P R A CT I C A L A N D T H EO R ET I C A L

T R EA T I SE F O R E N GI N E E R S
AND D ESI G N E R S

I N CLU D I N G A I
D S CU S S O N I OF T HE
GA S T U RB INE

BY

JA M E S A MB R OSE M O Y E R , S B . .
, A M . .

MEM
B ER OF THE AME T RICA N SOC IE Y M ECHAN C L ENG NEE M TG D
OF I A I RS , I L IE D ES

N D UT H N N U
V ERE I ES E SC ER I GE IE R E HE M
, E T TUL EBR SOCIA TIN NT AIR AS IO I ER

N T N L DU
A IO A E D MM F R OI , E BE R HE OF NK LIN N T TUTE
T FRA I S I ,

M A N N T TU T
ERI CA I S I E OF ELECTRICA L EN G N I EER S , ETC .

PROFESSOR IN CHARGE OFD TM EPAR NT

E N N N
OF HECHA NI C AL E GI EE RI G, THE

NN L N T T LL
PE SY V A IA S A E CO M L N N
EGE, FOR E R Y E GI E ER , W T N ES I G

U U
HO SE , CH RCH . KE RR CO . N N T M
, A ND E GI EE R S EA

TU D RB IN E EPA R TM NT N L
E , GE ERA
L T E EC RI C CO M N PA Y

SECON D EDI TI ON , RE VI SED A N D EN LA R GED

F IR ST T H O U SA N D

N EW YOR K
J O H N W I L E Y S O N S, IN C .

LO N D O N C H A PM A N
: HA L L ,
L I M IT E D
1 9 1 4
 PR E F A C E T O F I R ST ‘
E D IT I O N .

TH E bj ec t of thi s book is to give in a sm all vol ume wh at I

O

beli ev e as the resul t of y ears of p rac tic al exp eri enc e engi neers
, ,

and stud ents of engi neeri ng w ant to k now a bou t steam tu rbi nes .

It is i ntend ed th at it sh all be a m anual for the p rac tic al engi neer

who is d esigni ng op erati ng or m anufac tu ri ng steam turbi nes
, ,

rath er th an a compil atio n of m anuf ac tu rers c atalog s combi ned

’

w i th a digest of stand ard book s on th ermody namic s and

m ech anic s .

In a g eneral w ay the au tho r has tri ed to expl ai n b ri efl y and

di rec tly som e of the mo re impo rtant p robl em s abou t which the
q uali fied steam engi neer mu st h ave som e k nowl edge Wh en thi s
“

book w as first pl anned it w as i ntend ed p rim arily for the use of the
a utho r s assi stants in the exp erim ental and testi ng d ep artm ents
’

of one of the l arge m anuf ac tu ri ng comp ani es but l ater it seem ed

,

th at it migh t be u seful in a l arger field .

T he o rd er in d evelopi ng the sub j ec t is the rev erse of th at adop ted

by mo st au tho rs I nstead of di scu ssi ng the i ntric aci es of bl adi ng
.

in the b egi nni ng of the book the mo re simpl e p robl em s of nozzl e

,

d esign are p resented first A g reat deal more is now k nown abo ut
.

nozzl es th an th ere w a s ev en v ery few y ears ago and m any of the ,

co ndi tio ns affec ti ng the effici ency of nozzl es may now be co nsid ered
w ell establi sh ed N ozzles are al so b ecomi ng a mo re impo rtant
.

p art of all typ es of tu rbi nes Ev en the Parso ns tu rbi ne is now

.

b ei ng modi fied in Am eric a and Engl and so th at in m any of the

l atest d esigns for l arge siz es nozzles are u sed in the high p ressure
,
-

stag es. It is comi ng to be g enerally recog niz ed th at in the fu tu re

th ere will p rob ably be no l arg e i nstall atio ns of recip roc ati n g

engi nes for el ec tric servic es A few y ears ago thi s migh t h ave
.

b een co nsid ered a bold statem ent but it is a fac t which is now
,

iii

291520
iv PR EF A CE

g enerally al though reluc tantly admi tted by m anufac turers of

, ,

recip roc ati ng engi nes .

T he entropy to tal h eat ch art in the b ack of the book is l aid out
-

wi th li nes of co nstant sup erh eat i nstead of li nes of co nstant tem

e rature which h av e b een g enerally u sed for ch arts of thi s ki nd
p .

F or p rac tic al engi neeri ng wo rk it is very d esi rabl e to h ave li nes

of co nstant sup erh eat on such ch arts b ec ause in Americ a and
,

Engl and gu arantees of stea m co nsump tio n are u su ally given in

d eg rees of sup erheat rath er th an of temp eratu re Wh en ch arts .

m ad e wi th co nstant temp erature li nes are u sed it is alw ay s neces

-

sary to c alcul ate the temp eratu re b efo re the ch art can be used .

M o st of the g radu ates of our Am eric an tech nic al school s are

enti rely
“at sea
”
wi th the simpl est h eat c alcul atio ns and one of ,

the reaso ns for thi s d efici ency is th at mo st of the book s on stea m

engi nes a nd esp eci ally tho se on the stea m tu rbi ne a re mo re

d evo ted to givi ng a l arge qu anti ty of f ac ts th an to f ul filli ng a u seful

pu rpo se Prac tic al engi neers who havehad to d eal wi th l arge
.

n umb ers of men wi th an engi neeri ng trai ni ng ag ree mo st c andidly

wi th D r Stei nm etz wh en he say s in sub stanc e th at it seem s to c ause

.

n o co nc ern in som e of our l arg e tech nic al school s th a t the gradu ates

a re sent out lo ad ed wi th a m ass of h alf und erstood and u ndig ested

-

s ubj ec ts whil e th ey are d efici ent bo th in the u nd erstandi ng of the

,

fu nd am ental p ri ncipl es and in the abili ty to thi nk I f thi s volum e

.

can serv e the pu rpo se of encou ragi ng stud ents to thi nk it wi l l

h av e accompli sh ed one of its p ri ncip al p urposes not lo si ng sigh t,

of the f ac t th at the book is i ntend ed primarilv to show how to

do thi ng s:
N early all the p roof readi ng has b een do ne by Professo r Joh n F
-
.

