandoverleewardsidecreatingsmoothgentlewindward slope.
oWindeddiesactontheleewardslopemakingittobesteepandconcave inshape.
oSidewindmovethesandgrainsonthesidesforwardcreatingthetwo
edgeswhicharecurvede.g.inSaharaandArabianDeserts.
Characteristics
a)Crescent/moonshaped
b)Smoothgentlewindwardslope
c)Steepconcaveleewardslope
d)Hornsor2curvededges
e)Occursindividuallyoringroups ii)SeifDunes
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-Ridgeshapedmoundsofsandlyingparalleltothepathofprevailingwind.
oWindblowsbetweenbarchandunes. oWindeddiesmovesandtowardsthesides.
oSandaccumulatesonthesidesresultingintoridgeshapedmoundse.g.in NamibDesert.
iii)Transverse/WakeDunes

-Wavelikemoundsofsandinadesertwhichlieatrightanglestothe prevailingwind.
oLessstrongwindsblowoversandfromonedirection.
oThewindconcentrateslargergrainsofsandintoseriesoftransverse ridges.
oWindmaycontinuepushingthesandcausingittoaccumulateonthe
leewardsidetoformwakedunee.g.inW.Sahara.
2.Drass
-Biggestsandfeaturesinadesertwithsurfaceresemblingaplateauand
withaheightofupto200m.
-BarchansandSeifdunesmayformonsuchfeaturese.g.inE.Sahara desert.
3.Loess
-Fertilesoilswithgreatthicknessofabout100mformedfromdeposition
ofdustfromdeserts.
oDustfromdesertsiscarriedbeyondtowetareas.
oIt’swasheddownbyraincausingitsdeposition.
oItaccumulatesintolayers.
oDepositioncontinuesandthelayersarecompactedformingsedimentary rocks.
oThesedimentaryrockswithertoformfertilesoilswhichfavourcultivation
e.g.TemperatelandsofEuropealongRhinevalleyfromSaharadustsand
alongHuangHevalleyinN.ChinafromdustofGobidesert.
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Actionofwaterinaridareas
-Receivesshortoccasionalrainscausingflashfloodswhicherode
transportanddepositlargeloadsofmaterialsproducedbyweathering.
-Wateractionisshortlived.
ResultantFeaturesofWaterActioninAridAreas a)Wadis

-Widedeepsteepsideddryvalleyinadesert oStrongsurfacerunoffandflashfloodsformrills.
oRillsareenlargedintogullies.
oFlashfloodsflowintogullieswideninganddeepeningthemtoformwadis. Characteristics
oWideanddeep
oSteepwithclifflikewalls
oflatfloor
oDry(lackpermanentdrainage) b)DryRiverValleys
-Valleysinaridareasthroughwhichstreamsflowduringthewetseason
anddryupindryseasone.g.inTurkana,WajirandMandera.
c)MesasandButtes

Mesas-Extensivetablelikeresidualhillsfoundinaridareas. Buttes-
Smallerblocksoftablelikeresidualhillsfoundinaridareas.
oFirsttherearesedimentaryrocksoccurringinlayerswitharesistantone
ontopandalessresistantbelow. oWeatheringbreaksthehardcap.
oThensheetfloodsbreakthesurfaceandcarriesmaterialsaway.
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oLargeoutstandingblocksareleftwhicharecalledmesas.
oMesasmaybeerodedfarthertoformsmallerblockscalledbuttes.
FeaturesinanInlandDrainageBasin

-Gentlyslopingrocksurfaceformedattheedgesofdesertuplands.
oAsteep/scarpslopeofahighlandiserodedbysheetfloodingreducingits height.
oTheprocesscontinuescausingthescarpslopetoshiftitsposition upwards.
oThegentlyslopingsurfaceof6-7◦resultsatthefootoftheupland. d)Playas/sebkha
-Extensiveinlanddrainagebasininadesertformedbydeflationorcrustal
warpingorasmallfluctuatingsaltylakecontainedinaninlanddrainage
basininadesertformedwhenwaterfromtorrentialoutpoursflowsinto
thebasinbymultipletemporarystreamse.g.Chemchanesebkhain Mauritania.
e)Peripediment
-Zoneofthickalluvialdepositsattheedgeofplayasinformofalkaline
crustofmud,sandandgravelformedwhenstreamsdepositalotof
materialsattheedgeoftheplaya.Materialsdryupleavingahardsalty
crustalsurfacecalledSalina/salare.g.inArizonadesertinU.S.A.

f)Pediment
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g)Peneplain
Lowlevelplainformedwhenpedimentsareerodedtoformalowlevelplain. h)Pediplain

-Extensivelowandgentlyslopinglandscommonindeserts.
oPedimentssurroundingahighlandareextendedbysheeterosion.
oWithtimethehighlandisreducedtoaresidualhilllikeInselbergs.
oThehilliseventuallyerodedformingacontinuousplain(Pediplain) i)Inselbergs
-Prominentresidualrocksinadesert.
-Formedbyextensionofpedimentsintouplandareas.
Types
Bonhardt-Steepisolatedroundtoppedmassofrockrisingsteeplyfrom
desertsurface. oDissectionofplateaubystreamsproducingsteepsidedvalleys.
oTheplateauisfurthererodedformingremnanthillse.g.SugarLoaf
MountaininRiodeJaneiroinBrazil.
Castlekopje–Residualrocksinadesertfoundingroups.
oFormedfrombreakdownofBonhardtwithcloselyspacedjoints.
oOrdeepwitheringofaplateauedges.
oWeatheredrocksarethenremovedbywaterreducingplateauinto
Inselbergse.g.NzambanirockinKitui.
SignificanceofDesertsandDesertFeatures
Positive
1.Loesssoilsareusedforagriculturebecausetheyareveryfertilee.g.in
HuangHevalleyandUkraine.
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2.LoesssoilsinEuropeandchinahavedugincaveswhichareinhabited
duringwintertoprovidewarmth.
3.Desertfeaturesareatouristattractione.g.rockpedestals,Yardangs,
Zeugenandsanddunes.
4.Oasisindeflationhollowsaresourcesofwaterfordomesticuse.
5.Oasiswaterisalsousedforirrigationsuchasofdatepalms.
6.Desertsaregoodsitesfortestingmilitaryweapons,militarytrainingand
experimentinggroundforaircraftbecausetheyaresparselypopulated.
7.Thescarcevegetationindesertssuchasshrubscanbeusedinlivestock
keepinge.g.goats,camelsetc.
8.Thehotsunindesertscanbeharnessedtoprovideelectricityforlighting,
pumpingofwater,etc.
9.Seasonalstreamscanbedammedtosupplywatertosurroundingareas
e.g.KigombodaminMbororoinTaitawhichsupplieswatertoVoitown.
Negative
1.Somedesertfeaturescanpreventphysicaldevelopmente.g.sanddunes
canburyroadsanditisdifficulttoconstructbridgesacrosswadis.
2.Sanddunescancoveroasisandsettlements.
3.Sanddunesmaydestroyrichagriculturalland.
4.Hightemperatures,shortageofwater,unreliablerainfallandlackof
transportandcommunicationinfrastructurediscouragesettlement.

UNDER/GROUNDWATER
-Waterthatexistsbeneaththeearth’ssurfaceinporespacesinsoiland rocks.
SourcesofGroundWater a)RainWater
-Somerainwaterwhichpercolatesandistrappedaftermeetingan impermeablerock.
b)MeltWater
-Waterthatinfiltratesintothegroundwhensnowmeltsduringspringand summer.
c)SurfaceWater
-Waterfromrivers,seas,swamps,oceans,lakesandpondsthatseepinto theground.
d)Magmatic/PlutonicWater
-Watertrappedinrocksbeneathsurfaceduringvulcanicity
FactorsInfluencingExistenceofGroundWater a)Precipitation
-Forgroundwatertoexistprecipitationmustexceedevaporation.
-Lightrainfallingoveralongperiodoftimeinfiltratesmorethanheavy shortliveddownpour.
 260

b)Slope -Onflatandgentlyslopingareasrainwaterhasampletimetoinfiltrate
becauseitremainsinoneplaceforalongtime.
-Onsteepareasthereislowinfiltrationsincealotofwaterturnsintorunoff
becauseofgettinglesstimetopercolate.
c)NatureofRocks
-Thereisagreaterpossibilityofexistenceofgroundwaterwherethere
arepermeablesurfacerocks.
-Groundwaterexistswhereimpermeablerockoverlieanimpermeable
onesothatwhenwaterinfiltratesandpercolatesundergroundit’s
trappedbyimpermeablerockandaccumulatesaboveit.
Aquifer-permeablerockwhichispermanentlysaturatedwithwater. Permeablerocks-
Rockswhichallowwatertopassthroughthem.
Types
a)Porous-Thosewithpores/airspacesbetweenrockgrainsthroughwhich
waterpassese.g.sandstone,limestoneandchalk.
b)Pervious-Oneswithcracksfracturesandjointsthroughwhichwater
entersandpassese.g.granite,limestoneandchalk.
Impermeablerocks-Oneswhichdon’tallowwatertopassthroughthem.
Types
a)Aquifuge-Impenetrableimpermeablerockse.g.gabbro,shaleandslate.
b)Aquiclude-Porousrockswhichabsorbwaterandexpandnarrowingair
spacesbetweengrainspreventingwatertopercolatedownwardse.g.clay.
d)VegetationCover
-Plantsbreakthespeedofraindropscausingdropstohittheground
gentlygivingrainwaterampletimetopercolate.
-Onbaresurfacesmostofprecipitationflowsawayasrunoff. e)LevelofSaturationofGround
-Infiltrationismoreondrygroundbecauseithaswideopenairspaces
whileandlessonagroundwhoseairspacesaresaturatedwithwater.
WaterTable
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-Waterthatinfiltratesandpercolatesintothegroundfillsairspaces
creatingzonesofsaturationwhoseupperlevelsarecalledwatertables.
ZonesofSaturation
a)ZoneofNon-saturation
-Zoneofpermeablethroughwhichwaterpassesbutdoesn’tremaininthe
poresforalongtime.
-Wellsunktothiszonedoesn’tcontainanywater. b)ZoneofIntermittentSaturation
-Zonewhichduringtherainseasontherocksaresaturatedwithwater
whileduringthedryseasontheyareunsaturated.
Temporarywatertable-Upperlevelofgroundwaterinthezoneof intermittentsaturation.
-Zoneofnon-saturationandthatofintermittentsaturationarecalled vadosezone.
c)ZoneOfPermanentSaturation
-Zonewhereporesspacesarepermanentlyfilledwithwater. Permanentwatertable-
Upperlevelofgroundwaterinthezoneof permanentsaturation.
Presenceofgroundwaterleadstoformationofsprings,wellsboreholesand artesianbasins.
Springs
Placewherewaterflowsoutnaturallyontotheearth’ssurfacealongaslope.
Ways/ModesFormation a)HillsideSpring

-Typeformedwhereapermeablerockliesaboveanimpermeableoneona
hillandwatercomesoutatthejunctionofthosetworocklayers.
b)DykeSpring
-Typeformedwhereanigneousdikecutsacrossalayerofpermeablerock.
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oGroundwaterontheupslopesideistrappedcausingwatertableonthat sidetorises.
oAspringdevelopswherethewatertableisexposedonthesurface.

c)VauclusianSpring
-Typeformedonalimestonehillorescarpmentoverlyinganimpermeable layer.
oLimestonerockbecomessaturatedwithwater.
oWatercomesoutofthegroundwherewatertableappearsonthe surface.

d)ValleySpring
-Typeformedwherewatertableintersectsthesurfacealongthesideof thevalley.

ArtesianBasins
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-Saucershapeddepressionconsistingofalayerofpermeablerock
sandwichedbetweentwoimpermeablerocksandthewholesystemforms asyncline.
Characteristics
a)Oneorbothendsareexposedonthesurfaceonarainyareaorbeneath alake.
b)Waterentersattheexposedendorends.
c)Withtimethepermeablerockissaturatedwithwaterandbecomesan
aquifere.g.betweenChadandEgyptacrossQuattaradepression.
Artesianwell
Wellsunkintotheaquiferofanartesianbasinfromwhichwaterwillcome
outwithoutbeingpumped.
IdealConditionsforFormationofanArtesianWell
a)Aquifertobesandwichedbetweenimpermeablerockstoprevent
evaporationandpercolation.
b)Aquifertobeexposedinaregionwhichisasourceofwatere.g.rainyarea orlake.
c)Aquifertodipfromtheregionofwaterintake.
d)Mouthofthewelltobeatalowerlevelthantheintakeareatodevelop
hydraulicpressurewhichwillforcewaterout.
ProblemsAssociatedWithArtesianWells
a)Watermaybehotduetohightemperatures.
b)Watermaybesaltybecauseofwatertakinglongtopercolatethrough
rocksthusdissolvinglargequantitiesofmineralsalts.
c)Watermayfailtocomeoutnaturallywhenwaterisdrawnfasterthanit’s
beingreplacedinthesourceregionandnecessitatingpumping.
SignificanceofUndergroundWater
1.Sourceofriversandtheirtributaries.
2.Sourceofwaterfordomesticandindustrialusee.g.wells,springs, boreholesandoasis.
3.Usedinagriculturee.g.oasiswaterisusedforirrigationofdatepalms.
4.Influencessettlementsduetotheavailabilityofwatere.g.indeserts
peoplesettlenearoasisandspringlinesettlementsinlimestoneareas.
5.Hotspringsareatouristattractionandtheirwateristrappedandpumped
intohousesthroughpipesforheatingduringwintere.g.inIceland.
6.Undergroundstreamshelpinkeepingsomelakesfreshe.g.L.Naivasha.
ActionofWaterinLimestoneLimestoneAreas(KarstRegion) Karstregion-
Regionwherethesurfaceandthegroundiscoveredwith limestonerocks.
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Karstscenery-UniquefeaturesinaKarstregionresultingfromtheactionof
watere.g.ShimonicavesatthecoastofKenya.
-Whencalciumcarbonateisexposedaweakcarbonicacidformedbyrain
dissolvingCO2it’sdissolvedtoformcalciumhydrogencarbonatewhichis
removedfromtherockinsolutionresultinginsurfaceandunderground
featuresinsuchalimestoneregion.
FactorsInfluencingDevelopmentofKarstScenery
a)Surfacerockandtherockbelowshouldbehardandwelljointedforacid
watertopercolateandcausesolutiontohappene.g.limestone,chalkor dolomite.
b)Climateshouldbehottospeedchemicalweatheringandhumidfor
availabilityofrainwhichisasolvent.
c)ShouldhavealotofvegetationtoreleaseCO2.
d)Watertabletobefarbelowthesurfacesothatthewholelimestonerockis
notdissolvedandundergroundfeaturesfailtobeformed.
SurfaceFeaturesinLimestoneAreas a)GrikesandClints
Clints-Blocksoflimestonerockleftstandingwhenwaterinfiltratesthrough
thelimestonerockswideninganddeepeningthejoints.
Grikes-Deepgrovesorgulliesformedwhenrainwaterinfiltratesthrough
limestonerockswideningthejointsbysolution.

b)Swallow/SinkHoles
-Deepverticalholesformedonlimestonerockswhensolutionextendsthe grikes.
-Referredtoasswallow/sinkholesbecausesurfacerunofforriverwater
maydisappearthroughthemasawaterfallandcomeoutofthegroundas
avauclusianspringfurtherdownhill.
-Verticalshaftfromthesurfaceofthesinkholedownintothegroundis calledponor.
 265

c)DryValley
-Steepvalleyswithnopermanentstreamsonlimestonesurfaceatthe
sectionbetweentheswallowholeandwheretheriveremerges.
d)KarstWindow
-Smalloutlettothesurfacefromacavernformedwhencontinuous
carbonationatthesurfacecausestheroofofthecavetocollapse.
e)LimestoneGorge
-Deepsteepsidedrivervalleyinlimestonerocksformedwhenthe
swallowedrivercausessolutiontocontinueundergroundcausingtheroof
ofundergroundwatercoursetocollapse.
f)KarstBridge
-Smallsectionleftjoiningtheroofbetweenthekarstwindowandgorge. g)Dolines
-Ellipticalhollowwithgentlyslopingsidesonthesurfaceofalimestone
regionformedwhenseveralswallowholescollapseandmerge.

h)Uvala
-Depressionwhichmaybeaswideas1kmindiameterformedonthe
surfaceoflimestoneregionswhenseveraldolinescollapseandmerge.
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i)Polje
-Largest,shallow,ellipticalandflatflooreddepressionsonalimestone
regionformedwhenseveraluvalascollapseandmerge.
-Maybecomeatemporarylakeormaybecoveredbyamarsh.
UndergroundFeaturesinLimestoneAreas

a)Stalactites
-Fingerlikemassesofcalcitehangingverticallyfromtheroofofa
limestonecaveorcavernformedbyrepeatedevaporationofwaterand
givingoffofcarbondioxidefromdropsofwatercontainingcalcium
bicarbonatehangingfromtheroofofthecavecausingcrystallisationof
calciumbicarbonateintocalcite.
b)Stalactite
-Stumpyrockmassesofcalcitewhichgrowfromthefloorofalimestone
caveupwardsformedbyrepeateddrippingofsolutionofcalcium
bicarbonatefromtheendofstalactitetothefloorofalimestonecave
thenitspreadsoutandcrystallizes.
c)LimestonePillars
-Pillarlikestructuresinlimestonecavesformedwhenstalactitesand
stalagmitesgrowtowardseachother,stalagmitegrowsuntilittouches
theroofofacaveorwhenastalactitegrowsuntilittouchesthefloorof thecave.
d)Limestonecaves
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-Undergroundchambersorcavitiesinlimestonerocks.
oUndergroundriversdissolvelimestoneinhorizontaljointsforminga horizontaltunnel.
oSurfacewaterandundergroundwaterpercolatesthroughthejointsinto
thetunnelenlargingitformingaphreaticcavei.e.cavebelowthewater table.
oThewaterflowsoutatthevauclusianspringloweringthewatertable
causingthephreaticcavetobecomealimestonecave.
oContinuedsolutionfromwaterpercolatingthroughthecavesroofwidens
andlowersitsfloortoformalargercavecalledlimestonecaverne.g.
CarlsbandcaveinNewMexicoU.S.A.
SignificanceofKarstScenery
Positive
1.Featuresinkarstsceneryareatouristattractione.g.caves,gorges,
stalactites,stalagmites,etc.
2.Limestonerockisusedinthemanufactureofcemente.g.cementfactory
atBamburiinMombasaandAthiRiver.
3.Limestoneblocksarealsousedforbuilding.
4.Limestoneregionsareverygoodforgrazingparticularlysheepbecause thesurfaceisdry.
5.Largevillagescalledspringlinesettlementsformatthelineofvauclusian
springsduetotheavailabilityofwater.
Negative
1.Limestonelandscapediscouragessettlementbecausethesurfaceis
rocky,soilsarethinandunsuitableforagriculture,surfaceisruggedwith
featureslikegrikesandClintsandthewatersupplyisinadequatedueto
riversdisappearingintoswallowholes.

GLACIATION
-Actionofmovingice.
Glacier-Massoficemovingoutwardfromanareaofaccumulation.
-Formedwhensnowaccumulatesonthesurface,lowerlayersare
compressedtoahardermassresultinginopaqueiceduetoairbubbles
andaccumulationcontinuescompressionlowerlayerssqueezingoutair
formingglassyicecalledglacier.
Types
a)Cirqueglacier-iceoccupyingacirque.
b)Valleyglacier-Iceconfinedwithinavalley
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c)Piedmontglacier:Glacierformedwhenvalleyglaciersconvergeatthefoot
ofthemountain.
Icebergs-Largemassoficefloatingintheoceanformedwhenanicesheet
movestotheseae.g.inArcticandN.AtlanticOcean.
Icesheet-Continuousmassoficecoveringalargeareaontheearth’s surface.
Icecaps-Icecoveringthemountainpeak.
Snowline-Linebeyondwhichthereisapermanentsnowcover.
WaysofIceMovement a)PlasticFlowage
-Movementoficelikeaviscousliquid.
oGreatpressureisexertedatthebottomsidesandcentrecausingsome
iceparticlestomeltslightlyandmoveslowlydownhilllikeaviscousliquid. b)BasalSlip
-Movementoficebyslidingovertheunderlyingrock.
oPressureisexertedondeepestlayersoficeincontactwiththerock
beneathcausingmelting.
oAfilmofwateriscreatedwhichactsasalubricantbetweentheiceand
therockcausingicetoslipandslideovertherockandmovedownslope.
c)ExtrusionFlow
-Movementoficebyspreadingout.
oIceaccumulatesbuildingtogreatthicknessatthecentrecausing
compressionoflayersoficebeneath.
oThelayersbeneathareforcedtospreadoutwherethereislesspressure.
d)InternalShearing
-Breakingoficeintosmallerpieceswhichmovealongsideoneanother.
oUnevenmovementcausesicetodevelopcracksonthesurface.
oTheglacierbreaksintosmallerpieceswhichmovealongsideeachother
downslope.
FactorsInfluencingIceMovement a)GradientoftheLand
Icemovesfasteronsteepslopesthanongentleslopesduetotheinfluence ofgravity.
b)Season
Icemovementisfasterinsummerduetofrequentthawingmelting
comparedtowinterwhenthawingisrare. c)Friction
Centralpartsoficemovefasterthansidesandbottomwhichareincontact
withrockbeneathduetofriction. d)ThicknessofIce
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Thickermassesoficecausemorepressurebetweenthemandrocks
beneathwhichcauseslightmeltingandthereforefastermovement.
GlacialErosion
Processes/WaysinWhichIceErodes a)Plucking
-Pullingawayofpartsofarockatthebaseofglacierwhentheicefreezes
intothecracksofawelljointedrock.
b)Abrasion
-Scratchingoftheunderlyinggroundbystonesandboulderscarriedbythe
iceastheglaciermoves. FactorsInfluencingGlacialErosion a)NatureofUnderlyingRock
-Abrasionismoreeffectiveonsoftrocksthanhardrocks.
-Welljointedandfaultedrocksaremoreerodedthanthosewhicharenot
becausecracksandjointsenablewatertoenterrocksandfreezewhich
facilitatesplucking.

b)GradientofSlope
-Glacieronsteepslopesmovesfasterandhasgreaterkineticenergyto
erodethanslowmovingglacier
c)ThicknessofIce
-Thickiceisheavierandexertsgreaterpressureonrockdebrismaking
themtoabradetheunderlyingrockmoreeffectively.
d)AvailabilityofDebris
-Themoretherockdebristhemoreeffectiveabrasionwillbesinceitacts asabrasivetools.
-Tooheavydebrismakeserosionimpossiblesinceiceisnotableto
transportitbutglidesoveritwithoutactingontherockbelow.
ErosionFeatures
OnGlaciatedHighlands a)Cirque

-Armchairshapeddepressiononglaciatedslopesofhighmountains.
oSnowaccumulatesintoashallowdepressiononthesideofamountain.
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oFreezinginwinterandthawinginsummercausesrockstowitherand
breakupresultinginenlargementofthehollow.
oAccumulatediceadvancesbyslippingdownslope.
oAdeepcrevicecalledbergshrunddevelopsatthetopoficeduetounequal movement.
oFreezingoccurdeepdownthebergshrundcausingthebackwallandsides
tobesteepenedbyplucking.
oPluckeddebrisiscarriedforwardscratchingthefloorofthebasin
deepeningitformingthecirque,corrieorcwm.
oWaterfrommeltingsnowmayaccumulateinacirquetoformatarne.g.
Telekitarn.
b)Arêtes
-Narrowknife-edgedsteepridgeseparatingtwocirques.
-Formedwhentwocirquescutbackwardsonadjacentsidesofamountain
leavinganarrowsteepridgeseparatingthem.
c)PyramidalPeaks
-Sharpsteepsidedpeakatthetopofamountain.
-Formedwhenthreeormorecirqueserodeonmountainsidetowardseach
otherleavingasharppointedrockseparatingthematthetopofthe
mountaine.g.CorydonandDelamereonMt.Kenya.
d)GlacialTrough
GlacialTroughandRelatedFeatures

-Wideflatbottomedvalleywithsteepsidesonaglaciatedhighland. oIceaccumulatesinav-
shapedvalley. oPluckingandabrasionbyiceoccurs.
oThev-shapedvalleyisdeepened,widenedandstraightenedtobecomea glacialtrough.
oGlaciatedtroughmaybesubmergedtoformafiord.
e)TruncatedSpurs
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-Interlockingspursofformerrivervalleyswhichareerodedand
straightenedbyvalleyglacier. ErosionFeaturesonGlaciatedLowlands
a)RocheMountonnee

-Rockoutcropwithalongsmoothgentleslopeontheupstreamsideanda
ruggedsteepslopeonthedownstreamsidefoundonglaciatedlowland.
-Formediceactsonarockonitswaycausingthesidefacingtheupstream
sidetobepolishedbyabrasionresultingintoasmoothgentleslopeand
thedownstreamsideisaffectedbypluckingresultinginaruggedsteep
slopeleavingarockoutcropstandingjustabovethesurface.

b)CragandTail

Crag-projectionofresistantrockwhichprotectsamassofsofterrockon
thedownstreamsideoftheglacier.
oTheicemovesoverandaroundovertheresistantrockerodingitslightly byabrasion.
oCracksdevelopontheupstreamsidecausingtheicetomoveandpluck
materialsfromtheresistantrockleavingaprojectionofresistantrock
withasteepruggedupstreamsideisformed.
Tail-elongatedfeatureonthedownstreamsideofthecragformedby
formedbymaterialdepositedbytheglacieronthedownstreamsideandthe weakerrock.
c)DepressionalLakes
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-Depressionsfilledwithwaterfrommeltingicefoundinglaciatedlowlands.
-Formedwhensoftrocksarescoopedoutbymovingicesheetforming
depressionswhicharefilledwithwatertoformalake.
GlacialDeposition
-Materialcarriedbytheglacieriscalledmoraine.
TypesofMoraine

a)Ground/sub-glaciermoraine-loadcarriedatthebaseoftheglacier.
b)Englacialmoraine-loadwithintheglacier.
c)Lateralmoraine-loadcarriedatthesidesoftheglacier.
d)Medialmoraine-loadcarriedinthecentreofthevalleybyglacier.
e)Terminal/recessionalmoraine-loaddepositedatthepointwhereaglacier melts.
TypesofGlacialDeposits/Drift:
a)Till-directlydepositedbyiceonmeltinginunstratifiedmanner.
b)Fluvial-materialsdepositedbywaterfromthemeltingiceinstratified manner.
CausesofGlacialDeposition a)Amountofglacialdrift
Whengroundmoraineistoomuchtheglacierglidesoveritleavingitbehind.
b)Weightofglacier
Whenmoreiceisaddedtoastationaryglacierpressureisexertedatthe
basecausingmeltingandthematerialwhichwasembeddedintheiceis dropped.
c)Climaticchange
Duringsummerandspringicemeltsdepositingsomematerialstheglacier wascarrying.
d)Frictionbeneaththeice
Frictionbetweeniceandsurfacereducesicespeedcausingheavymaterials
tobedepositedbeneathicesheets. e)Slope
Lowlandsallowglaciertoaccumulatealotofmaterialswhicharefinally
depositedbymeltingice.
FeaturesResultingFromGlacialDeposition a)TillPlain
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-Extensiveareaofflatreliefresultingfromburyingofformervalleysand
hillsbyglacialdeposits.
b)Erratics
-Largebouldersofresistantrockstransportedbyglacierfromhighlandand
depositedonthetillplain.
c)Drumlins

-Longeggshapedhillsdepositedandshapedunderanicesheetofvery broadglacier.
oGlacierdepositsboulderclayatthevalleybottomduetofrictionbetween
thebedrockandtheboulderclay.
oWithmoredepositionlargemoundsofdepositsareformed.
oThemovingicestreamlinesthetillthathasbeendepositedirregularly
resultingintotheupstreamsidesofthetillbeingsteepbutsmoothed.
d)TerminalMoraineRidge

-Ridgelikefeatureformedbyextensivedepositionofmorainealongthe edgeofanicesheet.
oIceremainsstagnantforaverylongtime.
oTheiceattheedgesofsheetmeltandalotofmaterialsaredeposited. e)Eskers
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-Longwindingridgecomposedofgravelformedbyglacialdeposition.
oStreamscarryinglargeamountsofloadflowfastinasub-glacialtunnel
paralleltothedirectionofmovingice.
oWhentheicemeltsthetunnelscollapsecausingstreamstoslowdown
anddepositmuchoftheloadformingaridge.
f)Kame

-Isolatedhillmadeofsandandgravelwhichhavebeendepositedinstrata byglacialwater.
g)KameTerrace
-Ridgeofsandandgraveloccurringinnarrowlakesthatexistbetweenthe
glacierandanadjacenthighland.
h)OutwashPlains

-Widegentlyslopingplaincomposedofgravelandsandformedbyglacial deposition.
-Formedwhenfinermaterialsofterminalmorainearedepositedinvery
thicklayersoveranextensiveareaformingaplain.
SignificanceofGlaciation
Positive
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1.Someoutwashplainshavefertilemorainicsoilssuitableforagriculture
e.g.Canadianprairieswherewheatisgrown.
2.WaterfallsonhangingvalleysareusedforgenerationofH.E.P.
3.Glaciatedhighlandsareatouristattractionespeciallyduringwinterwhen
sportingactivitiessuchasskiingandiceskatingarecarriedout.
4.GlaciallakessuchasgreatlakesofN.Americaprovidenaturalrouteways
andfishsourcese.g.L.SuperiorandHuron.
5.Glaciatedmountainsarecatchmentareasforpermanentrivers.
6.Shelteredwateroffiordsisasuitablebleedinggroundoffishasnatural harbours.
7.Sandexcavatedfromoutwashplainsandeskersisusedforconstruction.
Negative
1.Landinglaciatedareascan’tbefullyutilisedforagricultureduetobeing
marshybecauseofboulderclaydepositse.g.centralIreland.
2.Infertilesandsdepositedinoutwashplainsmakelandunsuitablefor agriculture.
3.Numerouslakesformedasaresultofmorainicdepositsreducetheland
availableforagriculture.
4.Settlementandtransportationinglaciatedlandscapeisdifficultdueto
ruggednesscausedbyglacialaction.

SOIL
-Uppermostlayeroftheearth’scrustonwhichplantsgrow.
Constituents/CompositionofSoil
1.InorganicMatter
-Weatheredrockfragmentsmadeofmineralsfromparentrock.
-Formsskeletonorfabricofsoil.
-Forms45%oftotalvolume.
2.OrganicMatter
-Decomposedremainsofanimalsandtheirwastes. -
Forms5%oftotalvolume. SignificanceofOrganicMatter
a)Brokendownbybacteriaforminghumusimprovingthesoilfertility.
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b)Soilwithhighorganicmatterisalkalinewhileonewithloworganicmatter isacidic.
3.SoilWater -Watercontainedinthesoil.
-Forms25%oftotalvolume.
TypesofSoilWater
HygroscopicWater
-Waterheldasathinfilmaroundsoilparticles.
GravitationWater
-Excesswaterwhichmovesdownwardstothezoneofgroundwater.
Importance
a)Solventofmineralsandnutrientsessentialforplantgrowth.
b)CausesleachingCarryingofminerals.
c)Causeswaterloggingwhichblocksaircirculationcausingsoiltolack
oxygenandbecomeacidic.
4.SoilAir -Aircontainedwithinair/porespacesofsoil.
-Forms25%oftotalvolume.
Importance
a)Forplantandsoilorganismsmetabolism.
b)Foroxidationwhichcausesconversionofpartoforganicmaterialinto nitrogen.
d)Forrespirationofaerobicmicro-organismswhichbreakdownorganic
mattertoformhumuse.g.bacteria.
SoilFormation
FactorsInfluencingSoilFormingProcesses a)ParentMaterial
-Determinesthetypeofsoil,mineralcompositionandtexturee.g.granite
andsandstoneweathertoformsandysoilsrichinquartz,volcaniclavas
formclaysoilswithlowquartzcontentandplantsdecomposetoform loamrichinhumus.
b)Climate
-Affectrateandtypeofweatheringe.g.heavyrainfallresultsintodeep
soilsduetoheavyweatheringandleaching. -
Windindesertscausesformationofloesssoils. c)LivingOrganisms
-Micro-organismssuchasbacteriacauseplantandanimalremainsto decayintohumus.
-Burrowinganimalsandwormsmixorganicremainswithmineralsoil component.
-Rootspenetrateandaddmoreporosity,improvesoildepthandaeration. d)Topography
-Thereismaximumsoildevelopmentinrollingandwelldraineduplands
wheretherateoferosionmatchesthatofsoilerosion.
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-Steepslopesresultinshallowimmaturesoilsduetosevereerosion.
Time
-Thelongerthetimetakenbysoilformingprocessesthedeeperandwell developedsoilis.
SoilFormingProcesses
1.Weathering
-Breakdownofparentrocktoformrockparticlescalledregolith.
2.DecompositionofOrganicMatter
Processes
a)Mineralization
-
Biologicalandchemicalbreakdownofdeadplanttissuesbysoilmicroorganismstosimple
solubleorganicsubstances.
b)Humification
-Regroupingofmineraliseddeadplantmaterialintolargemoleculesto formhumus.
3.Leaching
-Carryingofmineralsfromtoplayerdowntothemiddlelayer.
Types
i)Ferralisation/lateralisation
-Movinginsolutionorinsuspensionofweatheredmaterialfromhorizon“A” to“B.”
-RedsoilforminhorizonAasferrisols/laterites(murrum). ii)Illuviation
-Accumulation/redepositionofmaterialswhichhadbeenleachedto horizonB.
-Hardsoilmass(hardpan)results.
iii)Eluviation -Mechanicalwashingdownoffinemineralparticlesinsuspensionfrom
upperlayertolowerlayersbywaterwhichispercolatingdownwards.e.g. clay
iv)Podzolisation
-HeavydepletionofhorizonAofallmineralsespeciallybasesandironby
solubleorganicsubstances. -Formsashlikesoilswhichareacidic. v)Calcification
-Limitedleachingwhichallowsredepositionofcalciumcompoundswithin
thesamesoilprofile.
vi)Ribification
-Dehydrationofsoilsduringdryseasonandleachingduringtherainy season.
PropertiesandCharacteristicsofSoil
a)Texture
-Compositionofsoilintermsofitsparticles.
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SOIL CLASS PARTICLEDIAMETER

Coarse 0.2-2mm
sand
Finesand 0.2-0.02mm
Silt 0.02-0.002mm
Clay Below0.002mm
-Canbecoarse/gritty(sand),medium(loam)orfine(clay).
Importance
a)Determinessoilwaterretentionbythatcoarsegrainedsoilshavepoor
retentionwhilethosefinegrainedhavehighwaterretention.
b)Influenceseaseofrootpenetrationintothesoilwherebyitiseasyon
coarsetexturedanddifficultinfinetextured.
c)Determiningsoilfertilityinthatclaycontentpreventshumusfrombeing
washeddownthesoilbywater.
b)Structure
-Arrangementofsoilparticlesintoaggregatecompoundparticles.
Types
i)Crumpsoilstructure-soilmadeofsmall,soft,groupsofparticlesof irregularshape.
ii)Granularstructure-soilmadeofporousgroupsofparticlesofirregular
shapecalledgranules.
iii)Platestructure-soilmadeofplatelikeflatparticlesarrangedinhorizontal manner.
iv)Prismaticstructure-soilmadeofverticalprismlikeparticleswithrounded tops.
v)Blockystructure-soilmadeofirregularpiecesofsoilwithsharpcorners
andedges.
c)SoilPH
-Basicityoraciditymeasureofasoil.
-Sulphate/phosphate-acidity
-Calcium/magnesium-Basicity
PHVALUE REACTION
DESCRIPTION
8 Alkaline
7 Neutral
6 Slightlyacidic
5 Moderatelyacidic
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4 stronglyacidic
Importance
i)Influencestheactivityofsoilmicro-organismsandhencedecomposition
oforganicmatter.
ii)Influencesrateatwhichrootsabsorbminerals.
iii)Determinesthetypesofcropstobegrowne.g.tea-acidic.
iv)Determinesavailabilityofdifferentnutrientstotheplantse.g.
phosphorousisnotavailableatlowPHwhilepotassiumandironnot availableathighPH.
d)SoilColour
-Visiblequalityofsoil.
-Darkbrownorblack–considerableamountoforganicmatter. -Grey-
poorlydrainedorwaterlogged.
-Whitish-lacksorganicmatter,ironoxidesandhassolublesalts concentration.
Importance
i)Influencessoiltemperatureinthatlightcolouredsoilshavelow
temperatureandhenceloworganismactivity.
ii)Hightempdestroyhumus,increaseorganismactivityandprovidewarmth
requiredforgermination.
e)SoilPorosity

-Amountofporespacesinasoilsample.
Importance
i)Influencesoilwaterretention.Clayhashighretentionandiswaterlogged
becauseitdoesn’tallowdrainageduetomanytinyporespaceswhile
sandhaspoorwaterretentionduetorapidpercolationcausedbylarge porespaces.
f)SoilPermeability
-Abilitytoallowthewatertopassthrough.
-Dependsontextureandporosity.Clayisimpermeableduetobeingfine
texturedandtinyporedwhilesandispermeableduetobeingcoarse
texturedandveryporous.
SoilProfile
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-Verticalarrangementofdifferentsoillayersfromthesurfacetothebed rock.
Amaturesoilisonewithafullydevelopedprofilewhileayoungsoilisone
withanotfullydevelopedprofile.
Superficiallayer
-Drydecayingorganicmattercoveringthesoilsurface.
Horizon‘A’
-Liesunderamatofsurfacevegetationandrawhumus.
-Darkerduetohighhumuscontent.
-Containsmostofplantnutrients.
-Wheremostplantrootsarefound.
-Containsactivemicroorganismswhichbreakdownorganicmatterinto humus.
Horizon‘B’
-Liesbelowtopsoil.
-Hassmallspacesbetweenparticlesandhencelessaerated.
-Hasahardpanorlayerimpedingdrainage.
-WheremostmaterialswashedfromhorizonAhaveaccumulated.
Horizon‘C’
-Liesbelowsubsoil.
-Madeofpartlymechanicallyweatheredrock.
-Productofbedrockormayhavebeentransported.
Horizon‘D’
-Solidunderlyingrock.
-Mayhavepondsofwaterwhichcanbeusedbydeeprootedplantsduring dryseason.
ImportanceofSoilProfile
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a)Determinesthecropstobeplantedi.e.maturesoilsfavourdeeprooted
cropswhileyoungsoilsfavourshallowrootedcrops.
b)BedrockdeterminesthechemicalpropertiesofthesoilsuchasPHand nutrients.
SoilCatena

-Arrangementofsoilonamountainslopefromtoptobottom.
FactorsInfluencingDevelopmentofaSoilCatena a)Relief
-Onsteepslopesthereishighrateoferosionresultinginthinsoilswhileon
gentleslopesrateofweatheringanderosionisbalancedresultinginthick soils.
-Onflatareassuchasvalleyfloorswherethereisdepositiontherearepeat oralluvialsoils.
b)Drainage
-Firstdrainageatmountaintopsresultsinthinstonyimmaturesoils.
-Poordrainageinflatareasresultsinpeatoralluvialsoils. c)TransportationofDebris
-Surfacerunofftransportssedimentstolowergentleslopeswhereit
accumulatesformingdeepcolluvialsoilswhilethinstonyimmaturesoils
withlittleorganicmattercalledxeromorphicsoilsareleftonsteepslopes.
SoilDegeneration
-Declineintheusefulnessofasoil.
Types
1.PhysicalDegeneration
-Declineinusefulnessofasoilinwhichtexture,structure,moistureand
qualityofsoilareaffected.
Causes
a)Deforestationwhichleadstoremovalofvegetationwhichformsa
protectivecoverofthesoilexposingittoerosionagents.
b)Overgrazingwhichcausesexcessivelossofwaterfromthesoilcausingit
tobecomelooseandfinegrainedandeasilyeroded.
c)PoorCultivationTechniques
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i)Pullinghoealongthesurfacewhenremovingweedswhichloosensthe
soilandwhenitrainsit’swashedaway.
ii)Ploughingoflanddownslopewhichacceleratessoilerosion.
iii)Cultivationofsteepslopesandalongriverbankswhichencouragessoil erosion.
iv)Burningwhichdestroysvegetationcoveringthesoilexposingittoerosion agents.
v)Growingcropsonthesamepieceoflandfromseasontoseasonwhich
sucksnutrientsfromthesoilmakingitfine,looseandeasytobeeroded.
vi)Plantingcropssuchasmaizewhosefoliagedoesn’tprovideadequatesoil
coverencouragessoilerosion.
vii)Cultivationinareasthatsufferprolongeddroughtswhichloosenthe
soilcausingittobeexposedtoerosionduringdryseasons.
d)Heavyrainresultingtoexcessivesoilerosionandthuspoorlyaerated.
e)Droughtwhichdeprivesthesoilofmoisturewhichholdsthesoiltogether
causingparticlestoloosenmakingittobeeasilybrownbywind.
f)Excavationworkssuchasquarrying,open-castmining,buildingofestates
androadconstructionwhichloosenandexposethesoiltoerosionagents.
g)Soilerosionwhichrobsthesoiloftopfertilelayer.
2.ChemicalDegeneration
-Declineinusefulnessduetochangesinmineralnutrientsofthesoil.
Causes
a)Leachingwhichmakesmineralsinaccessibletoshallowrootedcrops.
b)Excessiveapplicationoffertilizerswhichinterfereswithbacterialactivity
andcausesthesoiltobecometooacidicandunabletosupportavariety ofcrops.
c)Excesswatercausingwaterloggingcausingacidicconditions.
d)Plantingonetypeofcroprepeatedlywhichmakesthesoildeficientof somenutrients.
e)Excessivedroughtwhichcausesaccumulationofsaltsinthetopsoil.
f)Burningsuchasinslashandburningwhichkillsmicro-organismscausing
nitrogendeficiencywhennitrogenfixingbacteriaiskilled. 3.BiologicalDegeneration
-Degenerationduetodeclineoforganiccontentofthesoilandorganic matter.
a)Deforestationwhichdeprivesthesoilofitsorganiccontentandmoisture
makingitlooseandmorevulnerabletoerosion.
b)Burningsuchasinslashandburningwhichkillsmicro-organismscausing
lowdecompositionratewhichrobssoiloforganicmatter.
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c)Overgrazingwhichcausesremovalofvegetationcausingexcessiveloss
ofwaterfromthesoilandhencereducedmicro-organismactivity
resultingintoshortageofhumus.
d)Droughtandexcessivemoisturewhichmayleadtoashortageofessential
organismssuchasbacteria,earthworms,termitesandburrowinganimals.
SoilErosion
Removaloftopsoil.
Agentsofsoilerosionarewater,glacierandwind.
Causesofsoilerosionarehumanactivitiesandgeomorphicprocessessuch
asearthquakesandfaultingwhichcauselandslidesandsoilcreep.
ConditionsFavouringSoilErosion a)Slope
Steepslopesacceleratesoilerosionwhilegentleslopesexperienceless erosion.
Placeswithruggedterrainexperiencegulleyerosion.
HillyandSteepareasexperiencerillandgulleyerosion. b)SoilTexture
-Areaswithfinetexturedsoilssuchasvolcanicasharemorevulnerableto
erosione.g.NyambeneHillsaroundKaramaandMuthara.
c)Climate
-Erraticandheavyrainscausesplash,rillandsheeterosion.
-Intenseheatingbythesuncauseslooseningofsoilparticles.
-Lowrainfallandhightemperatureleadstoscantyornovegetationwhich
formsprotectivecoveronthesoil. TypesofSoilErosion a)SplashErosion

-Removalofsoilbyraindropsscatteringlooseparticlesandcarryingthem
downslopebyrunoff.
b)RillErosion

-Removaloftopsoilbyrainwaterthroughsmallchannels.
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-Occurswhenrateofrunoffexceedsinfiltrationandrainwaterflowsover
thesurfaceformingsmallchannelscalledrills.
c)GulleyErosion
-Removalofsoilthroughwideanddeepchannels.
-Occurwhenmovingwaterorglacierwidenanddeepentheexistingrills. d)SheetErosion

-Removaloftopsoilinformofathinsheet.
-CommonaroundL.BaringoandMarigat.
Impact/effectofSoilErosion
Positive
a)Creationofrichagriculturallandswhenerodedsoiliscarriedand
depositede.g.loessandalluvialsoilsinlowercoursesofR.Tana.
b)Sanderodedfromsteepslopesanddepositedonriverbedisscoopedfor
constructionpurposese.g.Machakos.
Negative
a)Lowerstheagriculturalproductivityoflandwhenfertiletopsoiliseroded.
b)Contributestodesertificationwhentopsoiliserodedleavingbareground
destroyingvegetation.
c)Causeswaterpollutionwhenagro-chemicalsandotherchemicalsare
carriedtorivers,lakesoroceans.
d)Contributestofloodingbyblockingriverchannelscausingthemtoburst
theirbanksduringtherainyseasonfloodingtheadjacentareas.
e)Causessiltationofwaterreservoirsreducingtheirutilitye.g.ForH.E.P. generation.
f)Maycausecollapsingofstructuressuchasbuildingsandbridgeswhen
soilaroundthemiserodedweakeningtheirfoundation.
ManagementandConservationofSoil
Soilmanagementiscontrollingprocessesandactivitiesthatwouldcause
soildeteriorationwhilesoilconservationisprotectingsoilfromdestruction.
SoilManagementandConservationMeasures a)CropRotation
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-Growingcropswhichrequiredifferentnutrientsonthesamepieceofland
onrotationalbasistopreventsexhaustionofparticularmineralnutrients
fromthesoile.g.leguminousplantstoimprovenitrogencontentofthe soil.
b)MixedFarming
-Growingcropsandkeepinganimalsonthesamefarm.
-Manurefromanimalsisusedtoenrichthesoilwithmineralsandimprove itsstructure.
c)ContourPloughing
-Ploughingacrossthesloperatherthandowntheslope.
-Helpstotrapwateronhorizontalfurrowsthuspreventingexcessivesoil removal.
d)Terracing
-Dividingtheslopeintoaseriesofwidestepsandcropsaregrownon them.
-Trapthesoilfrombeingcarriedawaybyrunningwaterandalsotraps
waterallowingittograduallyinfiltrateintothesoil.
e)AfforestationandReafforestation
-Leavesreducetheforceofraindropspreventingsoilparticlesfrombeing removed.
-Vegetationincreasestherateofinfiltrationofrainwaterintothesoilthus reducingrunoff.
-Rootsbindthesoilparticlestogether.
-Decayedvegetationprovideshumuswhichbindsthesoilparticles together.
f)PlantingWindBreakers
-Plantinghedgesortreesaroundplotsinlargefields. -
Actaswindbreakersandalsotrapsoilbeingcarriedbywater.
g)RegulatingLivestockNumbers
-Matchingthenumberofanimalskepttothecarryingcapacityofland.
-Overgrazingcanalsobepreventedbypaddockingwhichensuresthereis
alwayspastureforanimalsandnoareaisovergrazed.
oThepastureissubdividedintoportionsbyfencing.
oAnimalsarelefttograzeinonepaddockatatime.
oThentheyaretransferredtothenextafterafewdays.
h)ConstructingGabions
-Constructionofwiremeshboxeswhicharefilledwithsoil.
-Allowwatertopassthroughbuttrapthesoilthenvegetationgradually
growsonthetrappedsoil.
i)PlantingCoverCrops
-Plantingcropswhichcoverthesoilproperlyandholdsthesoilinplacee.g.
sweetpotatovines. j)Mulching
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-Coveringthesoilwithcropresidues.
-Reducestheimpactofraindropsonthesoil.
-Decaysenrichingsoilwithnutrients.
-Reducetherateofmoistureevaporationfromthesoil.
SignificanceofSoils
a)Givesphysicalsupportfortherootingsystemofplantsandprotectsroot
systemfromdamage.
b)Habitatforburrowinganimalsandbacterianecessaryforbreakdownof
organicmatterintohumus.
c)Mediumthroughwhichnutrientsandairaremadeavailabletoplants.
d)Providesmineralelementstoplantse.g.nitrogen,calcium,phosphates, etc.
e)Isusedinbuildingandconstructione.g.clayformakingbricksandtiles.
f)Claysoilisusedinceramicssuchasmakingpots.
g)Somesoilsareusedfordecorativepurposee.g.acheusedamongMaasai.
h)Sourceofmineralsespeciallytoexpectantmothers.
i)Soilcontainsvaluablemineralelementssuchasalluvialgold.
j)Soilsupportsplantlifewhichisasourceoffoodforpeopleandanimals
especiallyherbivores.
k)Soilsareusedformedicinalpurposese.g.clayismixedwithsomeherbs
formedicalpurposeinsomecommunities.
SignificanceofSoilonPlantGrowth
Characteristicsandpropertiesofaparticularsoilinfluencesplantgrowth anddistribution.
PH
-HighPHvaluesfavoursgrowthofparticularcropse.g.tearequiresfairly acidicsoils.
Drainage
-Waterloggedsoilsallowgrowthofparticularplantslikepapyrus,tree
swampsandmangroveonpoorlydrainedsalinesoils.
Depth
-Deepsoilssupportdeeprootedplantse.g.largetreeswhileshallowsoils
favourshallowrootedplantswithspreadingrootsysteme.g.grasses.
Moisturecontent
-Soilsdeficientofmoisturesupportdroughtresistantplants.
Temperature
-Therearestuntedplantsoncoldsoilsandheathandmoorsonupper levelsofmountains.
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Aeration
-Pooraerationretardsthegrowthofplantsandimpairstherootsabilityto
absorbwaterandnutrients.

