PAC World magazine : PAC Line Do Not Cross

http://www.pacw.org/no-cache/issue/june_2010_issue/cover_story/redun...

Home . June 2010 Issue . Cover Story . PAC Line Do Not Cross

PAC Line Do Not Cross

Authors: Mohindar S. Sachdev, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada and Pratap G. Mysore, Xcel Energy, Minneapolis, MN, USA INTRODUCTION High speed may be of more importance than the potential damage to the equipment for designing protection systems for transmission lines. But in the case of power transformers, high cost of repair or replacement, and the possibility of fire or violent failure makes limiting the damage a major objective. These and other philosophical issues are discussed in clause 5 of the guide. Insulation failure leading to shorting of a few turns of a transformer winding results in high circulating current in the shorted turns but this does not result in any significant change in currents at the terminals of the transformer. This suggests a need for a protection system that is sensitive enough to detect low-current faults and operates at high speed to limit the damage. Types of failures experienced in transformers and the consequences of those failures are discussed in clause 6. The issue of minimum and maximum fault currents is addressed in clause 7. It is also shown that a CT provided at the transformer terminals for providing current to a differential relay may saturate during a system fault while no fault current may be flowing in the transformer windings. There is no standard way to protect all transformers. Economic considerations may have a major impact on the selection of the protection scheme and the need for an interrupting device. IEEE guide, C37.91TM addresses all these issues starting with field data of statistics for types of failures experienced in transformers to help the readers in making considered decision on selecting protection systems in their applications. Some topics discussed in the guide are briefly presented in the following sections. Magnetizing Inrush The issue of magnetizing inrush current is also discussed in clause 7. When a transformer is energized, inrush currents that are several times the full load current flow in to the transformer even if the secondary windings of the transformer are not connected to a load. The levels of these currents depend on the parameters of the power system and the magnetic properties of the transformer core. If one winding of a transformer is connected to a power system and the other windings are not, an abrupt change of voltage connected to the transformer will cause magnetizing inrush currents to flow in to the transformer. Other transients can also create similar inrush currents of large magnitudes in one of the windings of a transformer as is explained in clause 7.4.2 of the guide. The magnetizing inrush current has two distinct features that separates an inrush from load currents and fault currents. They are: Inrush currents have substantial even-harmonic components in them. There is always a low-current region that is greater than one-quarter period of the magnetizingcurrent waveform as shown in Figure 1.

Fused protection and self-powered resettable fault interrupters Fuses are often used for protecting power transformers rated up to 10 MVA or higher if suitable fuses are available. They cost much less than the protection systems and they require little maintenance. Self-powered-resettable fault interrupters can be used for transformers rated more than 10 MVA, and up to 80 MVA, and of appropriate voltage rating. These fault interrupters are similar to fuses, but have the ability to sense neutral current as well to trip all three phases. Clause 8.1 of the guide provides a detailed explanation of selection and operation of fuses and resettable interrupting device. Overcurrent protection Time overcurrent relays provide protection similar to fuses in the event of transformer faults and also provide thermal overload protection to a certain degree. The relay characteristic selected for an application should be below the transformer thermal and mechanical damage curves as discussed in Annex A of the guide. Instantaneous overcurrent relays provide fast clearing for severe internal faults. These are set not to overreach for faults on the low side of the transformer - typically set to 175% (125-200% range) of the calculated maximum fault current for a three phase fault on the low side of the transformer. Clause 8.3 of the guide discusses coordination issues and the currents seen by high side relays for various faults on Delta/Wye transformers. Differential protection Current differential relaying is the most commonly used technique for protecting transformers that are rated higher than 10 MVA. Differential protection provides faster detection of faults on any winding in a transformer protection zone that is defined by the location of the current transformers (CTs). Figure 3

1 of 6

29-Aug-11 6:36 AM

PAC World magazine : PAC Line Do Not Cross

http://www.pacw.org/no-cache/issue/june_2010_issue/cover_story/redun...