Pelly of P hil ad elphi a B ec au se of Professo r Pelly s tho roughly ’

.

p rac tic al as well as th eo retic al k nowl edge of the subj ec t m atter his ,

co nsci entiou s and p ai nstaki ng wo rk is v ery g reatly appreci ated .

I tak e thi s oppo rtu ni ty to th ank Professo r Ira N Holli s and .

P rofesso r F L ow ell K ennedy of C amb ridge for the c ri tici sm s and

.

s ugg estio ns which I rec eiv ed from th em wh en the m anu sc rip t of

thi s book w as p rep ari ng I am al so g reatly i nd eb ted to M r Wal ter

.
.

C K err p resid ent and M r Sid ney E Ju nki ns vic e p resid ent of
.
, ,
. .
,
-
 PR EF ACE

Westi nghou se C h urch K err Comp any for th ei r encou ragement

, , ,

and for m aki ng it po ssibl e to fini s h the book at thi s tim e .

For pl aci ng at my di spo sal a g reat d eal of i nfo rm atio n reg ardi ng
the l atest resul ts in steam tu rbi ne engi neeri ng which is u su ally ,

very di ffi cul t to Ob tai n I am p articul arly i nd eb ted to M r R ich ard

,
.

H R ic e of L y nn and M r J R B ibbi ns of Pi ttsbu rg

.
,
. . . .

I wi sh to th ank Professo r Arthur M Greene of T roy and .

.

M r Alb ert Stritmatter of C i nci nnati for suggestio ns rel ati ng to the
.

subj ec t m atter For v ariou s servic es in the p rep aratio n of thi s

.

book I should m entio n al so M essrs F ranci s Hodgki nso n and

,
.

Harold P Child s of the Westi nghou se M achi ne Comp any ; C P

. . .

Cri ssey S A M o ss and W E C ul b ertson of the General El ec tric

,
. .
,
. .

Comp any ; C P Chasteney of the D e L av al Stea m T urbi ne

. .

Comp any ; J am es Wilki nso n p resid ent of the Wilki nso n T u rbine ,

C omp any ; St Joh n C hil to n of the Al li s C h alm ers Comp any ; H H

.
— . .

Wai t of the Western El ec tric Comp any ; Carl S D ow of the B F . . .

Stu rtev ant Comp any ; and J Cl arenc e M oy er of Phil ad elphi a . .

M any of the illu stratio ns for the book h av e b een p rovid ed in ,

som e c ases a t co nsid erabl e exp ense to th em selv es by the C assi er ,

M ag azi ne Comp any Westi nghou se M achi ne Comp any General , ,

El ec tric Comp any D e L av al Steam T u rbi ne Comp any R atea u

, ,

T u rbi ne Comp any K err T u rbi ne Comp any Wilki nso n T u rbi ne
, ,

Comp any Alli s Ch alm ers Comp any C H Parso ns 8: CO and

,
-

,
. . .
,

B rown B overi , Co .

T h roughou t the tex t impo rtant wo rd s and sentenc es are b rough t

out by the use of bold f ac ed typ e thu s m aki ng the subj ec ts of a -

p aragraph vi sibl e at a gl anc e .

T he a utho r is alw ay s gl ad to answ er co rrespo nd enc e wi th

teach ers rel ati ng to qu estio ns which i nevi tably ari se in the di scu ssio n

of d esig ns for steam tu rbi nes all of which c anno t of course be , , ,

tak en up in d etail in any book .

J AM ES AM B R O SE M O YER .

41 7 W E ST 1 1 8m Sr .
, N EW Y OR K .

S eptember, 1 90 8 .
 P R E FA C E T O SE CO N D ED I T I O N .

SI N CE the i ssu anc e of di tion sci enti fic inv estig a tio n

the fi rst e ,

has not add ed much to our p reviou s kn owl edg e of the p rop er
ti es Of steam nor h a v e the new t yp es i nv en ted in the i nterv al
,

b ecom e comm erci ally succ essful In f ac t the trend of thing s

.

has b een rath er tow a rd the g eneral adop tion of one of fou r
t yp es of steam tu rbin es : ( I ) a si ngl e tu rbi ne wh eel of the im
pul se type; ( 2 ) impul se wh eel s wi th two v eloci ty stag es in
ea ch p ressu re sta g e; (3 ) d ru m co n st ruc tion wi th reac tion ”

bl ading ; and (4 ) a combi na tio n of ( 2 ) and (3 ) c all ed a combined

impul se and reac tio n typ e D i scov eri es lik e th a t of Tesl a s cl aim
.
’

ing to h a v e m a d e po ssibl e v ery g rea t simpli fi c a tion of tu rbine

constru c tion wi th u nh eard of imp rov em en ts in economy h av e ,

a t times a ttra c ted the a tten tion of engineers but alw a y s wi th

,

the final resul t th a t the cl aims h a v e not b een m ad e good .