Mineralcomposition
-Mineraldeficiencyinthesoilcausesretardation.
SoilClassification
-Groupingofsoilaccordingtospecificpropertiessuchasage,texture,colour andclimate.
1.ZonalOrder
Maturesoilswithawelldevelopedprofileduetohavingundergonelongtime
soilformationprocessesundergooddrainageconditions. Sub-orders a)Podsols
-Infertileandacidicsoilswhichareheavilyleachedwithbasecompounds
likecalciumremovedleavingaluminiumandironcompounds
-Foundinforestedareasandhigherlatitudese.g.Scandinaviancountries
andCanadianShield.
b)PodzolicSoils
-SoilssimilarwithPodsolsbutfoundinareaswithdeciduousforestsand
hotclimatese.g.CongoBasinandKenyahighlands.
c)TundraSoils
-Soilswithexcessivemoistureduetolowevaporationratecausing
permanentfreezingofthesoil.
-Associatedwithtundraclimatee.g.IcelandandnorthernedgeofEurope andAsia.
d)Latosols
-Soilswithloworganiccontentandhightitaniumsaltscontentwhichform
inconditionsofhighrainfallandtemperatures.
-Crumblesintodustifploughedduringdryseasonandcracksifnot ploughed.
-Foundinvolcanicarease.g.UasinGishuandLaikipiaplateau. e)Nitosols
-DeepporousfriableredsoilsknownasKikuyuredloaminKenya.
-Wellaeratedandhighcapacityformoisturestorage.
-Higherfertilityandcansupportavarietyofcashandfoodcrops.
f)Phenozems(PrairieSoils)
-Darkbrownandgenerallyfertilesoils.
-Suitableforgrowingofcerealse.g.wheat.
-CommoninPrairieProvincesofCanada,NarokandAthi-Kapitiplains.
g)Sierozems(desertsoils)
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-Soilsfoundindesertconditionswithlittleseasonalrainfallandhigh temperature.
-Relativelylittlehumusduetosparsevegetation.
-Plentyofcalciumcarbonateinformoflimecrustdepositedonsurfacedue
toexcessiveevaporation.
h)Pedocals
-Darksoilswhichhavehadlittleleachingandrichincalciumcarbonate.
-Commoninsemi-aridandsub-humidgrasslands. Sub-
groupsexistinginKenya i)Chermozems
-Darkcolouredsoilswithrelativelyhighorganicmatterfromgrass
vegetationandacalcareoussub-soil.
-Conduciveforcerealcropcultivationduetobeingfoundinrollinglandand
favourableclimateforgrassgrowth.
-FoundatbottomlandsaroundNyambeneHillsandN.grazingareas
betweenIsioloandNyambeneHills.
ii)Vertisols/BlackCottonSoils -Darkcrackingclaysoils.
-Poorlydrainedduetohighclaycontentleadingtopoorpermeability.
-Suitableforgrowingofrice,cottonandsunflower.
-FoundinMweaplainsandKanoplains.
2.IntrazonalOrder
-Soilformedunderpoordrainageconditions.
Sub-orders
a)Hydromorphicsoils
-Greycolouredsoilsformedinwaterloggedareas.
Groups
i)Planosoils-foundonflatoldlandsurfaces.
ii)Bogandmeadow-foundinmeadows,marshesandswampse.g.Lorian andYalaswamps.
b)HalmorphicSoils
-Soilsformedundersemi-aridandaridconditionsthroughsalinisation.
-Infertileandpoorlydrained.
-FoundinAmboseliandN.E.Kenya.
c)CalcimorphicSoils
-Soilsformedbycalcificatione.g.redzinasoilswhichareshallowandrich
inlimeandhumusontheupperprofiledevelopedundergrasson
limestonee.g.inEnglandandsteppesofRussia.
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d)Andosols
-Darkbrownvolcanicashsoilsformedfromrecentvolcanicmaterial.
-Highsiltcontentandveryvulnerabletosoilerosion.
-FoundinKenyanhighlandsandsupportextensiveagriculturalactivities
likecoffee,tea,wheatandmaizegrowing.
3.AzonalOrder
-Soilswithoutawelldevelopedprofileduetohavingnotundergonefullsoil
formingprocesses.
-Foundonsteepslopesandareaswithpoordrainagewhichdon’toffer themtimetomature.
Sub-orders
a)Lithosols
-Soilswiththinstonysoilwhichisshallowoverbedrockwithoutadefinite “B”horizon.
b)Regosols
-Soilswithoutgenetichorizonswhichhavedevelopedfrommaterial depositslikealluvium.
-Commoninhillyandmountainousareasoftheworld. c)AlluvialSoils(Fluvisols)
-Soilsdevelopedfromalluviumofrecentorigin. -
CommonalongrivervalleysandmouthslikeTana. d)MountainSoils
-Shallowsoilsfoundinmountainousregions.
-Vulnerabletoerosiononsteepslopes. e)Histosols
-Soilsformedfromaccumulationoforganicmatterwhichis20%ofthesoil composition.
-Ifdrainedcanbeusedtogrowtruckcropslikevegetables. f)Arenosols
-Soilshavingtheappearanceofsandlargelycomposedofsand.
-Lessfertileduetoloworganicmatter.
-CommonincoastalareasandN.E.provinces.
AGRICULTURE
-Thepracticeofcultivatingcropsandrearingofanimals
FactorsInfluencingAgriculture 1.PhysicalFactors
a)Climate
i)Temperature
-Somedomesticanimalsdowellinhotandwarmarease.g.goatsand
camelswhileothersdowellincoolarease.g.exoticbreedsofcattlesuch asGuernsey.
-Somecropsdowellincoolarease.g.teaandwheatwhilesomeothersdo
wellinwarmarease.g.sisalandcotton.
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-Hightemperaturesincreasetherateofevaporationofmoisturewhich
causescropstowitherandeventuallydie.
-Nightfrostsdamagetenderleavesofsomecropse.g.teaandbananas. ii)Sunshine
-Neededforphotosynthesisprocessinwhichplantsmanufacturefoodfor
growthandformationoffruitsandseeds.
-Sufficientsunshineisrequiredduringripeningofcropstoensurethatthey
havehighsugarcontent.
-Sunshineisrequiredduringharvestingtopreventcropfromrottingand
alsofordryingharvestedcrops. iii)Winds
-Windsaccelerateevaporationandtranspirationwhichmaycausecropsto
witherandeventuallydie.
-Hotanddrywindsdamagecropssuchascocoabycausingthemtoripen prematurely.
-Windisimportantforpollinationnecessaryforfruitandseedformation.
-Violentwindmaycausefallingoftallvarietiesofcropslikemaizeand bananas.
iv)Moisture
-Inadequatemoisturecausesfailedgerminationandretardedgrowthof crops.
-Toomuchwatercausesrootandfruitrot.
-Livestockrearingisrealisedinareaswhichreceivemoderatetoabundant rainfall
-Insufficientrainfallleadstoshortageofpastureforanimalscausingpoor
qualityandlowproduction
b)Soil
-Deepsoilsfavourgrowthofdeeprootedcropswhileshallowsoilsfavour
growthofshallowrootedcrops.
-Thereisretardedgrowthofcropsininfertilesoils. -
Claysoilsaresuitableforgrowingofricebecausetheyretainwaterfora longtime.
-Volcanicsoilfavourgrowthofcropsrequiringacidicsoilse.g.coffeeand tea.
-Soilwaterisrequiredforgerminationandfacilitatinguptakeofmineralsin solution.
c)Topography/relief
i)Altitude
-Influencestemperaturedeterminingtypeofcropsandanimalstobe reared.
ii)Terrain
-Mostcropsdowellonslopinglandasitiswelldrainede.g.coffeeandtea.
-Rollingplateausandplainsaresuitableforlargescalemechanized farmingandirrigation.
-Gentleterraineasescultivationandfavoursanimalsastheycangraze withease.
iii)Aspect
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-Slopesfacingthesuncansupportcropgrowingandlivestockrearing
becausetheyarewarmerwhilethosefacingawaytendtobecoolerand
aredominatedbyforestsandgrasslands.
-Windwardslopesarewetterthanleewardslopesandmoresuitablefor
growingcropsandrearinganimalswhileleewardslopesaredominatedby
grasslandsandmoresuitableforbeeflivestockrearing. 2.Bioticfactors
a)Weeds
-Competewithplantsformoisture,nutrientsandsunlightleadingtolow
andpoorqualityyields.
-Canchokepasturesonwhichanimalsfeed.
-Canincreasethecostofagricultureasalotofmoneyisspentonhiring
labourtoweedthefarmsandbuyingchemicalherbicides.
b)Insects
-Locustsandarmywarmseatgreenleavesandstemsontheirway destroyingeverything.
-Tsetsefliesandtickstransmitlivestockdiseasesi.e.trypanosomiasisand EastCoastFever.
-Someinsectssuchasbeesandbutterfliesareusefultocropfarming
becausetheyaidinpollination.
-Beesgiveushoney.
-Controllingpestsincreasescostofagriculture. c)SmallAnimals
-Squirrelseatnewlyplantedmaize. -Ratsandmicedestroyharvestedgrains.
-Queleabirdsfeedonricewhileonthefarmreducingitsyield. d)Diseases
-Diseasesweakenandeventuallykillplantsandanimals.
-Diseasesalsoweakenandkillhumanswhichcauselabourshortage increasinglabourcosts.
-Controllingdiseasesalsoincreasescostofagriculture. 3.Human/Socialfactors
a)Traditions
i)Gender
-Insomecommunities,foodproductionisasoleresponsibilityofwomen
andchildrensotheproduceandlandundercultivationwilldependon
womenandchildrenlabourinpute.g.W.Africa.
ii)Traditionalfoods
-Typesofcropsgrowninmostpartsaretraditional/staplefoodsofthose communities.
iii)Prestige
-Maasaivaluecattleandwhoeverhasthemostcattleisregardedinhigh esteem.
b)LandTenureSystem
-Cashcropssuchascoffeecan’tbegrownonleasedland.
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-Largescalefarmingcan’tbepracticedonexcessivelyfragmentedland.
-Nomadicpastoralismandshiftingcultivationcanbepracticedin communallyownedland.
c)ReligiousBeliefs
-Hindusdon’tpractisecommercialcattlerearingbecausetheytreatcowas asacredanimal.
-Pigrearingisn’tpracticedinregionswithlargepresenceofMuslimssuch
asArabiccountriesbecauseKorantermspigasunclean. 4.EconomicFactors
a)OperatingCosts
-Ifcapitalisn’tavailablehewillfarmonasmallerpieceoflandandvice versa.
- Afarmermaydecidenottogrowatypeofcropsuchasthoseeasily
perishabletoavoidincurringcostintransportingandstoringofproduceto
maintaintheirfreshness. b)PriceFluctuations
Pricefalldiscouragesomefarmerscausingsometoneglectoruproottheir
cropsandventureinotherareassuchashorticultureanddairyfarming.
-Whenpricesarefavourablefarmersmayexpandacreageunder production.
c)GovtPolicy/PoliticalFactors
-Govtmayencourageproductivitybysubsidiesandguaranteeingprices.
-Maytackleoverproductionbywithdrawingthesame.
-Mayaffectingacreageunderparticulartypesofcropse.g.byencouraging
growingofcashcropsorfoodcrops.
TradeRestrictions
-Quotasystemensuresproductiondoesn’tgreatlyexceeddemandsincea
countrywon’tbeabletoexportmorequantitythanithasbeenallocated.
TypesofAgriculture
1.ArableFarming
-Cultivationandmanagementofcrops.
Types
a)SubsistenceArablefarming
-Growingcropstoprovideforthefarmerandhisfamily.
Types
i)ShiftingCultivation/SimpleSubsistenceFarming
-Farminginwhichaplotinavirginforestiscultivatedfor3-5yearsafter
whichitsleftfallowtoregainfertilityandanewsectionofforestis cultivated.
-Areaswhereit’spracticed-D.R.C,ZambiaandMalaysia.
MethodofCultivation
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a)Aplotissitedinavirginforestonwelldrainedhillslopes.
b)Landisslashedandvegetationputonfireforashesprovidepotashwhich improvesfertility.
c)Thelandisdugusingsimpletoolssuchashoesordiggingstick.
d)Staggeredplantingisdonethroughouttheyeartohaveacontinuous supplyoffood.
e)Theplotiscultivatedforaperiodof3-5yrsafterwhichit’sabandonedand
anewsectionofforestiscleared.
Characteristics
a)Thereismigrationfromoneplottoanotherwhentheformerplotloses fertility.
b)Cultivatedareasareusuallysmall(1-3acres).
c)Verylittleattentionisgiventolandandcrops.
d)Shortperiodsofcropoccupancyalternatewithlongperiodsoffallowing.
e)Mainlyusesmanuallabourprovidedbytheimmediatefamily.
f)Useofsimpletools.
g)Cropsaremainlystarchyfoodse.g.cassava,yams,millet,etc.
h)Landiscultivatedbyslashandburning.
Disadvantages
a)Exposeslandtosoilerosionontheplotswhichhavebeenleftfallow.
b)Doesn’tguaranteesufficientfoodproduction.
c)Extensivedestructionofvegetationwhenfiresgetoutofcontrol.
d)Wastefulbecausesectionsoflandstayfallowforaverylongtime.
e)Onlypracticableinareaswithsparsepopulationandplentyofland.
f)Therearehardlyanymonetarygainsbecausetheproduceisonlyenough
forhomeconsumption.
ii)SedentarySubsistenceAgriculture
-Farminginwhichthecommunitypermanentlystaysinoneplace.
-Areaswhereit’spracticed–tropicallowlands,C.AmericaandS.EAsia.
Characteristics
a)Thecommunityoccupiesapermanentdwellingspot.
b)Fallowedfieldsarefrequentlyreused.
c)Croprotationispracticedinsomeareas.
d)Moreattentionisgiventothelandandcropssown.
e)Morelabourisusedinthefield.
f)Cansupportalargerpopulationcomparedtoshiftingcultivation.
iii)IntensiveSubsistenceAgriculture
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-Farmingwhichinvolvesmaximumutilizationofallcultivableland.
-Carriedoutinareasexperiencingpopulationpressuresoastogrow
sufficientfoodtofeedthepopulatione.g.Japan,China,Srilanka,Pakistan,
Kakamega,Nyeri,Kisii,etc.
Types
a)Dominatedbyothertypesofcrops
b)Dominatedbywetpaddy
Characteristics
a)Verysmallplotsresultingfromyearsoffragmentation.
b)Intensiveuseofland.
c)Mostworkiscarriedoutbyhand.
d)Simpleimplementse.g.hoes,ploughsetc.
e)Severalcropsaregrownonthesamepieceoflandduringthecourseof theyear.
f)Cropsvaryfromregiontoregione.g.Kenya-maize,beans,potatoes,Asia -
riceinsomeareas,others-wheat,soyabeansandbarley.
g)Livestockrearingisalmostnonexistentbecausethereisnolandfor growingpasture.
h)Useofmanureandchemicalfertilizerstosustainhighsoilfertilityfor maximumyields.
i)UseofIrrigationtomakeupinadequacyofmoisture.

b)CommercialArableFarming
i)PlantationAgriculture -Cultivationofcashcropsonlargetractsoflandcalledestatesor
plantations. Characteristics
a)Largetractsoflandarecultivated.
b)Cashcropsaregrowne.g.coffee,tea,cocoarubber,etc.
c)Asinglecropisusuallygrown.
d)Doneforcommercialpurpose.
e)Highcapitalisrequiredtostartandmeetrecurrentexpenditure.
f)Cropstakesomeyearsafterplantingbeforetheystartyielding.
g)Mostplantationsareownedbyforeigncompanies.
h)Employmentofscientificmanagementtoproducealotofoutput.
Problems
a)Cropsmaybedestroyedbyclimatichazardsreducingproduction.
b)Highexpenditureinmaintainingplantations.
c)Subdivisionofsomeplantationstoprovidelandforthelandless
shareholderswhoboughtthemcausingdeclineinoutputfromplantations.
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d)Cropsmayalsobedestroyedbyinsectpestsanddiseaseswhichalso affectlabourers.
e)Rapiddeteriorationofsoilduetomonoculture,soilerosiondueto
completeweedingandmostcropsnotprovidingsufficientsoilcover.
f)Fluctuationsofworldpricescausingthefarmertosuffergreatlossesas
theyhavenoothercroptosupplementtheirincome.
g)Poormanagementwherebymanagersmisusefundsandshareholders
fightovermanagementleavingplantationsunattended.
ii)ExtensiveMechanisedGrainCultivation -Cultivationofgrainsonlargetractsofland.
-BestdevelopedintemperategrasslandsofPrairies,Pampas,Veldt,and
Downswhichmakethegranaryoftheworld.
-InKenyait’scarriedoutinUasinGishuplateau,NakuruandNarok.
Characteristics
a)Extremelylargefarmsinmid-latitudes.
b)Cultivationishighlymechanizedduetolargefarmsizesanditsmore
economicalandefficient.
c)Wheatisthemaincropcultivatedwithothercropsincludingbarley,corn,
milletandsorghuminVeldtetc.
d)Yieldperfarmerishighduetomechanisation.
e)Grainisraisedonunirrigatedlandsinceitrequiresaslittleas325mm annualprecipitation.
f)Farmsareindividuallyowned. iii)IntensiveCommercialAgriculture
-Intensiveuseoflandtoproducemaximumyieldofcropperunitareafor sale.
-Areas-N.W.Europe,E.U.S.A,formerU.S.S.RandslopesofMt.Kenyaand Kilimanjaro.
Characteristics
a)Soilisutilisedintensivelytoensuremaximumyieldsperunitarea.
b)Farmsaregenerallysmallinsize.
c)Manuallabourisusedtotendcrops
d)Propercareisgiventoplantedcrops.
e)Mechanisationwherefarmsareabitlarger.
f)Farmersuselargeamountsoffertilizers,hybridseedsandpesticides.
g)Irrigationwaterisusedtosupplementrainfallinsufficiency.
h)Farmingissometimeshighlyspecialisedwithsomefarmsgrowingcrops
orkeepinganimals.

c)MediterraneanAgriculture
-TypedistincttoareasexperiencingMediterraneanclimate.
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Mainareas-middleChile,PiedmontdistrictinN.ItalyandAndalisticDistrict ofS.Spain.
Characteristics
a)Farmingisintensive.
b)It’shighlyspecialised.
c)Subsistencefarmingispracticedalongsidecommercialfarming.
d)Cerealcropsaremostwidespreade.g.barleyandwheat.
e)Orchardfarmingiscarriedoutandit’stheleadingproducerofcitrusfruits,
olives,datesandfigs.
f)Asmallnumberofsheep,goatsandcowsarerearedduetoprolonged
droughtsandcoarsebunchygrassesunsuitableforlivestock.
CropFarming
CashcropsaregrownmainlyinsouthernpartofKenyaduetothefollowing factors:
a)Suitableclimaticconditionsforavarietyofcropssuchastemperature
rangingfromcooltocold,rainfallrangingbetween800-2000mmannually
anddrysunnyperiodsbetweenrainyseasons.
b)Fertilevolcanicsoilsinhighlandsoralluvialsoilsinthelakebasinof
Kenyasuitableforcropgrowing.
c)Adequatelaboursupplyduetohighpopulation.
d)Longtraditionofcashcropsgrowingemanatingfromcashcrops
introductionbyEuropeansettlers.
e)Govtpolicytosupportsmallscalefarmers SomeofthemajorcashcropsgrowninKenya
a)Pyrethrum-Nakuru,Kisii,Limuru,Nyandarua.
b)Sisal-Thika,Taita-Taveta,Baringo,Kilifi.
c)Wattle-UasinGishu,Thika,Kiambu.
d)Cashewnuts-Kilifi.
e)Cotton-Rachuonyo,Busia,Meru,Kitui,Makueni.
f)Rice-Busia,Kirinyaga.
Diag;fig12.7MAPOFKENYATEAGROWINGINKENYA;
TeaFarmingInKenya
-TeaisatropicalplantwithabotanicalnameCamelliaSinesis.
-FirstintroducedinLimuruin1903
Teatypes
a)AswanvarietycommoninIndiaandSrilanka.
b)Chinesevariety.
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-KenyaisthelargestproducerinAfrica,amongtop6worldproducersand
hasthebestteaintheworldmarket.
MajorGrowingAreas
W.Highlands–Kericho,Nandi,Kakamega,Cheranganihills.
E.Highlands–Nyeri,Murang`a,Kiambu,Thika,etc.
ConditionsNecessaryforTeaGrowing
PhysicalRequirements
a)Warmtemperaturethroughouttheyear(15◦C-30◦C).
b)Heavyandwelldistributedrainfall(1000-2000mmannually).
c)Deepandslightlyacidicsoils.
d)Highaltitudeofabout1000-3000mabovesealevel.
e)Theareatobefreefromfrost.
f)Gentlyslopinglandwhichiswelldrained.
g)Areatobeshieldedfromstrongsunlightandviolentwinds.
HumanRequirements
a)Adequatelabourforcultivationandprocessingwhicharelabourintensive.
b)Goodtransportroutesforquicktransportoftealeavestofactorybefore
theystartwithering.
c)Locationofteafactoriesnearfarmsforquickprocessingofteaassoon aspossible.
d)Availabilityofcapitaltopayforthelabourrequiredinlandpreparation,
planting,regularpickingetc. TeaCultivation oTeacuttingsareraisedinanurseryfor6-
10months. oHolesaredugatintervalsof0.7-0.9mwithrowsbeing1.5mapart.
oTransplantingisdoneatthebeginningoftherainyseason.
oYoungteaplantsareintercroppedwithothercropstopreventsoilerosion
andtoactasmulch.
oPegginglateralbranchestoforcethemtogrowhorizontallytoaidframe development.
oTipsofshootsareperiodicallypluckedtoencouragegrowthofmore shoots.
oTeaisreadyforharvestingwhenitattains4years.
oThebushesareprunedtoanewlevelafterevery3yearstoincrease
productionthroughnewvegetativegrowth.
oTippingorcuttingshootsbacktorequiredheight. HarvestingOfTea oPickedafter5-
7dayduringrainyseasonand10-14daysduringdryseason.
o2leavesandabudarepickedandthrowninabasketstrappedonthe back.
oAstraightstickisusedtodeterminetheheight.
oItshouldnotbepressedtopreventprematurefermentation. ProcessingOfTea
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oAtthefactorytheleavesarewitheredbyblowinghotandcoolair alternately.
oPassedthroughamachinewhichcrushesthemintosmallpieces.
oCrushedleavesarefermentedforafewhours.
oFermentedleavesaredriedbyblowingwithamachinecalleddrier.
oThecooledteaisgradedbypassingthroughastrainerwhichsievesit.
oThevariousteagradesarewinnowedbyblowingoutunwantedfibres.
oTeaisthenpackedinchestsorbagstoawaitsaleorexportation.
ProblemsFacingKenyanTeaFarmers
a)Pestse.g.weevilsandbeetleswhichattacktenderleavessupposedtobe picked.
b)Diseasese.g.rootrotwhichcausesthebushtowither,dryandeventually die.
c)Hailstoneswhichfallonteabushescausingdamagee.g.inKerichoand Nandi.
d)Fluctuationsofworldpriceswhichcausesthefarmerstolosemoraleand
neglectoruprootthecrop.
e)Shortageofrainfallleadingtoreductioninleafproduction.
f)Transportproblemsinsomeareasduetodilapidatedroadswhichcause
spoilageofharvestedteabeforeitreachesthefactory.
g)Shortageoflabourinsometeagrowingareaswhereyoungpeoplehave migratedtotowns.
h)Shortageofcapitaltomeetproductioncosts.
MarketingofTeainKenya
-Someteaisconsumedlocallyandahugeamountissoldonthe internationalmarket.
-MajormarketerisK.T.D.A.
FunctionsofKTDA
a)Collectionofteafrombuyingcentres.
b)Processingoftea.
c)Providingfarmerswithinputssuchasfertiliser.
d)Sensitizesfarmersonhighqualityproductionoftea.
e)Facilitatessaleofteaatbestpossibleprices.
f)Ensurespromptcollectionofpaymentfromallteabuyers.
g)Promotionofteawiththeaimofexpandingmarketshare.
OutletsthroughWhichItMarketsTea
1.Factorydoorsaleofteainpolythenebagstofarmersaccountingfor3%of sales.
2.ThroughMombasaauctionwhereitsexportedtoothercountriessuchas
Britain,FranceAfghanistan.Itaccountsfor75%ofsales.
3.Dealingdirectlywithinterestedbuyerswhichaccountsfor15%ofsales.
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-KETEPAisthelargestteapackingcompanyinAfricabelongingtotea
grower’sgrades,blendsandpackssomeoftheteathensellstolocal
marketandexportssuperiorqualities.
-OthercompanieswhichpackteaforlocalsaleincludeKikuyuHighland
TeaCompanyandUnileverKenya(HomeCup).
SignificanceofTeaFarminginKenya
a)Earnsforeignexchangefromteaexport.
b)Savessomeforeignexchangethatwouldbeusedtoimporttea.
c)Farmersearnincomewhichraisestheirstandardofliving.
d)Itcreatesemploymentsuchasforpeopleworkinginfarmsandfactories.
e)Hasledtodevelopmentofindustriessuchasprocessingfactories,
blendingandpackagingindustries.
f)Hasledtodevelopmentofinfrastructurebyroadsbeingimprovedtoease
transportationofteatofactories..
SugarCaneGrowingInKenya
-Sugarcaneisacoarseperennialgrassbelongingtosacharumfamily.
-ItwasintroducedinKenyain1902byanAustralianfarmerwhereby
commercialgrowingbeganinMiwani,KibosandRamisi.
MainGrowingAreas
Nyanza:Muhoroni,Miwani,ChemililandAwendo.
Coastal:Ramisi.
Western:Mumias,Nzoia,Kabras,Nambele.

ConditionsFavouringSugarcanegrowing(requirements)
Physical
a)Hightemperatures(21◦c-27◦C)
b)Highandwelldistributedrainfall(1200-1500mmannually).
c)Dryandsunnyweatherduringharvestingtoincreasesugaraccumulation inthecane.
d)Fertileandwelldrainedsoils.
e)Undulatinglandformachinerytobeusedandforeasiertransportationof canetofactories.
f)Altitudebetweensealeveland1600m.
HumanRequirements
a)Abundantlabourforplanting,weeding,cuttingandloadingontotrucks.
b)Agoodtransportinfrastructureforsugarcanetoreachthefactorywithina
weekafterharvesting.
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c)Locationofprocessingfactorieswithinthegrowingareasforquick
processingofsugarcanebeforelosingitssugarcontentthroughdrying.
d)Availabilityofcapitaltopayworkersinthefield,buyfarmmachinery,etc.
CultivationofSugarcane oShallowfurrowsaremadeacrossthefieldatintervalsof1.2m-
1.8mapart. oPiecesofoldersugarcanearelaidhorizontallyinthefurrows.
oTheyarecoveredlightlywiththesoilwhichtheygrowaclusterofshoots calledstool.
oNitrogenousfertilizerisappliedwhenplantsaregrowingatahighrate.
oWeedingisdonewhenthecropisfairlyshort.
oAfterabout14monthsthecaneisreadyforharvesting.
oAfterharvestingtworatoonsthestoolsaredugout,landtilledandnew
settsareplanted. HarvestingofSugarcane
oThecanemaybesetonfiretoriditofhusks,trash,andharmfulinsects andanimals.
oitisthencutusingpangaswithin48hoursifburnttoavoidconversionof teasugar.
oThehusksandthetopgreenpartareremovedifitwasn’tburned.
oThecaneisthenloadedontotrucksusingmachinescalledmechanical grabs.
oThenit’stransportedtothefactorytobeprocessedwithin48hours.
ProcessingofSugarcane oAtthefactorythecaneisputinlargewatertankswhereitiswashed.
oIt’spassedthroughamachinewhichcutsitupintoshortpieces.
oThepiecesarepassedbetweenrollerstocrushandsqueezeoutthejuice.
oFinematterinsuspensionandsolublenon-sugarsareprecipitatedleaving thejuice.
oThejuiceisboiledwithlimeuntilitturnsintothicksyrup.
oThesyrupispassedthroughcrystallizerswheresugarcrystalsgrow.
oIt’sthenledintocentrifugestoseparatecrystalsfrommolassesresulting
intoarawcoarsebrownsugar.
oThebrownsugarisdecolourisedwithcarbonblack.
oRepeatedcrystallizationisdonetoobtainvariousgradesandsizes.
oThesugaristhendriedandscreened. oIt’sthenpackedinbagsforstorageandsale.
UsesofSugar
a)Inbakingtosweetenbread,cakes,etc.
b)Sweeteningfoodsanddrinkse.g.porridge,chapati,tea,coffee,etc.
c)Makinglocalbrewse.g.Karubu,nguru,etc.
d)Insoftdrinksindustriese.g.soda,juice,etc.
e)Makingsweetsandchocolates,etc.
f)Manufactureofdrugse.g.syrupsandsugarcoatedtablets.
UsesofBy-products
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a)Molassesisusedasasweetenerforlivestockfeeds.
b)It’salsousedtomanufactureethanol,acetoneandethyl-acetate.
c)Bagasseorfibreleftaftersqueezingthejuiceisusedasfuelforboilers,
forpreparingpulpformakingpaperusedformakingcementandfertilizer
bagsandasfodderormanure.
d)Filtercakeresultingfromfiltrationprocessisusedasmanureforcane. MarketingofSugar
-Consumedlocally.
-Factoriesselltowholesalersandretailoutletstoconsumers.
SignificanceofSugarcanegrowing
a)Creationofemploymente.g.inestates,factories,sugarmills.
b)Promotesdevelopmentofindustriessuchasprocessingsugarcane,
industrialspiritandbreweriesmanufacturing,etc.
c)Hasledtogrowthoftownsingrowingarease.g.Muhoroni,Awendoand Mumias.
d)Savessomeforeignexchangethatwouldbeusedinsugarimportation.
e)Farmersearnincomethroughcanesaleraisingtheirstandardsofliving.
f)Provisionofsocialamenitiestoworkerssuchasschools,housesand
healthcentrestotakecareofworkerswelfaree.g.Mumias.
ProblemsFacingSugarcaneFarmingInKenya
a)Pestse.g.termiteswhichattacksettsloweringthefarmersyield.
b)Diseasese.g.sugarcanemosaicwhichcausesthecroptobecome
stuntedwithleavesbecomingyellow.
c)Mismanagementofsomesugarfactoriesresultingintheirclosureand
subsequentlossofincomeandjobs.
d)Inabilityofsomefactoriestocopewithsupplyofcanefromout-growers
duetolowproductioncapacityandoutdatedtechnology.
e)Localsugarindustryfacescompetitionfromcheapimportedsugarfrom
COMESAcountries.
f)Strikesbycanefarmersandtransportersduetoinadequatepayresulting indropinoutput.
g)Frequentfireswhichdestroymanyhectaresofcaneannually.
MaizeFarminginKenya
-Anannualcropofthegrassfamilywithabotanicalnamezeamay.
-BroughtbyPortuguesetraderstoE.Africancoastin18thcentury.
-Singlemostextensivelygrowncrop.
MainGrowingAreas
-Transnzoia,Nakuru,BungomaandUasinGishudistricts.
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ConditionsFavouringMaizeGrowingInKenya
PhysicalRequirements
a)Warmtemperatures(above15◦c).
b)Highannualrainfall(635-1145mm)
c)Deepwelldrainedfertilesoilwithabundantamountofnitrogen.
d)Undulatinglandscapetoallowuseofmachines.
e)Loweraltitudesofabout1800morbelowsealevel.
HumanRequirements
1.Abundantlabourforpreparationofland,sowing,weeding,shellingand packing.
2.Agoodtransportnetworktoenablefarmerstotransportharvestedgrain
tomillersandbuyingcentres.
3.Agoodandsufficientstoragefacilityforthegrainafterithasbeen
harvestedandbeforeitissold.
4.Availabilityofcapitaltopayforlabour,buyinputsandpayfor
transportationofgraintothemarket. CultivationofMaize
oHolesforplantingseedsareduginrowsabout1mapartusinghoes,
pangasortractordrivenplanters.
oFertilizerisputinholesandmixedwithsoil.
oMaizeisplantedbyhandortractordrivenplanters.
oNitratefertilizerstopdressingisappliedwhenplantsreachkneelength.
oThemaizeisthinnedtoremoveweakseedlingswhenitisabout15cm highandweeded.
oMaizetakes4-12monthstomaturedependingonaltitudeandseed variety.
oMaizeislefttoripenanddrywhenstandingonthefarm. HarvestingofMaize
oThecobsarepickedbyhandandputinsacks.
oMaizecobsarethenshelledbybeatingusingheavysticksormachines.
oIt’sthenpackedinsacksreadyforsaletoconsumers,millersorNCPB.
ProcessingofMaize oAtthemillmaizeisputontraystosievetoremoveundesiredmattere.g.
rockparticles.
oIt’sthenpassedthroughthemillingmachinewhichcrushesitintoflourof variousgrades.
oTheflooristhenpackedinsmallpacketsandsacksaccordingtodesired weight.
UsesofMaize
a)Usedasfoodforgitheriandflourforugaliandporridge.
b)Grainsarealsousedinthemanufactureofanimalfeedse.g.maizejam.
c)Tendermaizeplantsarechoppedandmixedwithmolassestomake silageforlivestock.
d)Usedtomakesaladoilforcooking,industrialalcoholandstarch.
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e)Stalksandcobsareusedasorganicmanureandtoprovidedomesticfuel.
MarketingofMaize
-MainlysoldbyNCPB.
-Farmersalsoselldirectlytoconsumersandmillers.
ImportancetoKenya’sEconomy
a)Savesforeignexchangebyavoidingimportingmaizeallthetime.
b)Promotesgrowthofindustrieswhereit’susedasrawmateriale.g.milling
andcornoilindustries.
c)Hascreatedemploymente.g.forfarmworkers,millingworkers.
d)Providesincometofarmersraisingtheirstandardofliving.
e)Governmentearnsrevenuefromtaxesleviedonmaizeproductssuchas
cornoilandalcohol.
ProblemsFacingMaizeFarmersinKenya
a)Pestssuchasstalkborerswhichpenetratetothecentreoftheplant.
b)Diseasessuchaswhiteleafblightwhichcausesoval,greylesionsonthe leaves.
c)Reductionofmaizepricesinthelocalmarketcausedbyirregular
importationofmaizewhichdiscouragesthefarmers.
d)Inadequatecapitalonthefarmerparttobuyinputssuchasseeds,
fertilizersandinsectsides.
e)Soilexhaustiondueprolongedplantingofmaizeleadingtopooryields.
f)Exploitationoffarmersbymiddlemenwhobuytheirproduceatthrow
awaypricesmakingthefarmersunabletomeetproductioncosts.
CocoaGrowingInGhana
-CocoaoriginatedfromlowlandsofC.America.
-IsgrowninW.AfricancountriessuchasGhana,Nigeria,Coted’ivoireand Cameroon.
-Theyaccountfornearly3/4oftheworld’scocoaproduction. -
GhanaisthesecondleadingproducerafterCoted’ivoire.
MainGrowingAreas
-CocoatriangleformedbyAccra,KumasiandTakoradi.
ConditionsFavouringCocoaGrowinginGhana
PhysicalFactors
a)Hightemperaturesofover26◦cthroughouttheyear.
b)Highandwelldistributedrainfall(1300-1500mmannually).
c)Lowaltitudeareasbelow700mabovesealevel.
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d)Slightlydrierperiodduringharvesting.
e)Highrelativehumidityofover75%.
f)Fertilewelldrainedsoilsrichinironandpotassium.
g)Protectionfromsunshinewhichcauseshighrateofevaporationand
windswhichcausepodstofalloffbyinter-plantingwithshadytreessuch
asbananas,oilpalmsandkolatrees.
HumanFactors
a)Abundantlabourforcultivation,harvestingandprocessing.
b)Availabilityofmarket. CultivationofCocoa
oApieceoflandintheforestisclearedofalltreesleavingafewtoprovide shadeforthecrop.
oThevegetationisthenclearedandsetonfireforashestoenrichthesoil.
oTheseedsareplantedinnurserieswherethereislightshade.
oAfter4-5monthstheseedlingsaretransplantedduringshortrains.
Cuttingscanalsobegrown.
oCropssuchascassava,yamsandbananasareinter-plantedwithyoung
plantstoprovideshadeforthecrop.
oManuringandweedingaredoneregularlywhiletendingthecrops.
oFruitingbeginsafter5yearswithabundantproductionbeingreached
beingattainedafter10years.
oPruningisconstantlydonetoridtheplantofanybranchesthatmaygrow
toallowgoodqualitypodstoformonthebranches. HarvestingandProcessingofCocoa
oTheripepodsarecutofffromstemsandbranchesusingalongknife.
oThepodsaresplitopenusingmachetetoexposethebeans.
oThebeansarecoveredwithbananaleavesandallowedtofermentfor5-6
daysforjuicypulptodrainaway. oFermentedbeansarewashed.
oThebeansaredrieduntiltheyturnbrown.
oDrybeansareputinsacks. MarketingofCocoa
oFarmerstakedriedbeanstothecollectingcentres.
oLicensedagentsbuytheproducee.g.GhanaCo-
operativeMarketing
AssociationandCocoaMerchantsLimited.
oThebeansareweighedandcashpaidtofarmers.
oTheyarethentransportedtotheportsofTemaandTakoradi.
oTheCocoaMarketingBoardthenexportsthebeanstocountriessuchas
U.S.A,GermanyandBritain.
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UsesofCocoa
-Consumedasabeverage.
-Usedtomakecocoabutter,chocolatesanddrugs.
SignificanceofCocoatoGhana’sEconomy
1.EarnsGhanaamostforeignexchange(60%).
2.Theforeignexchangefromcocoaisusedtoimproveinfrastructureand socialamenities.
3.Asourceofemploymentforover20%ofworkingpopulation.
4.Providesasteadyincomeforfarmerswhichhasimprovestheirstandard ofliving.
ProblemsFacingCocoaFarminginGhana
1.Pestse.g.capsidbugwhichsucksthepulpinpodsandcausesthetreeto die.
2.Diseasese.g.blackpodwhichaffectsthepods.
3.Fluctuationsofcocoapricesintheworldmarketcausingthefarmerand
thecountrytoreceivelowincome.
4.Shortageoflabourduringharvestingseasonwhichcausesdelayin
harvestingandhighexpenseswhenhiringlabourfromneighbouring countries.
OilPalmFarminginNigeria
-OilPalmoriginatedfromW.Africa.
-Growsinbuncheswitheachcarryingupto1000eggshapedfruitswhich weigh50kg.
-Nigeriaisthe2ndleadingexporterofpalmoilafterMalaysia.
MainGrowingAreas
-ForestbeltaroundportHarcoutwhereit’sgrownonsmallfarmsand
SapeleandCalabarwhereit’sgrowninestates.
ConditionsFavouringOilFarminginNigeria
PhysicalFactors
a)Hightemperaturesthroughouttheyear(over21◦c).
b)Heavyandwelldistributedrainfallthroughouttheyear.
c)Highrelativehumidity.
d)Welldrainedporousandfertilesoils.
e)Undulatinglandwhichislessexposedtostrongwinds.
HumanFactors
a)Abundantlabourforclearingland,tenderingseedlings,regularweeding, etc.
b)Propertransportnetworkforharvestedfruitstoreachtheprocessing
factoriesthesamedaysoasnottochangeintofattyacids.
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c)Locationofprocessingfactorieswithinorneargrowingareassinceoil
palmsareperishableandmustbeprocessedthesameday.
d)Efficientmanagementtoensurethatthecropsareinspectedfrequently
foranydiseaseorpestattackforsprayingtobedonetocontroltheir spread.
e)Capitaltopaylabourwages,maintainfeederroads,vehiclesandfactories.
CultivationofOilPalm
oOilpalmseedsareplantedinanurserywheretheyarewateredand sprayed.
oTheyaretransplantedinthefieldafteroneyear.
oTheyareinter-plantedwithfoodcropstoforcethefarmertoweedthe fieldsregularly.
oTheplantsareinspectedregularlyforpestsanddiseasesandsprayed promptly.
oThepalmsreachmaturityafter10yearsbychangingtheircolourtodeep orangeorred.
HarvestingofOilPalm
-Harvestedbycuttingthebaseofthebunchusingacurvedknifetiedona longpole.
-Thefruitsareimmediatelycollectedandtransportedtothefactoryin lorries.
Processing/ExtractionofOilfromOilPalmFruit
TraditionalTechnique
oFruitsareremovedfromthestalkandboiledinmetaldrumsforupto3 hours.
oTheyarethenputinboatlikecontainersandpoundedusingpestlesuntil
pericarpbecomespulp.
oThenutandthesoftenedpericarparethenputinahandpressandoil
squeezedoutofthepulp.
oThenutsarecrackedandoilsqueezedoutofkernelsfordomesticuse.
Themethodproducesverylittleoilwhichlacksconsistencyinquality.
UseofPioneerMills oBunchesareputintube-likecageswithholesallaround.
oThencookedbyhotsteamtoensuretheydon’tchangeintofattyacids.
oBunchesareshakenoffstocksusingamachinecalledstripper.
oThencookedindigesters. oThepericarpisseparatedfromthenut.
oIt’spressedtoremovetheoil.
oTheoilislefttosettleintankssothatimpuritiessettleatthebottom.
oThenutsarecrackedtoremovethekernelsusinggrinders.
oThekernelsarepressedtoproduceoilormaybepackedwholeand exported.
UsesofPalmOil
a)Useddomesticallyforcooking,lightingandpolishing.
b)Usedinthemanufactureofcookingfats,soapsandcandles.
c)Kernelisusedtomakeexpensivecookingoil,margarine,cosmeticsand oilsoaps.
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d)Usedasacleaningagentinindustries.
UsesofPalmTree
a)Palmleavesareusedforthatching,makingmats,basketsandbrooms.
b)Pericarpfibresandnutshellsareusedasfuel.
c)Palmtreesareusedasbuildingpoles.
d)Thetreeistappedforitssapwhichisfermentedtomakepalmwine.
MarketingofOilPalm
-Mostofpalmoilandkernelsareconsumedlocallyandlessthan50%is exported.
-MostofthekernelsareexportedtoBritain,W.EuropeandU.S.A.
SignificanceofOilPalmtoNigeria’sEconomy a)It’sasourceofforeignexchange.
b)Itsavessomeofforeignexchange.
c)Providesemploymenttopeopleasfarmhands,processing,etcwhich
raisestheirstandardofliving.
d)Hasledtodevelopmentofinfrastructuretolinkprocessingareaswith
processingfactories.
e)Promoteddevelopmentofindustrieswhereit’susedasarawmateriale.g.
makingcosmetics,toiletsoapsetc.
f)Farmersearnregularincomewhichraisestheirstandardofliving.
ProblemsFacingOilPalmFarminginNigeria
a)Pestsanddiseaseswhichyoungplantsduetotheirvulnerabilitywhich
callsforregularsprayingwhichisexpensive.
b)Inadequatecapitaltopurchaseinputsleadingtolowyields.
c)Transportproblemsinsomeareasduetoimpassableroadsleadingto
delaysindeliveringfruitstoprocessingmillsleadingtolowqualityoil.
d)Governmentpolicytoencouragefoodproductiontoreducefood
importationwhichlowersoilpalmproduction.
CoffeeFarminginKenyaandBrazil
-CoffeetreeoriginatedfromsouthernhighlandsofEthiopia.
-WasintroducedinKenyabySt.Austin’smissionariesinNairobivia Kibwezi,TaitaandBura.
GrowingAreas
a)CentralProvince-Nyeri,Muranga,Kiambu,Thika,Kirinyaga.
b)E.Province-Embu,Machakos,Tharaka,MakueniandhighareasofMeru.
c)CoastProvince-TaitaTavetainWundanyiarea.
d)W.Province-Bungoma,Vihiga,Kakamega.
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e)NyanzaProvince-Kisii,Nyamira,Nyabondo,Oyugis.
f)NairobiProvince-outskirtsborderingKiambuandThika.
FactorsFavouringCoffeeGrowing
Kenya
PhysicalFactors
a)Highaltitude(910-2100m).
b)Cooltemperatures(14-26◦c).
c)Highandwelldistributedrainfall(1000-2030mm)annually.
d)Deepandwelldrainedacidicsoils.
e)Undulatinglandscapetoensuregooddrainageandaeration.
HumanFactors
a)Adequatesupplyofcheaplabourforlandpreparation,planting,weeding, etc.
b)Goodroadsfortransportingcoffeetofactoriesandtothemarkets.
Brazil
-Sheistheleadingproducerofcoffee.
PhysicalFactors
1.Cooltemperatures(14◦c-26◦c).
2.Highrainfallof1525mm.
3.Alongdryseasonofupto5monthstoallowripeningandharvesting.
4.TerraRosasoilswhicharedeep,porousandrichinpotashandhumus.
5.UndulatingsurfaceattheBrazilianplateauaroundSaoPaolo.
HumanFactors
a)Availabilityofcheaplabourfromtenantlabourersgivensmallplotsto
growsubsistencecropswhichmakesproductioncoststobelow.
b)Agoodtransportinfrastructurewithroadsandrailwayslinkingestatesto
exportportsandcitieslikeSaoPaolo,SalvadorandRiodeJaneiro.
MethodsofCoffeeProduction oCoffeeseedsaresowninanurseryfor1year.
oHolesareinthefieldandfilledwithmanure. oSeedlingsareplantedintheholes.
oWeedingisdoneregularlytoreducecompetitionforwaterandnutrients.
oPlantsareprunedregularlytocontrolcroppingandfacilitatepicking.
oFertilizersareappliedonolderplantstomaintainsoilfertility.
oBetween2and4years,coffeestartstobearberries.
Brazil
-Mostoflandisownedbyrichlandownersandasmallpercentageby smallholders.
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-Twosetsoflabourersareemployedandgivensmallplotstogrow
subsistencecrops,onetocareforthecropuntilmaturityandtheotherto
tendcropafteritbeginstobearfruit.
-Farmersmainlyrelyonnaturalfertilityofthesoil.
-Relativelylittlecareisgiventosoilthereforeitbecomesexhausted leadingtosoilerosion.
-Oldestatesareabandonedandnewestatesestablishedbyclearingmore landinaforest.
CoffeeHarvesting oBerriesareharvestedbyhand.
oInBrazillittlesupervisionleadstopickingofunripeberrieswhichlowers
thequalityofbeans.
Processing WetProcessing oRipeberriesaresoakedinwater.
oThenfedintoamachinewhichremovestheouterskinleavingthecoffee seed.
oSeedsinwaterarepassedoversievestogradethemaccordingtoweight andsize.
oTheyarefermentedinatankfor12hours.
oThenwashedwithcleanwateranddriedtoamoisturecontentof10-11%. -
Themethodproducescoffeeofhighquality. DryProcessing
oBerriesareallowedtoripenanddryonthetree.
oTheyareharvestedanddriedfurthertoamoisturecontentof12%.
oThecoffee’soutercoverisremovedbyhurlingleavingtheseeds.
oTheseedsareputthoughamachinethatpeelsofftwolayersoftheinner husk.
oTheseedsarewinnowed,gradedandpacked. oTheyarefinallyroastedtomakeapowder.