shows a typical transformer differential relay connection for a single phase transformer. The difference between the currents I1 and I2, usually called differential current, is applied to an overcurrent element that acts as the operating unit of the relay. The ratios of the CTs are selected to provide equal magnitudes of the two currents. But the polarities of CTs are chosen such that the currents provided by the secondary windings of the CTs to the relay operating element are 180o out of phase during normal power flow through the transformer and for faults outside the protection zone of the transformer. The currents I1 and I2 are practically out of phase when the transformer is supplying current to a load or when a fault is experienced outside the protection zone of the transformer. The operating current IOP of the relay is the difference between I1 representing the current entering one winding and I2 representing the current leaving the other winding as expressed by the following equation. IOP = I 1 - I 2 The windings of three phase transformers are often connected in different configurations resulting in the currents out of the windings connected to one part of the power system having a phase shift with respect to currents out of the windings connected to the other part of the system. When electromechanical relays are used, the CTs provided at different terminals of a transformer are connected differently to ensure that the currents provided to the relay from all terminals of the transformer are 180 degrees out of phase during normal load flow and faults outside the transformer protection zone. As previously stated the CT ratios are selected in such a manner that the magnitudes of currents provided by the CTs to the operating coil of the relay are zero when the transformer is supplying load or is feeding an external fault. CT arrangements for delta-wye, deltawye-delta, and autotransformers are included in clause 8.2 of the guide. CT connections used for differential protection of a Delta-Wye transformer are shown in Figure 2 when an electro-mechanical relay is used. The guide also includes an example that shows that the CTs provided at all terminals of a transformer are wye connected when a numerical relay is used to protect the transformer. The phase shift compensation is done in the relay in such cases. The operating element of a differential relay is an overcurrent element shown as O in Figure 2. Because the ratios of CTs provided at the different terminals cannot be perfectly matched for all operating conditions, restraining elements, shown as R in Figure 2, are also included in differential relays. The restraining elements are intended to ensure that the relay does not operate during external faults. Restraint windings provide stability from CT mismatch and CT output differences due to CT saturation. Such relays, also known as percentage differential relays, operate if the differential current is above a set percentage of restraint current. The following two alternative ways of including restraint in a differential relay are discussed in clause 8.2.2. Only one of these approaches is used in a differential relay. I R = k (| I1 | +| I 2 |) I R = Max. (| I1 |, | I2 |) The ratio of the differential current to the operating current, defined as the slope, is shown in the relay operating characteristics shown in Figure 4. The use of relays with single slope, dual slope and variable slope is discussed in the guide. Methods to differentiate Inrush currents from fault currents Harmonic content in the differential current is the most commonly used criteria for restraining the relay when the transformer experiences magnetizing inrush. Clause 8.2.3 provides a detailed explanation of the different methods used in relay designs. Examples shown below illustrate a couple of methods described in the guide. where, k =0.5 or 1

2 of 6

29-Aug-11 6:36 AM

PAC World magazine : PAC Line Do Not Cross

http://www.pacw.org/no-cache/issue/june_2010_issue/cover_story/redun...