The really impo rtan t d ev elopm en ts of the l ast few y ears h av e

b een in the construc tion of inc reasingly l arg e siz es The l argest .

tu rbine g enera to r now rea dy for i nsta ll a tio n is ra ted a t 3

-

kilow a tts whi ch is to be comp ared wi th a m aximum siz e of

,

kilow a tts of o nly th ree y ears ago Certainly th ese are

.

the d ay s t ypic a l of the co nc en tra tio n of pow er in l arg e uni ts ,

not o nly in the tu rbin e and g enera to r room but a l so in the boil er
,

room in the co nd en ser i t n d in th e i n stall a tion of the o th er

, p a ,

pl ant auxili ari es Ex trem ely l arg e siz es are b eing install ed be
.

c au se th ey eff ec t a sub stanti al reduc tion in the uni t co st of

power g enera tion In spi te of the g eneral i nc rease in the co st
.

of raw and m anuf ac tu red m a teri al s in the l ast five y ears the ,

a pplic a tio n of steam tu rbi nes in pow er pl ants in the pl a c e of

recip roc a t i ng engi nes has reduc ed the to ta l fi rst co st of l arg e

fi rst cl ass pow er pl ants f rom $ 1 2 0 per kilow at t of ra ted c ap a ci ty

-

,
viii P R EFACE TO SECON D I I
ED T ON

which was a f ai r av erag e v alu e five y ears ago ,

to nearly $ 60
to d ay
-
.

In th ese tim es wh en th ere is such g eneral di scu ssion of con

serv atio n and effi ci en cy the low p ressu re steam tu rbine tak es
,
-

an impo rtant pl a c e b ec au se of its i nn um erabl e appli c a tio ns for

,

p rev enti ng the w asting of any steam to the atmo sph ere In .

nearly ev ery l arg e c entral statio n hu nd red s of pound s of steam

exh au sted f rom the a uxili ari es a t a tni ospheric p ressu re in exc ess

of th at requi red in the h eaters for h eatin g the f eed is lo st th rough

the exh au st h ead s -
M od ern m ethod s of tu rbine app lic atio n
.

would sav e and u tiliz e thi s steam for power In the mo st .

mod ern p rac tice th erefo re the g rea test skill of the engineer is
, ,

c alled upo n mo re in connec tion wi th the m ethod s of applying

the comm erci al t yp es of tu rbi nes al ready d ev elop ed ra th er th an
In the a c tu al d esigning of new t yp es of m a chines In steam .

engine d esigning th ere h a v e b een alw a y s u nlimi ted po ssibili ti es ;

In steam tu rbi ne d esig ni ng th ese are few .

M o st of the a ddi tions m ad e in thi s edi tio n h av e b een th ere ,

fo re m ai nly in the li ne of new applic a tions The ch ap ter on

,
.

lowp ressu re tu rbines has b een rew ri t ten and v ery much ex tend ed
—

to i nclud e the l a test d ev elopm ents and appli ca tio ns Thi s .

ch ap ter should be u nu su ally i nteresting to all engi neers and

stud ents N ew ch ap ters h a v e b een a dd ed on B l eed er or Ex
.

tra c tio n T u rbi nes and M ix ed P ressu re T u rbin es B o th m ark .

rec ent succ essful d ev elopm ents in tu rbi ne a pplic a t io ns m aki ng ,

it a still mo re impo rtant comp eti to r of the recip roc a ti ng en gi ne

in the non co nd ensi ng fi eld
-
The ch ap ters on Hea t T h eo ry
.
,

Steam Flow N ozzl e D esign B l ad e D esig n and R ea c tio n Tur

, ,

bine D esign h a v e b een rew ri tten wi th the addi tio n th roughou t

the tex t of many illu stra tiv e ex ampl es and the i nclu sion in an
a pp endix of a l a rg e numb er of p ra c tic a l ex erci ses and p robl em s

to illu stra te impo rtan t p ri ncipl es thu s m aki ng the book con
,

siderably mo re servic eabl e th an b efo re as a cl ass room tex t -

.

F or th ese ex erci ses the d a ta are sel ec ted in mo st c ases so as to

'

simplify the c alcul a tio ns and to a void ta ki ng too much of the

t ime of the stud ent or read er wi th pu rely num eric al wo rk A .

 P R EFACE TO SECON D ED T ON I I

new entropy to tal h ea t ch art has b een c alcul ated and engra v ed
-

whi ch embodi es the mo st recerit and reliabl e d ata on the prop

erties of sup erh ea ted and sa tu rated steam .

In the p rep arat io n of t hi s edi tio n I am p articul arly ind eb ted

to P rof esso r J E Enswiler of the Univ ersi t y of M ichig an and
. .

P rofesso r J P Cald erwood of The P ennsylv ani a State Coll ege

. .

for innum erabl e su gg estio ns .

M any impo rtant sugg estions and c ri tic ism s h a v e b een re

ceived f rom P rof esso r J V L udy P u rdu e Univ ersi t y ; P rof esso r . .
,

E A F essend en Univ ersi t y of M i ssou ri ; M r M N usim Gen

. .
,
. .
,

era l El ec tric Comp an y L ynn M as s ; M r C P Crissly Henry , ,

. . .
,

Wo rth ing ton CO N ew Y o rk ; M r C P Chasteney D e L av al

.
,
. . .
,

Steam Tu rbi ne Co ; and M r N C M ill er of The P enn sylv ani a

. . . .

Sta te Coll eg e .

Finally impo rtant m entio n mu st be m ad e of assi stanc e in thi s

,

wo rk rec eiv ed f rom M r H T Herr Vic e Presid ent and General . . .

,
-

M anag er of the Westinghou se M achi ne Co ; M r F ranci s Hodg . .

kinso n of the sam e comp any ; M essrs R ich ard H R ic e and . .

Ch as K West of the General El ec tric Comp any ; D r E J

. . . . .

B erg of Unio n Coll ege; M r Alfred R igling of The F ranklin .

I nsti tu te; and The Electric J ournal .

THE AUTHOR .

STATE CO LLEGE , PA .
,

J anuary I ,
1 914 .
 CO N T E N T S

CH A P T ER

I . I N TR O D UC TIO N

II . T H E ELE M E N T AR Y T H EO R Y OF H E AT
III . N O ZZLE D ESIGN .