Marketing Kenya
-Handledbyco-operativeswhichownfactories.
-AfterprocessingtheysellcoffeetoKPCU.
-KPCUthenpassestoCoffeeBoardofKenya.
-Ownersoflargeplantationscandirectlyexporttheircoffee. -
ExportedtocountriessuchasBritain,Germany,Finland,Norway,Japan
andN.throughtheworldmarketwherequotaisallocatedeachcountry.
Brazil
-MarketingismainlyhandledbycompaniessuchasPoxupe-Santos.
-Exportsaleisthroughtheworldmarketwhereshe’sallocatedabigger
quotabecausesheproducesmorecoffee.
-Shealsomarketsitscoffeeviatheinternetwebsitewhichenablesherto
reachabiggermarket.
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-ShemarketshercoffeetothesamecountriesasKenya.
TheRoleofCoffeeintheEconomies
a)It’sasourceofforeignexchangeusedtoimportcommoditieswhichare
notavailablelocallyanddevelopothersectorsoftheeconomy.
b)Savessomeforeignexchangethatwouldotherwisebeusedtoimport coffee.
c)Sourceofincometofarmerswhichreducespovertyandraisetheir standardofliving.
d)Sourceofemploymentfortheworkersinfarms,factories,co-operatives, etc.
e)It’sasourceofforeignexchangeusedtoimportunavailablecommodities
anddevelopothersectorsoftheeconomy.
f)InBrazilithasledtoinfrastructuraldevelopmentasroadshavebeen
constructedtolinkestatestoexportcities.
g)Italsosavessomeforeignexchangethatwouldotherwisebeusedto importcoffee.
ProblemsFacingCoffeeFarming
Kenya
a)Poorpaymentwhichcausesfarmerstoneglectoruprootthecropand
ventureinotherareassuchashorticultureanddairying.
b)Diseasese.g.C.B.Dandleafrustwhichreducethecoffeeyields.
c)Pestse.g.leafminerwhichattackscoffeeleavescausingthemtofalloff.
d)Mismanagementofsomeco-operativesandembezzlementoffundsby
leaderswhichhascausedsomeco-operativestocloseup.
e)Exhaustionofsoilascoffeeusesalotofnutrientsfromthesoil.
f)Inadequatecapitalmakingthefarmerunabletobuyinputssuchas
fertilizersandchemicalsleadingtolowproduction.
g)Unreliablerainfallanddroughtconditionswhichcausesyoungberriesto
ripenprematurelyandfalloff.
h)Competitionfromothercropswhichhavecausedfarmerstoabandon
coffeeduetolowprices.
HowtheGovernmentIsAssistingSmallScaleFarmers
a)Carryingoutresearchintonewspeciesofcoffeeandcontrolofpestsand diseases.
b)Constructionofnewroadsandimprovementoftheexistingonesto
enhancetransportationofcoffee.
c)Providingextensionworkersthroughtheministryofagriculturetoadvice
farmersonthebestfarmingmethods.
d)AdvancingloanstofarmersthroughK.P.C.U.toassistthemimproveon theirfarming.
e)IthelpsthefarmerstomarkettheirproducethroughCoffeeBoardof Kenya.
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f)Itholdscoursesandhassetdemonstrationfarmstoupdatefarmerson
newfarmingmethods.
Brazil
Thefutureofcoffeeproductionisunstablebecausecoffeeproductionhas
beendecliningduetothefollowingreasons:
a)Fluctuationsofworldpriceswhichhasforcedsomefarmerstoabandon
coffeeinfavourofothercrops.
b)Diversificationorintroductionofnewcropswhichfetchhigherpricese.g.
cotton,sugarcane,andmaizewhichhaveloweredcoffeeproduction.
c)Increasedcompetitionfromothercoffeeproducingcountriessuchas
Kenya,ColumbiaandW.Indies.
d)Indiscriminatepickingofripeandunripeberriescausingcoffeequalityto
beamongthelowestandthusfetchinglowpricesintheinternational market.
e)Climatichazardoffrostwhichhascausedcoffeetobereplacedwithless
vulnerablecropssuchassugarcaneandSoyabeans.
f)Soilexhaustionasaresultofexploitingthesoilwithoutrenewingitwhich leadstolowyields.
g)Uncontrolledplantingwherebyfarmersplantmoretreeswhenthereis
coffeeboomresultinginoverproduction.
HowtheGovernmentIsRespondingTotheProblems
a)Thegovernmentlobbiesforhigherquotasintheworldmarket.
b)Prohibitingnewplanting.
c)Buyingandstoringsurplustoartificiallystabilisesupplytomaintainprofit margins.
d)Creationofartificialshortageofcoffeeintheworldmarketbytheinstitute
forpermanentdefenceofcoffeetomaintainhighprices.
e)Encouragingcropdiversificationandmixedfarmingtoreduce
overdependenceoncoffee.
ComparisonbetweenCoffeeFarminginKenyaandBrazil
Similarities
-KenyaandBrazilgrowsimilarvarietiesofcoffeei.e.ArabicaandRobusta. -
Coffeeisgrowninsmallandlargescaleinbothcountries.
-Coffeefarminginbothcountriesisaffectedbyfallingpricesintheworld market.
-Coffeeexperiencesstiffcompetitionfromotherproducingnationsinboth countries.
-Coffeefacescompetitionfromotherwellpayingcropsinbothcountries
e.g.horticulturalcropsinKenyaandmaizeandSoyainBrazil. -
Problemofsoilexhaustioniscommoninbothcountries.
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-Coffeefarmingisscientificallymanagedinbothcountriese.g.spraying,
applicationoffertilizersandadvancedresearch.
-Inbothcountriesthegovernmentsareinvolvedincoffeemarketing.
-BrazilexportscoffeetothesamecountriesasKenyae.g.Britain,Germany, etc.
-Cultivationandprocessinginbothcountriesisdoneinmuchthesame way.
Differences
-InBrazilworkisdonebytenantswhileinKenyait’sdonebyfamily
membersorcasuallabourers.
-BrazilearnsmoreforeignexchangefromcoffeethanKenya.
-InKenyaonlyripeberriesarepickedwhileinbrazilripeandunripeberries
arepickedduetolittlesupervisionwhichaffectsthequalityofcoffee.
-InBrazil,coffeeismainlygrownonplateauswhileinKenyait’smainly growninthehighlands.
-InBrazilfarmersarefacedwiththeclimatichazardoffrostwhichisnot experiencedinKenya.
-BraziliangovernmentencouragesdiversificationwhileKenyan governmentdoesn’t.
-Brazil’scoffeeproductionishigherthanKenya’ssoit’sallocatedabigger
quotaintheworldmarket.
-InBraziltherearetwosetsoflabourerswhileinKenyathesamesetof
labourersdoallthework.
-InBrazilthereisagoodnetworkofroadsandrailwaysconnecting
plantationstoexportportswhileinKenyatransportsystemrequirestobe improved.
-InKenyacoffeeisgrowninsoilssuchasredvolcanicsoilswhileinBrazil
it’sgrownmainlyinterrarossasoilswhicharequitegoodforcoffee.
-InKenyamostcoffeeisproducedbysmallscaleholderswhileinBrazilit’s bylargeholders.
-InBrazillittleattentionispaidtosoilfertilityleadingtosoilexhaustion
anderosionwhileinKenyathereisapplicationoffertilizersandmanure
andcontroloferosion.
WheatFarminginKenyaandCanada
Kenya
WheatwasintroducedinKenyabyLordDelamerearoundNakuru.
MainGrowingAreas
a)UasinGishuDistrict
b)Nakuru
c)Narok
d)Laikipia
e)TransNzoia
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f)Nyandarua
g)Timau
h)MweigainNyeri
GeneralConditionsFavouringWheatgrowing
a)Averagetemperaturesnottoexceed20◦corfallbelow6◦c.
b)Gentlyslopinglandscapeforproperdrainageandallowuseofmachines.
c)Warmthduringearlyperiodsofgrowthandsunnydryconditionsinlater
stagesforharvesting.
d)Rainfallofbetween305-1015mmannually.
e)Growsbestonlightclaysoilsbecausetheyarestiffandgiveplantfirm support.
FactorsFavouringWheatGrowinginKenya
PhysicalConditions
a)Warmtemperaturesingrowingareasof15-20◦catleastforthreemonths
whichpromotesgrowthofwheatandprotectsitagainstfrost.
b)Moderaterainfallof1800-1270mmwhichpromotesgrowthofwheat.
c)Highaltitudeofgrowingareasof1500-2900mwhichreducesincidences byhighhumidity.
d)Deepfertilevolcanicsoilswhichleadtohighproduction.
e)Gentlyorfairlylevellandforproperdrainageandtoallowmechanisation.
HumanFactors
a)Adequatelabourforplanting,weeding,applicationoffertilizersetc.
b)Availabilityoftransportfacilitiessuchaslorriesandtractorstotransport
grainsfromthefieldstothestoreandthentobuyingcentres. Canada
ThemaingrowingareasarethefollowingPrairieProvinces:
a)Alberta
b)Saskatchewan
c)BritishColumbia
d)Ontario
e)Manitoba
FactorsWhichHaveFavouredWheatGrowingInCanada/WhichHaveLedTo
theRiseofCanadianPrairiestoBeOneoftheLeadingWheatProducing
RegionsintheWorld
a)Warmsummertemperatures(about15.5◦c)whichisidealforwheat growing.
b)Lowaltitudelowlandswhicharewarmandfavourabletowheatgrowthas
highlandsaretoocoldforthecrop.
c)Sufficientrainfallof560mmperannumwhichsupportswheatgrowthwell.
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d)Extensiveuninhabitedtractsoflandwhichhaveenabledlargescale
mechanisedwheatcultivation.
e)Goodconnectionofprairielandstodomesticandinternationalmarketsby
railways,roadsandseaways.
f)Fertilesoilsofprairiesonwhichhumushasaccumulatedwithout
disturbanceforalongtime.
g)Undulatingtopographyofprairieswhichofferswelldrainedsuitablefor
wheatcultivation.
Cultivation(ProductionMethods)
oLandispreparedbyploughingusingtractordrivenploughs.
oIt’sthenhallowedseveraltimestoallowweedsandstraywheatgrainsto
bekilledinthenextharrowing.
oManureandphosphatefertilizersareappliedafterthelastharrowbefore sowing.
oSowingisdoneusingdrillsthatarepulledbytractorsorhands.
oWeedingisdonebysprayingorpullingusinghands.
oThecropisregularlyinspectedforpestsanddiseases.
Canada
-Wheatisgrowninextensivefarms.
-Allworkisdonebymachinese.g.ploughing,harrowing,sowing,weeding,
sprayingandharvesting.
-Largeamountsofgrainsareproducedonthesefarms.
-Thegrainismainlyforexport.
-Farmersarespecialised.
Harvesting
oWheatisharvestedbycuttingheadsusingsharpknifesforsmallscale
farmsorcombinedharvestersforlargescalefarmswhichalsothreshes thegrain.
oThegrainispumpedintotrucksortractorswhichmovealongsidethe harvesters.
oIt’stakentofarmstoreswhereit’spassedthroughdriersbeforeit’s packedforsale.
Processing
oWheatiscleanedandsoakedinwatertomakeiteasiertoremovethe outerlayers.
oIt’spassedthroughbreakerrollstoseparateendospermwiththebran.
oThegrainundergoesaseriesofgrindingandsiftingtoobtainfineflour.
oTheflourmaybebleachedtogiveitdesirablewhitequalities.
oItmayalsobeenrichedwithvitaminsandiron.
WheatUses
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a)Forbakerye.g.cakes,bread,etc.
b)Wheatproductsarealsousedtomakealcohol,preparationofglueand adhesive.
c)Outerpartofkernelisusedtomakebranforanimalandpoultryfeeds.
Marketing
Kenya
-Allwheatproducedisconsumedlocally.
-Thereisnosurplusforexport.
-FarmerstaketheirproducetoNCPBstores.
Canada
-Itslargeurbanpopulationoffersasizeablemarketwhereit’sdeliveredby
elaborateroadandrailwaynetwork.
-ThebulkisexportedtocountriessuchasRussia,Britain,China,etc.
throughtheSaintLawrenceSeaWay.
RoleofWheattotheEconomies
KenyaandCanada
a)Haspromoteddevelopmentofrelatedindustriessuchasbakery,alcohol
manufacturing,etc.
b)Itsavessomeforeignexchange.
c)Itcreatesemploymentinfarms,processing,andotherrelatedindustries.
d)Providesincometofarmers,traderswhichalleviatespovertyandalso
raisesthestandardofliving.
e)InCanadaithasledtoimprovementofinfrastructureingrowingareasto
easetransportationofwheat.
Problems
Kenya
a.Farmershaveinadequatecapitaltobuyinputswhichlowerstheyields.
b.Pestssuchasdustybrownbeetlewhicheatstemdamagingtheplant.
c.Diseasessuchasthefungalstemrustwhichattacksthestem.
d.Pricefluctuationsonthedomesticmarketespeciallywhensellingthrough
middlemen.
e.Shortageofstoragefacilitiesbecausetheproduceistransportedto
straighttoNCPBbeforeitsellsit.
f.Climatichazardsuchasthestormyrainswhichflattensthecropleading
torottinganddroughtwhichmaydestroyentirecrop.
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g.Soilexhaustionduetomonoculture.
Canada
a)Pestsanddiseasesleadingtolowyields.
b)Soilexhaustionduetomonoculturewhichnecessitatesuseoffertilizers.
c)Adverseclimaticconditionssuchasfrost,hailanddroughtduringsummer.
d)Pricefluctuationsintheworldmarketwhichreducesfarmer’sincome.
e)Transportproblemduringwinterwhenexportroutesarefrozencausing
difficultyinaccessingthesolemarketinUSA.
Comparison
Similarities
-Thereismechanisationinbothcountries.
-Thereareextensivefarmsinbothcountries.
-Thereisadrysunnyspellinbothcountries.
-Bothcountriesexperiencetheproblemofpestsanddiseases.
-Wheatinbothcountriesisgrowninareaswithgentlyslopingterrain. -
Wheatgrowinginbothcountriesisaffectedbyclimatichazards.
Differences
-InKenyawheatisgrowninhighlandswhileinCanadait’sgrownin lowlands.
-InKenyawheatisconsumedlocallywhileinCanadamostofitisfor export.
-KenyaexperienceswheatshortagewhileCanadaexperiences overproduction.
-CanadianfarmersspecialisewhileKenyanfarmerscarryoutmixed farming.
-InCanadaallworkismechanisedwhileinKenyathereisusageofhuman labour.
-KenyahasnoincentivessuchassubsidiessuchasinCanada.
-InKenyafarmingisallyearroundbutCanadaexperienceswinters.
-InKenyafarmingiscarriedoutonplateauswhileinCanadait’sonplains.
-CanadaproducesmorewheatgrainthanKenya.
-KenyagrowsspringwheatwhileCanadagrowsbothspringandwinter wheat.
HorticulturalFarminginKenyaandNetherlands
Horticultureisthepracticeofgrowingfruits,vegetablesandflowersforsale.
MainFeatures/CharacteristicsofHorticulture a)Farmsaregenerallysmallinsize.
b)Farmsarelocatedneargoodtransportroutesduetoproduces perishability.
c)Farmsarelocatedmostlynearurbancentresclosetothemarkets.
d)Landisintenselyusedtogetmaximumbenefits.
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e)Advancedscientifictechniquesofcropproductionareusede.g.selected
seeds,regularspraying,applicationofmanureandfertilizers.
f)Mostoftheworkisdonemanually.
g)Theproduceismarketoriented(forexportorlocalsale).
h)It’scapitalintensivebecausealotoffarminputsarerequired.
i)Itinvolvesquickandexpensivemodesoftransporte.g.aeroplane
becausetheproduceisperishable,themodeisthequickestandthe
produceisinhighdemand.
FactorsFavouringtheDevelopmentoftheIndustry
Kenya
a)Fertilevolcanicsoilswhichsupportavarietyofcrops.
b)Variationofclimatefromcooltohotwithmoderatetohighrainfallwhere
tropicalcropssuchaspawpawandpineapplearegrownwhileincool
areastemperatecropssuchasplumsandpeersaregrown.
c)Highdemandforproductsbothlocallyandinternationally(inwinterwhen
tropicalvegetables,fruitsandflowersareinhighdemand.
d)Technicalandfinancialassistancefromfriendlycountries.
e)Availabilityofcapitalfromlargeandlocaloverseascompaniese.g.Del Monte,Kakuzi,etc.
f)Highlabourduetohighpopulationasitislabourintensive.
g)Accessibilitytothemarketofmostgrowingareasthroughroadsandair transport.
h)Government’spolicyofdiversificationofexportcropswiththeaimof
broadeningexportbase.
i)WellorganisedmarketingsystemsmanagedbyHorticulturalCo-operative
UnionandHorticulturalDevelopmentAuthoritywhichhelpfarmersto
exporttheirproduce. Netherlands/Holland
-ItisaW.EuropeancountryatthemouthofR.RhineandMeuseonN.sea. -
It’shighlyspecialisedinhorticulture.
ConditionsforGrowthoftheIndustry
PhysicalFactors
a)Welldrainedandquicklywarmedsandysoilsofthecoastwhichareideal
forhorticulturalcrops.
b)WarmGulfStreamCurrentwhichwashesthecoastmakingtheareafree
fromfrostthroughouttheyear.
c)AccessibilitytoforeignmarketsduetocentralpositioninEurope.
d)Shortageoflandmakingitappropriatetoestablishhorticulturalfarms. HumanFactors
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Advancedtechnologysuchastheuseofglasshouses.
Goodtransportsystemeasingmovementofhorticulturalproducts
throughoutthecountrye.g.goodharbourslikeRotterdam,canals,navigable
rivers,roadsandrailways.
Skilledlabourwhichensureshighproductionandqualitypackaging.
HighdemandinthepopulousurbanareasofcontinentalEurope.
)Availabilityofcapitalastherearehighlyorganisedco-operativesocieties
whichprovideloanstofarmers. CropsGrownandtheirDistribution
Kenya
Vegetables:cabbages,kales,carrots,tomatoes,turnips,cassava,sweet potatoesetc.
Fruits:oranges,mangoes,lemons,apples,pears,plums,bananas,pawpaws.
Flowers:roses,orchids,gladioli,lilies,carnationsetc.growninLimuru,
Naivasha,Murang’a,Kiambu,Thika,etc.
Netherlands
Vegetables:lettuces,cucumber,peaches,leaks,asparagus,cauliflower, melons.
Fruits:apples,pears,cherries,gooseberries,redcurrants,raspberriesetc.
Flowers:azalea,rhododendrons,tulips,hyacinths,rosesandclematis. Cultivation
Kenya
-Vegetablesandfruitsaregrowninopenfields.
-Flowersaregrowningreenhouses.
-Moistureismadeavailabletovegetablesandflowersthroughsprinkling.
AdvantagesofGreenHouses
a)Plantsdon’tsuffereffectsofexcessiverainfall.
b)Plantsaren’taffectedbydrought.
c)Pestanddiseasespreadarecontrolled.
d)Uniformityofclimateiscreatedforallplants.
e)Plantsareprotectedfromdamagingeffectsofstrongwindsandairborne diseases.
f)Cropscanbegrownthroughouttheyear.
g)It’seasiertocontrolweedsbychemicalsbecausetheareaissmall.
Netherlands
-Horticulturalcropsaregrownintheopenandingreenhouses.
-Treefruitsaremainlygrownoutdoors.
-Thereistheuseofglasshouses(greenhousesmadeofglass).
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-Theyareconnectedtoboilersandfurnacesusedtoheattomaintainwarm
temperaturesinwinter.
-Thereisuseofpredatorstocontrolpestse.g.flies,spidermitesandlady
birdstoavoiddegradingtheenvironment.
-Thereisspecialisationwithdifferentareasgrowingdifferentcropse.g.
i)FlowersinAalsmearnearAmsterdamandLeideninHarlem.
ii)VegetablesinthetriangularareaformedbyHague,Rotterdamand HookofHolland.
iii)FruitsintheinteriorofRotterdaminprovincesofGuilderland,Limburg andUtrecht.
UsesofHorticulturalCrops
Fruitsandvegetablesareusedasfoodwhileflowersarefordecorating
houses,offices,churches,weddingsandfunerals.
Marketing
Kenya
-Smallscalefarmerstransporttheirproducetothecollectingcentresto
buyersormiddlemen.
-It’scheckedandgraded.
-Thenpackedinpackagingmaterials.
-ThentransportedtotheairportswheremostofitisairliftedtoW.Europe
whereitmayfinditswaytoJapanandUSA.

Netherlands
-Theproduceistransportedtogo-downsofcollectingagentsortothe markets.
-It’stransportedviaroads,railways,airorthroughcanalsandnavigable rivers.
-It’sdestinedforBritain,France,Germany,Sweden,Belgiumand Luxemburg.
RoletotheEconomies
a)Asourceofforeignexchange.
b)Savessomeforeignexchange.
c)Hasledtoindustrialdevelopmentbyprovidingrawmaterialse.g.fruit
canning,vegetableoilmanufacturing,etc.
d)Providesemploymenttomanyduetobeinglabourintensive.
e)Ithasledtodevelopmentofinfrastructureintheareaswithlargescale
horticulturalfarmswhichhavebeenservedwithbetterroads,waterand electricity.
f)Earnsfarmersincomewhentheyselltheirproducetobuyersand middlemen.
g)Promotesbetterhealthandnutrition.
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h)Hasledtoeffectivelandusee.g.swampyareasinC.Provincehavebeen
reclaimedforvegetableproduction.
Problems
Kenya
a)Inadequatecapitalinpartofsmallscalefarmerstobuyinputswhich
lowersyieldqualityandquantity.
b)Transportproblemduringrainyseasoninareasservedonlybyseasonal
roadsleadingtolosses.
c)Pestsanddiseasessuchasleafblightwhichdestroythecropsleadingto losses.
d)Lackoforganisedmarketingsystemsuchasco-operativescausing
exploitationbymiddlemenandinabilitytoaccesscreditandadvisory services.
e)Hightransportcostsleadingtosaleofproducetomiddlemenwhoexploit farmers.
f)Exploitationofworkersbylargehorticulturalcompaniesleadingtounrests
e.g.workingforlonghourswithlesspay.
Netherlands
a)Frostaffectscropsgrowingintheopen.
b)Inadequatecapitaltostartnewfarmsduetotechnologybeingvery expensive.
Comparison
Similarities
-Similarcropsaregrowne.g.fruits,flowersandvegetables.
-Horticulturalcropsaregrownbothinopenandingreenhouses.
-It’smarketorientedinbothcountries.
-Thereisemploymentofscientificmethodsoffarming.
-It’sdoneextensivelyinbothcountriestogetmaximumreturns. -
Cropsgrownpartlyonreclaimedlandinbothcountries.

Differences
-Farmershavewellorganisedmarketingsystems(co-operatives)in
NetherlandsthanKenya.
-InKenyatheproduceisfirsttakentocollectingcentreswhilein
Netherlandsit’stakentothegodownsofcollectingagentsortothe markets.
-KenyaexperiencestheproblemofimpassableroadswhileNetherlands’s
transportsystemisdevelopedandefficient.
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-InNetherlandsfarmingiscarriedoutincoastalareaswhicharefreefrost
whileinKenyait’scarriedoutinthecoolandhotareas.
-Netherlands’ssoilsaregenerallysandywhileKenya’sarevolcanic.
-ThereisbiologicalcontrolofpestsinNetherlandsunlikeinKenya.
-ThereisahigherdemandforNetherlands’sproducethanKenya’sduetoa
largerurbanpopulation.
-ThereisuseofmoreadvancedtechnologyinNetherlandsthanKenyae.g.
useofglasshouses.
-NetherlandsproducesmorehorticulturalproducethanKenya.
-ThereisspecialisationinNetherlandswithcertainareasproducingcertain crops.
-NetherlandsfarmershavemoreaccesstocapitalwhileKenyanfarmers
haveinadequatecapitalduetolackoforganisedmarketingsystems.

2.LIVESTOCKFARMING
-Rearingofdomesticanimalsincludingpoultry.
a)Traditional/Pastoral/SubsistenceLivestockFarming
-Rearingofanimalsonnaturalpastureinvolvingseasonalmigrationin
searchofwaterandpasture. MainAreas
-NandN.EKenyae.g.Turkana,Wajir,Garissa,Marsabit,Kajiado,Narok,etc.
-Communities:Maasai,Somali,Borana,Rendile,etc.
FactorsInfluencingNomadicPastoralism
a)Grazingareasarefreefromanimalpestsespeciallytsetsefliesforbeing dryandhot.
b)Savannahgrasslandandsemi-desertconditionswhichcausegrassto
sproutduringrainsanddryingduringthehotdryseason.
c)Availabilityofgrassmosttimesoftheyearinthebushandwooded savannah.
d)Gentleorrelativelyflatterrainoftheareaswhichmakesiteasyforthe
movementofanimalsfromoneplacetoanother.
e)SparsepopulationofNandN.Eregionduetoharshclimaticconditions
whichencouragesnomadicpastoralismbecauseeachcommunityisable
tooccupylargetractsofland.
f)Desertandsemi-desertconditionswhichdon’tfavouragriculturemaking
livestockrearingtobewayofearninglivelihood.
g)Traditionofthepeoplewherebyanimalsareasignofwealthandareused
forpayingdowryandslaughteredforfestivals.
CharacteristicsofPastoralFarming
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(a)Theykeeplargenumbersofanimalsasaninsuranceagainstnatural deaths.
(b)Theypracticeuncontrolledbreedingwhichresultsintolargeherds.
(c)Manykindsofanimalsarekepte.g.cattle,sheep,goatsandcamels.
(d)Animalsarerearedforsubsistencenotforcommercialpurposes.
(e)TheykeepindigenouscattlewhicharehardysuchasZebuandBoran.
(f)Theykeepanimalsofpoorqualityduetolackofqualityfeedsand
weakeningbydiseasesmakingthemtobeoflowvalue.
(g)Animalsareasignofwealthandarerearedforthepurposeofpaying
dowryandslaughterduringculturalfestivals.
(h)Thereisseasonalmovementwherebytheyspedthedryseasoninone
placeandwetseasoninanother.
(i)Diseaseincidencesofbothlivestockandhumanarecommondueto tropicalconditions.
Products
-Milk,blood,meatandskinforshields,sheathsandclothing.
Problems
a)Shortageofwaterandpastureduetolongdryspellmakinganimalstobe ofpoorquality.
b)Pestssuchasticksandfleaswhichweakenanimalsanddiseasessuch
aseastcoastfever,footandmouthandanthraxwhichcauseheavy lossesofstock.
c)Overstockingcausingovergrazingleadingtosevereerosion,poor
pasturesandpoorqualityanimalswhichfetchlowprices.
d)Lackofextensionandveterinaryservicesduetoinsecurityandconstant
movementhinderingimprovementofanimalsreared.
e)Lowlevelsofeducationandcultureleadingtokeepinganimalsforwealth
andprestigemakingthemtooverstockleadingtosevereerosion,poor
pasturesandpoorqualityanimals.
f)Poorpasturesresultingfrompoorsoilswithmostareasconsistingoftuft
grassesandbareland.
g)Cattlerustlingwhichcauseslossofliveanddestructionofproperty.
h)Inaccessibilityofpastoralareasduetopoorroadsmakingthefarmers
unabletogettheiranimalstothemarket.
i)Theyrearindigenouscattlesuchaszebuandboranwhichmatureslowly,
yieldlittlemilkandhavepoorqualitybeef.
j)Exploitationbymiddlemenduetolackofmarketinformation.
k)Smalllocalmarketduetosparsepopulation.
l)Competitionfromnationalparksleadingtoconflicts.
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ImprovementsinPastoralAreas(MeasuresTakenBytheGovernmentto
ImprovePastoralFarming)
a)Encouragingpastoraliststhroughtheministryoflivestocktostart
ranchinginordertoimprovethequalityoftheiranimals.
b)Improvementofwatersupplyindrierareasbysinkingboreholes,wells,
constructionofdams,etc.
c)Establishmentofdemonstrationranchestosensitizepastoralistson
bettermethodsofanimalhusbandry.
d)Constructionofcattledips,andsettinganimalpestanddisease
organisationstocontrolpestsanddiseases.
e)Providingextensionservicestoadvicepastoralistsandofferdrug treatmenttoanimals.
f)Teachingpastoraliststhroughformaleducationaboutadvantagesof
keepingmanageablesizesofherds.
g)Encouragingthemtokeepsmallernumberofanimalstosolvethe problemofquality.
h)Ploughingandresowingpasturewithmorenourishingdroughtresistant grass.
i)Purchasingpedigreeanimalsandcrossbreedingwithindigenousanimals
resultinginhybridstockwhichisabletoresistmanytropicaldiseases,
givemoremilkandbetterqualitymeet.
b)CommercialLivestockFarming
i)DairyFarming
-Keepingcattleformilkproduction.
Characteristics
-Dairycattlearereared.
-It’susuallypracticedinareaswithgoodeconomyi.e.developed
infrastructureforquicktransportationofmilkandgoodreadymarket
becausedairyproductsareperishable.
-Employmentofhighmoderntechnologyofprocessing,packaging
becausemilkisaperishableproductwhichshouldbeprocessedshort
timeafteritismilked.
-Highmilkyieldingcowsarerearede.g.Friesian,Ayrshire,Guernsey,Jersey,
Alderney,Sahiwal.
Kenya
-ThemainbreedsareFriesianandAyrshireandcrossbreedsbetween
indigenousandexoticbreeds.
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-FarmersuseAIadministeredbyveterinaryextensionofficersorbulls
directlytosirecalvesandkeeptheherd‘inmilk.
-Inthepastthegovernmentusedtoprovidetheservicesbuttheyhave
beenprivatisedmakingtheminaccessibletomanyKenyans.
Typesofdairyfarming
a)LowlandDairyFarming
-Keepingtraditionalcattleforconsumptionbyfamilymembers.
b)HighlandCommercialDairyFarming
-PracticedintheKenyanhighlands.inthefollowingdairyingareas:
Riftvalley
-Kericho,BometandNakuru,Laikipia,TransNzoiaandUasinGishuwhich
aretheleadingdairyingareas.
Characteristics
-Largescalefarms
-Milkingismechanised
-Fedonfodderandgrass
Central
-Alldistricts
-Smallfarms
-RanchesexistinMakuyuMurang’a
-Intensivefarming
-Zerograzingandfodderfeedingpracticed
Western
-Kakamega,Vihiga,andBungoma.
-Smallscaledairying
-Opengrazingiscommon
Eastern
-Meru,upperEmbu,TharakaNithi,Kangundo,Machakos,Mboonihillsand Makueni.
-LargescaledairyinginTimauandKibirichiainMeru
-Smallscaleinhigheraltitudes
-Opengrazingcommon
-Minimalzerograzing
Nyanza
-Kisii,NyamiraandOyaniandsunainhigherpartsofMigori
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-Dominatedbysmallscaledairying
-ZerograzinginsomepartsofNyamiraandKisiidistricts.
ConditionsFavouringDairyFarming
KenyaHighlands
Physical
a)Theregionexperienceslowtemperaturesidealforsurvivalofexotic
breeds(averaging18◦c).
b)Theareasreceivehighandwelldistributedrainfallwhichensures
abundantsupplyofnaturalpastureandwaterfrompermanentrivers.
c)Fertilevolcanicsoilswhichhaveensuredthereisqualitynutritiouscover ofgrass.
Human
a)Wellestablishedinfrastructuree.g.roadswhichensuresquick
transportationofmilktoprocessingplants.
b)Highpopulationwhichoffersreadymarketfordairyproducts.
c)Availabilityofprocessingandstoragefacilitiesneardairyfarmsto
transformmilkintolessperishableproductswhichhasincreasedtherate
ofmilkproduction.
d)Provisionofveterinaryservicesanddemonstrationfarmsbythe
governmentwhichpromotesrearingofhighqualitydairybreeds.
Denmark
-AsmallcountryinW.Europe.
-Thegreatestexporterofdairyproducts.
PhysicalFactors
a)Lowlyingrelativelyflatlandwhichmakesitidealfordairyfarming.
b)Lowlyingrelativelyflatlandwhichmakesitidealfordairyfarming.
c)Cooltowarmtemperature(0.4-16.6◦c)whichfacilitatesthegrowthof naturalpasture.
d)Soilsderivedfromboulderclaywhichisconstantlyenrichedwithanimal
manureandfertilizerwhicharegoodforthegrowingoffoddercrops.
e)Availabilityofavarietyoffoddercrops,manufacturedfeedsand
supplementsleadingtohighmilkproduction.
HumanFactors
-Mechanisationofmostdairyfarmse.g.machinesformilkingarewidely used.
-BigmarketfordairyproductslocallyandinotherEuropeancountriesdueto
ahighpurchasingpower.
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-Availabilityofadequatecapitalandmoderntechnologywhichhasimproved
productionandstorageofdairyproducts.
-Extensiveuseofartificialinseminationwhichimprovesthequalityofbreeds
makingdairyfarmingasuccess.
-Rapidgrowthofco-operativemovementwhichareverycompetitivecausing
farmerstostrivetogetproductsofhighquality.

OrganisationofDairyfarming
Kenya
-ThemainbreedskeptareFriesianandAyrshireandcrossbreedsbetween
indigenousandexoticbreeds.
-Carriedoutforbothsubsistenceandcommercialpurposes.
-Farmersdependonfodderandnaturalgrass.
-Therearecooperativeswhichprovideprocessing,marketingandcredit servicestofarmers.
-Dairyfarmingislessmechanised.
-FewfarmershaveaccesstoAIservicessincetheirprivatisation. Denmark
Dairyfarmingiscarriedoutbyindividualfarmersinlargescale.
It’scarriedoutforcommercialpurposes.
ThebreedsrearedareDanishHolsteinwhichisthetraditionalcow,Friesian
(75%),Ayrshireandchannelislandcows.
Livestockarekeptindoorsforbetween4-5monthsduringwinter.
Farmersmainlydependonfodderthannaturalgrassbecausetemperatures
arecoldmostoftheyear.
Therearethousandsofco-operativesprovideprocessing,credit,advisory
andresearchservices.
Dairyfarmingishighlymechanisedwithmachinessuchascombined
harvesters,Lorries,ploughsandseeddrillsbeingprovidedbycooperatives.
ProcessingofMilk oPasteurisation-
Heatingliquidmilkto75◦cforabout15minutes.
oSterilisation-Heatingto100◦cforashorttimetokillbacteriawhich survivedpasteurisation.
oHomogenising-Breakinganddistributingfatparticlesthroughoutthemilk
toensurealayerofcreamdoesn’tformofmilk. oUltraheattreatment-
Heatingmilkbeyond100◦c. oProcessedfurtherintoproductssuchasbutter,gheeorcheese.
oTheproductsarepackedreadyfordistributiontoconsumers.
Marketing
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Kenya
-It’sdonebyKCCandDairyboardofKenya.
-FarmersmaytakethemilktoKCCbythemselves.
-Localco-operativesalsocollectmilkfromfarmersatvariouscollection
pointsandtakeittoKCC.
-AfterprocessingtheproductsaresenttoKCCdepotsfordistributionto consumers.
-SomeisexportedtoneighbouringcountriessuchasUganda.
-Otherprocessorsalsomarkettheirmilklocallyandinternationally.
Denmark
-Donebyco-operatives.
-TheproductsaresoldlocallyandabroadwithmajordestinationbeingEU
suchasGermany,UK,Sweden,etc.
-Thegovernmentmonitorsqualitybyuseofinspectorswhoendorsethe qualitybyLurmark.
-AgriculturalMarketingBoardandDanishDairyBoardpromoteexportsby
internationaltradefaresandsurveys.
-NewmarketsarebeingexploredinKorea,Malaysia,IndonesiaandChina.
ProblemsFacingDairyFarminginKenya
a)Smallscaledairyfarmsfacestiffcompetitionfromothercashcropslike
tea,coffee,vegetablesandpassionfruits,etc.
b)Thecostofinputsisveryhighwhichhasminimisedmechanisationand
resultedintotolowprofitmargins.
c)Impassabilityofroadsduringtherainyseasonmakingmilkdelivery difficult.
d)Excessivedroughtswhichresultininadequatefeedswhichcauses
temporarymilkshortage.
e)Riskofcattlepestsanddiseaseswhichhasrestricteddairyfarmingto Kenyanhighlands.
f)Poormanagementofco-operativesatgrassrootsresultingtodelayed
paymentswhichkillsfarmers’morale.
g)Shortageofproperstoragefacilitiesatthecollectingcentressuchas
coolingplantscausingmilktogobadbeforeitgetstoprocessing factories.
h)AIserviceshavebeenprivatisedmakingthemveryexpensiveand
inaccessibletomanysmallscalefarmersresultinginlowqualitybreeds
andhencelowmilkproduction.
i)Lackoftrainingespeciallytosmallscalefarmers.
Improvements(HowGovtIsLayingEmphasistoDairyFarming)
b)Appointingsupervisoryboardsfordairyco-operatives.
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c)Extendingcreditfacilitiestofarmersthroughco-operatives.
d)Holdingagriculturalshowstoeducatefarmersongooddairyfarm management.
e)Settingupdemonstrationfarmswhichbreedhighqualitybullstobe releasedtofarmers.
f)Establishingwellmaintainedroadsfordeliveryofmilk.
g)Carryingoutextensiveresearchonpossiblesolutionstodiseases.

Denmark
-RareincidentsofdiseasessuchasmastitisandSalmonellaDublin.
-It’sexpensivetorunfarmsinwinterwhenanimalsarekeptindoorsandfed onfodder.
-Dairyanimalsemitaconsiderableamountofcarbondioxideandmethane
whichcontributestogreenhouseeffect.
-Reducedmarketshareduetocompetitionfromotherdairyproducing
countriesandrestrictions.
-Occasionalspellsofdroughtcausingaconsiderabledropinmilkproduction.
RoleofDairyfarmingtotheEconomies
a)EarnsKenyaforeignexchangebyexportingmilkanddairyproducts.
b)Savessomeforeignexchange.
c)Governmentalsoearnsrevenuebytaxationfromthesaleofdairy
productswhichisusedtofundvariousdevelopmentprojects.
d)Providesemploymentindairyfarms,milkprocessingplantsanddairy relatedindustries.
e)Givesfarmersanincomewhichhasalleviatedpovertyandraisedliving standards.
f)Promoteddevelopmentofindustriessuchasmilkprocessingplants,input
manufacturingindustrieswhichhascreatedmoreemploymentandraised
percapitaincome.
g)Promotesgoodhealthandnutritionbyprovidingproteins,fatsand
vitaminsthatareessentialforhumangrowthanddevelopment.
h)HasledtoimprovementofinfrastructureinKenyabygovernment
improvingexistingroadstoeasemilkdelivery.
Comparison
Similarities
-Dairyfarmersinbothcountriesselltheirproductstoco-operatives.
-Bothcountriesexperiencesimilarproblemsofadverseweatherchanges anddiseases.
-Animalskeptaresimilare.g.Friesian,Ayrshire,Jersey,etc.
-Milkprocessinganddairyproductsaresimilare.g.liquidmilk,cheeseand butter.
-Inbothcountriesmilkisconsumedlocallyandforexport.
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-Bothcountrieskeeptraditionalandexoticbreeds.
-Openandzerograzingarepracticedinbothcountries.
Differences
-DairyfarminginKenyaiscarriedoutdoorsmostoftheyearwhilein
Denmarktheanimalsarekeptindoorsforabout6monthsinwinter.
-DairyfarmingdependsmainlyongrassinKenyawhileinDenmarkit’s
mostlydependentonfodder.
-DairyfarminginDenmarkisevenlydistributedwhileinKenyaitis restrictedtohighlands.
-DairyfarmingisheavilymechanisedinDenmarkwhilemechanisation
lacksinmanyfarmsinKenya.
-DairyfarmingisamajorforeignexchangeearnerinDenmarkwhilein
Kenyamostofdairyproductsareconsumedlocally.
-Denmarkachieveshighyieldsthroughouttheyearbecausetheyfeed
animalsonfodderwhileinKenyayieldsareaffectedbyclimaticchanges.
-KenyanfarmerspracticemixedfarmingwhileDenmarkfarmers specialised.
-Dairyco-operativesarehighlydevelopedinDenmarkwherebytheygive
grantsandsupplyfarmerswithmachines.
-AIservicesaremorewidelyusedinDenmarkthanKenyawhereonlyafew
farmershaveaccesstoAIservicessincetheirprivatisation. ii)BeefFarming
-Rearingofcattleforproductionofmeet.
ConditionsFavouringBeefFarming
Kenya
PhysicalFactors (a)ExtensiveflatlandswithnaturalgrasswithinNyikaplateauandRift
Valleyregion.
(b)Moderatetemperaturesofabout28◦c.
(c)Moderaterainfallofabout750mmorabovewhichensuresthereis enoughpasture.
(d)AvailabilityofwateringsiteslikeLorianswampandanumberof
permanentriversflowingthroughbeeffarmingareas.
HumanFactors
(a)Availabilityofranchingschemeswhichcontrolovergrazingandthe
spreadofpestsanddiseases.
(b)Culturalpracticeoflocalpeoplewhocarryoutlivestockkeepingastheir occupation.
Argentina
-Argentinaistheworld’stopbeefexporter.
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-Beeffarmingismainlycarriedoutinpampasgrasslandswiththemajor
beeffarmingareasbeingChacoFormosaandSantiagodelEstero.
PhysicalFactors
(a)Extensiverollingpampasgrasslandswhichprovidesgoodnatural
grazinglandscapeandallowscattletograzefreely.
(b)FertilesoilsfromtheslopesofAndeswhichhavegivenrisetogood naturalpasture.
(c)Moderateandwelldistributedreliablerainfall(about1000mmannually)
receivedinPampaswhichfavoursgrowthofgoodpasturethroughoutthe
yearandensuresregularwatersupplyforanimals.
(d)Temperaturesrangingbetween24◦cinsummerandabout10◦cin
winterwhichenablesgrasstogrowthroughouttheyear.
HumanFactors
(a)HighqualityexoticbreedssuchasShorthornandHerefordwhich
maturefasterandhavequalityandquantitybeef.
(b)Availabilityofalfalfawhichmaturesfasterandismorenutritiouswhich
hasbeenplantedtoreplacenaturalgrass.
(c)Welldevelopedinfrastructureliketherailwaynetworkusedformovement
ofbeefcattlefromranchestofactoriesandtothemarkets.
(d)Availabilityoflargescalerancheswhicharewellmanagedand mechanised.
(e)Availabilityofadequatecapitalmakingitpossibletohaverefrigeration
forproperstorageofbeefproducts.
(f)AvailabilityoflocalmarketsinE.UandU.S.A.