A relay using the following approach is usually referred to as a Harmonic Blocking relay. One relay design uses the following criterion: | I OP | > k2 | I 2 | k2 is typically set between 0.15 and 0.2. In this design, the operating current is the sum of the fundamental frequency component of the operating current and the third and higher order harmonics and the restraining current is the second harmonic component of the operating current. In harmonic restraint relays, harmonic currents provide additional restraint to prevent the relay from operating. This is illustrated in the following equation that describes the operation of one such relay. | I OP | > s | IR | + k2 | I 2 | + k4 | I4 | + k5 | I5 | The logic of this relay is illustrated in Figure 5. Over excitation of transformers produces differential current that has high 5th harmonic content. The presence of high levels of the fifth harmonic component is, therefore, used in these relays to prevent the differential relay operation. Use of Volts/Hertz protection is suggested to protect the transformer from over excitation. The wave-shape recognition techniques that are based on duration of the low-current during magnetizing inrush have also been used. One such approach is shown in Figure 6. Sensitive ground fault protection Restricted Earth fault protection Clause 8.4 describes various methods used in the industry to detect ground faults involving the transformer windings. The neutral current is compared with the zero sequence current derived from the CTs provided at the terminals of a transformer. For an external fault these currents are equal in magnitude but are out of phase. Both currents are in phase for a fault in the transformer protection zone, or current is provided by the CT installed in the transformer neutral if the phase side circuit breaker is open. This arrangement provides protection for ground faults in the wye connected windings only. Faults on the delta connected winding are detected by a ground fault relay. One approach for detecting ground faults on the wye as well as delta windings is shown in Figure 8. The relay 87G detects faults on the wye winding and the relay 51N detects faults on the delta winding. Clause 8.5 describes the protection of special purpose transformers, such as four winding transformers, phase shifting transformers and grounding transformers. Other miscellaneous issues, such as negative sequence relays, voltage controlled overcurrent relays, impedance relays controlling overcurrent relays, overcurrent directional relays and backup protection are discussed in clause 8.6. Mechanical devices for detecting faults Electrical techniques for detecting faults in transformers cannot detect single turn-to-turn faults or incipient faults. Mechanical devices are, therefore, used to detect such faults; these devices are described in clause 9. Decomposition of insulation and oil due to overheating, caused by high circulating current in the shorted turn, and electrical arcs generate gases. Several types of devices take advantage of this phenomenon to detect turn-to-turn and incipient faults. The operating principles of some of these devices, such as, gas accumulator, gas detector, sudden oil pressure, sudden gas pressure, sudden oil and gas pressure and static pressure relays are described in the guide.

3 of 6

29-Aug-11 6:36 AM

PAC World magazine : PAC Line Do Not Cross

http://www.pacw.org/no-cache/issue/june_2010_issue/cover_story/redun...

Thermal protection Oil and winding temperature monitoring devices provide thermal protection preventing over heating of oil and windings. Transformer overheating could be the result of many factors such as high ambient temperature, loss of cooling system, abnormal loading during system stressed conditions. The causes and undesirable results of overheating of transformers are identified in clause 10 of the guide. The location of hot-spot in a transformer is discussed; this includes recent advancement in detecting the hot-spot using mathematical modeling of the heating phenomenon in a transformer. Possibilities of exploiting the modeling approach when it is necessary to overload a transformer are discussed. The possibility of calculating the insulation-loss-of-life and using the information in protecting the transformer are addressed as well. Other means of thermal protection, such as top-oil temperature based devices and tank temperature based devices, and protection from over-fluxing are also discussed in clause 10 of the guide. Fault clearing Different methods of isolating a transformer in which a fault has occurred are discussed in clause 11 of the guide. It is desirable that a faulted transformer be isolated with minimum impact on the power system of which the transformer is a part of. When a transmission or sub-transmission line is tapped for supplying local load, several factors are considered in designing controlling devices, such as circuit breakers and relays. The use of circuit breakers for isolating a transformer is a straight forward procedure and is addressed in clause 11.2. Sometimes it is necessary to trip a remote circuit breaker before the faulted transformer tap is isolated. This is the case in the system shown in Figure 7. The working of such a system is discussed in clause 11.3. The types of transfer trip schemes and automatic opening of the motor-operated disconnect are discussed in this clause. The use of circuit switchers and self-powered resettable fault interrupters for isolating a faulted transformer are also addressed in clause 11. Re-energizing a faulted transformer Re-energizing a transformer after it has been tripped by the operation of its protection system is not a simple issue. Different actions are usually taken under different situations by different utilities. This subject is addressed in clause 12 of the guide. Different scenarios are discussed in this clause. Gas Analysis As already stated, gases are produced by decomposition of oil and insulation. These gases include acetylene, carbon mono-oxide, carbon dioxide, ethane, ethylene, hydrogen and methane. Different combinations of gases are produced by different conditions in the transformer, such as partial discharge, overheating of oil, arcing and overheating of the cellulosic materials. These gases partly rise above the oil and are partly dissolved in the oil. Ratios of different gases are used in the form of Doernenburg and Rogers ratios to determine the type of decomposition taking place in the transformer. Analysis of gases dissolved in the oil provides information on the material that has decomposed. This analysis is not an exact science but gives useful information. This subject is addressed in clause 13 of the guide. The discussion includes manual analysis and automatic analysis at regular intervals of time. The level of total dissolved combustible gases and their rate of change observed over time are used to take different courses of action; these are included in the guide. Special protection schemes Several special schemes for protecting transformers are identified and described in clause 14 of the guide. One of the examples discussed in this clause reviews tripling of a unit generator due to sudden loss of system load. The problem is identified and a solution is suggested in clause 14.1. Another example discusses the situation when a grounding transformer is installed on the low side a transformer and is included in the differential protection zone of the