IV . STE A M T U R B I N E T Y P ES AN D B LAD E D ES IGN

V . ME C H AN IC A L LO SSE S I N T U R B I N ES .

VI . ME TH O D FO R CO R R EC TI N G STE A M T U R B I N E T E ST S

V II . C O M M E RC I A L T Y P ES OF T U R B IN E S . .

De L v l a a ,
Pa rso ns, Westi nghouse ,
A lli s C h l me s C urt i R ateau
-
a r ,
s, ,

W ilki n o n Zo elly Stu tev

s , ,
r a nt, R ied l e Stumpf Ke T e ry
r -

,
rr, r ,

D a k e et ,
c .

VIII . G OV ER N IN G STEAM T U RB IN ES .

IX Low E SUR E ( EX H U ) T U B
.
-
PR S A ST R I N ES

X M IXE RESSU T U B IN ES
. D -
P RE R

XI B LEED ER OR EXTR ACTION T UR B IN ES

'

XII .

XIII T ESTS O TU R B IN ES
. F

X IV . STEAM T U R B INE ECON OMI CS

XV . STR ESS E S IN R IN GS ,
D R UM S , AN D D ISKS

D esign of T urb ne W ee s
i h l Cri t i cal Speed s of Loaded Sh afts .

XV I . GAS TU R B IN ES
XV II . ELECTRIC G EN ER ATOR S FO R TU R B IN ES
D i rect - c u ent G ene to
rr ra rs — l
A t ernat n i g -
current Gene ators
r .

APPEN DIX or PR ACTIcAL EX ERCISES

 T H E ST EA M T U R B IN E

C HA PT ER I .

I NTR OD UCTI ON .

THE m tu rbi ne is the mo st mod ern a s w ell as the mo st

stea

anci ent stea m mo to r R ec ently its d ev elopm ent has go ne by

.

l ea p s and bou nd s ; and a bov e all in its a pplic atio ns it is gai ni ng

, ,

g rou nd d aily D oub tl ess it is to be the mo st impo rtant p rim e

.

mov er of the near fu tu re .

D u ri ng rec ent y ea rs resul ts h a v e b een secu red wi th stea m tur

bi nes th at o nly a sho rt tim e a go w ere co nsid ered p rac tic ally u nat
tainable P rim arily th ei r g reat succ ess li es in th ei r ad a p ta bili ty
.

to op era tio n wi th high v a cuum s Stea m tu rbi nes a re th erefo re

.
, ,

a lmo st id ea lly sui ta bl e for the co ndi tio ns of mod ern en gi neeri n g

p ra c tic e requi ri ng bo th high v a cuum s * a nd high sup erh ea ts .

T O d a y in the eco nomic a l use of stea m th ey a re u nriv a l ed ; a nd

-

b ec a u se O f imp rov ed m anufa c tu ri ng m ethod s m a rki ng the tran ,

si tio u f rom the exp eri m enta l to the comm erci a l sta g e first co st ,

is no lo ng er a d ecidi ng fa c to r f a vo ri n g recip roc a ti n g engi nes .

Comp ared wi th recip roc a ti ng stea m a nd gas en gi nes stea m ,

tu rbi nes requi re much sm all er a nd ch ea p er fou nd a tio ns occupy ,

l ess floo r sp a c e requi re few er a ttend ants and b ec ause no lub ri c a

, ,

tio n is requi red for any p a rts in co n ta c t wi th the stea m the con ,

d ensatio n b ecom es di rec tl y a v a il a bl e for feed w ater T he high est .

su p erh ea ts can be employ ed wi thou t a fi ecting the choic e of l ub ri '

c ants and the co st of Oil for lub ric atio n is v ery low
,
.

A stea m tu rbi ne Of the simpl est typ e is essenti a lly a wh eel

simi l a r to an o rdi na ry w a ter wh eel which is mov ed a rou nd by ,

a stea m impi gi g i s bl a d es S a m is di rec ted a g a i nst

je t n n o n t te .

the tu rbi ne wh eel by nozzl es or si mil ar p a ssa g es d eliv eri n g the

T he q uesti on of the most pro fita b l e v a cuum for given cond i ti ons is d i scussed

on g
pa es 2 7 3 to 2 81 .
2 T H E ST EA M TU RBI NE

F IG . 1 .
— A S ma ll M od ern St ea m T u rbi ne w i th Pa rt o f th e C a st i ng Remov ed .

stea m m ath em a tic a lly ex a c t a ngl es c a lcul ated to m a ke the

at ,

stea m strik e the bl a d es O f the wh eel mo st a dv a nta g eou sl y .

F ig I is an illu stra tio n O f a mod ern stea m tu rbi ne wi th a p art

.

of the c asi ng remov ed to Show the co nstruc tio n T he tu rbi ne .

 I N T R O D U CT I O N

wh eel W is shown here wi th num ero us bl a d es on its ci rcumferen c e .

T he stea m com es to the turbi ne f ro mthe boil ers th rough a sui ta bl e

stea m m a i n co nnec ted to the top O f the tu rbi ne a t M a nd p a sses

down th rough the pip e A to the stea m ch est B F rom thi s stea m
-
.

F IG. 2 .
— The T urb i ne W h eel a nd No z le
z s .

ch est it is guid ed th ro ugh one or mo re nozzl es f rom which it ,

esc a p es a t a high v eloci ty to impi n g e on the bl a d es on the ci rcum

ferenc e O f the tu rbi ne wh eel which is thu s m a d e to ro ta te a nd

, ,

p erfo rm s wo rk by movi ng m a chi nery co nnec ted to the sh a f t .