OrganisationofBeefFarming
Kenya -90%ofbeefcattlearerearedbysubsistencefarmersandpastoralistsand
therestbycommercialranching.
-Pastoralistsconstitutethegreatestmajority.
-Thereissmallscalefarmingdistributedalloverthecountryandlarge
scalefarmingcarriedoutintheranchesinRiftValley,Laikipia,Nakuru,
TransNzoia,Kajiado,Kilifi,Kwale,TaitaTaveta,KituiandMachakos.
-ThemainindigenousbreedkeptisZebuwhileimportedbreedsinclude
AberdareAngus,Hereford,Galloway,ShorthornandCharolais.
-Animalsarefedonnaturalgrassinpastoralismandnutritiousdrought
resistantpastureintroducedinsomeranchestoimprovebeefquality.
-Fertilizersarebeingappliedonthepasturetoimproveitsquality.
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-Cattlearefrequentlyinoculatedagainstfataldiseaseslikeanthrax.
-Cattledipsandveterinaryservicesareprovidedbythegovernmentto
improvefarmingactivity.
Argentina
-TherearelargescaleranchesknownasEstancias.
-EachEstanciahasamanager.
-Farmsarepaddocked.
-Theanimalsarerearedmainlyonnaturalpasturethoughthereareareas
whichhavebeensownwithalfalfa.
-Cowboyscalledgauchosdrivehorsesaroundfarmstolookafterthe cattle.
-Therearequartersforstockmenatstrategicpointsofthefarm.
-Farmingismechanisedandaeroplanesjeepandlandrovercarsareused.
-Therearecattledipsandwindpumpstoprovidewaterinsomefarms.
-Calvesenterpastureswithabout180kg.
-Theyarebranded,fattenedusingcultivatedpasturesandsupplementation for16-
17months.
-Theyareslaughteredandtakentomeetpackingplantsandputincold
storagesandpackedintotinsortakenbyrailtoslaughterhousesofmain
townssuchasBuenosAiresandRosario.
MarketingofBeefProducts
Kenya
-Smallscalefarmersselltheiranimalstobutcherswhoslaughterandsell
toconsumersafterit’sinspected.
-LivestockMarketingDivisionisinchargeofmarketingbeeffrompastoral areas.
-Itactsasaco-operativesocietyandbuysbeefcattleandputsthemin holdinggrounds.
-Theanimalsarevaccinatedagainstdiseasesandthensoldtoindividual
butchersortoslaughterhousesthroughauction. -
Pastoralistsselltomiddlemenwhotransportlivestocktobigtownslike Nairobi.
Argentina
-Mostbeefisconsumedlocallyalthoughthereisalargesurplusforexport.
-MarketingchannelsaremainlyfoundinurbanareassuchasBuenosAires andRosario.
-Beefandbeefproductsundergostringentsanitarytestsandcertification
beforeexportation.
-ChilledorcornedbeefisexportedtoEuropeancountriessuchasGermany.
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RoletotheEconomies
a)It’sasourceofforeignexchangewhenbeefandbeefproductsare exported.
b)Providesemploymenttopeopleworkinginranches,slaughterhouses, butcheriesetc.
c)Savesforeignexchangebysupplyingbeefforlocalconsumption.
d)Providesincometofarmersandbutchersraisingtheirstandardofliving.
e)Haspromoteddevelopmentofindustriesbyprovidingrawmaterialse.g.
shoemaking.
f)Thegovernmentsearnrevenuefromtaxleviedonbeefproducts.
g)InArgentinaithasledtoinfrastructuralimprovementfromtheinteriorto
thecoasttoeasetransportation.
ProblemsFacingBeefFarming
Kenya
-Refertoproblemsfacingpastoralismandimprovementsbythe government.
Argentina
-Diseasessuchasrinderpest,Africanswinefever,footandmouth.
-Stringentsanitaryconditionswhichhavetobefulfilledbeforeexporting
beefandbeefproducts.
-Internationaltradebarriersduetodiseasessuchasmadcowdiseases
whichhasrestrictedexportationtoprocessedbeefonly.
-Economicandpoliticalcrisis.
Comparison
Similarities
-Indigenousandexoticbreedsarekeptinbothcountries.
-Beefanimalskeptaresimilare.g.AberdeenAngus,Hereford,etc.
-Beeffarmingisforlocalandexportmarketinbothcountries.
-Thereisemploymentofmodernmethodsoffarmingincountriese.g.
crossbreeding,AIandresearch.
-Bothexperiencetheproblemofpestsanddiseases.
-Ranchingiscommoninbothcountries.
Differences
-ArgentinahasextensivenaturalpastureswhileKenyahasinadequate pastures.
-ThereisahigherlocaldemandforbeefinArgentinathaninKenyadueto
lowpurchasingpower.
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-PestsanddiseasesareamajorprobleminKenyawhileinArgentinathe
problemhasbeencontrolled.
-InArgentinabeeffarmingismainlycarriedoutinextensiverancheswhile
inKenyait’smainlycarriedoutbysmallscalefarmersandranchesare few.
-FarmersinArgentinahavemoreaccesstocapitalwhileKenyanfarmers
haveinadequatecapital.
-ThereisawelldevelopedtransportnetworkinArgentinawhileKenyan
roadsarepoorwhichhinderstransporttomarkets.
-BeeffarmingismorehighlymechanisedinArgentinathanKenya.

3.MixedFarming
-Growingcropsandrearinganimalsonthesamefarm.
Characteristics
c)Cropsaregrownandanimalsrearedonthesamefarm.
d)Portionoflandisreservedforanimalpasture.
e)Farmsaremoderateinsize.
f)Cropresidueisusedforfodder.
g)Manurefromanimalsisusedtofertilisethesoil.
Advantages
g)Whencropfailsorpricesfluctuatethefarmercandependonlivestockand viceversa.
h)Thefarmergetsincomecontinually.
i)Incomeislarger.
j)Farmerisbusythroughouttheyear.
k)Usingcropresidueasfoddersavesmoneyforbuyingit.
l)Usingmanurefromanimalsensuressustainedcropproductionandalso
savesmoneythatwouldbeusedtobuymanure.

FORM4GEOGRAPHY

LANDRECLAMATION
Landreclamationistheprocessofconvertingwastelandintofarmlandfor
growingofcropsandkeepingofanimalswhilelandrehabilitationisthe
processofrestoringlandtoitsformerproductivestate.
Importance
1.Intensifyfoodproductiontofeedtheeverincreasingpopulation
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2.Toovercomelandshortageandpressure.
MethodsofLandReclamation
Irrigation
-Artificialmethodofsupplyingwatertoaregionwhichdoestreceive
adequaterainfallortoensurecontinuouscropproduction.
-Doneindryareaswithlowrainfallandregionsexperiencingdryperiodsto
sustaingrowthofcrops.
-Damsareusedtostorewater.
Advantages
(a)CanbeusedforHEPgeneration
(b)Forfishfarming
(c)Supplywaterfordomesticuse (d)Controlfloods.

Negativeeffects
a)Canbeacauseofdeathsbydrowning
b)BreedinggroundformosquitoeswhichtransmitMalaria.
c)breakagecancausedestructionoflifeandproperty
FactorsDeterminingtheAmountofWaterRequiredforIrrigation
a)Climate:Areasreceivinglowrainfallrequiremorewater.
b)Soils:Sandysoilsrequiremorewaterthanclaysduetolowwaterretention ability.
c)Crop:Paddyricerequireswaterloggedsoilswhilevegetablesrequirewet
andwelldrainedsoils.
d)Sizeoffields:Smallplotsrequiresmallamountsofwaterwhilelargeplots
requirelargeamountofwater.
MethodsofIrrigation
(a)Waterliftingmethod
-Liftingwaterfromasourcebyusingabucketorwateringcanandpouring itonthecrops.
-Usedwidelyinmarketgardensandonfarmsadjacenttothewater.
(b)Flood/basinirrigation
-Divertingriverwaterintoacanalthentoplotswhereit’sflooded.
-Commonlyusedinirrigationschemes.
(c)Sprinkleroroverheadirrigation
-Takingwatertothefieldsbypipesandapplyingitoncropsbyrotating
sprinklersmountedonverticalpipes.
-Usedongolfcoursesandmarketgardening.
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(d)Trickleirrigation -Plasticpipeswithholeslaidinthefieldsthroughwhichwatertricklesto
thebaseofplant.
-Popularwherefruitsandflowersaregrown.
(e)Canalirrigation
-Directingwaterthroughcanaltofarms.
-Commonlyusedinareasexperiencinglowrainfalle.g.YattainMachakos (f)Dripirrigation
-Invertingbottlesfilledwithwaterintotherootsofaplant.
-Usedinlowrainfallareastogrowtrees,fruitsandflowers.
DrainageofSwamps
-Processofdrainingexcesswaterfromtheland.
-Problemsoflandwithexcesswaterare:
a)Isbreedinggroundfordiseasecausingvectors.
b)Iswaterloggedandunsuitableforagriculture.
c)Ispronetofloodingwhichdestroyslifeandproperty.

ProcessesInvolved
(a)Diggingditchesforwatertooozeintoandflowawaybygravity
(b)Plantingeucalyptuswhichtakesupalotofwatere.g.atKakuziin Makuyu.
(c)Layingperforatedpipesinditcheswhichwaterwillseepintoandflow awaybygravity.
-AreasinKenyawithhavebeenreclaimedbydrainingare: (a)YalaonlowercoursesofR.Yala
(b)BunyalaonlowercoursesofR.Nzoia.
-Theprojectwasconceivedin1970. ObjectivesoftheProjectofDrainingThem
(a)Freetheareaofpests.
(b)Preparelandforsettlementandagriculture.
(c)EasepopulationonKanoplains.
(d)Reducefloodingandassociatedhazards.
(e)Developtheotherwiseremotearea.
Achievements
(a)Floodinghasbeencontrolled.
(b)About800hectaresareavailableforagricultureandsettlement.
(c)Waterbornediseaseshavebeenbroughtundercontrol.
ControlofPests Mosquitoes
(a)Fumigation
(b)Drainingofstagnantwater
(c)Spraying
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(d)Clearingofbushesnearsettlements.
Rodents,birds,squirrelsandporcupines
(a)trapping
(b)poisoning
(c)hunting
(d)Scaringaway
Tsetseflies
-Theythriveindampareaswithhightemperaturesandpreferbushy
vegetationasbreedinggrounds.
-ExamplesoftsetseflyinfestedareasareLambwevalleyinKenyaand
MiombowoodlandinTanzania.
-ThecontroloftsetseflyatMiombowoodlandwasaimedat:
-ThecontrolwasdonebyTheInternationalCentreforInsectPhysiology andEcology(ICIPE).
a)Eliminatingthepesttoobtainlandforagriculture.
b)Totreatthesickpeopleandanimalstocheckthespreadofresultant diseases.
MeasuresTaken
BushClearing
-Selectiveclearingofbusheswasappliedtopreventsoildegradation.
-Causedtsetseflytolackaplacetobreedandkilledadultfliesandpupae duetolowhumidity.
BushSpraying
-Sprayingfromthegroundorfromalowflyingaircraft.
-Doesn’taffectotherorganisms.
Disadvantages
a)SomeinsecticidessuchasDDThaveseriousenvironmentaleffects.
b)Theflydevelopsresistanceandahighdoseofchemicalshastobeused.
c)Killsotherusefulorganisms.
Sterilisationmales
-Makingtheinsectunabletoreproducebyobstructingitsreproductive organs.
oLuringthemalefliestosomechemicalsubstancewhichsterilisesthem.
oWhentheymatewiththefemalesfertilisationdoesn’toccurwhich
reducesinsectpopulation.
Traps
(a)Squareofblackclothcoatedwithglueonwhichtheinsectsstick.
(b)Trapsimpregnatedwithinsecticideswhichkillstheinsects.
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CreationofBufferZones
-Beltof5kmwidewithdensecultivatedvegetationtocreatebarrierwhich
theflycouldn’tcross.
KillingoftheHosts
Wildanimalswhichtheflyfedwereselectivelyhuntedandkilled.
MethodsofLandRehabilitation
AfforestationandReafforestation
-Improvetheproductivityoflandinthefollowingways: a)Controlssoilerosionby:
-Actingaswindbreakers
-Leavesreduceimpactofraindropsonthesoil -Rootshold/bindthesoilparticlestogether.
b)Vegetationreducesrunoffandincreasestherateofinfiltrationofrain
waterensuringthereisacompletewatercycle.
c)Decayedvegetationprovideshumuswhichrestoressoilfertility.
d)Rootshelpmoisturetopercolatedeeplyintotheground.
e)Modifiestheclimateofanareabymoisturebeingreleasedtothe
atmospherecausinghigherrainfallandloweringthetemperature.
BushFallowing
-Cultivatingafieldforaperiodof2-3yearsthenabandoningitforanother
sothatitmayregainfertilitynaturallybywildvegetationaddinghumus intothesoil.

GrassStripsandCoverCrops
-Grassandcovercropse.g.sweetpotatovines,beansandpeasreducethe
speedofrunningwaterthushelpingtochecksoilerosion.
Mulching
-Coveringthesoilusingcropresiduesorartificialmaterialssuchas polythenesheets.
-Helpstoconservethesoilinthefollowingways:
a)Reducesevaporationhelpingtoconservemoistureinthesoil.
b)Helptocheckthespeedofrunningwater.
c)Reducesthesplashingeffectofraindrops.
d)Reducesrunoffandincreasesinfiltrationensuringmoremoistureisgoing
tobeavailableforplantsgrowth.
e)Mulchfromcropresiduesdecomposesreleasingnutrientsintothesoil.
f)Controlsweeds.
ApplicationofManureandFertilizer
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-Replenishingnutrientsdepletedfromthesoilbyconstantapplicationof
manureorchemicalfertilizers.
ControlledGrazing
Tosolvetheproblemofovergrazing:
a)Thegovernmentisadvisingthefarmersthroughextensionofficersonthe
importanceofmatchingthenumberoflivestockwiththecarryingcapacity ofland.
b)Emphasizingonqualitythanquantitybyintroducingexoticbreedsand crossbreeds.
c)Establishingranchesinlivestockfarmingregionse.g.Kaptueigroupranch.
d)Thelandshouldbesubdividedintopaddockssothatdifferentsections
havetimetoregainpastureatdifferentintervals.
FillingQuarries
-Fillingthepitswithrocksandtoppingwithfertilesoilse.g.BamburiNature
Trailwheretreeshavebeenplantedandanimalsintroduced.
DrainageTrenches
Floodedareascanberehabilitatedby:
-Diggingtrenchestodrainoffexcesswatertorehabilitatefloodedareas. -
Anothermethodistoconstructdamsacrossrivers.

PlantingDroughtResistantCrops
-PlantinginAridandSemiAridLandsdroughtresistantandquickmaturing
cropswhichtakeadvantageoftheshortwetseasone.g.Pigeonpeas,
cassava,millet,sorghum,Katumanimaizeetc.
IrrigationSchemesinKenya
MweaIrrigationScheme
-LocatedinKirinyagadistrictincentralprovinceinMweaplainsonthefoot ofMt.Kenya.
-Startedbythecolonialgovernmentin1954.
Objectives
a)Toreclaimtheunproductivelandfromsemi-aridconditions.
b)TooccupydetaineelaboursinceMweawasadetentioncampforpolitical
detaineesduring1952sstateofemergency.
c)Tosettleformerdetaineesandthelandless.
d)Tocreateemploymentforformerdetainees.
e)Toincreaseagriculturalproduction.
FactorsWhichInfluencedtheLocationoftheScheme
PhysicalFactors
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a)Availabilityofextensivelandwhichmadecreatedroomforfuture expansion.
b)Blackcottonsoilswithhighwaterretentioncapacitiessuitableforrice growing.
c)Freelydrainingclayloamysoilssuitableforgrowingofothercashand foodcrops.
d)Gentlyslopinglandwhichallowsuseoftractorsandallowswatertoflow
bygravityreducingthecostofpumpingittothefields.
e)AvailabilityofplentyofwaterfrompermanentriversThibaandNyamindi
drainingthearea.
f)Experienceswarmweatherduringthesecondpartoftheyearsuitablefor ricegrowing.
HumanFactors
a)Thelandwasnotinhabitedduetoitsaridconditionsthereforetherewas
nodisplacementofpeoplefromthearea.
b)Availabilityoflabourforricegrowingtopresenceofformerdetainees.
c)Desirebythecolonialgovernmenttostartaprojectthatcouldoccupy detainees.
d)LocationnearmajorurbancentressuchasNairobi,Embu,Nyeriand
Kerugoyawhichprovideimmediatemarketforrice.
Irrigation/CultivationMethodUsed a)Basinirrigation.
-Thegroundislevelled.
-Embankmentsareconstructed.
-Watertotheenclosedsections.
-Thepaddyfieldsarefloodedtoadepthof10cm.
b)Furrowirrigation.
oWaterflowsfromirrigationcanalstofurrowwhichareinbetweenrowsof
cropswettingthem.
CropsGrown
1.Wetpaddy(rice).
a)Basmati/Pishoriwhichmorevaluable.
b)Sindanowhichisresistanttodiseases.
2.Subsistencecropse.g.maize,peasandbeansinsmallscale.
Horticulturalcropse.g.tomatoes,Frenchbeans,melons,etc.
OrganizationoftheScheme
-TheschemeisdividedintoMwea,Thiba,WamumuandTeberesections.
-6000hectaresareunderricecultivation.
-Tenantslivein36smallvillages.
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-Thereare17primaryschoolsandmorethan5secondaryschoolsoneof
whichisfordisabledandonemissionhospital(Karira).
-Theareaunderricecultivationisdividedintooneacrewhichis
surroundedbyabankofearth(bund)forkeepingwaterwithinthefield.
-Eachtenantisgiven4acresoflandandexpectedtomaintainanursery
covering1/8ofanacre.
Marketing
FarmerssellricetolocalconsumersintheurbancentresespeciallyThika andNairobi.
BenefitsoftheScheme
a)SavingthecountryforeignexchangebycontributingmostofKenya’srice production.
b)Providingincometofarmers,tradersetc.whichalleviatespovertyand
raisesthelivingstandards.
c)Providedlandtothousandsoflandless.
d)Reservoirscreatedhavehelpedincontrollingflooding.
e)Improvementsofinfrastructureasroadshavebeenbuilttotransportrice
fromthefieldstomarket.
f)Provisionofsocialamenitiessuchasschoolsandhospitalswhichhave
improvedthepeople’sstandardofliving.
g)Provisionofemploymenttomanypeopleinfarms,localmillsandtrading.
ProblemsFacingtheSchemeandPossibleSolutions
-Stagnantwaterhasbecomeabreedinggroundformosquitoesandsnails
whichtransmitmalariaandBilhaziarespectively.
-Insecticidesshouldbesprayedonstagnantwatertoreducethebreeding
ratethevectorshencerateofinfection.
-Shortageofwaterduetoexcessivedroughtsanddiversionofwaterinto ‘JuaKali’ricefarms.
-Morereservoirsshouldbebuiltandfarmersshouldpayafeetofacilitate
maintenanceofwaterdistribution.
-Pestsanddiseasese.g.casewarmandleafminerwhichattackcrops
loweringtheyieldsandQueleabirdswhichfeedonriceleadingtoamajor lossofthecrop.
-Usingcleanplantingseeds,burningresiduesafterharvestinganduseof
explosivestoscarebirds.
-Inadequatecapitalonthepartoffarmerssincetheco-operativescollapse
makingthemunabletoacquireinputsforcingthemtoleaseoutallorpart
oftheirfarms.Thesolutionistotakepoliticsoutofco-operativessothat
theycanbeempoweredtosupplyinputsandcredittofarmers.
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-Shortageoflabourduringtheplantingandharvestingseasonwhichforces
thefarmerstohirelabourfromoutsideatahighcost.
-ImprovedmarketingbyNCPBtoresumesothatfarmerscanearnenough
moneytomeettheirexpenses.
-Siltationandgrowthofweedsinthecanalswhichinterfereswiththeflowof water.
-Controlweedsusingchemicalsandfarmerstoavoidcultivatingonthe riverbanks.
-Inadequatehealthcentreswhichnecessitatestravellingforlongdistances
losingmanyworkinghours.
-Constructionofmorehealthcentres.
-Pooraccessroadswhichmaketransportexpensive.
-Governmenttoimprovetheexistingroadsandconstructnewones.
PerkerraIrrigationScheme -Establishedin1954.
-LocatedinMarigatdivisioninBaringointheRVprovince.
AimsofSettinguptheScheme
(a)Toutilizedetaineelabour.
(b)Todeveloplandforagriculturalproduction.
(c)Tosettlethepastoralistsasfarmers.
(d)TocontroltheseasonalfloodsofR.Perkerrathisusedtoaffectthe area.
(e)ToutilisetheexcesswaterofR.Perkerrathisusedtogotowaste.
FactorswhichInfluencedtheEstablishmentoftheScheme
PhysicalFactors
-Gentleslopeoftheareawhichallowsmechanisationandflowofwaterto
thefieldsbygravity.
-Presenceoffertileloamysoilonwhichavarietyofcropscanbegrownand
whichalsoreducesuseoffertilizers.
-Semiaridconditionsoftheareawhichnecessitatedtheuseofirrigationas
theonlywaytomakefoodproductionpossible.
-Extensiveareaoflandmeaninglargescalecultivationofcropswaspossible.
R.Perkerrawhichensuresaconstantsupplyofwaterforirrigation.
HumanFactors
-Sparsepopulationduetoharshclimatewhichmadeiteasytoestablishthe scheme.
-Largepopulationofdetaineeswhichrequiredtobeoccupiedinaproductive way.
-Desireofcolonialgovernmenttostartaprojecttooccupypoliticaldetainees.
Irrigation/CultivationMethod -Ridgesandfurrowsaremade.
-Cropsareplantedontheridges.
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-Waterisdirectedtothefurrowsandallowedtosoakslowly.
-Seedmaizeisplantedinmaleandfemalemaizelines.
-Frommalelinesit’stakenforconsumption.
-Thatfrommalelinesgoesforprocessing.
Crops
TheygrowseedmaizeforKenyaSeedCompanyandpawpawsaregradually
beingreintroduced. OrganisationoftheScheme
ManagementisunderNIBwhichprovidesinfrastructuralfacilities,
accountingandextensionservices.
Eachhouseholdisallocated3-4acresandanadditional½acreforthe homestead.
Farmersaretenantsbutplansareunderwaytoissuethemwithtitledeeds.
Marketing
(a)Seedmaizeisgraded,driedanddeliveredforshelling.
(b)ShelledmaizeisdeliveredtoKitaleforfurtherprocessing.
(c)TheseedisdeliveredtoKSCwhichpaysondelivery.
(d)Schememanagementpaysfarmersafterdeductingthefeesfor servicesgiven.
AchievementsoftheScheme
-Hasturnedaridlandintoaproductiveland.
-Sourceoflivelihoodforfarmersandtheirdependents.
-Seedmaizeraisesrevenueforthegovernment.
-Hassettledpreviouslylandlesspeople.
-Hasimprovedinfrastructureandledtoprovisionofsocialamenitiessuchas
schools,shops,electricity,etc.
-Hascreatedemploymentopportunitiesforlocalpeople.
-Sourceofforeignexchangewhenseesmaizeisexported.
ProblemsoftheSchemeandpossiblesolutions
(a)FluctuationofwaterinR.Perkerraduetodroughtsandobstruction
causingcropstressandreducingtheacreagethatcanbecultivated.
-Damconstructionontheupstreamside.
(b)Livestockhumanconflictwhenfarmersgotograzeintheregiondueto
attractivevegetation.
-Solvingtheconflictthroughelders.
(c)IntenseethnicconflictbetweenTugenandJempstribesbecausethe
schemeliesontheJemps’landwhileTugenarethemajority.
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-Governmenttoissuefarmerswithtitledeeds.
(d)Financialproblemscausingthefarmerstobeunabletopreparethe land.
-Startco-operativestoofferaffordablecreditfacilities.
(e)Poortransportandcommunicationwhichhindersproductionof perishablecrops.
-Governmenttoimprovetheexistingroadsandconstructnewones.
(f)Limitedmarketforproductsbecausethesurroundingareasaresparsely populated.
-Transportingproducetodistantmarketswithdensepopulation.
SignificanceofIrrigationFarminginKenya
(a)Resettlementoflandlesspeoplee.g.inMwea.
(b)Ithasmadebarrenlandreproductive.
(c)Enablesfarmerstoearnanincomewhentheysellfarmproduce.
(d)Provisionofemploymentopportunitieswhichhasalleviatedpoverty
andimprovedthestandardofliving. (e)Creationofsettlementforlandless.
(f)Earningofforeignexchangebythecountryafterexportationchillies,
flowers,peas,fruits,etc.
(g)Savessomeforeignexchangethatwouldbeusedtoimporttheentire
amountoffoodneededinthecountry.
(h)Developmentofinfrastructureandsocialamenitiese.g.roads,
(i)Promotedindustrialdevelopmentthroughprovidingrawmaterialse.g.
ricemills,pineappleprocessing,sugarcanefactories,etc.
(j)Hasassistedinthecontrolofenvironmentalhazardssuchasdroughts andfloods.
(k)Hasenhancedfoodsecurityinthecountrybyencouraginggrowingof
foodcropssuchasmaize,beans,rice,etc.

ProblemsExperiencedinirrigationFarminginKenya
PhysicalProblems
-Destructionofcropswhenexcesswatergoestothefieldscausingflooding.
-Pestsanddiseasesleadtolowcottonyields.
-Inadequatewaterasaresultofcatchmentareasreceivingunreliablerainfall
meaningthelandcan’tbefullyutilised.
-Growthofweedsonfurrowsandcanalscausingreducedwaterflowtothe farms.
-Siltingofthecanalwhichpreventswaterfromflowingsmoothlytothe farms.
-Sheeterosionresultingfromoverheadirrigationwhenpracticedonhotdry regions.
-Salinisationasaresultofapplicationofexcesswaterindryregions.
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-Leachingtakingnutrientstothelowerhorizonswheretheycan’tbe
accessedbysomeplantsleadingtoloweryields.
HumanProblems
(a)DiseasessuchasBilhaziaandmalariatransmittedbyvectorslivingin
stagnantwaterwhichweakenandevenkillfarmers.
(b)Paymentoflowpricestothefarmerswhichkillsthemoraleoffarmers
andsometimescausingthemtoleaseoutpartorwholeofthefield.
(c)Highcostofproductionmakingthefarmerstoselltheirproduceathigh
costmeaningtheproducecan’tcompetefavourablyintheworldmarket
sincethebuyerswillprefercheaperproduce.
(d)Exhaustionofsoilnutrientsasaresultofcontinuouscultivationleading topooryields.
(e)Mismanagementofirrigationbodiesleadingtolosses,lackofcredit
andlowpricesaseachfarmertriestomarkethisorherowncrop.
(f)Farmerslackthenecessarytechnicaladvicetoenhancetheiragricultural
productionasthereareveryfewextensionofficers.
(g)Shortageoflabourduringplanting,weedingandharvestinggivingthe
farmerstheburdenofhiringlabourathighcost.
(h)Limitedmarketsasaresultofsomeschemesbeinglocatedinsparsely
populatedarease.g.Perkerra.
LandReclamationintheNetherlands/Holland
-Mostofcoastallandhasbeenreclaimedfromthesea.
-Landreclaimedfromtheseaandenclosedbywallsiscalledapolder.
-Theworkofreclaiminglandwasdoneunder2mainprojectsnamely:
ZuiderZeeProject
-ProjectofZuiderZeeareatothenorthofHolland.
-AssignmentwasgiventoaDutchcalledCorneliusLelyin1927-1932. -
Aimwastoincreaselandforcultivationandcontrolfurtherflooding.
Sections
1.CreationofahighdamacrossthehighlandofWierengenandbetween
provincesofN.HollandandFriesland.
2.Reclamationof4poldersthatwouldnotbeaffectedbyrisingtidesand
creationofafreshwaterlakefromR.IjselatributaryofR.Rhineconverting
theinlandtidalseaintoL.Ijsel.
StagesintheReclamationofLandfromtheSeainNetherlands
oDykeswereconstructedtoprotectthelandfromgettingfloodedduring hightide.
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oRingcanalswereconstructedtocarrywaterfromtheareatobereclaimed intothesea.
oPumpswereinstalledtopumpoutwaterfromtheareaenclosedbydykes.
oReedsweresowedtouseupexcesswater.
oDrainagepipeswerelaidinditchestodrainwaterfromthewatertable.
oThesoilwastreatedwithchemicalstolowersalinity.
oDrainedlandwasflushedwithfreshwatertoremovesaltfromthesoil.
BenefitsofZuiderZeeProject
a)Increasedarablelandby10%.
b)Freshwaterlakescreatedprovidefreshwaterfordomesticandindustrial use.
c)EnsuredbetterdrainageforreclaimedareaintheformerZuiderZee.
d)Reducedtheriskofflooding.
e)ShortenedroadconnectionbetweentheprovincesofN.Hollandand Friesland.
DeltaPlanProject
-IntendedtoreclaimtheS.Wregionofthecountry.
-InvolvedclosingestuariesnamelyHaringvliet,Brouwersha,Venschegat,
ScheldtandVeerschebymeansofdams.
BenefitsoftheDeltaPlan
(a)Controlledpollutionandsalinisationofinlandwater.
(b)Improvementthesoilthusincreasinglandforagriculture..
(c)Morerecreationallakescreatedbythenewlyformedlakes.
(d)FreshwaterreservoirscreatedprovidesS.Wregionwithwaterfor
irrigation,domesticandindustrialuse.
ComparisonofLandReclamationinKenyaandNetherlands Similarities
-Inbothcountriesfloodingwasacommonproblem.
-Drainageditcheswereusedinbothcountries.
-Canalswereusedinbothcountries.
-Theintentioninbothcountrieswastoincreaselandforsettlementand
agricultureandcontrolflooding.
Differences
-Canals,damsanddykeswereusedtoreclaimlandinNetherlandswhile
Kenyausedditches,irrigation,clearingofbushes,etc.
-InNetherlandslandwasreclaimedfromseawhileinKenya,itwasabove thesealevel.
-NetherlandshadtwoprojectswhileKenyahadmore.
-InNetherlandsitwaslargescalewhileinKenyaitwasinsmallscale.
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-InNetherlandsitinvolveduseofadvancedtechnologysuchasdams,
dykes,pumpingstationsetc.whileinKenyaitinvolvedlessadvanced
methodssuchasirrigation,afforestation,clearingofbushesetc.
-InNetherlandsthecoastallandwasbeingreclaimedwhileinKenya,land
distantfromtheseawasreclaimed.

FISHING
-Theactofcatchingfishandotheraquaticanimals.
-Fisheriesarefishinggroundsorareaswherewaterresourcessuchasfish,
seals,clubs,whales,etc.areexploited.
FactorsInfluencingFishing
PhysicalFactors
PresenceofPlankton
-Largeshoalsoffisharefoundinshallowwatersoflakesandseaswhere
thereisplentyofplankton.Theythrivewheredepthofwaterslessthan
180mdeepbecauseitisuptowheresun’srayscanreach.
NatureoftheCoastline
-Thereismorefishoncoastswithshelteredinletsandestuariesbecause
ofcalmwaterandshelterfromnaturalenemieslikepredatorse.g.Fiords ofNorway.
Relief
-Peopleinsomecountriesengageinfishingduetomountainous
landscapewhichhindersothereconomicactivitiessuchasagriculturee.g.
Japan,NorwayandAlaska.
ClimaticConditions
-Intemperateregionsthereismorefishbecausethereiscoolwaters
whichplanktonrequirestogrowwhileintropicallandsthereislessfish
duetohightemperaturesresultinginwarmwaterswhichhindersplankton growth.
ConvergenceofColdandWarmOceanCurrents
-Thereisplentyoffishinareaswherewarmandcoldoceancurrentsmeet
becauseupwellingtakesnutrientstothesurfaceandimprovesthe
circulationofoxygenandcoldoceancurrentscoolwatersintropical
regionsresultinginconduciveconditionssuitableforplanktonthrivinge.g.
thecoastofNamibiawashedbythecoldBenguelacurrent.
HumanFactors
SupplyofLabour
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-FishingisintensivelycarriedoutinEurope,AsiaandN.Americadueto
labouravailabilityasitslabourintensive.
Market
-Fishingisdoneextensivelyinhighlypopulatedanddevelopedregionswith
areadymarketbecausefishisaperishablecommoditye.g.inNorway, Japan,China,etc.
FishEatingCulture
-Fishingisextensivelydoneinareaswherethereisahabitofeatingfish
e.g.NorwayandJapan.
TransportandPreservationFacilities
-Fishingisdoneextensivelyincountrieswithtransportandrefrigeration
facilitiesbecausefishisperishableandhastobetransportedin
refrigeratedlorriesandship.
Capital
-Fishingisextensivelydoneindevelopedcountriesbecausetheycan
affordhugesumsofmoneyrequiredforhiringlabourforce,buyingfishing
equipmentandpreservationfacilities.
Technology
Rapidgrowthoffishingindustryindevelopedcountriesisasaresultof
presenceofadvancedequipmentlikelargerefrigeratedships,trawlnets,fish
detectingequipment,etc.
TypesofFishing
PelagicFishing
-Catchingoffishwhichliveclosetothesurfacee.g.mackerel,menhaden,
herring,sardinesandtuna. -Bestmethodtocatchpelagicfishisdriftingandseining.
DemersalFishing
-Catchingfishthatliveatthebottomofdeepwaterbodiese.g.cod,
haddock,Pollockandhalibut.
-Methodsaretrawlingandlonglining.
InshoreFishing
-Fishingclosetotheshoresinshallowshelteredcoastalwatersandthe
lowerstretchesofrivers.
-Fishcaughtareshellfish,lobsters,prawns,shrimpsandcrabs. -
Methodsinvolvedarecastingnets,hooksandline.
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FreshWaterFishing
-Fishingdoneinfreshwaterbodiessuchasstreams,rivers,lakes,ponds andpaddyfields.
-Examplesoffreshwaterfisharesturgeon,carp,tilapiaandtrout .
-Methodsarelineanddriftingmethods.
MethodsofFishing
TraditionalFishingMethods
-CommonlypractisedintropicalareasalongtheAfricancoastandthe inlandfisheries.
-Fishingismainlydoneforsubsistencepurposes.
-Simplehand-madeequipmentsareused.
-Themethodsareemployedinsmallscale.
Types
BasketMethod

-Abasketwithaconeopeningwithbaitinsideisused.
-Itisplacedattheshallowendofthewater.
-Thefishareattractedbythebait.
-Fishruntohideinthebasketgetinsideandaretrapped.
-Thecatchisrelativelysmall.
Harpooning

-UsingasharpenedarroworsticktostrikeFish.
-Onefishiscaughtatatime.
-Dangerousinwatersinfestedwithcrocodilesandhippopotamuses. BarrierMethod
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-UsingBarriersmadeofreedsorstickstocatchfishinfloodwaters.
-Areplacedonthedownstreamsideofafloodedregionandwhenwater
levelsdropthefishermenscoopthefish.
Herbs
-Sprinklingcrushedherbsinwatersmakingfishtobecomeunconscious
thenthefishermencollectfishfromtheriverusinghands. UseofLampandNet
-Placingalitlampontheedgeoftheboattoattractfish.
-Fishswimtowardsthelightandarecaughtusingnet.
HookandLine

-Throwingalinewithabaitedhookintothewater.
-Thefishareattractedbythebaitwhichtheyswallowtogetherwiththe hook.
-Thelineispooledfromthewatertogetherwiththefish.
GillNets
-Netswithmeshwhichletsonlytheheadofafishthroughandthentrapsit bythegills.
-Theycanbeswervedacrossorroundtheriveronthepathoffish.
ModernFishingMethods
Seining
-Methodisusedtocatchpelagicandanadromous/migratoryfishwhich swiminshoals.
-ABaglikenetswithsmallmeshes(seine)attachedtotwoboatsoneach
endiscastintothesea.
-It’skeptopenandheldinpositionbyfloatsontopandweightsatthe bottom.
-Fishmovetowardsthenetandgettrapped.
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-Thenetishauledoverandfishemptiedontotheshiporthenetishauled
totheshore(haulseining).
-Leadstooverfishingbecauseitdoesn’tdiscriminatetheagesoffish caught.

Trawling

-Mainlyusedtocatchdemersalfish.
-Abagshapednetisattachedtoatrawler(ship)isiscastintodeepwaters
-Theupperpartiskeptopenbyfloatsandlowerpartkeptdownbyweights. -
Thenetisdraggedbythetrawleralongtheseabed.
-Thetrawlnetsweepsinthefish.
-Thenetishauledintothetrawlerandthefishisemptiedonboard.
-Alsocatchesimmaturefish.
LineFishing
-Themethodisusedtocatchdemersalfish.
-Fishingboatsspreadoutlonglinewithseveralbaitedhooksonthem.
-Floatskeepthelinessuspendedandalsoshowthefishermenwherethe linesare.
-Baitedhookscatchthefishastheycompetetofeed.
-Hooksaredrawnandfishunhookedandputinrefrigeratedcontainers.
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DistributionofMajorFishingGroundsintheWorld
TheAtlanticFishingGrounds
N.W.AtlanticFishingGrounds
-LocatedalongtheE.coastofN.America.
-FishinggroundsareGrandbank,Sablebank,GeorgebankandNova Scotia.
-Fishcaughtarecod,herring,mackerel,lobsters,etc.
FactorsThatHaveLedToHighDevelopmentofFishing
(a)Largecontinentalshelfprovidinganextensiveareaoverwhichplankton cangrow.
(b)ConvergenceofwarmGulfStreamcurrentandcoldLabradorCurrent
resultingincooltemperaturesfavourableforthethrivingofplanktonand
whichalsomakestheareatobeicefreemostoftheyear.
(c)Adjacentlandshaveacoldclimateandaruggedlandscapeunfavourable
foragriculturemakingthealternativetobeexploitationoffishinggrounds.
(d)Thereisadensepopulationinthesurroundingareaswhichprovidea
readymarketforfishe.g.MassachusettsandConnecticut.
(e)Thereisahighlydevelopedtechnologywhichallowsfishingtogoon
throughouttheyeare.g.largeandselfcontainedshipwithradarto
forecaststorms,wirelesscommunicationandprocessingandstorage facilities
N.E.AtlanticFishingGrounds
-LocationinW.coastofEurope.
-MajorfishinggroundsarecoastsofFrance,Germany,Denmark,Britain andNorway.
-Fishcaughtareherring,mackerelandcod.
FactorsThatHaveLedToHighDevelopmentofFishing
a.Numerousseainletswhichprovideshelterforthespawningoffishand
anchoringoffishboatse.g.fiordsofNorway.
b.Ruggednessoflandscapebyglaciatedfeatureswhichisunfavourablefor
agriculturemakingfishinganothereconomicactivity.
c.WarmAtlanticDriftCurrentwhichraisesthetemperaturemaking
conditionstobefavourableforplanktongrowthandmakingfishing
possiblethroughouttheyear.
d.Largecontinentalshelfprovidinganextensiveareaforplanktongrowth.
e.Landderivedmineralsbroughtbytheicebergsfromthelandwhich
providesplentyoffoodforplanktonwhichfisheat.
f.DenseandaffluentpopulationofW.Europewhichprovidesreadymarket forfish.
g.Thereisahighlydevelopedtechnologywhichallowsfishingtogoon throughouttheyear
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S.AtlanticFishingGrounds
1.N.WAfrica
-LocatedalongtheCoastlandofMauritania
Factors
(a)Presenceofcoldcanarycurrentthatcoolsthewarmoceanwaters.
(b)Wideandfairlyshallowcontinentalshelfprovidinganextensiveareafor
thegrowthofplankton.
2.S.W.Africa
-LocatedinandCapeProvinceofS.Africa.
NamibiaFactors
(a)WashedbycoldBenguelacurrentwhichcoolsthewarmtropicalwaters
hencefavouringthegrowthofplankton. 3.WestCoastofS.America
-LocationisthecoastofPeru.
Factors
(a)Presenceofacontinentalshelf.
(b)PrevailingPeruviancurrentwhichfavoursplanktongrowth.
PacificFishing
N.E.PacificFishingGrounds
-LocatedalongtheW.CoastofN.America.
-FishinggroundsarefromAlaska,BritishColumbia,Oregonstatesto California.
-Themainfishcaughtissalmon.
Factors
(a)ThecoastiswashedbyN.Pacificcurrentwhichmakeswaterfavourable
forplanktongrowthandicefreeenablingfishingtobedonethroughout theyea.
(b)Manyinletswhichformfavourableshelterforbreedingoffishandgood
sitesforfishportse.g.fiordsandriverestuaries.
(c)Presenceofseveralriversandlakeswhichformsuitablebreeding
groundsforspeciessuchassalmon.
(d)Ruggedmountainouslandscapeanddenseforestcoverwhichhasmade
theareaunconduciveforagricultureandforcedpeopletocarryoutfishing
asanalternativeeconomicactivitye.g.BritishColumbia.
(e)ReadymarketbecauseofsoundeconomiesoftheindustrialisedUSAand
Canadaenablingpeopletohaveeconomicpowertopurchasefishand
capitalforthedevelopmentoffishingindustry.
N.E.PacificFishingGrounds
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-LocatedalongthecoastofN.E.Asia.
-Theworld’slargestfishingground.
-StretchesfromBeijingsouthwardstoChinaSeainJapan,Malaysiaand Indonesia.
-Fishcaughtaresalmon,mackerel,cod,sardines,eels,troutetc.
Factors
(a) Broadcontinentalshelfwhichfavoursplanktongrowthleading tomorefish.
(b) ConvergenceofcoldOyaSiwoandwarmKuroSiwocurrents
whichresultincoolwelloxygenatedandicefreewatersidealforfishing
throughouttheyear.
(c)Numerousislands,baysandshelteredinletswhichfavourfishbreeding
andprovidegoodfishingports.
(d)MountainouslandscapeespeciallyinJapanwhichhinders
developmentofagriculturemakingfishanalternativesourceoffoodand income.
(e) LargeandreadymarketduetohighpopulationintheAsian countries.
(f)Advancedtechnologye.g.Japanhaslargemodernvesselswith
refrigerationfacilities,Processingequipment,electroniccommunication
makingfishingtobeveryefficient.
FreshWaterandMarineFisheriesinEastAfrica
MarineFishing
-Fishinggroundsfoundinoceansandseas.
-CarriedoffthecoastofKenyaandTanzaniaintheIndianOcean.
-Ugandadoesn’thavemarinefisheriesbecausesheislandlocked.
KenyaandTanzania
-Contributesonlyabout10%inKenyaand13%ofthetotalcatchin Tanzania.
-Relativelywarmwatersofthetropicsdon’tfavourbreedingofalarge numberoffish.
-IndianOceaniswarmerandhencehaslittleplankton.
-Continentalshelfisnarrowwithlittlefishresources.
-WarmMozambiquecurrentanddeepcontinentalshelfdiscouragesthe flourishingoffish.
-Theyusesimpletools.
-Fishcaughtincludepelagicfishsuchastuna,kingfish,mullet,bonitoand sardines.
-Fishingisdoneinsmallscaleforbothsubsistenceandcommercial purposes.
-InKenyasmallboatsandafewofthemmotorisedwithoutrefrigerators
areusedwhileinTanzania,fishermenusesmallrarelymotoriseddhows
whichareguidedbytradewindswhichtravelintodeepsea.
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-InTanzaniamostofthecoastalcommunitiestakepartinfishingindustry
particularlyintheislandsofMafia,PembaandZanzibarandalongthe
coastaroundTanga,Mtwara,andDar-es-Salaam.
-Densecoastalpopulationprovidesareadymarketforfish.
-FishismorepopularthanbeefinPembaandZanzibar.
ProblemsFacingMarineFishing
a)Inadequatemarketduetolowpurchasingpowerofthesurrounding
community,Poortransportnetworktotheinteriorofthecountryand
availabilityofagriculturalproductsinsomecoastalareaswhichreduces
therateoffishconsumption.
(f)Inadequatecapitalwhichcausesfishermenunabletoaffordexpensive
equipmentusedindeepseafishingwhichrestrictsthemtofishnearthe
shorehencethelowcatch.
a)StiffcompetitionfromindustrialisedcountriesmainlyJapanandKorea
whichhavemodernfishingequipmentandareabletotapfishinthedeep sea.
b)Lackofrefrigerationfacilitiestoenablethemtransportfishtodistant markets.
c)Unpopularityoffishingasaneconomicduetofishpricesbeinghighwhich
discouragespeoplefromeatingitregularly.
d)Strongseatideswhichareagreatmenacetolocalfishermenwhouse
smallboatswhicharenotmotorisedwhichforcesthemtogofishing
whentheseaiscalmmakingthemtocatchonlyalimitedstock.
FreshWaterFisheries
-Foundininlandinlakes,riversandponds.
Kenya
-Lakesarethemainsuppliersoffishandtheirresourcesaremore
exploitedthanthoseoftheIndianOceanbecausetheyarecalmthanseas
enablingfishermentoreachdeepareaswherethereisalargecatch. -
ThefreshwaterlakescontainingfishareLakesVictoria,Naivasha,
Baringo,Jipe,Chala,BalisaandShakababoinlowerTanaandKanyaboli
andSareinYalaDelta.
-TheonlyalkalinelakecontainingfishisL.Turkana,
-MostfishermenusesimpleequipmentbutaroundL.Victoriatrawlersare used.
-Manyfishermendon’tbelongtoaco-operativehencetheyselltheircatch
tothemiddlemenatminimalprices.
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-Themiddlemenwithrefrigeratedlorriestransportthefishtourbancentres
wheretheymakeahugeprofitwhiletherestofthefishissmoked,salted
orsundriedandtransportedtolocalmarkets.
-L.Victoriaformsthemaincentreforinlandfishingcontributingthelargest freshwatercatch.
-Themainspeciesoffishistilapiaandothersareherring,Nileperchand omena.
FactorsWhichHaveFavouredFishinginL.Victoria
2.Shallowwaterswhichallowplanktontothriveinabundance.
3.Severalbeachesandhighlandswithinthelakewhichprovidegoodlanding
sitesforfishboatse.g.AsemboandMbita.
4.Largeandreadymarketwithinmajortownsbecauseofdensepopulation
e.g.Kampala,KisumuandMwanza.
5.Presenceofavarietyofspecieswhichareofeconomicvalue.
6.Presenceoffisheatingcultureasitisatraditionaldietofthepeople around.
7.Fishermenhaveformedco-operativeswhichhelptheminmarketingof fish.
ProblemsFacingInlandFishing
1.OverexploitationduetoaccessibilityofL.Victoria.TilapiafromL.Turkana
ischeapandthusinhighdemand.
2.Indiscriminatefishingleadingtocatchingevenimmaturefish.
3.BoundaryconflictoverL.VictoriaespeciallywithUgandae.g.recentlyover Migingo
4.WaterhyacinthinL.Victoria.
5.Lackofcapitalleadingtolackofmodernfishingequipmentwhich
restrictsthecatchperday.
6.InL.VictoriaNileperchpreysontheotherfishsuchastilapialowering theirstock.
7.CommunitiesneighbouringL.TurkanasuchasTurkana,ElMolo,and
Rendilearepastoralistsandsparselypopulatedsotheycan’tprovide
reliablemarketforfish.
8.ThedammingofriverOmoinEthiopiahasreducedtheamountofwater
flowingintoL.TurkanadryingofFergusonbaywhichisthemainfishing area.
FishFarminginKenya
-Rearingoffishinpondswherethefarmerprovidesanenvironment
conduciveforthesurvivaloffish.
-FishfarmsaremainlyfoundinNyanza,Western,Central,Coastandparts ofRiftValley.
-Fishpondsarebuiltinareaswithheavyclayorloamysoilswhichare usuallyimpervious.
-Thepondsmustbelocatedneararivertoensureasteadysupplyofwater
toensurethewaterremainsfreshprovidingnaturalenvironmentforfish.
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-Afterestablishingapodthefarmergetsfingeringsfromhatcheriessetup
atSagana,Kabaru,Kibos,andArubaandputtheminthepond.
-Themaintypesoffishkeptaretilapiaswhicharemorepopularbecause
theybreedfast,areresistanttodiseasesandcansurviveindifferent
environments,troutsuitedtocoolareassuchastheslopesofMt.Kenya andmudfish.
-Fisharefedregularlyongrass,vegetables,grains,compostmanureand
remainsofprocessedfish.
-Someplantsaregrowninthepodtoprovideoxygen.
FishinginTanzania
-MoreintensivethaninKenyaandUganda.
-InlandfishinggroundsincludelakesVictoria,TanganyikaandRukwa
whichformsubstantialfishinggrounds,LakesRukwaandMalawiand
riversMara,Malagasi,Ruvu,Pangani,Ruaha,Rufiji,KageraandWami.
L.Victoria
-About49%ofL.VictoriaisinTanzania.
-Therearemanyfishermenwhousemoderntechniquesandequipment.
-Fishingboatsarelargeandcarrylargestocksoffishwhichenables
fishermentotraveldeepintothelakewherethereismorefish.
-Theneighbourhoodofthelakeisdenselypopulatedwithlargetownsas
Bukoba,MwanzaandMusomawhichprovideareadymarketand
processingfacilitiesforthefish.
-Lackofwelldevelopedtransportlimitsthemarketingoffishtotheinterior towns.
-L.Tanganyikadeepandistherichestintheregioninfish.
-Fishinghasbeenanoldtraditionofthepeoplelivingaroundthelake.
-Themaintypeoffishcaughtisdagaausuallycaughtatnightwhen
attractedbylightusingspecialnetswithsmallmeshes.
-ThefactoryatKigomapreservesandprocessesfishforsaletootherparts
ofthecountrywhilesomeofthefishissmokedordriedandexportedto Zambia.
-Fishingisconcentratedalongtheshorebecauseroughstormsdiscourage
fishermenfromgoingfarintothelake.
-Sparsepopulationaroundthelakedoestofferareadymarketforfishbut
thelargesurplusistransportedbyrailtootherpartsofthecountry.
-Rukwa’sbiggestproblemisfluctuationofwaterlevelswhichaffect survivaloffish.
-AsectionofL.MalawiisinTanzaniaenablingTanzanianfishermento
catchalotoffishwhichisdriedandsoldinthesoutherndistrictsof MbeyaandSongea.
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FishinginUganda
-InlandfishinggroundsincludelakesVictoria,Kyoga,Albert,George,
Edward,KatweandinriversNile,Kagera,Kafu,SemlikiandKatonga.
-Fishingindustryhasbeeninterruptedbyalongcivilstrifeinthecountry
reducingittoasubsistenceeconomy.
-L.Victoriaisthemainfishingground.
-46%isinUganda.
-Manyfishermenownmotorisedboatsenablingthemtotraveldeepinto
thelakeandcatchalotoffish.
-Numeroushighlandsprovideanchoringandrestingplacesforfishermen.
-Thefishermenselltheirfishtoco-operativeswhichorganiseprocessing andmarketing.
-ThedensepopulationaroundsuchasinmajortownsofEntebbe,Kampala
andNjinjaprovideareadymarketforfish.
-FishisalsodriedandsoldinotherpartsofUganda.
-FishispopularasadietofmajorityofUgandans.
-TherearefishprocessingfactoriesinNjinjawherefishisfilleted.
SignificanceoftheFishingIndustryinKenya
(a)Asourceofincometofishermenandtraderswhentheyselltheircatchto co-
operativesandcustomersataprofit.
(b)Asourceofemploymentsuchasforthoseemployedtocatchfish,in
fishingrelatedindustriessuchasmakingandrepairingofboatsand
officersandclerksofco-operatives.
(c)Itisatouristattractionasitisasportingactivitydoneforenjoyment
whichisasourceofforeignexchangeandrevenuetothegovernment.
(d)Asourceofproteinandfoodbecauseit’samajordishtosome
communitiessuchasaroundL.Victoriaandalongthecoastalstrip.
(e)Hasledtodevelopmentofindustriessuchasthosedependingonfishas
arawmateriale.g.fertilizerplants,formakingcodliveroil,etc.
(f)Asourceofmedicinewherebycodliveroilisusedinalleviationofchest problemsa
(g)Fishoilisuseddirectlyorindirectlyasasourceofcookingfat.
(h)Forbiologicalcontrolofmosquitoesbyintroducingitinwatersoasto
feedonmosquitolarvaetherebyreducingmosquitoesandhence
incidentsofmalariatransmission.
(i)Hasledtodevelopmentoftransportsystembye.g.anallweatherroad
fromKitaletoKalokolhasmadeiteasierforthefishfromL.Turkanato gettothemarket.
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ProblemsFacingFishingIndustryinKenyaandTheirPossibleSolutions
(a)Overfishingresultingfromuseofsmallmeshednetsandunlicensed
fishermenresultinginextinctionofsuchspecies.
-Restrictionsshouldbemadeonthetypeofnetthatshouldbeused.
-Licensingaselectednumberoffishermenandlimitingtheircatchperday.
-Fishfarmingtoeasepressureonnaturalfishinggrounds.
(b)Pollutionofwaterbodiesbyoilspillageandseepageofindustrialand
agriculturalchemicalsintowaterwhichkillsmarineorganismsand
prohibitsintroductionoffishintosuchwaters.
-Agriculturalactivitiesshouldbeprohibitedclosetofishinggrounds.
-Legislationshouldbeputinplacetocheckdisposalofwastesfrom industries.
(c)Transportproblemaskeyfisheriesbeingfarfromcentresofpopulation
whichcausesmanyplacestorarelyreceivefreshfishe.g.L.Turkana.
-Roadsshouldbetarmackedforefficienttransportationoffish.
(d)Lackofadequatemarketduetomanycommunitieshavingnot
developedfisheatingculture,availabilityofagriculturalproductssuchas
beefandpork,manyfishinggroundsbeingfoundinsparselypopulated
areas,manyfishinggroundsbeingfoundfarawayfrompotentialmarkets
andinabilitybymanypeopletoaffordfishduetobeingexpensivedueto
transportcostsbeingpassedontoconsumers.
-Roadstothepotentialmarketsshouldbeimproved.
-Peopleshouldbeeducatedontheimportanceoffishinthedietsoasto
developfisheatingculture,
(e)Inadequatecapitalmakingfishermenunabletoaffordfishing
equipmentwithspeedandgreatercapacitymakingthemunableto
ventureintodeepwaterswherethereismorefishandmodern
preservationfacilitieslimitingtheircatchperday.
-Fishermenshouldformco-operativessoastogetfinancialassistance.
(f)Locationofmarinewaterswithintropicallatitudeswherethereiswarm
waterlimitingthegrowthofplankton.
(g)Narrowcontinentalshelfhencelessfish.
-Modernfishingmethodsandequipmentcanenablefishermentogointo
deepwaterswherethereisabundantfish.
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(h)Fluctuationofvolumeofwaterinriversandlakesduetoseasonal
variationofrainfallandprolongeddroughtswhichcausesfishdeathor
migratione.g.TurkanaafterdammingofR.OmoinEthiopia.
-Conservingwatercatchmentareastoensureregularsupplyofwater.
(i)Growthofweedse.g.waterhyacinthinL.Victoriawhichprohibits
movementofvesselstherebyloweringthecatch.
-Mechanicalorbiologicalremovalofweeds.
(j)Humanactivitiesnearfishinggroundswhichcausesoilerosionwhich
causessiltationwhichlowersthedepthofwateraffectingfishbreeding.
-Discouragingagriculturalactivitiesnearfishinggroundsandplantingof
covercropsaroundfishinggroundstoreducesiltation.
(k)BoundaryconflictbetweenKenyaandUgandaoverMigingo.
-Surveytheboundariestoestablishtherightfulowneroftheisland.
FishinginJapan
-Theleadingfishingnationproducing1/6oftheworld’sfishoutput.
FactorsMakingIttoBetheLeadingNation
PhysicalFactors
1.Ruggedmountainouslandscapewhichdoesn’tofferfavourableconditions
foragriculturemakingfishingtobeanalternativeeconomicactivity.
2.Extensiveshallowcontinentalshelfthathostsalotoffish.
3.ConvergenceofwarmKuroshiwoandcoldOyashiwocurrentsprovidinga
suitablehabitatforplanktononwhichfishfeed.
4.Naturalindentedcoaststhatprovidegoodbreedinggroundaswellas
excellentnaturalfishingportse.g.YokohamaandNagasaki.
HumanFactors
5.Hightechnologysuchaslargeshipswithrefrigerationandprocessing
facilitieswhichcarrylargestocksandenablefishermentocarryout
fishingindeepseasandoverlongperiodsandequipmenttodetectwhere
thereareabundantfish.
6.Largemarketforfishduetofishbeingapopularmeal,populationbeing
largeandwithahighpurchasingpower.
7.Fishfarmingiscarriedoutinthefreshwatersanddamswhichare
intensivelymanagedallowingmaximumreturns.
8.Fishmarketingisdonethroughco-operativeswhichadvanceloansto
fishermentoimproveandexpandtheirfishing.
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ProblemsFacingFishinginJapan
1.HighpollutionofJapanesewatersbyindustrialeffluentsandoilspillage
whichhasinterferedwithaquaticlife.
2.Overfishingalongcoastalwatersasaresultofincreaseinthefishingfleet
whichhasresultedintodepletionofsomefishspecies.
3.RestrictionofJapanesefleetfromothernationsterritoriese.g.tothewest
wheretheyarekeptawaybytheKoreangovernment.
ComparisonbetweenFishinginKenyaandJapan
Similarities
-Bothcountriescarryoutinlandandmarinefishingactivities.
-Thereisoverexploitationoffishresourcesinbothcountries.
-Thereisfishfarminginbothcountriestosupplementnaturalfisheries.
-BothcountriesexperiencetheproblemofpollutionwherebyinKenyait’s
byindustrialeffluentsandagriculturalchemicalsandinJapanby
industriesdumpingmercuryintothesea.
-Modernmethodsofpreservingandprocessingfishsuchasrefrigerated
vesselsandfishfilletingareusedinbothcountries.
-Fishisconsumedlocallyandexportedinbothcountries.
-Inbothcountriesfishermenhaveorganisedthemselvesintoco-operatives.
-Inbothcountriesfishingfacestheproblemofrestrictione.g.injapanby
KoreanGovernmentwhileinKenyatheyarerestrictedfromUgandanand
Tanzanianwaters.
Differences
-InKenyafishingismostlyconcentratedininlandwaterswhileinjapan
fishingismostlyconcentratedintheN.W.Pacificfishinggrounds.
-InKenyafishingiscarriedafewkilometresofftheshorebutinjapanitis
doneindeepseasevenfarbeyondtheirterritorialwaters.
-LessfishisfoundinKenyaduetowarmwatersandnarrowcontinental
shelfwhileinjapanthereplentyoffishinmarinewatersduetobroad
continentalshelfandconvergenceofwarmandcoldcurrent.
-InKenyathereislowdemandforfishthaninJapan.
-Injapanthefishspeciescaughtarecod,Mackerel,AlaskaPollackwhilein
KenyaitisTilapia,NilePerchDagaaandblackbass.
-InJapanmarketingoffishisdonemainlybyco-operativeswhileinKenya
it’smainlydonebyindividualfishermenalthoughtherearefewcooperatives.
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-MarinefishinginKenyafacescompetitionfromothercountriessuchas
JapanandKoreawhileinjapanitdoesn’t.
-JapanhasmoreadvancedtechnologythanKenyathatensuresheavy
catchwhileKenyahaslimitedtechnologyleadingtolowcatch.
ManagementandConservationofFisheries
-Managementoffisheriesreferstoeffectiveplanningandcontroloffish
resourcesandtheirhabitatswhileconservationoffisheriesiscarefuluse
andprotectionoffishresourcesfromoverexploitationbypeople.
ManagementMeasures
(a)Establishmentofresearchstationstocomeupwithfishspecieswhich
candowellinvariousconditionsandknowfishpredatorsandseparate themfromfish.
(b)Educatingpeopleontheimportanceoffishinggroundsandfish
resourcessuchasbyadvisingfarmersnottocultivatenearfishing
groundstopreventsiltationandindustrialiststotreatwastesbefore disposingthem.
(c)Governmentinspectinginlandwaterresourcestoensurepeopledon’t
interferewithregularflowofwaterthroughactivitiessuchasdamming
whichleadtofluctuationofwaterwhichaffectsmigratoryfishandwhich
mayalsocausetheirdeath.
ConservationMeasures
(a)Enactlawbanningofsmallmeshednetstopreventcatchingof
immaturefishwhichleadstodepletionoffishstocksinwaterbodies.
(b)Improvetransportinfrastructuretoenableexploitationoffishing
groundsinremoteareasinordertoreduceoverexploitationofthefew
accessiblefishinggroundssuchasL.Victoria.
(c)Fishfarmingtoensurefishcaughtinnaturalwatersaren’toverexploited anddepleted.
(d)Restockingoverfishedwatersusingfingeringsfromhatcheriesorfrom
overpopulatedfishinggrounds.
(e)Banningfishingtemporarilywheneveroverfishingisdetectedtoletfish
tomatureandbreed.
(f)Licensingfishermentoregulatetherateatwhichfishareexploitedto
preventtheirdepletion.
(g)Regularpatrolstoensurethatforeignfishermendon’ttrespassKenya’s
marinewaterstoreducecompetitionforfish.