4 of 6

29-Aug-11 6:36 AM

PAC World magazine : PAC Line Do Not Cross

http://www.pacw.org/no-cache/issue/june_2010_issue/cover_story/redun...

transformer. The problem in this case is that the zero sequence current supplied by the grounding transformer can cause the differential protection to operate during a fault outside the protection zone of the transformer. A solution to this problem is also described in clause 14. Problems with differential protection schemes of single-phase transformers in three-phase banks are also identified and solutions suggested in this clause. Solar magnetic disturbances Solar magnetic disturbances and other phenomenon can result in the flow of dc currents in the ground. These currents can enter the power grids through the grounded neutrals of transformers resulting in saturation of their cores. The saturation in turn results in the flow of excessive harmonic currents in the transformers and the power system. This problem is identified and described in clause 15 of the guide. Annexes The guide includes the following seven annexes in addition to the fifteen clauses. Annex A: Application of the transformer through -fault-current duration guide to the protection of power transformers Annex B: Transformer failure statistics Annex C: Examples of setting transformer protection relays Annex D: Thermal overload protection Annex E: Phase shift and zero-sequence compensation in differential relays Annex F: Bibliography Annex G: Additional sources of information Annex A: Application of the transformer through-fault-current duration guide to the protection of power transformers The through fault current capabilities of transformers are specified in standards and also can be obtained from transformer manufacturers. The characteristics of overcurrent protection systems should be coordinated with the through current capability limits of transformers so that the protection systems disconnect the transformers from service before the limits are exceeded. The currents in the lines leading into a transformer are different from the currents in the transformer windings when the windings are connected in delta configuration. This should be taken into consideration when overcurrent devices are selected. These and other issues concerning the application of through-fault-current duration guide are discussed in Annex A. Applications to transformers of different rated capacities are included for guidance. Annex B: Transformer failure statistics Knowledge of the frequencies of different types of failures in transformers and equipment directly connected to them help engineers in deciding the protection functions that should be used in an application. North American data on transformer failure was not available. However, the statistics of failure data for transformers rated 60 kV and above for the 1988 to 2002 years collected by the Canadian Electrical Association and published for use by design and application engineers is included in Annex B. The data includes component-years of exposure, subcomponents associated with it, number of outages, frequency of outages, total outage time, mean duration, median duration and mean time for which the operation was out of service. Annex C: Examples of setting transformer protection relays Three examples of setting relays are given in this Annex. The first case deals with setting differential relays for a step-up 110 MVA, 13.8 / 230 kV unit transformer installed at a generating station and feeding into a 230 kV network. Issues that are relevant to electromechanical relays are first discussed, and issues that are relevant to numerical relays are then presented. The second case deals with the setting of a numerical relay and an electromechanical relay for protecting an auto-transformer with a tertiary winding. The ratings of the three windings are 400 MVA at 345 kV, 400 MVA at 118 kV and 80 MVA at 34.5 kV. The 400 kV and 118 kV windings form the autotransformer that is connected to networks and the 34.5 kV tertiary winding supplies local loads. Finally, the third example demonstrates the setting procedure for a combination of electromechanical and numerical relays for protecting a 70 MVA, 118 kV / 14.4 kV transformer that takes energy from the 118 kV network and supplies load to a local distribution system at 14.4 kV. A combination of electromechanical and numerical relays is used to protect this transformer. The settings of the relays selected to protect these transformers are calculated. The procedures used are very similar to those used in electric power utilities. Annex D: Thermal overload protection The mechanism of temperature rise in transformers is explained and the impact of temperature rise on the life of the insulation used in a transformer is discussed in this annex. Need for monitoring temperature of all windings in a transformer is demonstrated. Two examples are included that demonstrate this need. Methods of measuring hot spot temperature are also included. Thermal protection approaches using temperature indicators and calculated hot-spot temperature are described in this annex. Annex E: Phase shift and zero-sequence compensation in differential relays Different methods for phase shift compensation and zero-sequence compensation used in differential relays are described in Annex E of the guide. An example is included in which phase shift compensation used in differential protection system applied to a delta-wye transformer is described. Reasons for the need for internal compensation are identified. Wye, delta and double-delta connections of three-phase CTs and their mathematical equivalents are described. A table of mathematical representations of 11 possible phase shifts is included. Internal settings for compensating for the magnitudes of CT secondary currents and compensating for zero-sequence currents are explained, An example of these compensations is included. The flow of zero-sequence currents during an external fault is first explained. The use of a zero-sequence current trap is then described. The use of double-delta connections of CTs is