N ozzl es f rom which the stea m is di sch a rg ed a re loc a ted a rou nd

the p eriph ery O f the wh eel a s show n in F ig 2 wi th th ei r enl a rg ed
.
4 T H E S T EA M TU RBINE

d
en s, tech nic a lly c ll d mo uths, v ery clo se to the bla d es
a e .
l
><
Stea m
a fter p assi n g th ro ugh the bl ad es enters the exh a u st pip e a t E
( Fig I
) a.nd i s di s ch a rg ed i n to the a tmo sph ere or i nto a co nd enser
,

d ep endi ng on wh eth er the O p era tio n is non co nd ensi n g or con -

d ensin g .

Prelimi na ry to the study of the mod ern comm erci al typ es of

stea m tu rbi nes it is d esi ra bl e to sta te b ri efly som e O f the mo st

impo rtant sta g es th ro ugh which thi s v ery a n ci ent fo rm of stea m

mo to r ha s p a ssed in its d ev elopm en t .

Ea rly Histo ry T he ea rli est no tic es of h ea t en gi nes O f any

.

ki nd a re fo und in a book by Hero of Al ex and ri a which wa s ,

p rob a bly w ri tten in the seco nd c entu ry b efo re Ch ri st In thi s .

book O f m ech a nic a l co ntriv a n c es a stea m rea ctio n wh eel is men

tion ed T hi s first stea m tu rbi ne is shown
.

in Fig 3 It is d esc rib ed a s con si sti ng

. .

Of a hollow sph erica l v essel pivo ted

on a c entra l a xi s a nd suppli ed wi th
stea m th rough the su ppo rt M a n d one

O f the pivo ts f rom a boil er B b enea th , , .

Stea m esc a p ed from the v essel th rough

b en t pip es or nozzl es N N fa ci n g tan , ,

en tia lly in O ppo si te di rec tio n s T h e

g .

Sph eric a l v essel wa s revolv ed by the re

a c tio n d ue to the esc a pi n g stea m ju st a s ,

a B a rk er s mill is mov ed by the w a ter ’

F G
I . T b i ne e s c a pi n g f
ur
rom its.
arm s A n y fl uid esc a p .

ing u nd er p ressu re f rom a v essel which

“
is f ree to mov e c a u ses a rea c tio n ten di n g to di spl a c e the v essel
”

in the O ppo si te di rec tio n from the fl ow O f the fl uid T hi s rea c tio n .
,

a l though imp erf ec tly u nd erstood by H ero wa s p erfec tly a ppli ed ,

in his stea m tu rbi n e which was u sed to O p en the doo rs of

templ es O nly a few y ea rs a go a mod el O f Hero s en gi ne wa s ’
.

co nstruc ted by a c el eb ra ted En gli sh en gineerj wi th O f cou rse '

, ,

In t hi s fi gure o ne of the no zzl es is

p re resented as if tra nspa rent to S h ow its
Sh ape on the i n i de nd s , la a part of the s tee b a nd a round the b l a d es is cut a w ay to

sh ow the sh pe of the b l des o v nes s w ell

a a r a ,
a as to ill ust rate the pa ssa e g Of stea m
f om the nozzl e i nto nd th ough the bl des
r a r a .

I See p ge 8 a .
6 T H E S T EA M TU RB I NE

a pio neer in mod ern comm erci al d ev elopm ent O f stea m tur
the

bi nes In 1 88 2 he co nstruc ted his first stea m tu rbi ne which was

.
,

simil ar in p ri ncipl e to Hero s rea ctio n engi n e D e L a v al s first

’ ’
.

tu rbi ne was d esig ned p rim arily for d rivi ng hi s milk a nd c rea m

sep ara to rs for which th ere was th en a l arg e sal e For o th er

, .

pu rpo ses how ev er th ere wa s no general a pplic atio n b ec a u se a t

, , ,

the v ery high sp eed s for which th ey w ere d esigned it w as di ffi cul t ,

to u tiliz e the po w er; a nd b esid es the stea m co nsump tio n wa s ,

p ra c tic ally p rohibi tiv e .

L ater D e L av al tu rned his a ttentio n to th e d ev elopm ent Of ~

B ranca s stea m tu rbi ne and wa s rem ark ably succ essful After
’
, .

much exp erim enti ng he d ev elop ed a n impul se tu rbi ne w hi ch is

,

still one of the sta nd ard m a k es S Fig

( e e s 8 2 t o Thi. s .

g rea t en gi neer a fter i nv estigati ng the po ssibili ti es Of bo th Hero s

,
’

and B ra nc a s typ es a nd h avi ng d ecid ed to a dop t the l a tter b eg an

’
,

th en som e striki ngly o rigi na l i nv entiv e wo rk whi ch in m any , ,

resp ec ts l ed th e wa fo the ccompli hm e n t of to d y

, y r a s s a .

It Should be stated how ev er in thi s co nnec tio n th a t no en gi neer

, , ,

thi nk s O f b eli ttli n g D e L a v al s wo rk b ec a u se his i nv estig atio ns

’

w ere mo stly in the li ne O f imp rov em ents to exi sti ng typ es Un .

qu estio nably he mu st h av e the c redi t for p roduci ng the first

‘

comm erci ally succ essful stea m tu rbi ne M any Of the featu res O f .

his o ri gi na l d esi gns h av e a c tu ally co ntribu ted in no sm all m ea s

ure to our k nowl edg e O f m a chi ne d esi gn a nd th ermody na mic s ,

a nd h a v e b ecom e fu nd a m enta l p ri ncipl es u nd erlyi n g m any O f the

mo st impo rtant mod ern stea m tu rbi ne d ev elopm ents * .