WILDLIFEANDTOURISM
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-Plants(flora)andanimals(fauna)intheirnaturalhabitats.
FactorsthatInfluenceDistributionofWildlifeinE.Africa
Climate
-Heavyrainfallresultsinbigforestswhichfavouranimalssuchas
elephantsandbuffaloese.g.Mt.Kenyaforest.
-Aridandsemi-aridclimatesupportshardyanimalswhichcanstand
scarcityofwatere.g.hartbeastandgerenukwhichcanstandscarcityof water.
Relief
(a)Aspect -Windwardsideswhichreceiveheavyrainfallsupportbigforestswhich
favouranimalssuchaselephantswhileleewardsidesofmountainswhich
experiencelowrainfallfavourgrasslandswhichfavourcarnivoreswhichin
turnattractherbivorese.g.Amboseli.
(b)Terrain
-Huntinganimalslikecheetaharefoundinplainsandplateauswhichare
relativelylevelwheretheyareabletorunforlongdistanceschasingtheir prey.
Soils
-Infertileandshallowsoilsfavourgrasslandswhichsuitmanyherbivores andcarnivores.
Vegetation
-Birdslivewheretherearetreessoastohaveshelter.
-Savannahwoodlandswithmoreacaciatreesfavourgiraffeswhichfeed
onfoliagefromthetrees.
-Desertandsemi-desertvegetationsupportshardyanimalssuchasgrants gazelle.
Availabilityofwater
-Fisharefoundinrivers,lakesandoceanse.g.LakesVictoriaKyogaand IndianOcean.
-Someanimalssuchashipposandcrocodileslivemainlyinfreshwaterin
riversandlakese.g.R.NileandL.Naivasha.
Humanactivities
-Manhuntsanimalsillegallythreateningsomespecieswithextinction.
-Manhasdisplacedanimalsfromtheirnaturalhabitatbyclearing
vegetationforagricultureandsettlement.
-Manhastakenmeasurestoconserveendangeredspeciesofwildlife
throughestablishingnationalparks,gamereservesandsanctuaries.
NationalParks
-Areasetasideforpreservationofscenery,wildlifeandhistoricalsitese.g.
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Tsavo,Mombasamarine,Amboseli,SamburuinKenya,Kilimanjaro,
ArushaandSerengetiinTanzaniaandKipendovalleyandRuwenzoriin Uganda.
Characteristics
a)Establishedbyanactofparliament
b)Managedbythegovernment
c)Nootherformoflandispermitted.
d)Maybefencedofftokeepoffpeopleandpreventanimalsfromgoingout.

GameReserve -Anareasetasideforpreservationofwildlifee.g.MaasaiMarainKenya,
SelousgamereserveinTanzaniaandKigeziwildlifereserveinUganda.
Characteristics
a)Managedbylocalauthorities.
b)Accommodatesbothwildlifeandlivestock.
c)Maybeornotfencedoff.
GameSanctuary
Anareasetasideforprotectionofbirdsorotherkindsofanimalswhichare
endangerede.g.KisumuImpalaSanctuary,RhinoSanctuaryatL.Nakuru
NationalparkandMwaluganjeElephantsanctuary.
Characteristics
a)Huntingisn’tpermitted.
b)Predatorsarecontrolled.
c)Breedingandkeepingyoungonesuntiltheyarefitforrelease.
SignificanceofWildlife
a)Touristattractionwhichbringsforeignexchangeandrevenueforthe
governmentbypayingentryfeetothenationalparksandreserves.
b)Wildlifeconservationhasledtoproperutilisationofmarginalareasof
marginalareaswherecropgrowingisdifficultduetounreliablerainfall.
c)Createsemploymentforpeopleraisingtheirstandardsoflivinge.g.game
rangers,touristguidesanddriversandworkersintouristhotels.
d)Wildlifepreservationhelpstopreserveandprotectwatercatchmentareas
andsoilandalsomodifiestheclimateresultinginincreasedrainfall.
e)Asourceoffoode.g.animalsmeetandhoneyfrombees.
f)WildplantssuchasMuarobainiareusedasasourceofmedicine.
g)Ithasledtodevelopmentofindustriesbyprovidingrawmaterialse.g.
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treesprovidetimberusedinthebuildingandconstructionindustry.
h)Ithasledtodevelopmentofinfrastructurewhengoodroadsarebuiltto
makeGameParksmoreaccessibletotourists.
i)IthasdiversifiedtheeconomicbaseofEastAfricancountriesinsteadof
relyingonagricultureasamajorsourceofrevenue.
ProblemsFacingWildlifeinEastAfrica
a.Poachingwhichislikelytobringrarespeciesofanimalstoextinctione.g.
rhinosandelephants.
b.Adverseclimaticconditionswhichcausesdeathofsomeanimalsdueto
shortageofwaterandpasture.
c.Floodswhichdrownanimalsanddestroyplantsdeprivinganimalsof pasture.
d.Bushfireswhichdestroylargetractsoflandandkillanimalswhichmay
causeextinctionofrarespeciesandexposelandtoagentsoferosion.
e.Overgrazingbyhighpopulationofherbivoresresultingindestructionof
vegetationwhichexposeslandtoagentsoferosiondestroyinghabitatsof
animalscausingthemtomigratetoareaswithadequatepasture.
f.Wildlife-humanconflictwherebypastoralistskillscarnivoreswhichkill theirlivestock.
g.PestsanddiseasessuchasFelineImmunodeficiencyViruswhich
threatenstoreducethelionpopulationinmanypartsofAfrica.
h.Humanactivitiese.g.
1.Overgrazingbylivestockwheregrazingisallowedleadingtodestruction
ofthenaturalhabitatforwildlife.
2.Destructionofvegetationbytourists’vehicleswhichreducestheamount
offoodforbrowsinganimals.
3.Encroachmentoflandwhichwasformerlyreservedforwildlifebyclearing
landforsettlementandagriculturewhichhasledtokillingofanimals.
4.Overfishingwhichthreatensthesurvivalofcertainspeciesoffishand othermarinelife.
5.Environmentalpollutionsuchasreleaseofsewagefromlodgeswhich
pollutesthewaterleadingtothepoisoningofanimalswhichdrinkite.g.at
L.Nakuruwhereithasledtothedeathofflamingosandnoisepollution
fromvehiclesandpeoplewhichdisturbsanimalsmakingthemunableto feedwell.
ManagementandConservationofWildlife
Wildlifemanagementiseffectiveplanningandcontrolofwildlifewhile
wildlifeconservationisprotectionofwildlifeagainstinterferenceand
destructionbypeople.
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ManagementMeasures
(a)Educatingpeoplethroughprintandelectronicmediaontheneedto preservewildlife.
(b)Establishingwildlifeclubsinschoolstocreateawarenessonthe
importanceofwildlifeconservation.
(c)Formationofwildlifeconservationbodiese.g.KenyaWildlifeService
chargedwithmanagementandconservationofwildlife.
(d)Initiatinggameranchingorwildlifefarmstocontroloverexploitationof
wildliferesourcesfromthenaturalhabitats.
(e)Cullingofoldanimalstogiveroomfortheyoungeronesandtocontrol
theanimalnumbers.
(f)Translocationofanimalswhosepopulationincreasesbeyondthecapacity
ofparktootherparkswheretheirnumberissmalltopreventtheproblem ofovergrazing.
(g)Encouragingofdomestictourismbyloweringentryfeeintoparksto
helppeopletoappreciatethevalueofwildlifeandthusacceptconserving it.
ConservationMeasures
a)Banninghuntinginordertopreventextinctionofendangeredspecies.
b)Banningtradeinwildgameandtrophiestopreventendangeredanimals
frombecomingextinct.
c)Settingupofgameparkstoprotectwildlifeagainstdestructionbypeople.
d)Settingupofwildlifesanctuariestoprotecttheendangeredspeciesof wildlife.
e)Employmentofparamilitarypersonnelbythegovernmenttocombat poaching.
Tourism
-Processoftravellingtootherplacesforpleasure,businessoreducation.
Types
Eco-tourism
-Environmentallyfriendlytourismortourismemphasizingenvironmental
conservationwheretouristsandlocalcommunitiesareinvolvedin
enjoyingnatureaswellasconservingitor.
Aspects/CharacteristicsofEcotourism
(a)Touristsareguidedalongmarkedtrailsinsteadofdrivingtotheareas
wherethereareanimals.
(b)Telescopicviewingofanimalstoavoiddisturbinganimals.
(c)Useofcampingsitesratherthanbigtouristhotelssoasnottoput
pressureonresourceswhichanimalsdependon.
(d)Prohibitingoffroaddrivingandtravellingbyfoot.
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(e)Allowingparticulartypesofvehicles.
(f)Warningpeopleagainstthrowingcigaretteremainsondryvegetation.
Itsencouragedby:
Creatingawarenessamongthelocalcommunitiestounderstandand
appreciatenaturebyvisitingGameparks.
Thelocalcommunitydirectlybenefitsfromincomefromtourismwhich
providesthemwithincentivetoconservewildlife.
Therearetwotypesoftourismnamely:
Domestictourisminvolveslocalpeoplevisitingtourists’attractionswhich
arewithintheirowncountry. WhyDomestictourismisEncouraged
Tounderstandfeaturesavailableinthecountrysoastoappreciate them.
Understandandappreciatetheneedtoconservewildlife.
TocompensateforthelowturnoutsofinternationaltouristsinApril
andOctoberthishelpstorunthehotelswithoutrelyingontourists fromoutside.
Itsencouragedby:
Loweringentryfeetogameparks.
Loweringchargesintourists’hotelsforKenyanswhowanttostayin them.
Masstourismiswherelargeinstitutionalgroupsofstudentsofstaffvisit tourists’attractions.
GreenTourismiswherepeopletravelseekingtoprotectandrestorethe
damagedenvironmente.g.byplantingtrees.
Internationaltourisminvolvesmovementofpersonsfromonecountryto
anotherforleisure.

FactorsInfluencingTourisminKenya
Physicalfactors
(i)Tropicallocationwhichcausestouristsfromtemperatecountriesto
cometoKenyatoescapetheharshwintercold.
(ii)AttractivescenerysuchassnowcappedMt.Kenya,unpollutedsandy
beaches,GreatRiftValley,hotspringsandgeysers,greatriverswith
fallsetcwhichattracttourists.
(iii)Richnessinwildlifee.g.manyplantsbecauseofwarmclimatee.g.rain
forestsandacaciasofsavannahandtropicalanimalsandbirdswhich
areconservedintheirnaturalhabitat.Itshometothefamous wildebeestintheMara.
HumanFactors
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(i)Therearedifferentethnicgroupswithuniquewayanddancing,
handicrafts,anddressingwhichattractstourists.
(ii)Presenceofhistoricalsiteswhichfeatureartefactsofironagee.g.
KariandusiinNakuruandOrgesailienearMagadiwhichattracttourists.
(iii)Politicalstabilitywhichassurestouristsoftheirsafety.
(iv)Accessibilityofmanytouristsitesbyroad,airandwaterandalsothere
arecommunicationfacilitiesthroughoutthecountry.
(v)Therearecomfortabletouristaccommodationfacilitiese.g.high-class
hotelsandlodgesinmajortownsandgameparks. TouristAttractionsinKenya -
Groupedintotwo:
MainAttractionsattheCoast
(b)Beautifulnaturaluncrowdedandunpollutedsandybeacheswhichare idealforsun-
bathing(sittingorlyinginstrongsunlightinordertomake thebodybrown).
(c)Warmandsunnyclimateduetotropicallocationwhichattractstourists
fromtemperateregionswhoescapefromtheharshwintercoldandcome
forhealthpurposes.
(d)Watersportslikeyatching,surfingandsportfishingwhicharecarried
outintheIndianOcean.
(e)HistoricalsitessuchasFortJesus,Gediruins,VascoDagamaand
slavecavesinMalindiandShimoni.
(f)Traditionalcultureofthecoastalpeoplee.g.theyhaveauniquewayof
dancing,songs,clothingandhandicraftsandshrinese.g.Kayaofthe
Mijikendawhichattractstourists.
(g)Mangroveswampswhichhaveuniqueplantsanddifferentspeciesof
fish,snails,snakes,birdsetc.

MainAttractionsInland
(a)WildlifeconservedinNationalParksandGameReserves.Wildlifeis
conservedintheirnaturalhabitats.
(b)TheFamouswildebeestmigrationintheMara.
(c)Thesunnywarmclimatewhichattractstouristsfromtemperatecountries.
(d)AttractivescenerysuchasthesnowcappedMt.Kenya,theGreatRift
Valleyanditslakesandhotspringsandgeysersandgreatriverswith waterfalls.
(e)Diversecultureofinlandpeoplee.g.theMaasaiwayofdressing, dancing,housing.
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(f)HistoricalattractionssuchasKariandusinearGilgilandOrgesailienear
MagadifeaturingartefactsofIronAge.
(g)NationalmuseumsofKenyainNairobi.
SignificanceofTourism
1.Tourismearnsthecountryforeignexchangebypayingfortheirservicesin
foreigncurrencywhichisusedtotradewithothercountries.
2.Itemploysmanypeopleenablingthemtoearnanincomeandhenceraise
theirstandardoflivinge.g.touristsguides,drivers,intouristhotelsetc.
3.Sourceofrevenueforthegovernmentfromlicensesfromtouroperators,
entrychargestogameparksrentalfeepaidbygamelodgesetc.
4.Hasledtoimprovementofinfrastructureresultingwhennewroadsare
constructedandexistingonesimprovedandalsoairstripsconstructed
whichbenefitspeoplelivingalongtherouteswhichinturnstimulate development.
5.Promotesinternationalunderstandingresultinginpeacebetween
countriesbybringingtogetherpeoplefromdifferentcountriesofthe world..
6.Promotesconservationofwildlifeandhistoricalsitessinetheyaretourist attractions.
7.Promotesagricultureastouristhotelsrelyonfarmersforthesupplyof
foode.g.fruitsandvegetables.
8.Promotesdevelopmentofindustriese.g.craftindustrieswhentourists
buycuriose.g.woodandstonecarvingsandciondos.
ProblemsfacingTourisminKenya
1.Insecuritywherebytouristsarerobbedoftheirbelongingswhich
discouragespotentialtouristsfromvisitingthecountry.Thegovernment
isincreasingsecuritypatrolsintheareasfrequentedbytourists.
2.Ethnicclassesintouristattractionareaswhichmaketouriststostayaway
thanputtheirlivesatriske.g.ethnicclashesinMolo.Thesolutionis
preachingpeaceamongthetribessincetheclashesarefuelledbyethnic hatred.
3.Illegalhuntingofanimalswhichreducessomerarewildlifespecieswhich
attracttouristswhichreducesthenumberoftouristsvisitingthecountry.
Sometouristsencouragepoachingbybuyingtrophiesandinvolvementin
smugglingskins,ivoryandotherarticlesoutofthecountry.Thesolution
usinggamerangerstopatrolgameparkstohuntforillegalhuntersand
banningtradeingametrophiesandinspectingtouristsatdeparture.
4.TerrorismattackssuchasthebombingoftouristresortatKikambala
whichcausesforeigncountriestoissuetraveladvisoriestotheircitizens
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whichreducesthenumberoftourists.Securitypersonnelarebeingtrained
onwaysofdetectingandcounteringterrorism.
5.PollutionofaquaticsystemssuchasL.Nakuruwhichhascausedthe
deathofflamingosreducingthenumberoftouristssincesomeare
specificallyattractedbyflamingos.Thesolutionisregularinspectionof
factoriestoensuretreatmentofeffluentsbeforetheyarereleasedto waterbodies.
6.InternationalmediagivingnegativepublicityofKenyabyportrayingitas
aninsecurecountry.Thereshouldbeestablishedtourismpromotion
bodiesinforeigncountriestoreportpositivelytocounterlies.
7.Airfaresfromandtomanypartsoftheworldishighduetohighfuel
priceswhichdiscouragestouristsfromcomingtoKenya.
ProblemsAssociatedWithTourism
1.Localpeopleborrowingfromtouristssomesocialculturalvalueswith
negativeconsequencese.g.homosexualityandlesbianismwhichcould
leadtobreakageofmarriagelifeandspreadofS.T.Ds.
2.Governmentneglectingothersectorsoftheeconomysuchasagriculture
anddevelopmentprojectslikehealthandeducationbyusingalotof
moneyontouristinfrastructuresuchasconstructionofroadsand
airstripsintouristareassomeofwhicharerarelyused.
3.Sometouristsencouragepoachingbybuyingandsmugglingsouvenirsin
formofgametrophieswhichmakepoacherstokillanimalssoastomeet
demandfortheseproducts.
4.Destructionofvegetationbytourist’svehiclesastheymoveoveritwhich
reducestheamountofpastureavailableforbrowsinganimals.
5.Touristschasinganimalswhiletryingtogetclose-upphotographswhich
destructstheanimalsfeedingandbleedinghabits.Noisefromvehicles
andpeoplealsodisturbanimals.
6.Sometouristscomewiththepurposeoftraffickingdrugsandsome
introduceyouthstodrugsleadingtodrugabuseanditsrelated consequences.
7.Itmaycausesomemaleandfemalechildrentodropoutofschooltobe
showingthetouristsaroundandobtainmoneybybefriendingtouristse.g.
beachboys.
TourisminSwitzerland
-AcountryinC.Europewhichislandlocked.
-60%ofthecountryismountainous.
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-Itsonetheleadingworlddestinationforinternationaltourism.
-Tourismishighlydevelopedandistheleadingforeignexchangeearnerfor thecountry.
FactorsInfluencingTourisminSwitzerland/Whyitgetsmoretouriststhan Kenya.
1.BeautifulsceneryproducedbyAlpswhichisthemaintouristattraction
insummer.Therearefeaturesformedbyglacialerosion.Thereare
featuressuchassnowcappedmountainpeaks,clearbluelakes, waterfallsetc.
2.Climatewherebytouristslikevisitingthereduringwarmsummersand
especiallythesouthernregionofTicinowhichreceivesmoretouristsas
itexperiencesawarmersummerduetoproximitytoMediterraneanSea.
Thecountryalsoexperienceswinterinwhichthemountainpeaksandslopes
provideexcellentgroundforskiingandskating.
1.IthasExcellentinfrastructuralfacilitieswithawelldevelopednetwork
ofroads,railways,electrifiedrailcarsandcablecarswhichenable
touriststotraveleasilytocentresofattraction.
2.Thepolicyofneutralitywhichmakespeoplefromallthepartsofthe
worldtofeelathomewhilethere.
3.SeveralmajorlanguagesofEuropearespokenwhichmakesitpossible
fortouriststogetexcellentservicesinthecountry.
4.AccessibilityduetoitslocationinC.Europefortouristsfromcountries
fromFrance,Italy,Spain,GermanyandBelgium.
5.Ithasexcellentaccommodationfacilitieswhicharefairlypricedand
offerdiscountstomasstourists.
6.It’shighlyindustrialisedandmanypeopleareemployedandearna
goodincomeenablingpeopletosaveforholidays.
7.It’sacentreforinternationalmeetingssincetheUNheadquartersarein
Genevaandthepeoplewhogoformeetingstaketimetotourvarious
partsofthecountry.
8.Touristsorganisethemselvesintogroupsinordertonegotiateforair
travelandhotelaccommodationmakingtourismpossibleforacross
sectionofthesociety.
9.Thecountryhasfavourablebankinglawssopeoplevisitthatcountryas
theygotobanktheirmoney.
10. Ithasoneofthelowestcrimeratesintheworldwhichmakemany
touriststotouritbecausetheirsecurityisguaranteed.
SignificanceoftourismtoSwitzerland
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1.Earnsthecountryforeignexchangewhichisusedtofinancedevelopment.
2.Thecountryearnsrevenuethroughtaxationanddirectfeecollection.
3.CreatesemploymentinbothSwitzerland.
4.Ithasencourageddevelopmentofotherindustriese.g.banking,insurance andtransport.
5.Hasopenedupunproductiveareasfordevelopmente.g.glaciated landscapes.
6.Switzerlandhasgainedgoodinternationalreputationandfamethrough tourism.
ComparisonbetweenTourisminKenyaandSwitzerland
Similarities
Bothcountieshavesimilartouristattractionse.g.snowcapped
mountains,waterfallsandrichculture.
Bothcountrieshavewellestablishedhotelindustryoffering
excellentaccommodationtotourists.
Bothcountrieshavehealthspaswithmineralwaterwhichpeople
considertocurecertainailments.InSwitzerlandtheyareatMt.
MoritzandinKenyaatL.Bogoria.
Inbothcountriestouristsvisitallyearround.
Inbothcountiestourismsectorearnsasignificantfractionof foreignexchange.
Bothcountriesenjoyapeacefulpoliticalenvironmentsuitablefor tourism.
Touristsinbothcountriesareattractedbywaterfalls.In
SwitzerlandtheyareassociatedwithhangingvalleyswhileKenya’s
arealongherrivers.
Bothcountrieshavenationalparkse.g.SwissNationalParkin
SwitzerlandandAmboseliNationalParkinKenya.
Differences/WhatTouristsGoToSeeInKenyaWhichTheyCantSeeIn
SwitzerlandandViceVersa Kenyahasmorephysicalfeatureswhichattracttouriststhan
Switzerlande.g.Riftvalley,lakes,mountains.
Kenya’sclimateiswarmthroughouttheyearwhileSwitzerland
experienceswarmsummersandcoldwinters.
Kenyahastropicalwildlifesuchastheelephant,cheetah,lionetc.
whichSwitzerlandlacks.
KenyaisricherintraditionalculturethanSwitzerlandduetoits
manyethnicgroups.
SwitzerlandreceivesmorevisitorsthanKenyaandrevenuefrom
theindustryisfarmuchhighercomparedtoKenya’s.
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KenyahasmarineattractionwhichSwitzerlandlacksbecauseit’s
alandlockedcountry.
InKenyaanimalsarekeptingameparkswhileinSwitzerlandthey arekeptinzoos.
Switzerlandhaswintersportssuchasskiingandice-skatingwhich Kenyalacks.
InSwitzerlanddomestictourismismorepronouncedthanin
Kenyaduetohighlevelsofincome.
ReasonsWhyManyKenyansDon’tVisitOtherPlacesasTourists
(a)Shortageofaccommodationespeciallyduringthetouristpeakseason
makingaccommodationexpensiveandhenceunaffordable.
(b)Unemploymentwhichmakesmanypeopleunabletoaffordtotravellet
alonepayforfoodandhotelaccommodation.
(c)Lowincomefromemploymentmakingmanypeopleunabletoafford
holidaysintouristattractionareas.
(d)Someemployeesareunabletogetleavesoastobeabletovisit tourists’attractions.
(e)Manypeoplehaven’tdevelopedthehabitofgoingtovisitareaswith
tourists’attractionsduringholidays.
TheFutureofTourisminKenya/WaysinwhichKenyaisPlanningtoExpand herTourism
TourisminKenyahasgoodprospectsandmayexpandinfutureifthe
followingfactorsareimplemented:
1.Improvementofinfrastructureinsemi-aridareaswhichhavetourist
attractionse.g.N.EasternProvince.
2.AggressivepromotionandmarketingofKenyaasatouristdestination
inothercountrieswhichisdoneby(KTDC)KenyaTouristDevelopment
Corporationand(KTB)KenyaTourismBoard.
3.Encouragementofdomestictourismbyshowingdocumentaries
throughtheelectronicmediaonKenya’stouristsitese.g.‘Outand About’
4.Offeringdomestictouristsfavourableratesofaccommodationinthe
hotelsduringtheoffpeaktouristseason.
5.Beefingupsecuritytoensuretouristsdon’tgainaccesstothecountry
inordertomaketouriststochooseKenyaastheirdestinationsince
theirsafetywillbeguaranteed.
6.Loweringtariffsleviedparticularlyonfoodandaccommodationin
touristshotelstoencouragetouriststocomeandspendmoredays. ENERGY
-Thepowerrequiredtocarryoutanactivitye.g.diesel,electricity,etc.
SourcesofEnergy
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-Classifiedinto2types:renewableandnon-renewablesourcesofenergy.
RenewableSourcesofEnergy
-Whichcanberegeneratedandusedoverandoveragain.
TypesofRenewablesourcesofEnergy
1.Sun
2.Wind
3.Water(geothermal,hydropower,tidesandwaves). 4.Biomass(wood,biogas)
5.Animals. Sun
-Energyfromthesuniscalledsolarenergy.
-Thesunistheprimarysourceofalltypesofenergy.
-Solarradiationcanbeconvertedinto2typesofenergy.
Heat
-Solarpanelsareusedtotapsolarenergywhichisthenusedtoheatwaterin
coiledpipeswhichareinsidewhicharepaintedblack.
-Mirrorsareusedtoconvergeraysofthesunononespotwhicharethen
usedtoheatwaterorcookfoodinapot.
-Sun’sraysarereflectedandfocusedoncropstodrythem.
Electricity
Photo-voltaiccellsareusedwhichwhensunlightshinesonthemthey
generateelectricitywhichisthenstoredinbatteries.
AdvantagesofSolarEnergy
(a)Cheapbecauseit’sobtainedfromsunlightwhichisn’tpaidfor.
(b)Requiresminimalmaintenanceoncetappingequipmenthasbeen installed.
(c)Itdoesn’tpollutetheenvironmentlikefossilfuels(environmentally friendly)
(d)Canbestoredinbatteriesandusedwhenthereisnosunlight.
(e)It’sinexhaustiblei.e.availableaslongasthesuncontinuestoshine.
(f)Availableinallpartsoftheworld.
Disadvantages
(a)Can’tbeusedtorunheavymachinery.
(b)Tappingequipmente.g.solarpanelsareexpensivetobuy.
(c)Thebatterieswhichit’sstoredinarecumbersometocarryaround.
(d)Itfluctuatesinvariousseasonsthroughouttheyear.
(e)Largenumbersofsolarpanelsarerequiredtoproduceusefulamounts ofenergy.
Wind
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Windenergyismainlyusedinaridandsemi-aridareaswherewindflowisn’t
obstructedbyvegetation.
Windisharvestedusingwindmillsandconvertedintomechanicalenergy
whichisusedforpumpingwater,grindinggrainandgeneratingelectricity.
Windenergyisalsousedtopropeloceangoingvesselse.g.dhows.
Advantages
(a)Itisaninexhaustiblesourceofenergy.
(b)Itdoesn’tpollutetheenvironment.
(c)Landbetweenthewindmillscanbeusedforotherpurposes.
(d)Canbeproducedonsmallscalebasisforlocalconsumers.
Disadvantages/Problems.
-Windmillsforharvestingitareexpensivetobuyandinstall.
-Theequipmentforharvestingisrelativelyexpensivetomaintain. -
Manywindmillsarerequiredtoprovideasignificantamountofelectrical energy.
-Itfluctuateswhenthestrengthanddirectionofwindchanges. -
Thelargetractsoflanditrequires(windfarms)altertheenvironment beauty.
-It’snotavailableinmanyareasexceptinopenareas.
Water
GeothermalPower
-Steamfromundergroundisheatedwhenincontactwithhotrocks.
-Thesteamfindsitswaytothesurfacethroughfissuresorcracks. -
Thesteamistappedandusedtoturnturbinesandthusgenerateelectricity
e.g.atOlkariainKenya.
Advantages
-Cheaperasnofuelisrequiredtoturnturbines.
-ItisContinuous.
-It’sinexhaustibleunlikehydro-powerwhichdependsonwaterlevels. -
Thecostofoperatinggeothermalpowerstationislowcomparedtohydropowerstation.
-Agoodsupplementforothersourcesofenergy.
Disadvantages
(a) Causesnoisepollutionfromgenerationplant.
(b) Notavailableinmanyareaswheretherearen’thotsprings andgeysers.
(c)Gasesreleasedwithsteammaypollutetheenvironmente.g.
sulphurdioxide,hydrogensulphide,methane,ammonia,etc.
(d) Itsexplorationisexpensivebecauseitrequiresexpensive technology.
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Hydro/Water-power
-Powerobtainedfromfallingwater.
-Mostwidelyusedrenewablesourceofenergy.
-Usedtogenerateelectricity(HEP)whenfallingwaterisdirectedtoturn
turbinesconnectedtogeneratorstoproduceelectricity.
Advantages
(a) Itdoesn’tpollutetheenvironment.
(b) It’sinexhaustible.
(c)Hydroelectricpowercanbetransmittedoverlongdistancesusing cables.
(d)DamsforHEPgenerationcreatelakeswhichcanbeusedfor
recreation,irrigationandfishing.
(e) HEPcanbeusedformanypurposese.g.transport,cooking, etc.
(f)It’sreliablebecausesignificantlevelsofenergyareproduced.
Disadvantages
(a) Affectedbyfluctuationofwaterlevelsinreservoirs.
(b) ConstructionofHEPgenerationdamsdisplacesmanypeople.
(c)Itcausesinconveniencetomigratoryspeciesoffish.
(d)Thecostofconstructingandrunninghydro-powerplantsis high.
(e) Damsmaybreakanddestroyalotofpropertyandlives downstream.
(f)Notavailablethroughouttheworld.
TidesandWaves
-Damsarebuiltacrossanestuary.
-Incomingandoutgoingtidesrotateturbinesandelectricityisgeneratedin
similarwayashydro-power.
Biomass
-Allformsofenergyreleasedbyplantsandanimalwastes. Woodfuel
Firewood,charcoalandsawdustwhichareusedforcookingandheating.
Itcanbeexhaustedifitscutatahigherratethantheyarebeingreplaced.So
itrequiresmanagementifithastobesustained.
AdvantagesofWood
(a) It’sacheapsourceofenergy.
(b) Availablealmostthroughouttheworld.
(c)Nomaintenancecostisneeded.
(d) Ashesfromburnedfirewoodcanbeusedforplastering housesandasafertilizer.
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Disadvantages
(a) Dirtybecausewhenburningitgivesoffsmokeandsoot.
(b) Pollutesenvironmentthroughthegasesitemits.
(c)Requiresabigstoragearea.
(d) Itsoverexploitationleadstodeforestationleadingto
problemsofsoilerosion,globalwarmingandshortageofwater.
PowerAlcohol
Agriculturalwastese.g.straw,molassesandcassavaarefermentedto
producepoweralcoholwhichisdirectlyusedtoheatorblendedwith
gasolinetorunmachines.
Biogas
Humanandanimalwastesareusedtoproducemethane(biogas)through
fermentationwhichisusedforcookingandlighting.
AdvantagesofBiomass
(a) Aninexhaustiblesourceofenergy.
(b) Fuelsareefficientandrelativelyclean.
(c)Cheapbecauseitmakesuseofwasteproducts.
(d) Productionofbiogasischeapasitdoesn’trequireadvanced technology.
(e) Biogasgivestwiceasmuchheatasnaturalgas.
(f)Slurryleftbehindwhenbiogasisbeingmadecanbeusedas fertilizer.
(g) Availablethroughouttheworld.
Disadvantages
(a) Biogasdigestersrequirealotofspaceandcan’tbesetin congestedareas.
(b) Can’tbetransportedtodistantplaces.
(c)Contributestopollutionwhichcausesglobalwarming.
Animals
ExamplesofAnimalsandTheirUses
(a) Oxenforploughingandpullingcarts.
(b) Horsesfortransportingbyridingontheirbacks.
(c)Donkeyfortransportingofgoodsontheirbacksorbypullingcarts.
(d) Camelfortransportinggoodsandpeopleontheirbacks.
(e) ElephantinBurmaandIndiafortransportinglogsfrom
forests
Advantages
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(a) Inexhaustiblebecauseanimalskeepmultiplyingasaresultof production.