5 of 6

29-Aug-11 6:36 AM

PAC World magazine : PAC Line Do Not Cross

http://www.pacw.org/no-cache/issue/june_2010_issue/cover_story/redun...

then discussed. Annex F: Bibliography A bibliography of 42 standards, guides, books and published papers referred in the guide is given in this annex. Annex G: Additional sources of information Eighty-five publications are included in Annex G. These references are divided in four groups depending on the major thrust of each publication. The first group includes publications of general interest in transformer protection. The second group consists of publications that describe protection of transformers using currents and voltages experienced by them. The third category includes protection based on pressure and gas analysis and the fourth category includes publications on protection from overvoltages. Biographies Dr. Mohindar S. Sachdev has a B.Sc. from the Benares Hindu University, a M.Sc. from the Panjab University and M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Saskatchewan. He was chairman of the Computer Relaying Subcommittee and the Relaying Practices and Consumer Interface Subcommittee of the IEEE PSRC, as well as different working groups. In recognition of his contributions the University of Saskatchewan bestowed on him the degree of Dr. of Science in May 1994. He is a Life Fellow of the IEEE, the Institution of Engineers (India) and a Fellow of the Engineering Institute of Canada. He is a Chartered Engineer in UK and a Professional Engineer in Saskatchewan, Canada. Pratap Mysore received his BE and ME degrees in Electrical Engineering from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. He has been with Xcel Energy since 1987 and is currently a consulting Engineer (in-house position) in the Substation/ Transmission Engineering group. Prior to Xcel Energy, he was with Brown Boveri Corporation (now ABB) and Tata Electric Companies in India. Pratap is actively involved in the standards development work through IEEE PSRC. He is the chair of Substations subcommittee, chair of the working group revising Shunt capacitor protection guide, and member of several working groups within PSRC. He has presented many papers at regional conference and has offered course on power system protection sponsored by University of Minnesota.
Home | Current Issue | Tutorials | White papers | Books | Tools | Events | Advertising | Classified | Forum Terms and Conditions of Use and Privacy Policy PAC World - Last updated: 27 Jul 2010

6 of 6

29-Aug-11 6:36 AM