Parso ns Ty pe Wi th the early wo rk of D e L a v al how ever

.
, ,

the d ev elopm ent of stea m tu rbi nes d esigned to O p era te by the

rea ctio n p ri n cipl e O f H ero s en gi ne was not gi v en up Almo st
’
.

co ntempo raneou sly wi th D e L a v al C A P arso ns in Engl and , . .

b egan the d ev elopm ent of the w ell known typ e which to d ay b ears - -

hi s na m e and which has m ad e po ssibl e the b rilli ant reco rd s O f

,

tu rbi n e oc ean stea m ers In Ap ril 1 8 8 4 thi s g reat i nv ento r took

.
, ,

T he m t i mp t t fe tu e i nt du ed by D e L v l i th t f the di ve gi ng
os or an a r ro c a a s a O r

n zzl e ( B i ti h P te t N o 7 4 3
o r s af n the p i n i pl e of w hi h h
. 1 o i nfluen ed r c c as c

v l
the d e e opm ent of pra ct i call y all types of stea m turb nes i .
 I N T R O D U CT I O N 7

out his first p atents on stea m turbi nes T he p ra c tic a bili ty O f the .

s tea m tu rbi ne h e th en p ropo s ed is a stri ki n g f ea tu re of ev en h is

first p atents His sp eci fic a tio ns show ed a bov e all th at a g rea t

.
, ,

d eal Of tim e and tho ugh t had b een d evo ted to co nstruc tiv e d etail s .

M ethod s for reduci n g vib ratio n p rev enti ng l ea k a g e O f stea m and , ,

p rovidi ng for efli cient lub ric atio n co ntribu ted v ery l a rgely to his
s ucc ess M a n y.O f th e d eta il s of t hi s ea rly tu rbi n e a re n ow ob so

l ete SO th a t o nly a v ery Sho rt d esc rip tio n will be giv en h ere A
,
.

sec tio n d ra wi n g of Pa rso ns first tu rbi ne is Show n in Fig A

’
5 . .

F IG 5. . Ea rl y Parsons Steam T u rbi ne .

l arge c entral coll ar C is atta ch ed to the m a i n sh a ft S which ru ns

, , , ,

the l eng th of the tu rbi ne At the end s of the c a si n g wh ere the

.

sh a f t p asses th rough it the c ro ss sec tio n is reduc ed T he m a i n -

.

Sh a f t S suppo rts a l a rg e numb er of ri n g s which are h eld in pl a c e

, ,

b etw een the coll ar C and the n u ts N which a re sc rewed on the

, , , ,

reduc ed sec tio n of the sh a f t a t the end s T h ese ri ng s a rou nd .

,

th ei r ci rcumferenc es su ppo rt tho se tu rbi ne bl ad es (b b ) which

, ,

mov e wi th the sh a ft T h ere a re how ev er a l terna ti ng wi th th em

.
, , ,

o th er row s of bl a d es ( c c ) atta ch ed to the i nsid e O f the tu rbi ne

,

c a si ng T ech nic ally the bl ad es b b are c a ll ed movin g blades

.
, ,

a nd c c a re c a ll ed fix ed or sta tio na ry bl a des

,
Stea m is a dmi tted .

to the tu rbi ne bl a d es th rough the a nnul a r ch a mb er A enci rcli ng , ,

the coll a r C a nd th en it p asses to the righ t a nd l ef t th rough the

, ,

a l terna te row s O f sta tio na ry a nd movi ng bl a d es to the exh a u st

p assa ges E E O ne at ea ch end of the tu rbi ne T he stea m

,
—
.

exp a nd s in the bl a d es a s in a n ozzl e a nd its rea c tio n mov es the ,

bl ad es atta ch ed to the sh a ft ju st a s Hero s tu rbi ne was ro ta ted ,

’

by the stea m esc a pi n g f rom its a rm s .

8 T HE S T EA M TU RBINE
“
B y the doubl e fl ow -
gem ent in thi s d esign by which the
a rra n

s tea m is p assed f rom the c enter to the exh a u st a t bo th end s th ere

can be v ery li ttl e axi a l th rust on the sh a f t Any th ru st th at .

do es occu r how ever is b al anc ed by the p ressure of the exh a u st

, ,

stea m in the ch a mb ers E E a t the end s of the c asi ng A sligh t

, .

mov em ent O f the Sh a ft tow a rd ei th er end ch eck s the fl ow O f the

exh a ust stea m a nd i nc rea ses th e b a ck p ressu re a t th a t end T hi s .

i nc rea sed p ressu re th en mov es the sh a ft b a ck to its no rm al

p o si tio n .

U su ally it is not po ssibl e to b al a n c e the p a rts O f a ro ta ti ng m a ss

to m a k e its center of g ra vi ty coi ncid e ex a c tly wi th the g eom etri c
c enter a bo u t which it revolv es I n a ny m a chi ne lik e a stea m
.

tu rbi ne wh en th ese tw o c enters do not coi ncid e exc essiv e vib ra

,

t io n s O f the Sh af t a re p roduc ed which a t c ertai n sp eed s a re

s u ffi ci ent to b rea k it T o ov ercom e thi s di ffi cul ty P a rso ns in

.
,

”
g en io u sl y a llo w ed a li ttl e l a tera l pl a y or el a stici ty a s he c a,
ll ed ,

F IG . 6 . Screw T ype of S tea m T u rb i ne

.

i t, for the h a f t by m eans O f a seri es O f ri ngs O f two di fferent

s

di a m eters in p ri ncipl e v ery much the sa m e a s the p resent con

,

struc tio n of the m a i n b ea ri n g s O f Pa rso ns turbi nes ( see Fig .

SO th a t it w a s p ermi tted to mov e l a tera lly a c erta i n a mo unt sa y a ,

h und red th O f an i nch to allow the p rop er a dj ustm ent in p assi n g

,

f rom rest to the no rm a l speed O f runni ng .