(b) Availableinallpartsoftheworld.
(c)Cheeptomaintainastheyonlyrequirefoodandwater.
(d)Animalsareflexiblebecausetheyareablegothroughforests
andnarrowpathsunlikemotorvehicles.
(e) Someareslaughteredformeatwhentheyoutlivetheir
usefulnesse.g.oxen,camelsetc.
Disadvantages
(a) Theyarepronetodiseasesandfatigue.
(b) Theycandieasaresultoftoomuchwork.
(c)Theiruseisrestrictedonlytoruralareas.
(d) Theycanonlytransportsmallloads.
(e) Theycanonlydolimitedworkbecausetheytireeasily.
Non-renewableSourcesofEnergy
-Sourcesofenergywhichareexhaustibleiftheyaren’twellmanaged. -
Theyincludepetroleum,coalanduranium. Coal
-Ablackorbrownrockmadeofcarbon.
Mud,sandandothermaterialsaredepositedovervegetativematter
suchastreetrunksandbranches.
Depositedmaterialpreventsdecompositionandalsoexertspressure
onitcausinggreatheat.
Peatlayersareformedwhichgraduallychangeintocoal.
Usageofcoalhasdeclineddueto:
1.Discoveryofotherformsofenergysuchaspetroleum.
2.Exhaustionofoldaccessiblemines.
3.Highcostofminingcoal.
AdvantagesofCoal
(a) Moreefficientinthermalgenerationofelectricitythanoil.
(b) Mostsuitableinthesmeltingofiron.
Disadvantages
Itleavesalotofdirtonanysurfaceittouches.
Itleadstoformationofsmogandsmokewhichisahealthhazard.
Itsminingleadstoenvironmentaldegradation.
Petroleum
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-Consistsofgaseousandliquidhydrocarbonsfromanimalandvegetation
matterlaidonsedimentaryrocks.
Naturalgasandpetroleumareextractedfromthesameoilwells.
Petroleumisrefinedtogetby-productssuchasmotoroil,diesel,kerosene,
gasoline,jetfuel,lubricants,liquidandpetroleumgas.
Naturalgasoccursaloneorisfoundontheupperlayersofcrudeoil.
It’samixtureofhydrocarbonswithmethanemakingabout90%andother
gasessuchaspropane,ethaneandbutane.
It’susedfordomesticpurposes,generationofthermalelectricityandfor
industrialactivities.
Advantages
(a)Acleansourceofenergytouse.
(b)Cheaptotransportbypipestodistantareas.
(c)Transportandmaintenancecostsarelow.
(d)Easytouseasoneneedsonlyswitchesandburners.
(e)Freeoftheeffectsofweatherchanges.
Disadvantages
(a)Anexhaustiblesourceofenergy.
(b)Accidentalfirescanoccurincasethegasleaksorthepipeis damaged.
(c)Itcangreatlypollutetheenvironmentincaseofaccidentalfires occurrence.
(d)Expensiveforlowincomegroups.
Uranium
-Anaturallyoccurringradioactivematerialusedtoproducenuclearenergyin
fusionandfissioninreactors.
Alotofheatisproducedandthewaterusedtocooltheheatproducingcore
isheatedandturnsintosteamusedtogenerateelectricity.
Advantages
(a) It’salonglastingsupplyofrawmaterial.
(b) Itproduceslargeamountsofenergy.
(c)Itdoesn’tproducegreenhousegases.
Disadvantages
(a) It’sexpensivetoconstructanuclearreactor.
(b) Wastesfromanuclearpowerstationaredifficulttodispose
becausetheyareradioactivefor100years.
(c)Itisanexhaustiblesourceofenergy.
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HEPProjectsinKenya
FactorsFavouringDevelopmentofHEP
PhysicalFactors
1.AlargeandconstantvolumeofwatersuchasR.Tanaandits tributaries.
2.Canbelocatedonareaswithfallingwatersuchasonrapids,waterfalls, andKnickpoints.
3.Deepandnarrowvalley.Deeptoensurealargecapacityforthe
reservoirandnarrowtominimizethecostofconstructingthedam.
4.Hardbasementrockstoreducetheamountofinfiltrationandalsoto
provideastrongfoundationforthedam.
HumanFactors
Areafordamandreservoirconstructionshouldbesparselypopulatedto
minimizethecostofrelocatingpeople.
Thereshouldbepresenceofindustriesandurbanareastoprovidemarket
forelectricitytomaketheprojecteconomicallyviableorbringaprofit.
ConstructionofanHEPstationrequiresadequatecapitalbecauseit’s
expensivetoconstructadam,tomaintainit,totransmitpowerandto
compensatethedisplacedpeople.Kenyaisfinancedfromexternal
sourcee.g.SonduMiriuwhichisfinancedbyJapanesegovernment.
WhenreferringtoKenyayoushouldsay:‘Thereispresenceof…’
DevelopmentofHEPinKenya
Bythedawnofindependencetherewasfewindustriesandhencelow
demandforelectricity.
FewHEPstationsavailableweresetuptosupplypowerforagricultural processing.
TheearlieststationswereMescoonR.Maragua,NdulaonR.Thikaand
SaganaonR.Sagana.
TherestofpowersupplycamefromdieselplantsinKipevu.
TherewaspowerwhichwasbeingimportedfromUgandawhichwas connectedin1955.
Demandforelectricityincreasedasmoreindustrieswereestablished.
Thecountryoptedtouseherwaterresourcestoprovideelectricityand
reduceherrelianceonpowerfromUganda.
R.Tanawasidentifiedastheonewiththelargestpotential.
Sevensitesappearingasacascadewereidentifiedalongtheriverwhere
theSevenForksSchemewaslaunched.
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Kindarumawasthefirstprojecttobeestablishedwhichwascompleted in1968.
Kamburufollowedwhichwascompletedin1974.
Gitaruwasnextwhichgotcompletedin1978.
Masingawhichisamultipurposeprojectwascompletedin1981.Ithas
thelargestlake.It’sareservoirfortherestofthedamsdownstream
andthewaterisalsousedtoprovidewaterforirrigation.
Kiamberewasthelaststationdownstreamcompletedin1988.
TheotherproposedpowerstationstocompletetheSevenForksproject
areMutongaandGrandFalls.
TheotherHEPstationsareTurkwelGorgeonR.Turkwelwhichwas
completedin1991andSondu-Miriuwhichwasexpectedtobe completedin2008.
It’sthemainsourceofelectricityaccountingfor72%ofpowerproduction.
ThestationsaremaintainedbyKenGenwhichsellspowertoKPLCwhich
distributesittoconsumersatafee.
BenefitsofTanaRiverProjects
1.Thereservoirsprovidepowerforirrigationanddomesticuse.
2.Thedamspromotetransportbyservingasbridgesacrosstherivers.
3.Thedamsareatouristattractione.g.Masingatouristlodgeprovides
recreationalfacilities.
4.Thedamsprovidefreshwaterfisheries.
5.Theprojectshavegeneratedemploymenttopeoplethusraisingtheir
standardofliving.
ProblemsFacingtheTanaRiverProjects
1.Shortageofcapitaltopurchasesparepartswhichhasinterferedwith
maintenanceofmachineryinthepowerhouse.
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2.FluctuationofthewaterlevelsofR.Tanaduetodroughtinthe
catchmentareasandevaporationduetoflowingthroughthedryNyika
regionwhichaffectspowergeneration.
3.Siltationofdamswhichoccasionallyblocksthetailracetunnelsleading
toalowvolumeofwateranddredgingisrequiredwhichisexpensive.
4.Inadequateskillsandtechnologywhichcausesfailuretomaximiseon
powerproduction.
HEPProjectsinUganda
IthasthelargestrenewablefreshwaterresourcesinE.Africa.
Itisendowedwithnumerousriversandlakeswithhighpotentialofelectricity generation.
Thecountryreceivesanaverageof1000mmofrainthroughouttheyear.
R.NilewhichflowsoutofL.Victoriahasthehighestpotential.
Whereitflowsoutithasprovidedanaturalwaterfall.
OwenFallsDamwasbuiltonthesitein1954.
It’stheAfrica’slargeststoragedam.
ItsuppliesmostofUganda’selectricity(162MW)andexports30MWto Kenya.
Thepresenceofpowerwasacatalysttoindustrialdevelopmente.g.Njinja
townafewmetresfromthedambecameasceneofseveralindustriesto
usethecheapelectricitynearby.
ThecountryisdevelopinganotherpowerstationbelowtheOwenFalls.
KikagatRivertothesouthprovidespoweraroundMutukulaandKabale areasinS.WUganda.
MobukuRiversuppliesmostofthepowerusedinthecopperminesat Kilembe.
HEPProjectsinAfrica
AfricahasthelargestconcentrationandpotentialareasofHEPgeneration.
Thepotentialhasn’tbeenutiliseddueto:
1.Inadequatefinancialresources.Wheretheprojectsaretobe
establishedthecountriesseekexternalborrowingofmoneywhichis
paidformanyyearsoverburdeningtheconcernedcountries.
2.Someofthepotentialareasbeinginremoteareasfarawayfrom
denselypopulatedareasandindustrialareas.
3.Someofthecountriesarelowlyindustrialisedwhichmeansthereisn’t
adequatemarketforHEPmakingtheventureeconomicallyunviable.
4.SomeoftheriverswithpotentialforHEPgenerationdon’thave
constantvolumeofwaterthroughouttheyearduetoseasonalfallof
rainwhichaffectspowergeneration. Someofthemajorprojectsare:
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AswanonR.Nile
Kariba(sharedamongZambiaandZimbabwe)andCaboraBassaon R.Zambezi.
KainjionR.Niger
AkosomboinR.Volta(Ghana)
OwenFalls(Uganda)andSennaronR.Nile
VanderkloofonR.Orange
IngaandR.LeMarinelonR.Congo. HEPProjectsinTanzania
NyumbayaMungudamandHaledamonR.Pangani.
Kagera
Malagasi
GeothermalPowerProjectsinKenya
GeothermalelectricityisgeneratedinareaswhichexperienceVulcanicity where:
Magmaorhotrockscomeintocontactwithpercolatingwater.
Thewaterisheatedbeyonditsboilingpoint(superheated).
Thesteamescapesthroughcracksandholestothesurface
Thesteamisharnessedusingpipesandusedtoturnturbinesthat
driveelectricgenerators.
InKenyaareaswiththegreatestpotentialforgeothermalpowerarefound
withintheRiftValleyfromL.MagaditoL.TurkanaonKenya-Ethiopiaborder.
GeothermalpowergenerationiscarriedoutatOlkariatothesouthof Naivasha.
Itaccountsfor10%ofthecountry’spowerneeds.
Otherpotentialareasare:
L.Bogoriawhichhasthehighestpotentialwithnumeroushotsprings
andgeysersbyitshores.
EburutothenorthofL.Naivasha
Menengaicraterregion
AreasaroundL.Baringo
Magadi
SouthofL.Turkana.
BetweenmountainsLongonotandSuswa
ProblemsofEnergyDevelopmentinKenya
Theaimistoreduceoverdependenceonimportedoil.
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1.Inadequatecapitalwhichcausesthecountrytoseekexternalborrowing
ofmoneywhichispaidformanyyearsoverburdeningthecountry.
2.Smallmarketforpowerbecauseofthehighcostofconnectionwhich
preventsitshorizontalspread.
3.Seasonalfluctuationofwaterlevelsindamsduetolowrainfallon
catchmentareasandsomeriversflowingthroughdryareaswhere
muchofwaterislostthroughevaporationwhichleadstoinconvenience
toconsumersbecauseofpowerrationing.
4.Regularsiltationofdamsduetodepositionofsoilwhichrequires
regulardredgingwhichisquiteexpensive.
5.Locationofsomepowergenerationplantsinremoteareasmakingit
expensivetotransportpowerforlongdistances.
6.Thereislimitedspreadofsolarpowerinruralareasbecausethe
equipmentisexpensivetoinstallandlackofacceptancebecauseit
fluctuateswithseasons.
7.Thereislackofacceptanceofwindpowerandmanypeopleusediesel
topumpwaterinsteadofit.
8.Thereisproblemofoverexploitationofwoodfuelasaresultof
populationincreasingatafasterratewhichhasledtodeforestation
leadingtosoilerosionandreducedamountsofrainfallasaresultof
theeffectonwatercycle.
SignificanceofEnergy
1.Fordomesticusee.g.woodandcharcoalforcookingandheating,etc.
2.Foruseinindustriese.g.electricity,petroleum,etc.
3.Usedintransportatione.g.electriccars,dieselandpetrolusedinmotor vehicles,etc.
4.Usedinagriculturee.g.dieselfortractorswhichdrawploughs,
electricityformilkingmachines,etc.
5.Usedinwatersupplywheredieselengineswindmillsandsolarpoweris
usedtopumpwater.
6.Usedformedicalpurposeswhereelectricityisusedtorunequipment
fordiagnosise.g.X-Rayandscanningmachinesandinrefrigerationto
preservespecimensonmedicineresearch.
TheEnergy/OilCrisis
Situationwherebythedemandforoilishigherthantheamountthatisbeing
suppliedleadingtohighoilprices. Causes
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1.Over-relianceonpetroleumanditsproducts.
2.Highoilpricesduetosharpriseinoildemand.
3.Economicandpoliticalsanctions
4.Uncertaintiesinoilsuppliestoconsumers.
5.Rapiddepletionofoilreserves.
6.ConflictintheMiddleEastespeciallybetweenIsraelandPalestine.
7.Exhaustionofwoodfuel
8.Mismanagementofenergy
9.OilproductionlimitssetbyOPEC
10. ArtificialshortagesbycountrieslikeRussiaandUSArelyingonoil
fromothercountriesandconservingtheirown.
ExamplesofEnergyCrisisinthePast
1973and1974whentherewaswarbetweenIsraelandArab
countries.TheArabcountrieswhichareOPECmemberswithheld
oilsupplytoIsraelisupportingcountriese.g.USAandtheresult
wassharpincreaseinoilprices.
1991firstPersianGulfwarcausedbytriggeredbyIraqinvasionof
Kuwaitcausedby:
(a) Iraq’sclaimthatKuwaitwasitsterritory.
(b) KuwaitwastakingoilfromIraq’soilfromRumailafields
whichlaybeneathbothcountries.
(c)KuwaitwasexceedingtheoilproductionlimitssetbyOPEC.
ManyKuwait’soilfieldsweresetonfireandIraqdumpedabout465m
gallonsofKuwait’scrudeoiltothePersianGulf.
Thereresultedamajoroilcrisiswhichwasworsenedbythetradeembargo.
2003secondPersianGulfWar.Iraqhadfailedtodestroyweaponsof
massdestructionwhichshehadagreedtodoforthe1991wartoend.
ThewarledtoarapidincreaseinoilpricesfromUS$35atthestartofwar
toUS$50by2004.ItforcedOPECmemberstoincreaserdailycrudeoil
outputsby8%tostabiliseprices.
ImpactofEnergyCrisis
(a)Increaseinthepricesofmanycommoditiesasaresultofincrease
inthecostofproductionandtransportationwhereoilisusedto
providepowerandasarawmaterialinsomeindustries.
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(b)Increaseinthepricesofimportsduetohighcrudeoilpriceswhich
affectthebalanceoftradebycausingearningsfromexportstobe
lowerthanthecostofimports.
(c)Highratesofinflationordevaluationofcurrencyasaresultof
commoditypricesrisinghighduetothecostofimportsbeing
passedtotheconsumers.
(d)Industriesareforcedtolayoffworkersbecauseofthehighcostof
productionwhichcancauselosses.
(e)Itcausesthepriceofotherformsofenergye.g.charcoalandgas
alsotobecomeexpensive.
(f)Developingcountriesrunningintoheavydeptasaresultof
borrowingheavilytopayforoilloanswhicharepaidathighinterest
ratesmakingthecountryunabletoinvestindevelopmentprojects.
(g)Decreaseinagriculturalproductionasaresultofdecreaseinthe
useofagriculturalinputssuchasfertilizersduetotheirhighcost
broughtaboutbyincreaseinoilprices.
(h)Declineinthenumberoftouristsasaresultofescalationofoil
faresmakingitveryexpensivetotravel.
(i)Environmentaldegradationasaresultofenvironmentaldegradation
broughtaboutbythehighdemandforcharcoalandfirewoodwhich
leadstosoilerosionandlowrainfallamounts.
Solutions
(a)Developingalternativesourcesofenergye.g.solar,biomass, GeothermalandHEP.
(b)Managementandconservationofenergy.
(c)Developingnuclearenergytoenhanceselfsufficiencyinenergy provision.
(d)Encouragingindustriestousecoalwhichisslightlycheaperthan petroleum.
ManagementandConservationofEnergy
Managementofenergyiseffectiveplanningandcontrolofenergyresources.
ManagementMeasures
(a)Controlofimportationofvehicleswithlargeenginecapacitywhich
consumesalotoffuel.
(b)Encouragingmanypeopletousepublictransportinorderto
reducethenumberofvehiclesonroadsandthusfuelconsumption.
(c)Educatingpeoplethroughmassmediatocreateawarenessonthe
importanceofconservingenergy.
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(d)Improvementandproperplanningofroadnetworktoreduce
trafficjamsinwhichalotoffueliswasted.
(e)Agroforestry,afforestationandreafforestationprogrammesto
reduceoverexploitationofnaturalforests.
(f)Banninglogging,selectivefellingoftreesandresettlingpeoplewho
havesettledintoforests.
ConservationofEnergy
Conservationofenergyisusingavailableenergyresourcesinthemost
effectivemannertoensurethereisn’twastage.
ConservationMeasures
(a)Puttingoffelectricitygadgetswhentheyarenotinuse.
(b)Propermotorvehiclemaintenanceinorderforthemtousefuel efficiently.
(c)Encouraginguseofpublictransportwhichcarriesmanypeopleata goe.g.buses.
(d)Encouraginguseofrenewablesourcesofenergye.g.solar,wind
andbiogastosaveonoilandwood.
(e)Encouraginguseofenergysavingstoveswhichuselittlecharcoal
andproducealotofenergy.

INDUSTRY
Industry-anyformofeconomicactivitythroughwhichpeopleproducegoods
andservicesfortheirconsumption.
Industrialisation-processthroughwhichacountryestablishesmanufacturing industries.
Acountryisreferredtoasindustrialisedwhenproductionofmanufactured
goodsisthemaineconomicactivityinthatcountry.Lessindustrialised
countriesmainlyproduceagriculturalrawmaterials.

FactorsInfluencingLocationandDevelopmentofIndustries RawMaterials
Industriesarelocatednearsourcesofrawmaterialstoreduce
transportationcostse.g.sugarmillingfactoriesinsugargrowingareas,
mostlyinurbanareasnearairportsandoilrefineriesatthecoastsinceoil
isbulkyandexpensivetotransportinland.
Theyarealsoestablishedwherethereisasteadysourceofrawmaterials
inorderforthemtobeeconomicallyviablee.g.oilrefineriesatthecoast
Power
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Theyarelocatednearmainpowersupplypintstoreducethe
costoftransmittingpowere.g.thoseinJinjatownnearOwen fallsdam.
TransportandCommunication
Theyarelocatedwheretransportationsystemiswell
establishedtoensureefficientandquicktransportationofraw
materialstoindustriesandfinishedgoodstothemarkete.g.in urbancentres.
Theyarelocatedwherethereisefficientcommunicationsoas
tostayintouchwiththeirsuppliersandtheirconsumers.
Welldevelopedcommunicationsystemsalsolowerthe transportcost.
Market
Theyarelocatedwherebuyersofproductsareavailableorin
areaswithdensepopulationtomaketheiroperationtobe
economicallyviablesincetheyareestablishedforcommercial
purposetomakeaprofite.g.inurbanareas,Kenyahighlands,
lakeregionandcoastalstrip.
Locationnearmarketsisalsoduetothenatureofgoodse.g.
perishablegoodshavetobeconsumedbeforetheygobade.g.
breadanddailyproducts.Industriesmakingfragilegoodsare
locatednearmarketstopreventthehighriskofbreakageduring
transportatione.g.glass,bricksandroofingtiles.
Labour
Labourintensiveindustriesarelocatedindenselypopulated
areaswherethereisadequateandcheaplabourtoreduce productioncosts.
Alsosoastoreducethecostoftransportingandhousing workers.
Acountrywithskilledmanpowerhasfasterindustrialgrowth
thanthatwithoutwhichareforcedtodependonexpatriates
whoarecostlytohireandmaintainwhichlowerstheprofitsof suchindustries.
Industriesalsorequireskilledmanpowerandmanagement
skillstoensuremaximumoutputandlowproductioncosts.
WaterSupply
Somearelocatednearsourcesofwatersuchaslarge
permanentriversandlakestoprovidewaterforprocessingraw
materialse.g.coffeepulping,sugarmillinge.g.MumiasnearR.
Nzoia,SonynearR.MigoriandChemililnearR.Nyando.
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GovernmentPolicies
Decentralisationofindustriesorencouragingbyproviding
incentiveslocationofindustriesfromurbantoruralareas.
Incentives
1.Taxexemptions
2.Protectionfromforeigncompetition.
Aims
1.Developallparts.
2.Createjobsinruralareastominimizerural-urbanmigration.
3.Takeindustrieswherelabourisfound.
4.Openremoteorunderdevelopedareasfordevelopment.
5.Toreducecongestioninthecapitalcity.
6.Environmentalreasonswherebyindustriesarelocated
awayfromresidentialareasbecausetheyproduceharmful
fumesandalotofnoise.
7.Securityreasonstopreventindustriesfrombeingattacked
byterroristsbecauseiftheywerealltogethertherewould
beagreatloss.
E.g.EPZindustrieslocatedatAthiRivertoreducecongestioninNairobi
industrialareaandMariakaniandKikuyuSteelRollingMillsestablishedin
theirrespectiveareastoopenuptheregionfordevelopment
IndustrialInertia
-Tendencyofanindustrytoremaininaparticularplaceevenwhenthe
factorsforitslocationnolongerexiste.g.industriesintheRuhrRegionof
Germanyhaveremainedatthesameplacedespiteclosureofcoalfieldsand
declineincoalasanenergysource.
Causes
Itmaybeexpensivetomovetoanewplacebecausenew
factorybuildingswouldhavetobeconstructed,buyingnew
machineryandequipment.
Duetoavailabilityofexperiencedworkers.
Toavoidtheproblemoftransportationandotherbasic
infrastructuralfacilities.
Capital
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Alotofcapitalisrequiredinestablishinganddeveloping
industrye.g.forpurchasingland,puttingupbuildingsand
purchasingmachineryandequipment.
Countrieswithplentyofcapitalindustrialisewithgreaterease
thanthosewithlittlecapitalwhichoftenrelyonforeignaidand
multinationalcorporationstosetupdomesticindustrieswhich
reducesbenefitsaccruingfromsuchindustries.
PersonalDecisions
Securitytoallowsecureoperations.
Wheretheycangetmaximumbenefits.
Tosetindustriesintheirhomeareastoofferjobstotheirlocal people.
TheCostofLand
Aplacewherelandisexpensivediscouragesindustrial
developmente.g.industriesarenowbeingestablishedinthe
neighbouringtownsofKitengela,RuiruandAthiRiverbecause
landisexpensiveinNairobi.
Types/ClassificationofIndustries
AccordingToRawMaterialsUsed,ProductsandLevelOfProduction
Primary/ProcessingIndustries
Industriesinvolvedintheexploitationofnaturalresources(e.g.mining,
fishing,forestryandagriculture)orprocessingrawmaterialsintomore
usefulandvaluableformwhichareusedinmakingfinalproductse.g.coffee
pulpfactories,cottonginneries,milkdairies,sugarfactories,sawmills,
abattoirs,leathertanneries,poshomillsandsisalfactories.
Secondary/Manufacturingindustries
-Oneswhichrelyonprocessedgoodstomakefinalproductsorwhichmake
finalproductsdirectlyfromrawmaterialse.g.sweetindustries,bread,
cementfactories,oilrefineries,cigarettemaking,pulpandpaperindustries, etc.
Tertiary/serviceindustries
-Industriesinvolvedinprovidingservicesanddon’tproducetangiblegoods
e.g.transportandcommunication,trade,banking,tourism,administration,
education,medical,etc.
AccordingTotheStateofFinishedGoods
HeavyIndustries
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Manufactureheavyandbulkyproducts.
Useheavyrawmaterials.
Involveheavyinvestmentintheirproduction.
Productionisinlargescalee.g.shipbuilding,carmanufacturing
andassembling,oilrefineries,steelrollingmills,fertiliser
makingplants,glassindustriesetc.
LightIndustries
Onesinvolvedinmakinggoodswithlittlevolumeandweighte.g.textile,
cosmetics,plastic,printing,electronics,cigarette,etc.

DistributionofIndustriesinKenya
AgriculturalIndustries
1.AgriculturalFoodProcessingIndustries
-locatedwhererawmaterialsareproducedbecausetheyrequireimmediate
processinge.g.teafactories,sugarfactories,milkProcessingplantsinthe
leadingdairyfarmingregionse.g.Eldoret,NakuruandKiganjo,coffee
factoriesincoffeegrowingarease.g.Kiambu,Nyeri,Embu,fruitcanninge.g.
DelMonteinThikaandKenyaOrchardsCompanyinMuaHillsinMachakos,
Maizemillinge.g.UngaLtdinEldoretKisumuandNairobi,Brewingindustries
e.g.EastAfricanBreweriesatRuaraka,KMCplantsatAthiRiver,etc. 2.AgriculturalNon-
FoodProcessingIndustries
-Cottonginneries,sisalfactories,BataShoeCompanyinLimuru,cigarette
makinge.g.mastermindandBAT,Lumberingindustriese.g.PanAfrican
PaperMillsinWebuyenearextensivepineplantationsinTurboAndWebuye,
textileindustrye.g.KisumuCottonMillsingrowingareasofW.Kenya.
Non-AgriculturalManufacturingIndustries
-manyarelocatedinurbanareaswherethereisalargereadymarket,reliable
powersupplyandadequatelabourforcee.g.cementfactoriesatAthiRiver
andBamburi,OilrefiningatChangamweinMombasa,steelrollingmillsin
theindustrialareaofNairobiwherescrapmetalisavailable,Centralglass
companyatKasarani,clayproductsindustriesnearRuiruandGithunguri
nearsourcesofclay,VehicleAssemblingindustrieswhichimportcar
componentsandjointhemtomakecarse.g.GeneralMotorsinNairobiand
AssociatedvehicleAssemblersinMombasa,pharmaceuticalindustries
whichmanufacturemedicalproductse.g.GlaxoSmithklineandBetaHealth CareinNairobi.
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CottageIndustries
-Industriesinvolvedinmakingproductsparticularlyinhomesusinghands andsimpletools.
Characteristics
1.Locallyavailablematerialsareused.
2.Capitalinfestedissmall.
3.Mostoftheproductsaresoldtothelocalmarketbutfeware exported.
4.Skillsareacquiredinformally.
5.Useofhandsandsimpleandsometimesadvancedtools.
6.Usuallyinvolveanartorskillpossessedbyapersontoproduce
itemsthatareindemandintheneighbourhood.
7.it’slabourintensive.
8.Veryfewitemsaremadebecausethemarketforitemsisusually small.
ExamplesofCottageIndustries
Pottery
-Cottageindustryinwhichpotsandflowervasesaremadeusingclay.
Itspractisedmainlyineasternandcentralprovincesandbywomen.
ExamplesofareasareKwaleandMuranga.
WoodandStoneCarving
-Involvescurvingofwoodandstoneintovariousshapesofanimals,humans, etc.
WoodcarvingispractisedinKituiandMachakoswhilesoapstone(soft
metamorphicrock)carvingisdoneinKisii.
Someproductsaresoldlocallywhiletherestareexportedwithsomebeing
boughtbytouristsassouvenirs(reminder).
Weaving
-Involvesusingsisal,drypalmleavesdrypapyrus,nylonfibresetctomake
productssuchasbaskets,mats,andfishtrapsetc.
BasketsmainlyknownasCiondosaremainlydonebyAgikuyuwomenand
aresoldlocallyandtotourists.
Weavingisalsopractisedalongthecoastalregionwheredrypalmleavesare
usedtomakebaskets,mats,etc.
Othercottageindustriesaresuchasthosemakinguseofscrapmetal
tomakemetalboxes,wheelbarrows,energysavingjikos,rainharvesting
gutters,poultryharvestingequipment,swords,knives,spears,jembes,iron
bellsandjinglesandboatmakingcommonamongcommunitiesliving
aroundL.Victoriaandalongthecoast.
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JuaKaliIndustries
-Themostcommonandpopularcottageindustry.
Juakalipractitionersincludethosewhoareemployedinallinformalsectors
oftheeconomysuchasshoerepairers,tailors,carpenters,watchrepairers,
barbers,mechanics,andtyre-menders,
Juakaliindustriesarefoundinallurbancentres.
Themostcommonactivityisreprocessingoldscrapmetaltoproduceuseful
productslistedabove.
Thegovernmenthasrealisedtheimportanceoftheindustryandis
encouragingitsdevelopmentinthefollowingways:
1.TheministryofTradeandIndustryhassetupadepartmenttopromote thisindustry.
2.KIEprovidesloanstoJuaKaliindustryforthepurchaseofmaterials.
3.KIEhasputpermanentstructures/shedswheretheartisanscan operateatlowcosts.
4.ThelocalauthoritieshavesetasidelandforusebyJuaKaliartisans
5.JuaKaliartisanshavebeenencouragedtoformcooperativestoassist
inthemarketingoftheirproducts.
ImportanceoftheJuaKaliSector
1.Hascreatedemploymentopportunitiestomanypeoplewhowould
otherwisebejoblessofferingthemameansoflivelihood, alleviatingpoverty.
2.IthashelpedtoraisethestandardoflivingofmanyKenyanswho
relyonitforincome.
3.itutilisesmaterialsthatwouldotherwisebethrownawaytomake items.
4.JuaKaliproductsearnthecountrysubstantialforeignexchange
whentheyareexportedtoCOMESAcountries.
5.Theindustryproducescheapergoodsthanthoseproducedinthe
formalindustries.
SignificanceofIndustrialisationtoKenya
1.Kenyaearnsforeignexchangeafterexportinghermanufacturedgoods
whichisusedtodevelopothersectorsoftheeconomysuchas
education,healthcareandtransport.
2.Industriesemploypeopleprovidingthemwithincomewhichhelpsto
raisetheirstandardofliving.
3.Industrialisationhasledtodevelopmentoftransportand
communicationandsocialamenitiessuchaspower,water,schoolsand
medicalfacilitieswhereindustrieshavebeenestablished.
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4.Agriculturalbasedindustrieshaveledtoincreasedagricultural
productionintheprocessofmeetingtherisingdemandforraw materials.
5.Establishmentofindustrieshasledtodiversificationoftheeconomy
therebyhelpingthecountrytoearnrevenuethroughoutevenwhen
agriculturewhichisthebackboneoftheeconomyfailsasaresultof
adverseweatherconditions.

Workersinindustrieshavejoinedtogetherandformedcooperativesinwhichthey
savemoneyandarethengivenloans
whichtheyusetostartprojectsorgenerallyenhancetheirliving standards.
Thegovernmentalsogetsrevenuethroughtaxationofthe
dividendsgotattheendoftheyearfromtheprofitsofSACCOs.
6.IndustrialexportshelpinmaintainingabalanceoftradebetweenKenya
andhertradingpartnersbyreducingoverrelianceonimports.
7.Industrialexportstoothercountriescreateatradingco-operationwhich
inturnhelpstofostergoodrelationshipsamongcountriesoftheworld.
8.Industriesbasedonlocallyavailablematerialsencourageutilisationof
resourceswhichwouldbeotherwisebeidle.
9.Establishmentofindustriespromotedevelopmentofurbancentres
becauseitencouragespeopletomovetotheareainsearchofjobsand
accommodationandotherservicesareprovided.
10. Industrialisedcountriesarelikelytoproduceadequategoods makingthemtobeself-
sufficientinindustrialgoods.
ProblemsofIndustrialisationandTheirPossibleSolutions
1.Kenyalacksadequatecapitalforindustrialestablishmentforcingherto
getloansfromfinancialinstitutionssuchasI.M.FandWorldBank
whoseinterestratesareveryhighandsometimescomewithstrings attached.
Thesolutionisgovernmenttogiveincentivessuchastax
exemptionstoinvestorsinordertoestablishindustries.
Localfinancialinstitutionsshouldassistbygivinglongtermloans
ataffordableloans.
2.Industriessufferfromtheproblemofrawmaterialse.g.agricultural
industrieswhenagriculturefailsduetoadverseweatherconditions.
Timberindustrysuffersduetotreestakinglongtimetomatureand
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thosedependingonimportedrawmaterialssufferwhenstrict
exchangecontrolsareputinplace.
Thesolutionissupplementinglocalrawmaterialswithimported
rawmaterials.
Plantingmoretreestoincreaserawmaterialsrequiredfor
timberrelatedindustries.
3.Localmarketforindustrialgoodsisn’tsufficienttosustainproduction
duetolowpurchasingpower,thecostofmanufacturedgoodsbeing
toohighduetothehighcostofrawmaterialsandthepreferenceof
somepeopletobuyimportedproductsthinkingtheyareofbetter quality.
Governmentshouldexploremarketwithinregionaltradinglike
COMESA,EAC,etc.
Itshouldalsoprovidetechnicalassistancetolocal
manufacturerssothatproducegoodsofhighqualityinorderto
beabletocompetefavourablyintheworldmarket.
Governmenttolowertaxonrawmaterialsinordertoreducethe
pricesofmanufacturedgoods.
4.Lackofskilledlabourduetobraindrainforcingthegovernmentto
employexpatriateswhosesalarypackageisveryhighthusloweringthe
profits.Itmayalsoleadtopoormanagementleadingtolossesand
eventualclosedownofsomeindustries.
Morepeopleshouldbetrainedinrespectivefieldstomakeup forshortage.
Improvementofsalariesandworkingconditionstocheckthe braindrain.
5.Locallyproducedgoodscompetewithimportedgoodswhicharein
mostcasescheaperleadingtothedeclineordeathoflocalindustries.
Thereforinstanceisimportationof2ndhandclotheswhichhasledto
thedeclineoftextileindustry.
Imposingheavydutiesonimportedproductswhicharealso producedlocally.
Improvingthequalityoflocallymanufacturedgoodssothat
theycancompetefavourably.
Eliminatingcorruptionintheimportationsectortoensuregoods
aren’timportedillegally.
6.Thereistheproblemofthehighcostofenergyduetoimportationof
petroleumatveryhighcostcausingtheindustrialcoststo
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tremendouslyincreasethusaffectingthemarketabilityoftheproducts
astheybecomeaffordable.
7.Industriescauseenvironmentaldegradatione.g.pollutionfromthe
emissionstheyreleaseintotheairandeffluentstheyreleaseintowater
bodies.Atmospherichasledtoglobalwarmingandwaterpollutionto
deathoffish.Industriessuchascementmanufacturingmakeland
derelictbydepositingrockwastesontheground.
Theproblemcanbereducedthroughstrictlegislationagainst
dumpingofindustrialwastesandinspectionofindustrial
activitiestoensurewastesaren’treleasedtotheenvironment
beforetreatment.
8.Hasledtotheneglectingofagriculturewhenablebodiedpeoplemove
tourbanareastolookforjobsinindustries,whenpeopleneglectfood
cropsandtakeupcashcropproduction.
Theproblemcanbesolvedbyofferingbetterpricesfor
agriculturalproducetomakeagriculturemoreattractive.
Farmersshouldbeencouragedtodiversifytheiractivities.
9.ithasledtounemploymentasithasledtotechnologicalinnovations
suchascomputersandrobotsandotherautomaticgadgetswhichhave
replacedphysicalmanpower.
Peoplearebeingencouragedtobecomeselfemployed.
Industriesarealsodiscouragedfromlayingdowntheirstaff.
10. Hasledtodisplacementofpeoplebyforcingpeopletovacatethe
areawheremanufacturingindustriesarebeingestablishede.g.the
preparationfortitaniumminingatKwaleDistrict.
Thesolutioniscompensatingandresettlingthedisplaced residents.
Effortsshouldbemadetolocateindustriesinsparsely populatedareas.
11. Causesruraltourbanmigrationasaresultofestablishmentof
industriesinurbanareaswhereruraldwellersgotoseekforjobs.This
hascausedshortageoflabourinruralfarms,congestioninurbanareas
leadingtopressureonexistingsocialamenities,inadequatejob
opportunitiesleadingtocrimeandothersocialevils,etc.
Thegovernmentshouldensureequitabledistributionof
industriesthroughoutthecountry.
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Itshouldencourageindustriestobeputupinruralareas
throughtaxexemptions.
Provisionofamenitiessuchaselectricity,cleanwaterand
entertainmentfacilitiesinruralareas.
CottageIndustryinIndia
Themajorareasinwhichit’shighlydevelopedincludeMumbai,Jabalpur,
Magpur,Bhopal,Bhutan,Madras,Calcuta,Bangalore,Lucknowand Moradabad.
Theindustryinvolvesweaving,makingclothes,brass,Copperandsilverware
ornamentalivory,jewellery,carpets,safetymatches,etc.
CharacteristicsofCottageIndustryinIndia(Comparison)
1.ThecottageindustriesareruralbasedwhileinKenyatheyarerural andurbanbased.
2.ThecraftsmenarehighlyskilledwhileinKenyanotallarehighly skilled.
3.Labourintheindustryisprovidedbyindividualsormembersofthe
familywhileinKenyaitsindividualsormembersofgroups.
4.IndustryisownedbythefamilyinIndiawhileinKenyait’sownedby individuals.
5.InIndiacottageindustriesarefoundalmosteverywhere(ubiquitous)
whileinKenyatheyaremostlyinurbanareasandsomefewhomes.
6.Therearemiddlemenwhosupplyrawmaterialstotheindustrywhile
inKenyatheyobtainrawmaterialsdirectlyfromtheirsources.
7.Othercharacteristicsaretypicalofcottageindustries.
FactorsfortheDevelopmentofCottageIndustryinIndia
1.Theindustryrequireslittlecapitaloutlaytoestablish.
2.MajorityofIndiansareveryskilledweaversandornamentalware makers.
3.Thehighdemandforproductsinthepopuloussubcontinenthasled
tothedevelopmentoftheindustry.
4.Indiahasahugepopulationwhichensuresasteadysupplyofcheap labour.
5.Theindustriesdon’trequirebigspacesotheycanbeestablished
anywheree.g.inhomesandsmallrentedrooms.
6.Abundantsupplyoflocallyavailablerawmaterialswhichareusedin
thecottageindustry.
7.Availabilityofhydroelectricpowerwhichiswelldistributedwithinthe ruraltowns.
8.Theurgeofpeopletoearnanincomeinordertouplifttheirliving standards.
9.Availabilityofsimpleandaffordabletoolsandmachines.
ProblemsFacedByCottageIndustriesinIndia
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1.Difficultyinobtainingrawmaterialsataffordableprices.
2.Shortagesofcapitalasmostofthepeoplearepoorandhavelittle
accesstomodernbankingfacilities.
Artisanscouldformco-operativesthroughwhichtheycouldget
rawmaterialsandloans.
3.Competitionfromotherindustriesmakingsimilarproducts.
4.Difficultiesinmakingtheproducts.
5.Exploitationoftheartisansbythemiddlemenwhentheysellraw
materialstothemathighprices.
GovernmentofIndiatointroducepolicytostoptheinterference
ofthemiddlemen.
IronandSteelIndustryintheRuhrregionofGermany
RuhrRegionderivesitsnamefromR.RuhratributaryofR.Rhine.
Itsoneofthemostindustrialisedregionsoftheworld.Otherareasofthe
worldwhicharehighlyindustrialisedare:
1.PittsburghindustrialregionofU.S.A.
2.MoscowareaofformerSovietUnion.
3.Tokyo-YokohamaregionofJapan.
4.S.EEnglandinBritainand
5.RotterdamareaintheNetherlands.
Oneoftheleadingindustriesdealsinironandsteelwhichisoneofthemost
importantindustriesinthepresentadvancedtechnologicalworldasit
providesrawmaterialstomanyotherindustries.
Thebasicrawmaterialsareironore,coalandlimestonemixedintheblast furnacetogetiron.
FactorsWhichHaveLedTotheDevelopmentofIronandSteelIndustryinthe
RuhrRegionofGermany
1.Thereisavailabilityofrawmaterialsbecausetheregionhascoal,iron
oreandlimestonemakingiteconomicaltosetupironandsteel industrythere.
2.Thereisavailabilityofcheapwatertransportfortransportationofraw
materialsandfinishedproductsbecausetheregionisservedby
navigableriversandcanalse.g.R.Ruhr,Lippe,Dortmurd-EmsCanal,etc.
3.Thereisavailabilityofreadymarketforironandsteelfromthedense
andaffluentpopulationinC.andW.Europe.
4.Thereareabundantsourcesofpowersuchascoal,oilandH.E.P.
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necessaryinironandsteelindustries.
5.Thereisavailabilityofcapitalfordevelopmentofironandsteelindustry
duetopresenceofrichcompanies,companiesandcapitalaccrued
fromotherindustrieslikecoal.
6.TheregioniscentrallylocatedinEuropewhichofferseasyaccesstoall partsofEurope.
SignificanceofIronandSteelIndustryintheRuhrIndustrialRegion
1.Ledtotheimprovementoftransportnetworkduetotheneedto
transportrawmaterialsandfinishedproductsrelatedtoironandsteel industry.
2.Ledtogrowthandexpansionoftownse.g.Essen,Dortmundand Duisburg.
3.Manypeoplehavebeenemployedintheironandsteelindustryas
loaders,clerks,driversandoperators.
4.Hasledtopromotionofagricultureduetotheneedtofeedthehuge
populationintheindustrialtownsintheRuhrregion.
5.Ledtoprovisionofsocialamenitiestocaterfortheworkersinthe
industrialregione.g.schools,healthcentres,housingandrecreational facilities.
ProblemsFacingtheRuhrIndustrialRegion
1.Thereisenvironmentalpollutionfromsmokeandfumesfromcoal
whichisthemajorfuelandsolidwasteswhicharedischargedintothe rivers.
2.Thereiscongestionandovercrowdinginhousingandsocialamenities
duetothelargeinfluxofpeopletotheRuhrregioninsearchof employment.
3.Depletionofcoalminesduetocoalbeinganon-renewableresource
andcontinuedmining.Coalmininghasbecomeexpensiveasithasto
bebroughttothesurfacefromgreatdepths.
CarManufacturingandElectronicsIndustryinJapan
JapanisacountrytotheeastofAsiaticcontinentmadeofnumerous
major/largeandminor/smallislands.
MajorIslands Hokkaido
Honshu
Kyushu
Shikoku
MinorIslands
Okinawa
Nancei
Zu
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Kagoshimaand
Chisima
80%ofthelandconsistsoftheruggedmountainouslandscapewhich
doesn’tfavouragriculturemakingtheJapanesetoconcentrateonthe
developmentofmanufacturingindustriessuchaschemical,textile,ironand
steelandautomobiles(carmanufacturing)andelectronicswhichbecome veryimportant.
ExamplesofautomobilecompaniesincludetheMitsubishiandToyotaMotor
CorporationswhileexamplesofelectronicscompaniesincludeSonyand Toshiba.
FactorsFavouringElectronicsandCarManufacturingInJapan
1.Advancedtechnologye.g.alltheplantsdealingwithelectronicsand
automobilesareautomated(robotscontrolledbycomputers)which
increasesefficiencyleadingtoproductionoflargenumberofunits,
lowersproductioncostsandleadstoproductionofhighqualitygoods
whicharecompetitiveintheworldmarket.
2.CarsandelectronicsmanufacturedinJapanaren’texpensivecompared
withthosefromEuropeancountrieswhichmakethemtobeinhigh
demandallovertheworld.
3.80%ofthelandconsistsoftheruggedmountainouslandscapewhich
doesn’tfavouragriculturemakingtheJapanesetoconcentrateonthe
developmentofmanufacturingindustriesofwhichautomobiles(car
manufacturing)andelectronicshavebecomeveryimportant.
4.Japanproducescarswhicharefuelefficientwhichcreatesahigh
demandforthemintheworldmarketencouragingthecountryto producemore.
5.ThereisavailabilityofareadymarketduetoJapanesehighpopulation
withhighpurchasingpowerandhighdemandforJapanesecarsand
electronicsduetotheirhighquality,affordabilityandfuelefficiencyof
theirautomobilesinAfrica,S.America,AsiaandEurope.
6.Thereisavailabilityofcapitalfromtheprofitsaccruedfromother
industrieslikeshipbuilding,machinery,textiles,fishingandtourism
whichareinvestedinthedevelopmentofotherindustriesincluding
automobilesandelectronics.
7.Thereisavailabilityofskilled,dedicatedandhardworkingmanpoweris
availableinJapanwhichhasledtoproductionofquantitativeand
qualitativeautomobilesandelectronicsproductswhichreduces
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productioncostsandmakesgoodstobeofhighdemandwhichinturn
stimulatedmoreproduction.
8.Japanislocatedinastrategicpositionmakingitaccessiblefromall
directionsviatheseaenablingtherawmaterialsandmanufactured
goodstobetransportedtoorfromanypartoftheworldthroughthe
modernportsofTokyo,NagoyaandOsaka.
9.Thereisabundantwaterfromthelakes,manyriverswithinthe
highlandsandthePacificOceansurroundingJapanwhichisa
prerequisiteinamanufacturingplant.Itisusedintheironandsteel
industrywhoseproductsareinturnusedintheautomobileand electronicsindustry.
MajorCarManufacturingZonesinJapan
Tokyo-YokohamaIndustrialZone
-Themostimportantandtheleadingmotorvehiclemanufacturingregion.
ManufacturingcitiesinthisregionincludeTokyo,Yokohama,Chibaand
Hitachi(electronicsproducts).
Osaka-KobeIndustrialZone
-2ndmostimportantcarmanufacturingzone.
It’slocatedonHonshuIsland.
ManufacturingcitiesintheregionareKobe,Osaka,Kyoto,Otsu,Wakayama andAkashi.
NagoyaIndustrialZone
-3rdlargestcarmanufacturingzone.
It’salsoonHonshuIsland.
ManufacturingzonesincludeNagoya,Honda,ToyotaandOkazaki.
ToyotaMotorCorporationhasitsheadquartersattheCityofChiru20km eastofNagoya.
Electronics
MajorcarmanufacturingcitiesincludeTokyo,KobeandOsakaandothers
aretownsofHitachiandCityofChiru(Fujimachine).

TRANSPORTANDCOMMUNICATION
Transportistheactofmovingitemsandpeoplefromoneplacetoanother
whilecommunicationistheprocessoftransferringinformationbetween
individuals,groupsandplaces.
FactorsinfluencingTransportandCommunication
1.Existenceofsetsofcorrespondingplaceswithsurplus(supply)and
deficits(demand)forgoods,servicesandinformation.
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2.Alternativesourcesmayhindertransportandcommunicatione.g.a
nearbysourceofmarketofarequiredcommodityorsourceof
informationormeansofcommunication.
3.Infrastructuredependingonhowitiscanleadtoestablishmentof
efficientorinefficienttransportandcommunicationnetwork.
4.Politicswherebythegovernmentmaybanuseofcertainmeansof
communicatione.g.aswasthecasewithGoogleinChinaorwherethe
governmentmaydecidetobetheleadingprovideroftransportand
communicationfacilities.
ModesofTransport
Thereare3commonmodesoftransportnamelyland,waterandair transport.
LandTransport
-Thetypethatinvolvesmovementofpeopleandgoodsonland.
TypesofLandTransport
1.HumanPorterage
-Movementofpeoplefromoneplacetoanothercarryinglightgoodsontheir
back,handsorshouldersorbyusinghandcarts,trolleys,bicyclesor motorcycles.
2.Useofanimals
-Useofdomesticatedanimalstocarrygoodsandpeopleontheirbackorpull
loadedcarts(droughtanimals).
AdvantagesofHumanandAnimalTransport
(a) It’sthecheapestandcanbeusedbyallclassesofpeople
sincenofuelisused.Animalsrequireverylowmaintenancecosts
astheyfeedonvegetation.
(b)Relativelysafebecausefewaccidentsoccurduring transportation.
(c)Doesn’tpollutetheenvironmentasitdoesn’tusefossilfuels.
(d) Theyareflexibleinthattheycanbeusedtotransportgoods
inareaswithoutgoodroadnetwork.
(e) It’sconvenientinthatit’sreadilyavailablewheneverrequired.
Disadvantages
(a) Goodscanbestolenordestroyedbywildanimalsand
extremeweatherconditionsbecausetheyareexposed.
(b)Theyareaveryslowmeansoftransporthencetime
consuming,tediousandboring.
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(c)Theycan’ttransportlargequantitiesofgoodsbecausehumanand
animalenergygetexhaustedwithtime.
(d) Theycancausecongestiononbusyurbanroadswhichmay
delayotherformsoftransport. 3.RoadTransport
-Meansoftransportationofpeopleandgoodsbymotorvehiclesonroads.
TypesofRoads
(a) Allweatherroads-whichareusedallyearroundi.e.tarmac andmurrumroads.
(b)Dryweatherroads-whichareusedreliablyduringdry seasons.
(c)Motorabletrucks-whichareusedbypeopleonfootandby
vehiclesondryseason.Atruckisapathorroughroadmadeby
people,vehiclesoranimals.
PrincipalTrans-ContinentalHighwaysinAfrica
GreatNorthRoadconnectingCapeTownandCairothrough
Tanzania,Kenya,SudanandEthiopia.
Trans-AfricaHighwayfromthePortofMombasatoDakarin
SenegalthrougheastandCentralAfrica.
Dakar-DjamenaHighwaythroughCoreDeIvoire,Nigeriaand Chad.
Trans-SaharaHighwayfromLagostoTripolithroughAlgeria.
AdvantagesofRoadTransport
(a) It’safastermeansoftransportcomparedtohumanand animaltransport.
(b)It’scheapercomparedtorailwaytransportbecause
constructionofroadsischeaperthanthatofrailways.
(c)It’savailableatonesconvenienttime.
(d)Roadscanbeconstructedinstagesimprovedandeven
repairedwhiletheyarebeingused.
(e) It’sflexibleinthatroadconnectionsareavailablealloverthe country.

Disadvantages
(a) Trafficcongestionandjamswhentherearemanyvehicleson
roadswhichleadstodelaysandfuelwastage.
(b)Itsexpensiveoverlongdistancesandwhentransporting bulkygoods.
(c)Vehiclescancarryalimitednumberofpeopleandamountof
goodsatatimemakingthemexpensiveanduneconomical.
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(d) It’sadverselyaffectedbyweathere.g.duringheavyrains,
roadsbecomeimpassableandfoggyconditionshindervisibility
makingiteasierforaccidentstooccur.
(e) Vehiclespollutetheenvironmentbytheirexhaustfumesand
noisewhichtheyproduce. 4.RailwayTransport
-Meansoftransportingpeopleandgoodsusingtrainsorrails.
AdvantagesofRailwayTransport
1.Lessexpensivecomparedtoroadtransportbecauseitcancarrya
largenumberofpeopleandheavyandbulkygoodsinonetrip.
2.Thereisnocongestionorjambecausethereisonlyonetrainona
giventruckatanyparticulartime.
3.Passengertrainsarecomfortableforpassengerstravellingoverlong
distancesinthattheyhavefacilitiessuchasaccommodation,dining
andtoiletsaccommodation.
4.Saferthanmotorvehiclesbecausetheyarelesspronetoaccidents.
5.Havelessmaintenancecostsbecausetheydon’trequirefrequent repairslikeroads.
Disadvantages
(a)Veryslowmeansofmovementespeciallyofperishableand
urgentlyrequiredgoods.
(b)Expensivetoconstructasmuchironandsteelisusedtoconstruct
railwaylinesandtrains.
(c)Inflexibleinthatrailwaylinesaren’tavailablealloverthecountryand
theirdirectioncannotbechanged.
(d)Areaffectedadverselybyterrainaswheretherearesteep
gradients,tunnelsandwindingtrackshavetobeusedwhichaddsto
thecostofsettinguprailwaysystem.
(e)Specificgaugeofrailwaylinecanonlybeusedbyaspecific
designoftrainunlikeroadswhichcanbeusedbymanyvarietiesof vehicles.
(f)Trainscan’tuserailswhiletheyarebeingconstructedunlikeroads
whichcanbeusedwhiletheyarebeingconstructed,improvedor evenrepaired.
ExamplesofRailwayLinksinAfrica
Tazararailway-connectsZambiaCopperBeltwiththeseaportofDares-salaam.
BenguelaRailway-runsfromZambiaCopperBelttoAngola.
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KenyaUgandaRailway-runsfromMombasatoKisumu.Ithasan
extensionfromNakuruthroughEldorettoMalabathenthroughTororo toKampala.
Kenya’sotherrailwaybranchesareVoitoTaveta,KonzatoMagadi,
NairobitoNanyuki,GilgiltoNyahururu,NakurutoEldoretandKisumuto Butere.
WhyThereAreFewRailwayLinksamongAfricanCountries
Administrationbydifferentcolonialgovernmentswhoconstructed
railwaylinksonlywithinareasoftheirjurisdiction.
Politicaldifferenceswhichledtomistrustandhostilitywhichworks
againstefforttoconstructrailwayjointly.
Countrieshaverailwaysofdifferentgaugesmakingconnectiontobe difficult.
Littleinterstatetradewhichdoesn’twarrantconstructionofrailwaysto
transportbulkygoods.
Countrieslacksufficientcapitaltoestablishrailways.
Mountainouslandscapeandswampyterrainwhichhinderthe
developmentofrailstolinkthecountries.
ProblemsWhichKenyaExperiencesIntheRailTransport
Competitionfromothermodesoftransportwhicharecheaperand flexible.
Frequentaccidentsfromderailmentsduetoinadequateservicingwhich
hasledtohighmaintenancecostsandlosseswhengoodsarelooted.
Highmaintenanceandexpansioncostscausinglittleexpansionofrail lines.
Mismanagementofrailservicesleadingtodeteriorationatlower income.
Vandalismduringpoliticalunrestsandbypeopledealinginscrapmetal.
5.Pipelines
-Meansofmovementoffluidorgasproductssuchaswater,gasandoil
throughpipesfromoneplacetoanother.Pumpingstationsareconstructed
alongthepipelinestokeeptheproductflowingsteadily.
InKenyathemainoilpipelineextendsfromMombasathroughNairobito
KisumuandEldoretwheretherearemainoildepots.Thepipelineis
managedbyKenyaPipelineCorporation. AdvantagesofPipelines
(a) Nodelayasthereisaconstantsupplyofcommodity.
(b) Convenientinthatamountsofcommoditycanbetransported
withinashortperiod.
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(c)Therearelowoperatingcostsinthatminimallabourisrequiredin
operatingpipelinesandalsothecostofmaintenanceofpipelinesis
lowerthanforothermeans.
(d) Theyaren’taffectedbybadweatherlikeothermeansoftransport.
(e) Itdoesn’tpollutetheenvironmentlikeothermeansoftransport
exceptincasesofleakageswhicharerare.
Disadvantages
(a) Selectiveinthattheycanbeusedtotransportfluidsandgasses
andcantransportonlyonetypeofcommodityatatime.
(b)Insecureinthattheymaybesabotagediftheyrunacrossa
numberofcountrieswhentherearepoliticaldifferencesorwhenone
countrydecidetowithholdtheproduct.
(c)Pipelinesmaycausepollutioniftheyburstspillingoil,gasorsewage
andtheproblemwouldbegraveifitoccurredunderwater.
(d) Inflexibleinthattheyremainpermanentlyinonepositionand
reroutingbecomesimpossibleandfurtherdistributionofthesubstance
fromdepotshastobedonebyroadsandrailways.
6.WaterTransport
Itinvolvesmovementofgoodsandpeopleoverwaterways/waterbodies.
Watertransportisclassifiedintotwo:SeaWaterways/marinewater
transportandinlandwaterways. SeaWaterways/MarineWaterTransport
-Involvesmovementofgoodsandpeopleoverseas.Therearethefollowing
typesofvesselsusedinseatransport:
1.Liners
Theyareshipwiththefollowingcharacteristics:
Operatealongfixedroutesandtimeschedules.
Theytransportbothpeopleandgoods.
Fixedrateoffreightcharges.
Therearetwotypesofliners:
PassengerLiners
Carrypeopleandsmallvaluableitems.
Haveluxuriousfacilitiese.g.cinemas,shops,banks,hotels,etc.
CargoLiners
Forcarryingbothgoodsandpeople.
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Haveloadingandunloadingfacilities.
Slowerinspeed
Lessprestigious
Smallerinsizecomparedtopassengerliners.
Somecarrydifferentproductswhileothercarryspecialisedgoodse.g.
petroleum. 2.Tramps
-Theyareshipsmeantfortransportingcargo.
Nofixedroutesorschedules.
Areslowerinspeed
Havelowerfreightchargescomparedtoliners
ImprovementsinOceanTransport
1.Refrigerationfacilitiestoenabletransportationofperishablegoods.
2.Containerisation(parkingofgoodsinstandardsealedmetalcontainers
whichareunsealedatthedestination).
AdvantagesofContainerisation
(a) Safetyandsecuritybecausecontainersaresealedwhichprotects
goodsfromdestructionbybadweatherandfrombeingstolen.
(b)Easytohandlebecausecontainersarefittedwithspecialdevices
likehooksandringswhichmakesloadingandunloadingeasy.
(c)Timesavingbecausegoodsareputinonecontainerthanbeingcarried
inseveralboxeswhichmakesloadingandunloadingeasy.
(d) It’seconomicalintermsofspacebecausecontainershavea
standardshapewhichreduceswastageofspacebyallowingtight packagingofgoods.
Ocean/seaRoutes/OceanTraderoutes
ArewellmarkedroutesthroughwhichOceantrafficpasses.Theyarealso
calledoceantradingroutesbecausetheyhavecomeaboutasaresultof
tradingactivitiesamongvariousregions.
Majoroceanroutesareconcentratedinthenorthernhemisphereduetothe following:
Highdegreeofindustrialisation
Intensivetradingactivities
Highpopulation
AvailabilityofoceanterminalsindevelopedcountriesofEurope,N.
AmericaandpartsofAsia.
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WorldmajorSeaRoutes
1.PanamaCanalSeaRoute-connectsPacificandAtlanticoceans.
2.CapeofGoodHopeSeaRoute-serveseasternandwesterncoastsof
Asia,NewZealandandAustralia.
3.NorthPacificSeaRoute-servesindustrialisedcountriesofAsiae.g.
Japan,Singapore,HongKong,S.KoreaandW.N.America.
4.N.AtlanticSeaRoute-connectsW.EuropetoE.N.America.
5.MediterraneanAsiaticSeaRoute-connectsEuropetoAfricaandtheFar Eastcountries.
6.Trans-AtlanticseaRoute-connectsEuropetoE.S.America.
InlandWaterWays
-Movementofgoodsandpeopleoverrivers,lakesandcanals.
ExamplesofNavigableRiversofAfrica
SectionofR.Congo
R.NilefromUgandatoKhartoum
R.OgoweinGabon.
SectionsofR.Niger
Tana
Zambezi
ExamplesofNavigableRiversinOtherPartsoftheWorld
R.Rhineanditstributariesmain,MeuseandRuhr.
MississippianditstributariesOhio,Missouri,ArkansasandTennessee.
Mackenzie,Yukon,NelsonandAlbanyinN.America.
MostimportantwaterwayinN.AmericaistheSt.LawrenceSeaWay
ExamplesofLakeswhichareinlandwaterwaysaresuchasVictoria(largest
inlandwaterwayinE.Africa,Tanganyika,Malawi,Albertandalsoman-made
lakessuchasKariba,Nasser,VoltaandKainji.
FactorsWhichHaveHinderedDevelopmentofRiverTransportinAfrica
1.Inadequatecapitaltodevelopwaterways,portsandforthepurchaseof vessels.
2.Fluctuationofwaterlevelswhichmakessailingdifficultasaresultof
riverspassingthroughdryareas.
3.Presenceofrapidsandwaterfallswhichhindersthevessels’movement.
4.Siltationofriverswhichmakestheirchannelsshallowhencehindering
movementofvessels.
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5.Presenceoffloatingvegetationwhichmakesitdifficultforvesselsto
sailduetonarrowingoftheriverchannel.
6.Mostriverspassthroughunproductivezoneshenceit’suneconomical
todeveloprivertransport.
7.Riversflowacrosspoliticalboundarieswhichmayrequirenegotiationin
orderforthecountriesinvolvedtousethemfortransport.
8.Inadequatetechnology.
CanalTransport
Acanalisawaterchannelthatiscutthroughlandforboatsorshipstotravel
along.Somecanalsjoinlargewaterbodieslikeseasandoceans.

ExamplesofCanals
SuezCanalwhichjoinsMediterraneanandRedSea.
PanamaCanalwhichconnectsCaribbeanSeawithPacificOcean.
Dortmund-EmsCanalwhichjoinsR.RhinetotheN.Sea.
SoocanalswhichconnectsconnectingL.SuperiortoL.Huron.
TheGreatLakesandtheSt.LawrenceSeaWay
It’sthemostimportantseawayinN.AmericasharedbyU.S.A.and Canada.
It’slocatedalongtheboundarybetweenthetwocountries.
Itstretchesover3680kmfromAtlanticOceantotheinteriorofN.
AmericauptoL.Superior.
ItcomprisesofSt.LawrenceRiverandtheGreatLakesSuperior,
Michigan,Huron,ErieandOntario.
Shortcomingsoftheseawaybeforedevelopment
(a)Ithadobstaclesofrockoutcrops,rapids,waterfallsandsmall islands.
(b)Shallowsectionsduetosilting (c)Narrowsections(bottlenecks).
(d)Freezingofwaterinwinter.
(e)PresenceoffogandmistatthemouthofSt.LawrenceRiver.
St.LawrenceSeaWayProjectwasstartedbyU.S.A.andCanadian
governmentsin1954toconstructandimprovenavigabilityofSt. LawrenceRiver.
ObjectivesoftheProject
(a)Promotetradeandindustrialisationbetweenthetwocountries.
(b)RemovesiltbetweenL.ErieandHuron.
(c)RegulatetheflowofSt.LawrenceRiverthroughdamconstruction.
 409

(d)Smoothenriverchannelbyremovingrapids,smallislands,rock outcropsetc.
(e)Regulatedifferentwaterlevelsalongtheseawaythroughdredging
towidenanddeepenshallowsectionswithinthelakesandtheriver.
WhattheSeawayProjectWasInvolvedIn
(a)Dredgingoftheshallowsectionstodeepentoaccommodatelarge shippingvessels.
(b)Formationofwaterreservoirsbehinddamstodrownrapids
allowingoceanvesselstomovealongtheroutes.
(c)Installationofradarandlightonshipstoimprovethenavigationof
shipsinordertoavoidaccidents.
(d)Blastingtoremovetherockyislandsandnarrowsectionsalong thesearoute.
(e)Constructionofcanalstojointhelakesandbypassobstaclese.g.
SooCanalstojoinL.SuperiorandHuron.
WellandCanaljoiningL.ErieandOntariotobypassNiagara Falls.
NewYorkStateBargeCanaltoconnectL.ErietoHudson River.
Benefits/RoleofSt.LawrenceSeawaytotheEconomiesofU.S.A.and Canada
(a)Sourceofforeignexchangeforthetwocountriesbecausemany
touristsareattractedherebythescenerye.g.NiagaraFalls.
(b)DamsalongtheseawayareusedtoproduceH.E.P.which
stimulatedgrowthofindustries.
(c)Fishingisundertakenindamsandlakesalongthewaterway.
(d)Developmentofagriculturalactivitiesalongtheseawaye.g.
villageswhichpracticehorticulturalfarming.
(e)It’sasourceofemploymente.g.tourguides,security,transport, etc.
(f)SourceofrevenuetoU.S.A.andCanadafromtollchargespaidby
shipswhichgothere.
(g)Lakesandtheseawayaresourcesoffreshwaterfordomesticand
industrialpurposes.
(h)Increasedtradebetweenthetwocountriesandothercountriesof theworld.
(i)Reductionoftransportcoststoandfromtheinteriorofthecontinent.
AdvantagesofWaterTransport
(a)Offerslessfrictiontothemovementofvesselsasit’sthecase withroads.
(b)Arenaturalandfreetransportroutesrequiringlessartificial infrastructures
(c)Lessexpensivebecauselargeloadscanbecarriedatminimalcosts
andwaterroutesrequireminimalmaintenance.
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(d)It’sareliablemodeoftransportsincethereisverylittletraffic
congestiononwaterwaysbecausethewaterwayislarge.
(e)Goodsareprotectedbecausetheyaretransportedincontainersor tankers.
(f)It’sasafemodeoftransportfordelicategoods.
Disadvantages
(a)Manywaterwaysareaffectedbywaterfluctuationlikelow
volumesandhighvolumeswhichmakethemtoflowswiftlywhich
makethemunnavigable.
(b)Watertransportistheslowestandunsuitableforperishables,
casualtiesandmedicines.
(c)Greatlosesareincurredduringaccidentssuchasfireoutbreaks,
typhoons,tsunamisandmechanicalbreakdownduetothelarge
carryingcapacityofthevessel.
(d)Highcapitalisrequiredinthepurchasingofmodernshipping
vesselsandmaintenanceofparts.
(e)Oceantransportisavailableonlytopeoplewholivenearwater
waysunlikeroadswhichareflexible.
(f)Insecurityintheoceanswherepiratesstealfromandattacksailing ships.
(g)Seavesselsgreatlycontributetowaterpollutionasmostofthe
wastesarethrownintothesea.
TypesofCommunication
1.Verbalcommunication-communicationbywordofmouthe.g.
telephone,facetofaceandradio.
2.Writtencommunication-communicationbywritinge.g.letters.
Magazines,newspapersandjournals.
3.Audio-visualcommunication-communicationbyusinga
combinationofsounds,signsandpicturese.g.gestures,beating
drums,smoke,shoutinginaspecialway,television,etc.
TelecommunicationServices
-Communicationoveradistanceusingcablesorwirelesscommunicatione.g.
1.Telephone-convertssoundintoelectronicsignalsandbacktosound
wavesatthereceivingend.
2.Facsimile(fax)-sendinformationthroughtelephonelinesbyconverting
writteninformationintoelectronicsignalsandbacktowrittenatthe receivingend.
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3.Internet-globalnetworkofcomputerslinkedviatelephoneandenables
individualstosende-mail.Itisthefastest,cheapestandconnectedall overtheworld.
RoleofTransportandCommunicationintheEconomicDevelopmentof
Africa
1.developmentoftradebecausebuyersareabletomovetomarkets,
tradersareabletomovetomarketcentreswhereproductsareinhigh
demandandordergoodsforsalewithoutnecessarilygoingtothe
supplierswhichreducestransportcostsandhenceincreasesprofits.
2.Developmentofinfrastructurebymakingtouristattractionsaccessible.
3.Promotionofindustrialdevelopment/establishmentofmoreindustries
sinceareaswithgoodtransportandcommunicationnetworksarelikely
toattractinvestorstosetupindustriesandfinishedgoodsareableto
reachconsumerseasily.Communicationenablesindustrialiststoknow
whererawmaterialsareavailablewithouthavingtomovealot.
4.Promotesinternationalunderstandingbecauseitenablescitizensof
differentcountriestobeinclosecontactenablingthemtolearnabout
andappreciateeachotherscultureresultingingoodrelationship.
5.Manypeopleareemployedinthetransportandcommunicationsectors
e.g.drivers,mechanics,engineers,journalists,broadcasters,computer
programmersetc.
6.Settlementsdevelopwheretransportroutesconvergee.g.Khartoumat
theconfluenceofblueandwhiteNileandMombasa.
7.Transportopensupremoteareasforexploitationofnaturalresources
suchasminerals,fish,tourists’attractionsbecauselabourcanbeeasily
ferriedtosuchareasandresourcescanbetakeneasilytoprocessing sites.
8.transportandcommunicationaresourcesofrevenuetothe
governmente.g.taxleviedonairtime,licensefeeschargedwhenone
wantstostartT.V.orradiostation,etc.
ProblemsFacingtransportandCommunicationinAfricaandtheirPossible
Solutions
1.Somecountriesarelandlockedi.e.locatedfarinlandawayfrom
oceanse.g.Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi,etc.thesolutionistodevelop
goodrelationsamongthenationsinthecontinentsothatcountries
whichhaveaccesstotheseapermittheirlandlockedneighboursto
havedirectaccesstothesearoutes.
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2.Regionshavingruggedreliefduetopresenceoffeatureslike
mountainse.g.mountainsKenyaandKilimanjarowhichmakes
constructionofroadsandrailwaysdifficultandexpensive.Presenceof
rapidsandwaterfallswhichcausesswiftmovementofwatermakes
developmentofrivertransportdifficult.Thesolutionisconstructing
passesandtunnelsthroughridgesandslopesandbuildingofbridges
acrossriversandvalleystoallowconstructionofroadsandrailways.
3.Shortageofnavigableriversbecauserivershavenavigablestretches,
presenceofobstaclesandfluctuationsofwatervolumes,narrowness
andshallownessallofwhichmakesnavigationdifficult.Solutionis
wideninganddeepeningofriverchannelsthroughdredgingand
constructionofdamsacrossriverstoimprovenavigation.
4.Vandalismofcommunicationfacilitiessuchastelephonesandtheir
cableswhichhinderscommunication.Thesolutionwouldbe
prosecutionofpeoplecaughtinpossessionofcommunication materials.
5.Lackofadequatecapitalforestablishmentandmaintenanceof
transportandcommunicationinfrastructuree.g.vehicles,locomotives,
aircraft,satellites,computers,etc.Thesolutionisjointpartnership
betweenAfricancountrieswithdonorsinordertofinance
establishmentofcommunicationinfrastructureandalso.
6.PoliticalinstabilityincountriessuchasSomaliawhichhaveaffected
transportandcommunication.Thesolutionwouldbetosetpeace
missionintheaffectedcountriesinordertorestorestability.
7.Communicationexperienceslanguagebarriersduetomanyethnic
groupswithmajoritywhoonlycommunicatesthroughvernacular
makinginternationalcommunicationdifficult.Solutionisadoptionof
majorinternationallanguageslikeFrenchandEnglishtohelpAfrica
engageininternationalcommunication.
8.Highcostoftravellingduetohighcostoffuelcausingthelowand
middleclasspersonstotravellesswhichreducesprofitsrealisedin
thetransportsector.Thesolutionismanagementandconservationof
energytosaveontheavailableresourcesandalternativesourcesof energy.
9.Deeprootedcolonialheritagewherecolonialistsconstructedrailways
ofdifferentgaugeswhichmakesextensionofrailwaysinto
neighbouringcountriesdifficult.Effortsarebeingmadebyseveral
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Africancountriestochangethepatternofroadsandrailwaysandjoint
constructionofroadsandrailways.

TRADE
-Buyingandsellingorexchangeofgoodsandservices.
TypesofTrade
A.Domestic/Internal/Home/Localtrade
-Buyingandsellingofgoodswithinacountry’sborders.
It’sclassifiedinto:
1.WholesaleTrade-purchasingofgoodsinbulkfromproducersand
sellingthemtoretailers.
2.RetailTrade-buyinggoodsfromwholesalersandsellingthemto individualconsumers.
B.RegionalTrade
-Tradebetweencountriesfoundinthesamegeographicalregion.
C.InternationalTrade
-Exchangeofgoodsandservicesatthegloballevel.
It’sclassifiedinto:
1.ExportTrade-sellingofgoodsandservicestoforeigncountries.
ExamplesofmajorexportsfromKenyaarecoffee,tea,cutflowers,
tourism,fluorspar,miraa,vegetables,etc.
2.ImportTrade-buyingofgoodsandservicesfromothercountries.
ExamplesofimportstoKenyaarecrudeoil,vehicles,electronics,sugar,
skilledlabour,fertilisers,rice,vehiclepartsetc.
3.BilateralTrade-exchangeofgoodsandservicesbetweentwocountries.
4.MultilateralTrade-exchangeofgoodsandservicesbetweenmany countries.
5.VisibleTrade-tradingintangiblegoods.
6.Invisibletrade-tradinginservices.
BalanceofTrade
-Differenceinvalueofcountriesvisibleexportsandimports.
It’sof2types:
1.AdverseBalanceofPayments-inwhichvalueofvisibleimportsexceeds
thatofvisibleexports.
2.FavourableBalanceofTrade-inwhichvalueofvisibleexportsexceeds
thatofvisibleimports. BalanceofPayment
-Differenceinvaluebetweenvisibleandinvisibleexportsandimports.
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FactorsInfluencingTrade
1.Differenceinnaturalresourceswhichmakesitnecessarytotradewith
othercountriesorareasinordertoobtaingoodsandresourceswhich
arenotfoundintheirarea.
2.populationwherebylargepopulationoronewithhighpurchasingpower
providesalargeandreadymarketforgoodsandservicesencouraging trade.
3.Tradeoccurswhenthereisdemandandsupplyofgoodsandservices.
i.Ifthesupplyislowandthedemandishigh,pricesgoup stimulatingtrade.
ii.Whenthesupplyismoreandthedemandislow,pricesgo
downdiscouragingtrade.
4.Adequateandefficientmeansoftransportandcommunication
encouragetradebecausebulkygoodscanbetransportedquicklyand
overlongdistancesfromproducerstoconsumers.Poortransport
discouragestradeduetothedifficultyingettinggoodstothemarketin
time.Goodscanbesuppliedfasterwhentraderscommunicatewith
supplierswithouthavingtotravelalotwhichreducestravellingcost
andhenceincreasingprofits.
5.Traderestrictionscanencourageordiscouragetrade.Theyareoftwo types:
Tariffs-taxesordutiesleviedbyacountryonaparticulartypeof
commodityimportedinordertoprotectitsdomesticindustries.
Quotas-specifiedquantitiesofgoodswhichmustnotbe
exceededduringimportationorexportation.
TradeAgreements-agreementsmadebetweencountries
regardingwhichcommoditiesareexportedorimportedfrom
specificcountries.
TotalBan-completerestrictionofimportationofaparticular
commodityinorderforacountrytoprotectitsdomestic
industriesorduetopoliticalhostility.
6.TradingBlocksoreconomicUnions/Associationsamongcountries
aimedatpromotingregionaltradeamongmembersstatescan
encouragetradebetweenmembersanddiscouragetradewithnon members.
FreeTradeAssociations-liberalisetradeamongmember
countriesbyloweringandabolishingtariffs.
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CommonMarketAssociations-liberalisetradeamongmembers
andraisetariffsfornonmembers.
7.Tradecanonlytakeplacebetweencountriesonlywhentheyareingood
terms.Hostilityleadstototalbanaswasthecasewiths.Africaduring
apartheidandIraqwhenitattackedKuwaitandfailedtodestroy
weaponsofmassdestruction.
8.Existenceofaidstotradee.g.
Bankingfacilitatesstorageandtransferofmoneyusedintrade transactions
Insuranceprotectsbusinessesagainsttheftanddestruction
fromfirewhichinstilsconfidenceamonginvestors.
Warehousesareessentialforstorageoflargequantitiesof goodsforsale.
SignificanceofTradetoKenya
1.ManyKenyansareemployedindomestictradesuchasinwholesale
andretailshopsandinsectorsdealingwithforeigntradesuchas
customsandclearingandforwardingfirms.
2.It’sasourceofrevenueforthegovernmentbychargingsalestaxsuch
asV.A.T.onmanufacturedgoodssoldlocallyandtariffsatthepointof
entryintothecountry.
3.Foreigntradeenablesacountrytoearnforeignexchangewhichisused
toimportgoodsthatacountryneeds,settingupofindustries,
developingtransportandcommunication,providingsocialservicesetc.
4.Leadstodevelopmentofsettlementse.g.manytownsstartedasa
smallmarketandmorepeoplemovedtherewhentradingactivities increased.
5.Internationaltradeensuresavailabilityofawiderangeofgoodsfor
consumerstoselectfrominordertosatisfytheirneeds.
6.Itleadstodevelopmentandimprovementoftransportinfrastructure
suchasroadsandrailwaysinordertoenhancetransportationofgoods andpeople.
7.Leadstodevelopmentofindustriesbecauseasthegoodsarebought
demandforgoodsincreaseshencemoreindustriesaresetorexisting
onesincreasetheiractivitiesinordertosatisfytheincreaseddemand.
ProblemsFacingTradeinKenya
1.Kenyalargelydependsonagriculturalexportswhicharesometimes
affectedbyclimaticvariationsanddiseasesandpestsleadingtolow
production,andhencelowforeigncurrency.
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2.Kenya’sexportsareoflowvalueastheyconsistofrawmaterialsor
semiprocessedcommoditieswhichfetchlowpricesbecausetheyhave
tobeprocessedfurtherandalsoduetobeingbulkyalotofmoneyis
requiredfortheirexportationmakingreturnsaccruingfromexportation tobelow.
3.Localmanufacturessufferunfaircompetitionfromforeignfirmse.g.
fromCOMESAsomeofwhichdon’tattracttariffs,diversionofgoods
intendedforneighbouringcountriestothelocalmarketandcounterfeit
goodswhichcompetewithgenuineones.
4.ThereisignoranceaboutKenyangoodswherebysomeKenyans
believethatgoodsfromoverseasareofsuperiorqualitysotheyprefer
importedgoodsinsteadoflocalones.
5.UnexpectedtraderestrictionsaresometimesimposedonKenyan
exportse.g.in2000E.U.bannedfishimportationfromKenya.
6.Inadequatetransportandcommunicationasmostroadsarepoorand
impassableduringrainyseasonmeaninggoodscan’treachthemarket
andhenceincreasedcostsforsuchgoods.
TheFutureofInternationalTradeinKenya
Thefutureofitisbrightbecauseofthefollowing:
1.KenyahassignedtradeagreementswithvariouscountriesofEurope,
asia,AmericaandAfrica.
2.It’samemberofCOMESAwhichhasincreasedthevolumeofregional trade.
3.ThereisrevivalofE.A.C.whichhasalsoincreasedthevolumeof regionaltrade.
4.PeaceagreementbetweenSudanesegovernmentandS.P.L.A.hasalso
ledtoincreaseinregionaltrade.
5.KenyaisexploringmarketsintheFarEastcountries.
6.KenyahastradeattachesabroadwhohelppromoteKenyangoods there.
7.ShehastradeorganisationssuchasKenyaExternalTradeAuthority
(K.E.T.A.)whichcarriesresearchonfactorswhichhavelimitedaccess
totopmarketsinU.S.A.andjapanandKenyaBureauofstandards
whichensuresqualityofgoodsismaintainedbythemanufacturers.
TheRoleofRegionalTradingBlocks
TheCommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfrica(COMESA)
Itwasestablishedin1994toreplacePreferentialTradeArea (P.T.A.).
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Ithas22memberstatese.g.Kenya,Uganda,Ethiopia,Zambia,
Zimbabwe,Namibia,etc.
ObjectivesofCOMESA
(a)Toreduceandeliminatetradebarriersonselectedcommoditiesto
betradedwithmemberstates.
(b)Abolishrestrictionsinadministrationoftradeamongmember countries.
(c)Fosteringrelations,peaceandpoliticalstabilityformemberstates.
(d)Raisethestandardoflivingwithinmemberstates.
(e)Promotegoodsbeingproducedinthememberstates.
(f)Establishandfosterco-operationinallfieldsofeconomicactivity.
Achievements
(a)Increasedvolumeoftrade.
(b)Increasedaccessibilitytomarketsinmembercountries.
(c)Freemovementofgoodsamongmembercountriesdueto
eliminationoftradebarriers.
(d)Increasedefficiencyinproductionaseachmemberisallowedto
specialiseinwhatsheproduces.
(e)Improvementoftransportandcommunicationfacilities.
(f)Increasedpoliticalandeconomiccooperationamongmemberstates.
TheSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity(SADC)
ItstartedasSouthernAfricanDevelopmentcoordinationin1980in
LusakaZambiaandtransformedintoSADCaftercollapseof apartheid.
Ithas14memberstatese.g.Tanzania,DRC,S.Africa,Zambia,
Zimbabwe,Mozambique,etc.
Objectives
(a)Encourageselfrelianceamongmemberstatesinthefaceof
instabilityposedbyapartheidregimeofS.Africa.
(b)Promoteanddefendpeaceandsecurity.
(c)Promoteregionalintegration.
(d)Eradicatepoverty.
(e)Facilitatetradeandeconomicliberalisation.
(f)Promoteselfsustainingdevelopmentonthebasisof
interdependenceonmemberstates.
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(g)Promoteandmaximiseutilisationofnaturalresourcesand
effectiveprotectionofenvironment.
Achievements
(a)Promotionofregionalindustriesbasedondomesticandregional rawmaterials.
(b)Reliabilityanddevelopmentofregionaltransportand
communicationinfrastructure.
TheEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS)
Wasestablishedin1976bythetreatyofLagos.
IthasheadquartersinLagosNigeria.
Ithas15memberstatese.g.Nigeria,Liberia,Ghana,Benin,Guinea, SierraLeone,etc.
Objectives
(a)Promotemutualtradebyeliminatingtraderestrictionsamong members.
(b)Createamonetaryunion.
(c)Imposeuniformtariffsforimportsfromnon-membercountries.
(d)Givespecialtreatmenttogoodsimportedfrommemberstates.
(e)Promotefreemovementofpeopletoandfrommembercountriesby eliminatingvisas.
Achievements
(a)BroughtpeacetotroubledcountrieslikeLiberiaandSierraLeone.
(b)Promotionoftradeintheregionthroughthepeaceachieved.
(c)Developmentofschoolstotrainpeopleonpeacekeepinge.g.The NationalWarCollege.
(d)Freemovementofgoodsamongmemberstates.
TheEuropeanUnion(EU)
AnorganisationofEuropeancountriesdedicatedtoincreasing
economicintegrationandcooperationamongmembers.
Itwasformerlyinauguratedin1993andhasheadquartersin BrusselsinBelgium.

Objectives
(a)Promotecooperationineconomic,trade,social,securityandjudicial matters.
(b)Implementationofeconomicandmonetaryunion.
Achievements
(a)SigningofmanytradeagreementsbetweenECandothercountries.
(b)Freetradeamongmembersasaresultofabolishingtradebarriers.
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(c)Highagriculturalproductionasfarmersreceiveguaranteedpriceswhich
haveenabledthemtoincreaseefficiency.
(d)Freemovementoffactorsofproductionwhichincludecapitaland labour.
ProblemsFacingRegionalTradingBlocks
(a)Civilwarstakingplaceinsomecountrieswhichhascausedinsecurityin
turnaffectingtradebetweencountries.
(b)Politicaldifferencesamongleadersofmemberstatesmayaffect
cooperationamongmemberstates.
(c)Somecountriesproducesimilargoodsmakingthevolumeoftradetobe
lowandlessrewarding.
(d)Freetradeaffectslocalindustriesastheimportedgoodswithouttaxes
areusuallycheaperthanlocallyproducedgoods.
(e)Freetradedeniescountriesrevenuetheywouldhaveearnedfrom
taxingimportedgoods.
(f)Poortransportandcommunicationlimitsinflowofgoodsandservices.
(g)Somememberstatesdon’tremittheirannualsubscriptionswhich
affectstheoperationsoftheorganisations.

POPULATION
Population-totalnumberofpeopleoccupyingagivenarea.
Populationdistribution-thewaypeoplearespreadoutontheland.
Populationdensity-numberofpersonsperunitarea=numberofpeoplein
agivenarea/totalareaoftheplace=XP/km2.
Demography-studyofstatisticaldataonhumanpopulations.
SourcesofPopulationData
Primarysources-registrationofbirthsanddeathsandcensuses.
Secondarysources-censusreports,textbooks,periodicals,etc.
PopulationDistributioninE.Africa
In2005wasestimatedtobe90mpeoplespreadoutthus:
1.Kenya-33m
2.Tanzania-36m
3.Uganda-21m
It’sspreadoutoveranareaof1,768,267km2resultingtoapopulation
densityof51personsperkm2.
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Thepopulationisunevenlydistributedwherebysomeplacesaredensely
populatede.g.largetownsofNairobi,Dar-es-SalaamandKampalawhile
othersaresparselypopulatede.g.N.andEKenya,N.E.Ugandaetc.
FactorsInfluencingPopulationDistributioninEastAfrica
Distributionofpopulationontheearth’ssurfaceisn’tuniformduetothe followingfactors:
Climate
Areaswithmoderatetemperaturesandhighrainfallhavehighpopulation
perunitareathanthosewithextremelyhighorlowtemperaturesandlow
unreliablerainfallbecausemoderatetemperaturesgivecomforttopeople
andabundantrainfallfavoursgrowthofcrops.
Relief
Highaltitudeareashavelowpopulationbecauseofextremelylow
temperatureswhichdoesn’tsupportgrowthofcropstoensurefood sufficiency.
Plainsandgentlyslopingareashavehigherpopulationthansteepareas
duetofertilesoils,easetoerectbuildingsandconstructionoftransport infrastructure.
Vegetation
Denseforestsaresparselypopulatedbecausetheyarehabitattowild
animalsandit’sdifficulttodeveloptransportandcommunication
infrastructureandsomearetsetseflyinfestede.g.MiomboWoodlandin Tanzania.
Grasslandshavehighpopulationifrainfallisfavourablebecausetheyare
easytoclearandrelativelylevelorgentlysloping.
Soils
Areaswithfertilesoilsandreliablerainfallhavehighpopulationbecause
theyareagriculturallyproductivewhilethosewithpoorsoilse.g.savannah
withleachedsoilshavelowpopulationsincetheyareagriculturally unproductive.
Drainage
Welldrainedareashavehighpopulationthanswampyareasbecausethey
supportsettlementandfarming.
Areaswhichareswampyhavelesspopulationbecauseit’sdifficultto
constructbuildings,carryoutagricultureandalsomosquitoinfested.
PestsandDiseases
Areasinfestedwithmosquitoandtsetseflieshavelowpopulation
becausethosepeststransmitmalariaandsleepingsicknessandNagana tolivestock.
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Diseaseepidemicscauselowpopulationinareasaffectedaswasthe
caseinS.W.UgandaasaresultofHIVandAidswhichlefttheareaalmost deserted.
HistoricalFactors
SlavetradeleftsomepartsofW.Africawithlowpopulationaspeople
werecapturedandsoldasslavesinAmerica,W.IndiesandArabworld.
Whileothersrunawaytoavoidbeingcaptured.
Colonisationcausedpeopletobedrivenfromtheirhomesintoreserves
tocreateroomforwhitefarmerse.g.inpartsofKenyanHighlandswhich
causedlowpopulationinindigenouspeople’sfarmswhilethepopulation
inreserveskeptonincreasing.
TribalConflicts
Areaswithtribalconflictsaresparselypopulatedbecausepeoplemove
awayfromtheretoseeksafetye.g.Molo.
EconomicFactors
Townsandareaswithminingactivitieshavehighpopulationaspeoplego
toseekforjobse.g.Nairobi,L.Magadiduetotronamining.
PoliticalFactors
Politicalunrestmaycausepeopletomovefromtheirhomearealeavingit
sparselypopulatede.g.UgandaduringthereignofIddiAminandS.Sudan.
GovernmentPolicy
Governmentprogrammessuchasconstructionofdamsandminingmay
requireremovalofpeoplefromcertainareascausingthemtobesparsely
populatedwhilethepopulationinareasofdestinationincreases.
FactorsInfluencingPopulationGrowth
Populationgrowthisthechangethatoccursinthenumberofpeopleina
populationoveragivenperiodoftime.
Populationmaygrowpositivelybynumberofpeopleincreasingina
populationornegativelybyhavingadecreaseinthenumberofpeople.
Themainfactorsinfluencingpopulationgrowtharefertility,mortalityand migration.
Fertility
Fertility-numberoflivebirthsawomanhasduringherreproductiveperiod.
Fecundity-abilityofawomantoconceiveandgivebirthtoachild
regardlesswhetheraliveorstillborn.
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Infecundity/Sterility-inabilityofawomantoconceiveandgivebirthtoa
childregardlesswhetheraliveorstillborn.
PrimaryInfertility-involuntarychildlessness.
InvoluntarySecondaryInfertility-involuntarychildlessnesscausedbya
secondfactore.g.whenawomanhashadachild/childrenandisunable
tohavemoreduetohealthfactors.
VoluntarySecondaryInfertility-voluntarychildlessnesswhereawoman
whohashadachild/childrendecidesnottohaveanymoree.g.byusing
contraceptionmethods.
FertilityRate-averagenumberofchildrenthatawomanofchildbearing age(15-
49years)willhaveinherlifetime.
Highfertilityrateleadstohighpopulationgrowthwhilelowfertilityrates
leadtoslowornegativepopulationgrowth.
PopulationGrowth-increaseordecreaseinthenumberofpeople.
1.NaturalPopulationGrowth
Naturalincreaseordecreaseinpopulation.
It’scalculatedusingCrudeBirthRate/estimatedrateofbirthsina
population(CBR)andCrudeDeathRate/estimatedrateofdeaths
inapopulation(CDR).
CBR=totalnumberofbirthsinayear×1000/totalpopulation
estimatedatmidyear=Xbirths/1000population.
CDR=totalnumberofdeathsinayear×1000/totalpopulation estimatedatmid-
year=Xdeaths/1000population. N.P.G=CBR-CDR×100/1000=X%.
Forinstance,in1999theCBRinKenyawas41.3whileCDRwas11.7.
Thereforethepopulationgrowthwas(41.3-11.7) ×100/1000=29.6%.
2.NumericalpopulationGrowth
Actualorabsoluteincreaseinthenumberofpeopleinanareawithin
agivenperiodoftime.
=inter-censalincrease×100/totalpopulationintheformercensus
Forinstancepopin1989was2000andin1999was2500.Intercensalincrease
was500 =500×100/2000=25%.
CausesofHighFertilityRateinKenya
CulturalBeliefs
1.Earlymarriageofwomenwhichlengthenstheirfertileduration.
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2.Beliefinlargefamiliesasasourceofprestigee.g.childrenareasourceof
labourandgirlsareasourceofdowry.
3.Polygamywhichcausescompetitionbetweenwivesleadingtolarge
numberofbirthsperwoman.
4.Sexpreferencewhenthereisahighregardforabirthofason/heirto
ensurecontinuityofthefamilystatuswhichcausescoupleswhoare
bearinggirlstocontinuebearinggirlsuntiltheygetaboy.
5.Namingofrelativeswherebycoupleswillcontinuetogetchildrenuntil
theyfinishnamingrelativesofbothsidese.g.fathers,mothers,uncles, aunts,etc.
OtherFactors
1.modernisationwhichleadstodeclineinsocialvaluesleadingtofree
interactionofyounggirlsandmencausinggirlstobecomemothersat tenderage.
2.Availabilityofenoughandbetterfoodensuringpeoplearehealthyandlive
longerandareabletobearmorechildrenastheyareabletofeedthem.
3.Availabilityofhealthservicesforbothmotherandchildwhichprovide
prenatalandpostnatalcare.
FactorsWhichHaveCausedLowFertilityRatesinKenya/Slowpopulation
Growth
1.Economicconsiderationswheremodernfamiliespreferfewerchildren
becauseithasbecomeexpensivetobringupachild.
2.Increaseduseofbirthcontrolmeasures.
3.Moregirlsareattendingschoolsotheydon’tgetmarriedearly.
4.Educationmakingwomentoopttoremainsingleastheygetemployed
andnolongerlooktomarriageasasourceoffinancialsecurity.
5.Moderncareeropportunitieswhichhavealimitinginfluenceonthe
women’sfertilityrateasmostemployeesdon’twantwomenwhokeepon
goingonmaternityleave.
Mortality
Mortalityreferstodeathsamongmembersofapopulation.
Itreducesthepopulationinagivenarea
Italsoaffectsitsstructureorcompositionofthepopulationintermsof
ageandsexwherebyifthereisconsistentdeathofaparticularageor
sextherewillbemarkedchangeinthepopulationbecausetheother
agesorsexwillbemorethantheaffectedones.
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CausesofMortality/MoreFactorsWhichCauseSlowPopulationGrowth
1.Lownutritionalstandardswhichcausedeficiencydiseasesreducing
body’sabilitytofightdiseaseswhichmaykillmanychildrenbelow5years.
2.Lowhygienestandardswhichmaycausediarrhoealdiseasessuchas
cholerawhichkillyoungandoldmembersofthepopulation.
3.Prevalenceofnaturalcalamitiese.g.droughts,floodsandearthquakes
whichalsoleadstodeathsofmany.
4.EpidemicsanddiseaseoutbreakssuchasHIV/AIDSwhichhaseliminated
largenumbersofpeopleincommunitieswherewifeinheritanceis
practisedandaswasthecaseinS.W.Uganda.
5.Humanmadecalamitiessuchasoutbreaksofwarandhighcrimerates
whichreducepopulation.
6.Emigrationi.e.movementofpeoplefromtheircountryespeciallythe
youthtosettleelsewherewhichreducespopulationattheareaoforigin.
CausesofDeclineinDeathRatesinCountries
1.Immunisationofinfantswhichhasreducedinfantmortalityrate.
2.Highnutritionalstandardswhichhavereducedincidentsofdeficiency
diseaseswhichkillchildrenagedbetween1-5years.
3.Improvedhygienicstandardswhichhavereducedincidentsofdiarrhoeal
diseaseswhichusedtokillmanypeople.
4.Advancedmedicalfacilitieswhichhaveensuredavailabilityofdrugsfor
somediseaseswhichhadnodrugswhichenablespeopletolivelonger.
Migration
-Movementofpeoplefromoneplaceofresidencetoanother.
Itcausesreductionofpopulationintheplaceoforiginandincreaseof
populationintheareaofdestination.
Emigrants-peoplewhomoveoutofaplace.
Immigrants-peoplewhomoveoutofaplace.
CausesofMigration
PushFactors
-Problemsorcircumstanceswhichforceoutapersonfromhis/herareaof residence.
1.Pressureonlandduetoincreaseinpopulationwhichcausepeopleto
movetootherareaswherelandisavailablee.g.fromC.KenyatoR.Valley.
2.Landbecomingtoopoortosupportcropswhichcausepeopletomoveto
otherareaswherefertilelandisavailable.
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3.Unemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcausepeopletomoveto
otherareastoseekjobsorbetterpayingones.
4.Insecuritysuchastribalclashesandterrorgangswhichcausepeopleto othersaferplaces.
5.Persecutionofspecificreligiousgroupsduetotheirfaithwhichcauses
themtomovetoareaswheretheycanpractisetheirfaithfreelye.g.Jews
fromEuropetoIsrael.
6.Politicalpersecutione.g.manyUgandansmovedtoneighbouring
countriesduringthereignofIddiAmin.
7.Occurrenceofnaturalcalamitiessuchasdiseases,floodsandsevere
droughtsforcingpeopleoutoftheirplaceofresidencee.g.inmonsoon Asia.
8.Governmentpolicywherepeoplearemovedfromoneareatogiveroom
fordevelopmente.g.H.E.P.projectsandminingsuchasoftitaniumat Kwale.
PullFactors
-Positiveconditionswhichattractapersontoanewplace.
1.Attractionofurbanlifewherethereiselectricity,pipedwater,
entertainmentandsocialamenities.
2.Availabilityofemploymentsuchasinurbanareaswheretherearemany
industriesandbusinessesorinruralareaswithestatesandplantations.
3.Opportunitiesforbettereducatione.g.inurbanareaswithmanyeducation institutions.
4.Security
5.Plentyofland
6.fertileland
7.Higherstandardoflivinge.g.inurbanareas TypesofMigration
2basictypesnamely:
Internalmigration
-Migrationwithinacountry.
TypesofInternalMigration
RuraltourbanMigration
-Movementofpeoplefromruralareastourbanareas.
Itinvolves:
1.Youthwhohavecompletedvariouslevelsofeducationmovingtourban
areastoseekemploymentinwhilecollarjobs.
2.Peoplemovingtourbanareasinsearchofalternativewaysofearninga
livingduetoshortageoflandinruralareas,unemploymentandlowprices
foragriculturalproduce.
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3.Tradersrelocatingtourbanareaswherethereisalargermarketasthe
peopleinruralareashavelowpurchasingpower.
4.Peoplemovingtourbanareaswherethereisadequatesocialamenities
suchashospitals,entertainment,electricityandgenerallyexcitinglife.
5.Youthseekingforfurthereducationwhojoinuniversitiesandcolleges
manyofwhicharelocatedinurbanareas.
6.Transferofpeopleemployedinruralareastourbanareas.
RuraltoRuralMigration
-Movementofpeoplefromoneruralareatoanother.
Itinvolves:
1.Peoplemovingtoplantationsandotherlargefarmsseekingemployment
e.g.teapickersinKerichofromKisiiruralparts.
2.Movementofnomadicpastoralistsfromoneplacetoanotherinsearchof
waterandpasture.
3.Peoplemovingtootherpartsofthecountrytobuylandandsettlethere.
4.Movementofpeopleintosettlementschemese.g.Mwea,Nyandaruaetc.
toeasepressureonland.
5.Movementofpublicandprivateemployeesontransferfromoneruralarea toanother.
UrbantoRuralMigration
-Movementofpeoplefromurbanareastoruralareas.
Itinvolves:
1.Transferofpeopleemployedinurbanareastoruralareas.
2.Movementofpeoplefromurbanareastosearchforjobsinruralareas.
3.Peoplemovingfromurbanareastoruralareastosettlepermanentlyafter retirement.
4.Peoplemovingawayfromstressfulurbanlifetosuburbstobecommuting dailytowork.
UrbantoUrbanMigration
-Movementofpeoplefromoneurbanareatoanotherorfromonepartof
urbanareatoanother.
Itinvolves:
1.Employedpersonswhoaretransferredfromonetowntoanother.
2.peoplemovingfromonepartoftowntoanotherdueto:
transfer
insearchofaffordablehousing
insearchofbetteremployment insearchofbetterbusinessopportunity
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ExternalMigration
-Movementofpeoplefromonecountrytoanother.