A mo n g his ea rly exp erim ents Parso ns a l so tri ed a purel y

rea ction stea m turbine followi n g a lmo st ex a c tl y the publi sh ed
,

d esig ns O f Hero T hi s turbi ne runni n g wi th 1 0 0 pou nd s per

.
,

hi s ph enomenon o u s t
T a
“
very defi ni te Speeds ca ll ed cri t i cal , for every
”
cc r ,

“
rot ti ng mass F ull er d i cus i on w i th a met h od for cal cul at i ng cri ti ca l
”
a . s s , S peed s ,

i s given on p g e 3 3 8a .
 I N T R O D U CT I O N

s qu are i nch stea m p ressure a nd 2 7 i nch es O f v a cuum gav e a n ,

ou tpu t O f 2 0 ho rsepow er a t revolu tio ns per mi nu te Stea m .

co nsump tio n wa s o nly 4 0 pou nd s per brak e ho rsepow er per

hou r which was i nd eed a rem ark a bly good resul t for th a t tim e
, .

Screw Ty pe .Still a no th er ki nd of tu rbi ne O f o nly hi sto ric a l

,

i nterest should be m entio ned A l a rg e numb er O f i nv ento rs h a v e

,
.

wo rk ed on the d ev elopm ent O f a sc rew typ e lik e Fig 6 Hewi tt . .

wo rk ed for a lo ng tim e on a tu rbi ne of thi s ki nd a nd finally con

,

clud ed the resul ts w ere not sati sfa c to ry Stea m was admi tted to
.

thi s tu rbi ne th rough the ch a mb er A a nd p a ssed th rough hol es in

,

the pl a tes P P i nto the h elical g roov es on the sh a f t

,
In th ese
.

g roov es the stea m was exp a nd ed a nd th en esc a p ed to the exh au st

pip es E E at the two end s Effec tiv e a c tio n of the stea m w as
,
.

p rob a bly O b tai ned o nly in the first p art of the g roov es ; and a fter
b ei ng d efl ec ted i nto a h elic a l co urse it ru sh ed th rough to the
,

exh a u st w i thou t much a ddi tio na l eff ec t in movi ng the sh a f t .

Exc essiv e l ea k a g e O f stea m b etw een the h elic a l th read s and the
c a si ng wa s ano th er seriou s difli cul ty .

R ec ently a som ewh at simi l ar arrang em ent h aving two sc rew

wh eel s m eshi ng togeth er not u nlik e spi ral or h elica l gears has
b een succ essfully d ev elop ed by the B uffalo Fo rg e Comp any
( se e Fig s 1
.
57 an d 1 5,
8 p a g e 2 1 7 )
a .
 C HAPT ER II .

THE E EM ENTA L RY R
THEO Y OF HEAT .

N OTE hi s Sh o t h pte m y well be omi tted in ead i ng by those w ho a re

.
— T r c a r a , r ,

f a mili a wi th the th e mod ynami of h eat engi ne nd w i th t he use Of entropy

r r cs s a

d i a g ms
ra I t is i ntended p i ma il y for p acti cal engi neers w ho w ill fi nd it pa
. r r r , r

ti ul ly v a l ua bl e fo
c ar efe ence purposes a s the subj ect matter is compl etel y
r r r ,

i nd exed .

T E CH N ICA LLY the steam tu rbi ne h eat mu st be reg a rd ed as a

engine tha t is a m a chi ne in which h ea t is employ ed to do m ech a n

, ,

i c a l wo rk F rom the v iewpoi nt O f the p ra c tic a l man its fu nc tio n,

.

t he sa m e as th a t of any o th er h ea t mo to r is to secu re a s much ,

wo rk a s po ssibl e from a giv en a mou nt O f stea m or goi ng a step , ,

f a rth er b a ck f rom the combu stio n O f a given a mou nt O f fu el

, .

H ea t th eo ry is th erefo re O f first impo rtanc e , ,

.

Hea t is a fo rm O f energy lik e el ec tric a l ch emic al m ech a nic a l , , ,

po tenti al a nd ki netic N O doub t exi sts a bou t the equiv al enc e

,
.

of the di ff erent fo rm s Of energy and th ei r clo se rel atio n to each

o th er Ea ch a t will can be ch ang ed i nto a ny Of the o th er fo rm s
.
, , .

T he rel ativ e a mou nt O f h eat in a body is O b serv ed in commo n ,

exp eri enc e by the sense O f touch ,

wh eth er the bod y is a so lid ,

a liquid or a gas B y such exp eri enc e we h a v e l earned to recog

,
.

n iz e c erta i n sensa tio ns a s hot or cold ; a nd th en wi th mo re ,

a ccu ra cy to sp ea k of degrees of tem pera ture

,
Now wh en a hot .

a nd a cold body are b rough t tog eth er th ei r temp era tu res b ecom e

equ aliz ed T he ho tter body alwa y s lo ses h ea t

. T he cold er .

body a lwa y s gai ns heat l T hi s exp eri enc e is the p ri ncip al b asi s .
><

for all h eat c a lcul atio ns .

Wh en in the cou rse of tim e it had b een fou nd th at a mo re

a ccu ra te m ethod th an th a t of the sense of touch wa s need ed for

h eat d etermi natio ns m ethod s u tilizi n g the exp ansio n O f liquid s

,

hi s ph enomenon i c ll ed the se ond l w of the modynamics

T s a c a r — h at
t
“h eat
,

e ne g y a l w ay pa sses f om a w arm bod y to a col d body

r s r .

IO
 T HE E L E M E N T A RY T HEO RY OF H EA T

c a m e to be g enera lly employ ed M any sub stanc es h a v e a practi .

c a lly u nifo rm ra te of exp ansio n b etw een the limi ts O f temp eratu re
a n en gi neer ha s to d eal wi th A sm a ll colum n O f m ercu ry in a .

gl ass c a pill ary tub e is u su ally ta k en a s a sta nd a rd for temp eratu re

m easu rem ents * T he m ercu ry in a n a ccu rate th ermom eter
.

exp a nd s v ery nearly { 38 of its volum e wh en h ea ted f rom the —

f reezi ng temp era tu re O f w ater (3 2 F ) to the boili ng poi nt‘ °

.