Itinvolves:
1.Peoplewhoseekemploymentabroadforashortperiodwhoendup settlingpermanently.
2.Refugeeswhoareforcedoutoftheircountrybyfactorssuchaswar.
3.Peopleseekingpoliticalasylumduetopoliticalpersecutionintheir country.
4.Governmentemployeessuchasambassadorswhoareinassignment abroad.

EffectsofMigration
AtthePlaceofOrigin
PositiveEffects
1.Improvedagriculturalproductioninruralareaswhenpeoplemoveout
creatingmoreroomforcultivation.
2.Increaseinpurchasingpowerinruralareaswhenmigrantsremitmoney backhome.
3.Relieftoacountrywhichisfacedwithunemploymentwhenpeopleget
employedoutsidethecountry.
NegativeEffects
1.Loweringagriculturalproductionwhenablebodiedpeoplegototown
leavingthewomen,elderlyandchildrenwhoareunabletomanagefarms effectively.
2.Underemploymentinruralareasduetoloweredagriculturalproductivity.
3.Breakupoffamiliesandloweringofsocialmoralssincemajorityof
migrantsaremenwhichcausesimbalanceoffemale-maleratio.
4.Loweringofpopulationdensityintheareaoforigin.
5.Loweringorfertilityduetolongseparationbetweenamanandwife.
6.Lowerrateofindustrialisationduetotransferofskilledmanpowerto
othercountries(braindrain).
PlaceofDestination
PositiveEffects
1.Thereisagaininpopulation.
2.Developmentifthemigrantsareinvolvedingainfulemploymentwhich
resultsintoincreasedproduction.
3.Contributestonationalpeacewhenpeoplefromdifferentpartsofthe
countrysettletogether.
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NegativeEffects
4.Socialevilssuchascrime,prostitutionanddrugpeddlingwhenpeoplefail
tosecureemployment.
5.Shortageofhousingandhighhouserentsleadingtogrowthand expansionofslums.
6.Shortageofsocialamenitiessuchasschools,hospitals,waterand transport.
OntheIndividual
PositiveEffects
1.Improvedlivingstandardoftheworkerresultingfromsavingsmadefrom
incomegainedafteremployment.
2.Acquisitionofskillsandchangeinattitudeduetoexposurewhichmay
causesometowndwellerstochangetheirwayoflifeandbecomemore sophisticated.
NegativeEffects
1.Lowerfertilityrateswhensomepeoplewhohavemigratedtotownstake
longtimebeforemarryingastheytrytoachievevariousgoalsintheirlives.
2.Immoralitymayarisemayarisewhenurbanmigrantslosetouchwiththeir culturalvalues.
3.Marriagebreakagesmayoccurwhenspousesareseparatedforlong periodsoftime.
Demographic/PopulationTrends
-Variouspositiveornegativechanges(transition)whichtakeplaceinthe
populationofagivensociety,countryortheworldandtheirimpacton
socialeconomicenvironment.
-Demographictransitionreferstothehistoricalchangeinbirthand
deathratesfromhightolowwhichcausespopulationincrease.
DemographicTransitionTheory
-Atheorycompoundedtoexplainthisphenomenon.
Thereare4demographictransitionphasesnamely:
Stage/phase1 oHighbirthrateandhighdeathrateduetoinadequatefoodsupply,wars,
diseasesandinsufficientmedicalfacilities. oLittleornoincreaseinpopulation
oWasexperiencedinEuropebefore19thCentury.
Stage2 oHighbirthrateandadeclineindeathrateduetoimprovedfood
suppliesandmedicalfacilities. oHighpopulationgrowthrate
oWasexperiencedbyEuropeancountriesinthe19thCenturyduring
industrialrevolution.
oKenyaisinthisstage.
Stage3
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-Relativelylowdeathratesanddecliningbirthrateduefamilyrealisationof
theneedtohavesmallfamiliesduetopressureexertedoneconomicresourcesandsocialfacil
ities,levelofeducationattainmentleadingtouseofbirth controlmeasures.
-Moderatepopulationgrowthrate.
Stage4 oLowbirthanddeathrates. oLowpopulationgrowthrate.
oThepopulationbecomesstaticandcanonlyreproducetoreplacethe
dyingones(populationreplacementlevel).
oIt’sexperiencedinindustrialisedcountrieslikeGermanyandSweden
wheredeathrateisfallingbelowdeathrate.
PopulationStructure
-Compositionofagivenpopulationintermsofageandsex.
Theinformationonpopulationstructureisobtainedinacensusand
presentedusinganagesexpyramid.
CharacteristicsofanAgeSexPyramid oVerticalaxisrepresentsageranges
oHorizontalaxisrepresentspercentageoftotalpopulation
oRighthandsiderepresentsfemalesproportion
oLefthandsiderepresentsmalesproportion
PopulationStructureofaDevelopedCountry
oIt’sbroadatthebaseduetofactorscontributingtohighfertilityrates alreadydiscussed.
oHollowsforages5-9duetohighmortalityrate.
oThinstowardsthetopduetothelowlifeexpectancy(averagenumber
ofyearsapersonisexpectedtolive)asfewpeoplesurviveto70years.
oTaperstowardsthetopduetorelativelyhighdeathratesthroughout agegroups.
PopulationStructureofaDevelopedCountry
oNarrowatthebaseduetolowbirthratescausinglowpopulationof
childrenandyoungpeople.
oBroadenstowardsthetopduetohighlifeexpectancyleadingtoahigh
populationofoldpeople(ageingpopulation).
oBroadenstowardsthetopwhichisanindicationoflowmortalityrate
throughoutagegroups.
SignificanceofPopulationStructure
1.Forplanningbyenablingthegovernmenttoknowthepercentageof
availablefundstoallocateforvarioussectorse.g.ifmostofthepeoplein
thepopulationareyouthitwillallocatemorefundsforeducationand
 430

healthservicesandifmostareelderlymorefundswillbeallocatedfor
healthandsocialwelfare.
2.Forcalculationofdependencyratio(proportionofpopulationwhichisn’t
involvedinproductionactivitiestotheonethatis.
DR=children<15+oldpeople/workingpopulation(15-64)
oHighdependencyratiomeansthepopulationisstrainedsince
populationwilldevotemostofitsresourcestoconsumptioninstead ofinvestment.
3.Forcalculationofsexratio(numberofmalesper100females.
oIfgreaterthan100itmeansthereareagreaternumberofmalesthan
femaleswhichistypicalinurbanareas.
oSmallsexratioresultsinmaledeficiencywhichaffectsfertilitywhich
istypicalinurbanareas.
ConsequenceofPopulationStructure
1.Strainonbudgetduetodevelopingcountrieshavingalargepopulationof
youngpeoplewhosehealthandeducationcostishighanddeveloping
countrieshavingalargeproportionofoldpeoplewhosecostofhealthand
socialwelfareishigh.
2.Lowqualityofeducationandhealthcareindevelopingcountriesduehigh
populationleadingtothehighcostofthoseservices.
3.Betterqualityofhealthandeducationindevelopingcountriesduelow population.
4.Strainonworkingpopulationindevelopingcountriessincemostofthe
moneyisconsumedleavinglessforinvestment.Largepopulationofold
peopledoesthesameindevelopingcountries.
5.Boostinfoodproductionwhenthereisalargeproportionofmalesdueto
theavailabilityofalargelabourforce.
6.Heavytaxationoftheworkingpopulationwhenthedependencyofyoung
andoldishighinordertoavailfundsforprovisionofsocialamenities.
7.Largenumberoffemalesthanmalesleadstolowbirthratesand
consequentlyslowgrowthofpopulation.
8.Increaseinpromiscuitywhentherearealargenumberoffemalesthan males.
ConsequencesofPopulationGrowth
Overpopulation(PositivePopulationIncrease)
PositiveEffects
1.Alargepopulationprovidescheaplabourduetoalargenumberofpeople
competingforjobs.
 431

2.Increasedexploitationofnaturalresourcesandindustrialdevelopment
duetoincreaseddemandforgoodsandservicescausingthoseactivities
tobeincreasedtomeetthedemand.
3.Technologicalinnovationduetopressingneedsassociatedwithahigh
population(necessityisthemotherofinvention).
NegativeEffects
1.Pressureonlandleadingtolandfragmentation.
2.Environmentaldegradationwhenpeopleclearforeststomakeroomfor
settlementandagriculture.
3.Lowinvestmentandslowgrowthofindustryasthegovernmentspendsa
lotofmoneyoneducationandmedicalfacilitiesleavinglessfor investment.
4.LoweringGDP(aggregatevalueofgoodsandservicesthatacountrycan
produce)duetoinabilitytosaveanymoneyforinvestment.
5.Highrateofunemploymentduetoemploymentsectorgrowingataslower
ratethanpopulationgrowth.
6.Townsfaceproblemsofwatershortage,pressureonsocialamenitiesand
highcostofhousingleadingtodevelopmentofinformalsettlementssuch
asslumswhichexpandcoveringagriculturallandsurroundingthetowns.
Underpopulation(Negative/SlowPopulationGrowth) -
Thisisthecaseindevelopedcountries.
1.Highgovernmentspendingonhealthandsocialwelfareasthepopulation
consistsofahighproportionofoldpeopleduetoplowbirthratesandlow deathrates.
2.Highcostofproductionsincethereisasmallworkforceconsistingof
skilledpeoplewhosewagesarehigh.
3.Underutilisationofresourcessuchasagricultureandmineralresources
sincethereisshortageoflabourduetosparsepopulationandmostofit
beingconcentratedinurbanareas.
4.Inadequatemarketforgoodsandservicesduetoasmallpopulation.
5.Underdevelopmentandlowlivingstandardsinruralareassincealarge
percentageofpeopleliveinurbanareas.
6.Trafficcongestionandatmosphericandnoisepollutioninurbanareasdue
tocontinuousexpansionoftowns.
7.Reducedfoodproductionastownsexpandandengulfsurrounding agriculturalland.
RelatedStudiesonPopulationinKenyaandDenmark
Sweden
 432

oOneoftheScandinaviancountrieswhichalsoincludeNorway,Finland andDenmark.
oIt’slocatedintheN.Europe.
oIt’sinthe4thstageofthepopulationtransitiontrend.Thebirthand
deathratesareequali.e.replacementlevel.
oNaturalandnumericalpopulationgrowthis0.5%.
FactorsWhichHaveContributedToSlowPopulationGrowthinSweden
1.Improvementofmedicalfacilities.
2.Peoplehavebecomemoreaffluentandurbanisedcausingatendencyto
havefewerchildrensoastomaintainahighstandardofliving.
3.Populationhasembracedbirthcontrolmeasuresandasaresult
contraceptivesarewidelyused.
4.Movetowardssmallfamiliesinresponsetoeconomicrealities.
5.Highrateofseparationleadingtolowfertilityrateandconsequentlylow birthrates.
6.Populationishighlyliterateandunderstandstheneedforcontrolling populationgrowth.
7.Lowdeathratesreducingtheneedtobearmorechildren.
FactorsInfluencingPopulationDistributioninSweden
1.Alargeproportionofthecountryismountainouswhosecultivationisn’t
easyduetosteepness,stonysoilsandpermafrostcausing60%of
populationtobefoundinthesouthernpart(Skane)wherethereisfertile
soilsandwarmthwhichfavourscultivation.
2.Chillyclimatewithcoldwintersespeciallyinthenorthernlands(Norrland)
whicharenotinhabitedatallonceagaincausingpopulationtobe
concentratedinthesouth.
3.Swedenisaforestedcountryandareasunderforestsaremoresettles
becausetheyaremoreidealforcultivationunlikeplainswhichare permafrost.
4.Lakesandriverscoveralmost½ofthecountryandtheareawithwater
bodiesaren’tsettledwhichcausesthepopulationtobescattered.
5.MiningcentressuchasGrangesberyandFennimoreformislandsofhigh
populationwhiletheimmediateneighbourhoodshavehighpopulation.
6.Thelargestnumberofpeoplelivesinurbanareasthemajoronebeing
Stockholmandvillagesformingnucleatedandclusteredtypeof settlement.
ComparisonbetweenPopulationTrendsinKenyaandSweden
Similarities
Bothcountrieshaveunevendistributionofpopulationdictatedbyfactors
suchasrelief,climateandpresenceofeconomicactivities.
 433

Bothcountrieshavelowmortalityduetoimprovedmedicalcare.
Inbothcountriespopulationdensityinurbanareasishigh.
Inbothcountriesthereisuseoffamilyplanningmethodsinefforttocontrol
populationgrowth.
Bothcountrieshavepartswhicharen’tinhabitedatalle.g.inthenorthof
SwedenandChalbidesertinKenya.
Inbothcountriesthereishighpopulationinareaswithminingactivitiese.g.
GrangesberyinSwedenandMagadiinKenya.
Inbothcountriespopulationdistributionisinfluencedbydrainagewhere
areaswithwaterbodiesaren’tsettled. Differences
oKenyahasabirthrateof3.2%leadingtohighpopulationgrowthwhile
Swedenhas0.5%leadingtoslowgrowthrate.
oKenyahasapopulationdensityof36personspersquarekmwhile
Swedenhasapopulationdensityof19P/km2. oKenyahasalargerpopulationthanSweden.
oKenyahasalargepopulationofyoungpeopleandasmallproportionof
oldpeoplewhileSwedenhasalargepopulationofoldpeopleandasmall
proportionofyoungpeople.
oKenyahasrelativelyhighdeathratesthroughoutagegroupswhileSweden haslow.
oPopulationdistributioninSwedenisveryunevencomparedtoKenya’s.
oInSwedenmostofthepopulationisfoundinurbanareaswhileinKenya
mostofitisfoundinruralareas.
oKenyahasahighdependencyratiocomparedtoKenya.
oKenyahasalowlifeexpectancy(50years)thanSweden(70years).
oThemainfactorcontributingtopopulationgrowthinKenyaishighbirth
ratewhileinSwedenitisMigration.
oKenyahashighpopulationdensitywhileSwedenhaslow.

URBANISATION
-Developmentoftowns.
-Processinwhichapopulationistransformedfromaruralbasedagricultural
lifestyletoanurbanbasednon-agriculturallifestyle
DistributionofMajorUrbanCentresinE.Africa
 434

MaincategoriesofUrbanCentres
1.Capitaltowns-townswhicharethemainseatofthegovernmentor
administrativecentresofeachcountry.TheseareNairobi,Dodomaand Kampala.
2.Cities-largesttownsinE.Africawithcitycouncilstatusi.e.Nairobi,Dar andKampala.
3.Seaports-arelocatedintheIndianOceanCoastandareMombasa,
Malindi,Dar,Tanga,MtwaraandLindi.
4.LakePorts-arelocatedonlakeshorese.g.Kisumu,Mwanza,Kigoma, Bukoba,Jinja,etc.
5.Miningtowns-evolvedduetominingactivitiese.g.Magadi,Kakamega,
Shinyanga,Kilembe,etc.
6.Industrialtowns-whosemainfunctionsareindustrialactivitiese.g.
Thika,AthiRiver,Jinja,Tanga,etc.
7.Collectingtowns-whosefunctionsaretocollectagriculturalproduce
forbeinglocatedinrichagriculturalarease.g.Karatina,Nakuru,Eldoret,
MbalalaandKabaleinUgandaandMbeyaandSongeainTanzania.
8.Gaptowns-(Makutanotowns)locatedatpointsofconvergenceof
transportroutese.g.Voi,MoshiandTaborainTanzaniaandHoimain Uganda.
9.Administrativetowns-whosemainfunctionisadministratione.g.all
provincialanddistrictheadquartersinKenya,DodomaandMorogoroin
TanzaniaandGuluandFortPortalinUganda.
FactorsinfluencingtheGrowthofMajorurbanCentresinE.Africa
 435

1.Ruraltourbanmigrationwhenyoungpeoplecompleteformalschooling
andmigratetomajortownstolookfoeemploymentcausingpopulation
toexpandinthosetowns.
2.Naturalgrowthofurbanpopulationthroughbirthsbecausemostof
migrantsareyoungcoupleswhoareattheirheightoftheirreproductive years.
3.advantagesofwelldevelop[edtransportandcommunicationnetwork
sincemostofthemareaccessiblebygoodroads,railway,airandsome
bywaterwaysenablinggoodstobeimportedeasilyandaccelerates migration.
4.Industrialisationwhichattractspeoplebecauseindustriesattracts
peoplebecausetheyofferemploymentopportunities.
5.Somehaveemergedduetominingasitattractsworkerswhomoveand
settleintheminingarea.
6.Tourismwherebyinfluxoftouriststoatowncancausedemandfor
highclasshotels,curioshops,entertainmentetcwhichmakethetown
togrowe.g.MalindiandMombasa.
7.Agriculturecanmakeatowntogrowbyprovidingmarketforindustrial
productsfromurbancentresandbyprovidingrawmaterialsfoe
industriesestablishedinurbanareas.
8.administrationwhenthereissetdistrictorprovincialheadquartersand
governmentemployeesarepostedtheretoprovideservicestothe
peopleandhouses,shopsandserviceindustriessuchasbankingare
establishedtheretoservepeople.
GrowthandFunctionsofSelectedTownsinKenya
Thika(AnIndustrialTown)
oitsoneofthemostindustrialisedtownsinKenyawithindustriessuch
asflourmilling,breadbaking,vehicleassembly,fruitcanning,etc.
oLocatedattheedgeofKenyanHighlands.
oStartedasasmallAfricanvillagewheretheAkambaandAgikuyu
tradersmetandexchangedgoods.
oAmarketdevelopedandAsiantraderssetupshopstocaterforthe
smallAfricanandEuropeanfarmersfromthesurroundingareas.
FactorsWhichHaveContributedToItsDevelopmentasanIndustrialTown
1.It’ssurroundedbydistrictswhichareagriculturallyproductivee.g.
Kiambu,Thika,MaraguaandMuranga.
 436

2.It’ssituatednearriversChaniaandThikawhichsupplywaterfor
domesticandindustrialuse.
3.It’slocatedonNairobi-Nanyukirailwayandtarmacroadwhichmakes
transportofrawmaterialstothetownandthatoffinishedproductsto themarketeasy.
4.It’snearNairobiwhichisasourceofrawmaterialsmakingmany
investorstoprefertoestablishindustriesthere.
5.Highpopulationfromthesurroundingdistrictswhichsupplylabourto
theindustriesaswellasmarketforsomemanufacturedgoods.
6.Availabilityofexpansiveflatlandforindustrialgrowth.
7.CongestionofNairobi’sindustrialareawhichmademanyinvestorsto
preferThikaasit’soutsideandatthesametimenearNairobi.
8.Availabilityofpowerfrom7ForksPowerProjectonR.Tanawhich
provideselectricityforindustrialanddomesticuse.
Kisumu(ALakePort)
It’sthelargestportofE.Africa.
LocatedontheE.shoresofL.VictoriaontheWinamGulf.
ThirdlargestcityafterNairobiandMombasa.
StartedasasmallfishingsettlementcalledUgoweBay.
Later,thesettlementdevelopedintoaportcalledPortFlorenceafter
thecompletionoftherailwayfromKilindinitoMombasa.
PortFlorencelatercametobeknownasKisumu
FactorsWhichContributedToItsDevelopmentintoaLeadingLakePort
1.SettlementofAsiansaftertherailwayreachedtherewholaterbuilt
shopstocaterforAfricansneeds(BombayofKenya).
2.LocationontheshoresofL.Victoriawhichensuresadequatesupplyof
waterfordomesticandindustrialuse.
3.AvailabilityofH.E.P.fromUgandawhichhasenabledindustriestogrow andexpand.
4.Beingalakeportwhichhandlesregionaltradeacrossthelake.
5.Developmentofindustriesandtradewhichhasattractedmanyjob
seekersthusincreasingthepopulation.
6.Surroundingareasarehighlypopulatedthusactingasapooloflabour
forindustriesandmarketforproducts.
7.Fishingactivitiesandprocessingoffishhascontributedtoitsgrowth.
 437

8.Beingsurroundedbyareaswhichareagriculturallyproductivee.g.
WesternKenyawhichprovideabaseforpotentialdevelopmentin
industriesinsugarandcottoninKisumu.
Eldoret(AnAgriculturalCollectingCentre)
LocatedinthehighlandsonthewesternpartoftheR.Valley.
Itstartedasasmallpostofficefromwhichthetowngrew.
Itwasstartedasanagriculturalcollectingandmarketingcentrefor
Whitefarmerswhowerecommercialwheatfarmersandpractised dairyfarming.
IthasactedasacollectingcentreforagriculturalproducefromUasin GishuDistrict.
FactorsWhichMadeIttoBeaLeadingAgriculturalCollectingCentre
1.It’seasilyaccessiblebytherailwaylinefromMombasatoKampalaand
thehighwayfromMombasatoKampala.
2.Locationattheheartofoneoftherichestagriculturalhinterlandsfor
whichithasactedasacollecting,processingandmarketingcentre.
3.Availabilityofsocialamenitieswhichhasledtorapidincreasefromthe surroundingareas.
4.AvailabilityofH.E.P.whichhasledtoestablishmentofindustriessuchas
plywoodmaking,manufactureofsoftdrinks,textile,milkprocessing,etc.
5.Highpopulationinthesurroundingregionswhichprovideslabourfor
industriesandareadymarketformanufacturedproducts.
6.Plentyoflandforexpansionofthetownandindustries.
7.Establishmentofserviceindustriessuchasbankingandinsurancewhich
hascontributedsignificantlytoitsgrowth.
RelatedStudiesonSelectedCitiesintheWorld
NairobiandNewYork
Nairobi
CameintoexistencewhenUgandaRailwayreacheditin1899.
Itstartedasarailwaycampbeforeembarkingontheruggedhighlands
andthesteepdescentintotheR.Valley.
It’slocatedonAthi-KapitiPlains.
TheplainswereunoccupiedduetothetribalclashesbetweenKikuyuand Maasai.
ThecampwastemporarilyrelocatedtoKiambuduetomosquitoesand
wildanimalswhichposedadanger.
Settlerslatermovedbacktothepresentcitycentre.
NairobibecametheprovincialheadquartersofUkambaProvince.
 438

Itwasin1907elevatedtotheadministrativecapitalofBritishEastAfrica Protectorate.
NewYork
LocatedontheE.coastofU.S.A.atthemouthofR.Hudson.
Asectionofthecityissituatedonthemainlandwhilepartofitismadeup
ofagroupofislands-LongIsland,StatenIsland,ManhattanandJersey.
EstablishedaftertheDutchboughttheManhattanIslandfromtheRed
IndiansandrenameditNewYork.
ItsgrowthisassociatedwiththeconstructionofNewYorkStateBarge
CanalwhichlinksHudsontoL.ErieoneofthegreatlakesofN.America
whichpassesthroughregionswhicharehighlyindustrialisedand
agriculturallyproductive.
FunctionsofNairobiandNewYork/Similarities
1.BothareindustrialcentreswithNairobibeingtheleadingindustrialtownin
E.Africawithindustriessuchasbrewing,steelrolling,motorvehicle
assembly,etc.andNewYorkhasshipbuilding,chemicalindustries,
pharmaceuticalindustriesandthelargestindustrybeingclothingfollowed byprinting.
2.BothareinternationalcentreswithNairobihavingKICCandhighclass
hotelswhereinternationalmeetingsareheldandNewYorkisthe
HeadquartersofU.N.WorldBank,I.M.F.andotherinternational organisations.
3.BothareresidentialcentreswithNairobiprovidingsheltertoover2m
peopleinestatesandslumareasandNewYorkisalsoaresidentialcentre
forpeopleofvariousracesofEuropeanorigin,WestIndians,Jews,
Chinese,IndiansandJewsandthefamousghettoforblacksknownas Harlem.
4.BothareeducationalcentreswithNairobihavingeducationalinstitutions
suchasKenyattaandNairobiUniversitiesandKenyaPolytechnicand
variousothercollegesandNewYorkhasseveraljuniorschools,high
schools,collegesanduniversitiesforpeopleofallraces.
5.BotharetransportandcommunicationcentreswithNairobihavingJKIA
andWilsonAirportsandseveralhighwaysleadingtoothermajorurban
centresandTelcomKenyaandMobilephoneserviceswhichhave
headquartersthereandNewYorkisthelargestseaportintheworld,has
J.F.Kennedy,NewYorkandLaGuardiaairportsandTheNewYorkState BargeCanal.
6.Botharereligiouscentreswithreligiouscentresincludingcathedrals,
temples,mosquesandJewishsynagogues.
 439

7.BotharefinancialandtradecentreswithC.B.K.,commercialbanksand
N.S.E.andshopsandNewYorkistheworld’sfinancialcentreandthe
headquartersforI.M.F.andalsohasshops.
8.BotharerecreationalandculturalcentreswithNairobihavingKasarani
andNyayostadiums,GongRaceCourseetc.andN.YorkhasNightclubs,
cinemahalls,CentralPark,MadisonSquareGardenandit’salsothe fashionandartcentre.
Differences
1.NewYorkdevelopedasaseaportwhileNairobidevelopedasatown
followingconstructionofUgandaRailway.
2.NewYorkisacoastalcitywhileNairobiisaninlandcity.
3.NewYorkcomprisesofmainlandandseveralislandswhileNairobiisin themainland.
4.NewYorkhasanapproximately12timeslargerpopulationthanNairobi.
5.NewYorkislocatedinadevelopedcountrywhileNairobiislocatedina developingcountry.
6.NewYorkisaninternationalcitywhileNairobiisanationalcity.
7.NewYorkisaseaportwhileNairobihasaninlanddryportatEmbakasi.
8.NewYorkisthecapitalofthestateofNewYorkwhileNairobiisanational capital.
9.NewYorkexperiencestheproblemofracismwhileNairobiexperiences
theproblemoftribalism.
MombasaandRotterdam Mombasa
It’slocatedatthecoastofeastAfricainaRiaatthemouthofR. Mwachi.
Startedasarestingandcallingportduringtheeraofslavetrade.
ItwasonceaPortuguesetownwhobuiltFortJesusin1593.
Originallythetownwaslocatedontheislandsurroundedbythecreeks
namelyTudorandPortReitz.
Laterthetownexpandedfarthernorth,southandwesttothemainland.
FactorsWhichInfluencedItsLocation
1.WasastrategiccallingportforearlytraderstoandfromtheFarEast.
2.Providedagooddefensivesiteagainstexternalaggression(FortJesus).
3.Hasflatlandwhichisidealforconstructionofbuildings(coastalplains).
4.Corallimestonerocksfoundintheseawereusedasbuildingstonesfor houses.
5.RiverMwachiandKimbeniprovidedearlysettlerswithfreshwaterfor
domesticuselaterMzimaSpringsinTsavoW.N.Parkbecamethemain sourceofwater.
6.ThedeepwatersofKilindinicreekprovideagoodwellshelterednatural harbour.
 440

7.Hasalargeandrichagriculturalhinterlandi.e.thewholeofKenya,N.
Tanzania,Uganda,S.Sudan,RwandaandDRC.
Rotterdam
Locatedintheprovinceofs.HollandinNetherlands.
LocatedatthemouthsofriversRhineandMeuseontheN.Sea.
Originatedasasmallportsandwichedbetween2otherportsAntwerp
inBelgiumandAmsterdam.
SiltingoftheN.Sealedtothedwindlingofthedevelopmentof Rotterdam.
Aftertheharbourwasdeepeneditwitnessedrapidgrowthatthe1 sthalf of19thCentury.
Thegrowthwashaltedbythedevastationsduringthe2ndWorldWar.
Ithassincegrownintotheleadingworldportintermsoftonnage.
It’stheenterporttoEurope.
FactorsWhichHaveLedToItsDevelopmentasanEnterport
1.DeepeningoftheharbourcreatinganewportknownasEuropoortwhich
isdeepenoughtohandlelargevessels.
2.Hasanextensivehinterlandforwhichithandlestransitgoodsthroughthe
navigableR.RhinecomprisingofBelgium,Netherlands,Germany,Austria, etc.
3.LocatedatastrategiccentralpointinEuropewheresearoutesconverge
fromAmerica,AfricaandotherpartsofEuropegivingitanadvantageover
theotherportsofEurope.
4.Theportdoesn’tfreezeduetothewarmAtlanticDriftCurrentwhichraises
thetemperatureenablingittooperatethroughouttheyear.
5.Provisionofmodernportfacilities.
6.Itsindustrialfunctionofitsbeingthemajorindustrialareainthe
Netherlandswithindustriessuchasengineering,foodprocessing,oil refiningetc.
FunctionsofMombasaandRotterdam/Similarities
1.BothareseaportswithMombasabeingthegatewaytoEandCAfricaand
RotterdambeingtheenterporttoEurope.
2.BotharetransportandcommunicationcentreswithMombasabeingwell
servedbytransportationroutessuchasNairobi-MombasaHighway,has
MoiInternationalAirportetcandRotterdamislinkedtootherurban
centresbymodernroads,railwaylinesandwaterways.
3.BothareindustrialcentreswithMombasahavingChangamweoilrefinery,
BamburicementFactory,motorvehicleassembly,etc.andRotterdam
 441

havingbeingthemajorindustrialcentreinNetherlandshavingindustries
suchasshipbuilding,engineering,petrolchemical,etc.
4.Botharecommercialcentreswithbothhavingshopsandbusinesses
sellinggoodstocitizens.
5.Botharelocatedatthemouthsofrivers,MombasaonthemouthofR.
MwachiandRotterdamonthemouthsofriversRhineandMeuseontheN. Sea.
6.Bothareinthecoastalregion.
7.Bothareopenforusethroughouttheyearduetofavourableweather conditions.
8.Botharethesecondlargesttownsintheirrespectivecountries. Differences
1.Mombasahandlesmuchlessvolumeoftrade.
2.MombasaisfrostfreethroughouttheyearwhileRotterdamissometimes affectedbyfrost.
3.Netherlandshasmoresophisticatedportfacilitiesthanthoseof
Mombasa.
4.MombasaisinadevelopingcountrywhileRotterdamisinadeveloped country.
5.Mombasadependsonroads,railways,airandpipelinetransportwhile
Netherlandshascanaltransportinadditiontothosemeansoftransport.
6.MombasamainlyexportsagriculturalrawmaterialswhileRotterdam
exportsmanufacturedgoods.
EffectsofUrbanisation
Positiveeffects
1.Urbanisationencouragesnationalunityaspeopleofdifferentethnic
backgroundscometogetherandinteract.
2.Itcreatesemploymentopportunitiesthroughestablishmentof
commercialandindustrialactivitiesthroughwhichpeoplesliving standardsareraised.
3.Leadstodevelopmentofinfrastructurewithinurbancentresandthe surroundingareas.
4.Providesamarketforagriculturalgoodsproducedinthecountry.
5.Encouragesdevelopmentofindustrialandagriculturalsectorbyproviding
marketformanufacturedgoodsandproduce.
NegativeEffects(Problems)
1.Environmentaldegradatione.g.airpollutionwhentheindustriesand
motorvehiclesemitsmokeandothergasestotheatmospherewhich
acceleratesglobalwarming,pollutionofriversthroughdischargeof
harmfuleffluentsfromindustriesintothemandpeoplethrowingalltypes
ofwastesthereandnoisepollutionfromindustrialmachines,aircraftsand
motorvehicleswhichcauseslossofsleepandpermanentlossofhearing.
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2.Unemploymentbecauseofthepopulationgrowingatahigherratethan
theemploymentsector.
3.Crimeandothersocialevilslikeprostitutionwhichpeopleengageintoto
earnalivingduetohighlevelsofunemployment.
4.Strainonsocialamenitiesi.e.thereisshortageofhousing,healthcentres,
sanitation,schools,transportetcduetoincreaseinpopulation.
5.Trafficcongestionespeciallyindevelopingcountriesduetopoorly
plannedroadswhichareunabletoaccommodatetheeverincreasing
motorvehicleswhichcauseswastageoftimeandfuel.
6.Breakdownoffamilyunitsasmanymenleavemembersoftheextended
family,theirwives,childrenandgetconcubinesleadingtomarriage breakages.
7.Causesmentaldisordertopeopleduetostressanddepressionresulting
fromthehighcostoflivingcausingsomepeopletoabusedrugsinthe
processofstressmanagementcausingthemtoendupgettingmad.
8.Juveniledelinquencyortendencybytheyouthtobreakthelawdueto
idlenessresultingfromlackofactivitiestokeepthembusy.
9.Urbansprawlorexpansionoftownsintothesurroundingagriculturalland
whichlowersagriculturalproduction.

MANAGEMENTANDCONSERVATIONOFTHEENVIRONMENT
Environmentalconservationisprotectionandpreservationofnatural
resourcesfromdestruction,wastageorlosswhileenvironmental
managementiseffectiveplanningandcontroloftheprocessesand
activitiesthatcouldcausedeteriorationofenvironment.
NeedForEnvironmentalConservationandManagement/WhyitsEssential
1.Tosustainhumanlifebecauseitdependsorresourcesfromthe
environmente.g.soil,water,air,forests,wildlife,etc.
2.Soastoprotectendangeredspeciesofplantsandanimalsfrom
becomingextincte.g.Meruoak,whiterhinoandSokokeScopsowl.
3.Sothatthenaturalresourcesintheenvironmentcancontinuesustaining
thepresentandfuturegenerations.
4.Becausealotofnaturalresourcesintheenvironmentareofeconomic
valuebybeingconsumeddirectlyorbygivingusanincome.
5.Becausethefeaturesintheenvironmente.g.plantsandanimalsareof
aestheticvaluei.e.theyarebeautifultolookat.
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6.Forposterityi.e.toensureabetterlifeforfuturegenerations.
7.Tocurbglobalwarmingbyreducingthegreenhouseeffectwhichis
causingalotofheattobetrappedintheearth’satmosphere.
EnvironmentalHazards
-Dangersordisasterswithintheenvironmentduetonaturalcausesor humanactivities.
1)Floods
-Anoverflowofalargeamountofwateroverdryland.
Causes
a)Spillingofexcesswaterofariveroveritsbanksintothesurrounding areas.
b)Risingoftheleveloftheseaorlakeduetoincreasedrainfall.
c)ExceptionallyheavyrainfalllikeElNinoresultinginexcesswateron
landcollectinginshallowbasinsandflatareascausingflooding.
d)Breakingofadammakingthewaterinthereservoirtodrowntheland
onthedownstreamsideofthevalley.
e)Whenanearthquakeoccursintheoceancausinghugeseawaves
calledTsunamiwhichtravelstothelandfloodingit.
ControlofFloods
a)Constructionofdamstoreducethespeedandamountofwaterflowing
downstreambyexcesswaterflowingintothereservoir.
b)Constructionofdykesorhighwallssomedistancefromtheriverbank,
lakeshoeorseashoretoprotectlowlyinglandfrombeingfloodedby
waterfromthewaterbody.
c)Makingpilesofearthalongtheriverbankstoformaraisedplatformto
keepfloodwaterswithintheriverchannel.
d)Reforestationoflandtoreducetoincreaseinfiltrationbyvegetation
givingrainwaterampletimetopercolateandthusreducerunoff
meaningtherewillbelesswaterinriversandhencelessincidentsof flooding.
e)Dredgingofshallowriverchannelstoincreasetheirdepthandhence
thechannelscapacity.
f)Straiteningofriverswithmeanderstoenablethewatertoflowmore swiftly.
g)Divertingofsomerivertributariestoreducethevolumeofwatergetting
intothemainriver.
2)Lightning
-Flashofbrilliantlightintheskyproducedbynaturalelectricitypassing
betweencloudsorfromthecloudstoground.
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-Commonwhereconvectionalrainfalloccurs.
-Associatedwithcumulonimbusclouds.
-CommonKakamega,KisiiandNyamiraandaroundL.Victoriawhich
experiencesinthehighestfrequency.
-Itstartsforestfirese.g.inU.S.Aanddamageshousesandelectrical
installationsleadingtolossoflifeandproperty.
Control
a)Installinglightningarrestersonbuildingswhicharecopperrod
conductorswhichdirectlightningelectricalcurrentintotheground.
b)Educatingthepeopleonthedangersoflightningandprecautionsto take.
c)Nottakingsheltersundertreesoronverandaswhenit’sraining.
d)Avoidingwalkingonopenfieldsduringthunderstorms.
e)Ifpossiblepeopleshouldremainindoorswhenit’sraining.
3)Windstorms
-Verystrongwindsthatdevelopasaresultofgreatdifferencesin
atmosphericpressureonthegrounde.g.hurricanes,tornadoesand
typhoons.Kenyaexperiencesthermals.
Effects
Inthedesertstheytransportsandwhichmayburryhousesandoasis.
Ripoffroofsofbuildings
Uproottreesand
Causefloodingand
Fellingofcropse.g.cocoapods.
Spreadingbushfires
ControlMeasures
a)Predictingandmonitoringwindstormsusingsatellitestoknowtheir
developmentandadvancementspeed.
b)Warningpeoplethroughelectronicmediaofadvancingwindstormsso
thattheycanmoveaway.
c)Takingshelterinbankers.
d)Plantingoftreesinopengroundtobreakthespeedofwindthusreduce
itsdestructiveeffects.
4)Earthquakes
5)Droughts
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-Conditionwherebyanareaexperiencesarainfalldeficientseasonfollowe4d
byalongdryperiod.
Causes
a)Insufficientrainfall
b)Globalwarmingleadingtohighratesofevaporationwhichexceed precipitation.
c)Encroachmentofdesertlikeconditionsduetodestructionofvegetation
bydeforestationandovergrazing.
Effects
a)Cropfailureleadingtofamines
b)Deathsduetofamines
c)Shortageofwater
d)ClosingofHEPstations
e)Deathoflivestockandotherherbivoresduetoshortageofwaterand pasture
f)Migrationofpeopletounaffectedareaswhichmayleadtoconflictdue
tocompetitionforresources(environmentalrefugees.
g)Destructionofvegetationandanimallifecauseslossofbiodiversity.
h)Povertyasthosewhodependonagriculturelosetheirlivelihoods.
6)Fires
Causes
a)Kerosenestoves
b)Candleselectricfaults
c)Explosionofoilpipelines
d)Explosionofoiltankerswhenpeopledrawingfuelsettheonfire
accidentallye.g.whenattemptingtosmokee.g.Sachangwan. e)Lightning
7)VolcanicEruptions
Effects
a)Lavaflowsspreadtonearbysettlementsburyingandburningpeople.
b)Setvegetationonfire.
c)Heatedwatercausedeathofaquaticlife.
d)Emitpoisonousgaseswhichkillpeoplewhentheyinhalethem.
e)Damageanddisruptinfrastructure.
8)PestsandDiseases
Pests-animals,insectsandbirdswhichareharmfultootheranimalsand plants.
Effects
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Locustsandarmywarmsdestroyvegetationresultinginshortageof
pastureforherbivores.
Ticks,riverflukes,tapewormsandfleasaffectanimalsbytransmitting
theirdiseasesandweakeningthem.
Jiggerscausewoodsinhumanfeetthroughwhichinfectionsmayenter thebody.
Parasiticplantsfeedonthehostplantleadingtoitseventualdeath.
Causeproblemsintheprovisionoffoodandmaintenanceofhuman health.
Mostdiseaseswhichaffectplantsandanimalsareviral,bacterialorfungal.

Control
a)Useofchemicalse.g.fungicides,herbicidesandpesticides.
b)Developingplantspecieswhichareresistanttopestsanddiseases.
c)Biologicalcontrole.g.controloftsetsefliesbybreedingsterilemales
whicharereleasedtomatewithfemaleswhichoccursonceina
lifetimethusreducingtheirpopulation.
d)Educatepeopleontheproperuseofchemicalstopreventresistance
andenvironmentaldegradation.
9)Pollution
-Contaminationofenvironmentwithharmfulorpoisonoussubstances.
Types
A.WaterPollution
-Additionofharmfulsubstancesinwatercausingdeteriorationinthequality
ofwatersothatitnolongerservesthepurposeforwhichitisintended.
a)Additionofmaterialslikedustandsaltstowaterthrougherosionand winddeposition.
b)Disposalofwastesfromhousese.g.sewageintoriversorlakes.
c)Effluentsfromindustriesandfactories.
d)Oilspillsfrome.g.offshoreoildrilling,tankersandburstoilpipes.
e)Testingofnuclearweaponsunderthesea.
f)Agriculturalfertilisersandchemicalswashedintotheriverbyrain
water.
Effects
a)Causesdiseasessuchascholerawhendrinkingwateriscontaminated.
b)Causespoisoninge.g.whenmercuryfromindustriesisconsumedby
fishandiseventuallyconsumedbyhumanbeings.
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c)Causesdeathofaquaticlifelikefishduetopoisoningandsuffocation.
d)Makesintroductionoffishintoaquaticsystemsdifficult.
Soil/Landpollution
-Additionofharmfulsubstancesinthesoillandleadingtodeteriorationof theirstate.
a)Chemicalfertilisersaddedtoimprovefertility.
b)Pesticides,fungicidesandherbicidestocontrolpestsanddiseases.
c)Chemicalsandexplosiveswhichareusedduringmining.
d)Nucleartestingandcarelesstestingofnuclearwastes.
e)Presenceofgarbageheapswhichstinks,becomebreedinggroundfor
diseasevectorsandmakethelandtolookugly.
f)Opencastminingandquarryingofrockswhichleavesopenpetswhich
peoplemayfallinto,watermaycollectintothemandbecomebreeding
groundformosquitoeswhichtransmitmalaria.
g)Heapingoftheoverburdenonthelandduringmining.
Effects
a)Causespoisoningandcancerswhentoxicchemicalsareabsorbedby
cropsthenpeopleconsumethem.
b)Contaminatesgroundwaterasrainwateraidsthetoxicchemicalsto
seepunderground.
c)Killssoilorganisms.
d)AffectsthegrowthofcropsbyalteringsoilPH.
e)Makeslandderelicti.e.uselessforotheractivitieslikeagriculture.
Airpollution
-Additionoftoxicandharmfulsubstancesintotheairwhichdestroyits purity.
Causes
a)Eruptionofvolcanoeswhichreleasespoisonousgases,dustandash
particlestotheatmosphere.
b)Naturalfiresstartedbylavaflowsandlightningwhichaddalotof smokeintotheair.
c)Industrialemissionse.g.sulphurdioxide,carbondioxide,hydrocarbons etc.
d)Dustandcarbonparticlesaddedbyquarryingandfactories,
e)Tannerieswhichreleaselargequantitiesofhydrogensulphideand
ammoniaintotheatmosphere.
f)Smokeandpoisonousgasesfrommotorvehicleemissions.
Effects
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a)Sulphurdioxideandnitrogendioxidecombinewithwatervapour
formingacidicwaterwhichcorrodesbuildings.
b)Sulphurdioxidealsocombineswithoxygenformingadilutemixtureof
sulphuricacidwhichdamagesforests,ancientbuildingsandsculptures.
c)Leadreleasedintotheairfromleadedfuelsisabsorbedbyvegetables
whichareeatenbyhumanbeingsandanimalscausingsickness
resultingfrompoisoning.
d)Largequantitiesofsmokecontributetoformationofsmoginindustrial
citiessuchasBeijing.
e)HydrocarbonscausedepletionofozonelayerleadingtoexcessUVR
reachingthesurfacewhichacceleratesglobalwarmingandcauses
problemssuchasskincancers,deteriorationofplasticsetc.
f)Airpollutionalsocausesrespiratoryproblemsandalsoaggravates
respiratorydiseasessuchasasthma.respiratory
NoisePollution
-Discordantsoundwhichisexcessive,unwantedandofadisturbingnature.

Causes
a)Boomingmusicinnightclubs,shopsormotorvehicles.
b)Repeatedhootingofmotorvehicles.
c)Revvingofmotorvehicles’enginescontinuously.
d)Defectiveexhaustsofvehiclesorwithoutsilencers.
e)Soundfromlargeaeroplanesandmilitaryaircraft.
f)Loudnoisesfrommachinesinfactories.
Effects
a)Headaches
b)Stressleadingtophysicalormentalillnessessuchasneurosis.
c)Causepeopletobecomeirritable.
d)Raisingbloodpressure.
e)Damagingofeardrumsleadingtoimpairedhearingortotaldeafness
MeasuresundertakentoCurbPollution
a)Nottocultivateonriverbankstopreventsiltingofrivers,lakesand reservoirs.
b)Sewagetreatmentbeforereleasingittotheenvironment.
c)Regularinspectionoffactoriestoensuretheydon’treleasetoxicfumes
totheatmosphere.
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d)Usingunleadedfuels.
e)Sortinggarbagebeforedisposingitintovegetativeandnonbiodegradablee.g.plasticsa
ndglass.
f)Recyclingwastessuchasplastics,paper,glassandpolythenebagsand
turningvegetativewastesintomanure.
g)Banninguseofchemicalswithresidualeffectsinthesoile.g.DDT.
h)Useofearguards.
i)Useofefficientenergysavingstoves.
j)Prohibitingplayingofloudmusicinpublicservicevehicles,clubsand etc.
k)Useofpitlatrines
l)Useofalternativeenvironmentallyfriendlysourcesofenergysuchas
solarenergy,hydropower,etc.
EnvironmentsManagementandConservationMeasures
a)Settingorganisationsandinstitutionstocoordinatemattersrelatedto
environmentalconservationandmanagemente.g.UNEP.GreenBelt
Movement,Environmentalandwildlifeclubs.
b)Thegovernmenthasmadelawsgoverningenvironmentconservation
andmanagemente.g.WildlifeConservationandManagementAct,The
WaterAct,ForestActetc.
c)Settingupofministriestodealwithvariousaspectsofenvironmente.g.
MinistryofTourismandWildlife,MinistryofWater,Ministryof
EnvironmentandNaturalResources,etc.
d)Presidentialdecreesanddirectivese.g.declarationof“Kayas”,
Protectingthealoeplant,etc.
e)Educatingpeopletocreateawarenessonenvironmentalissuesthrough
themassmediaandseminars.
f)Participatinginenvironmentalactivitiessuchastreeplantingand
constructionofgabionsduringtheenvironmentalday.
g)Researchondevelopmentofcropsthatareresistanttocertainpests
anddiseasesandenvironmentallyfriendlymethodsofcontrollingpests (ICIPE).
h)Settinguprecyclingfactoriestorecyclescrubmetal,paper,glass,
plasticsandmakemanureoutofvegetativewastes.
i)Rehabilitatinglandrenderedderelictbyminingbyfillingpitswithwaste
rockandsoilandplantingvegetation.
GlobaleffortstowardsenvironmentalConservationandManagement
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a)SigningofKyotoAccordwherecountriesagreedtoreducetheamount
ofgreenhousegasestheyemit.
b)Internationallawwhichbindsthecountriestoprotecttheseaagainst
pollutionandoverexploitationofitsresources.
c)Guidelinesontheuseofhazardouschemicalshavebeenissued.
d)Countrieshaveagreedtonotifyotherswhentheyrestricttheuseofa chemical.
e)FAOcollaboratesonmattersinvolvingfoodadditivesandpesticide residue.
f)Governmentsarerequiredtonotifyothersofchemicalaccidents.
g)Governmentsarerequiredtoprovideassistancewhenhazardous
chemicalscrossnationalfrontiersbyaccident.