( 2 1 2 F°
T h e e xp a ns io n b e tw een th e f re ezi n g poi nt a n d th e

boili ng poi nt of wa ter ha s th erefo re b een c all ed arbi tra rily , ,

1 80
°
F .

For th eo retic a l h ea t c alcul a tio ns the z ero of temp eratu re is

ta k en a s 4 9 2 F b elow the f reezi ng temp era tu re of w a ter; or
°
.
,

4 6 0
°
b elow the F a h re n h ei t z ero T hi s v e r y low temp era tu re is .

ca ll ed the a bsol ute z ero a nd a t thi s poi nt th ere is th eo retic a lly

,

no h ea t energy .

T emp era tu res m easu red f rom the a b solu te z ero are c a ll ed
a bsolu te tem pera tures a nd a re i ndic a ted g enera lly by T to dis ,

tinguish th em f rom the o rdi nary F a h renh ei t temp era tu res t as , ,

rea d on a th ermom eter sc al e .

Usi ng th ese symbol s we h av e th en in F ah renh ei t d eg rees , ,

T = t + 4 6o .

A b solu te temp eratu res co nv eni ent for h eat c alcul atio ns a re

b ec a u se p erf ec t g ases a t co nstant p ressu re i nc rease in volum e , ,

in p ropo rtio n to the i nc rease in ab solu te temp eratu re .

T he ord naryi mercury thermometers ca n be used to measure temperatures to

a bou t 575
°
i hF .u w t
acy F o high
acc e tempe r t u re s t
.he pill ry tube o v er
r r ra ca a

t he me cu y S h oul d be fi ll ed w i th ni t o gen or a boni c

r r i d g s unde high p essure r c r ac a r r .

Such thermometers ca n then be used fo tempe tu es u p to F r ra r 1 00 0

°
.

I f the me u y i not th oughout its w hol e l ength at the me tempe atu e as

rc r s r sa r r

t h at bei ng measured a co e ti on k given by the f oll owi ng f ormul a must be

,
rr c , ,

a dded to the observ ed temperatu e 1 i n F h enh ei t d eg rees r , ,

a r :

k . ooo,o8 8 D (t

where D is t he l engt h measured in Fakrenhezt

mercury l mn
'

of the co u exposed ,

degrees and t is the temperat ure of the exposed part of t he t hermometer

,
’
Wh en .

l ong t h ermometers are used in sha ll ow well s in high pressure steam pi pes thi s cor -

rect i on is of ten 5 to 1 0 F For experi menta l data a nd d i rect rea d i ng correct ion
° °
-
.

curv es see M oyer s

,
’
P ower Pla nt Testing, 2 d ed i t i on ( M cGraw Hill -
B ook
P ges 3 1 3 3
a -
 T H E S T EA M TU RB I N E

Heat Un i ts a nd mo unt of h ea t requi red

Specifi c H ea t . T he a

to ra i se the temp era tu re of one pou nd of w a ter f rom 6 2 to 6 3 F ° °

.

is ta k en a rbi tra rily a s the sta nd ard Engli sh u ni t of h ea t com ,

monl y c a ll ed the B riti sh th erm a l u ni t T he ra tio of

the a mou nt of h ea t requi red to rai se the temp era tu re of a po un d

of w ater or stea m one d eg ree to the B ri ti sh th erm al u ni t is c all ed

the Specifi c h ea t
L
]
T he sp eci fic h ea t of stea m a nd of gases ch a ng es in v a lu e a cco rd
ing to the co ndi tio ns u nd er which the h ea t is a ppli ed I f h ea t is .

a dd ed to a v a po r or a ga s h eld in a clo sed v essel wi th no ch a n c e ,

for exp a nsio n no ex terna l wo rk is do ne and th erefo re p ra c tic ally

, ,

a ll the h ea t a dd ed is u sed to i n c rea se the temp era tu re T hi s is .

the co ndi tio n in a boil er wh en no steam is being dra wn off In .

thi s c ase the sp eci fi c h ea t is symboliz ed by C specifi c h eat a t ,

co nsta nt vo l ume I f on the o th er h and the p ressu re is k ep t

.
, ,

co nstant but the volum e is allow ed to ch ange to p ermi t exp ansio n

a nd the p erfor mi n g of ex ternal wo rk w e sa y th en CI specifi c , , )

h ea t at co n stant pressure .

Hea ti n g a t co nstant p ressu re is the co ndi tio n th a t is mo st

i nteresti ng to the engi neer Wh en his en gi nes a re ru nni n g the .

boil ers are m a k i ng stea m a t co nsta nt pressure T he h ea t energy .

a b so rb ed by a pou nd of stea m for ra i si n g o nly the temp era tu re

mu st be obviou sly app roxim ately the sam e reg ardl ess of the
, , ,

condi ti ons of p ressu re and volum e Sinc e for co nstant p ressu re .

conditions som e ex ternal wo rk is alwa y s done requi ring a ,

l arger amou nt of h eat energy th an for the c ase wh en the volum e

is constant it follow s th a t C is alw a y s g rea ter th an C
, ,, ” .

We Should add fu rth er th at an engi neer s c alculations con

, ,
’

c erning energy transfo rm ations in steam tu rbines are a lmo st

In the C . G . S
‘

. syste m of un ts i the kil go ram ca or e,

-
l i cal l ed in Ge m n
r a

Warmeeinheit ( WE) ,
is used as the standard h eat un t i . 1 kg .
-
ca l . or 1 WE
l
or nea r y 4 B TU
. . .

i h F is and of superh ea ted stea m an

°
TThe spec fic eat of water at 2 0 0 .

av g v l f
era e a ue of 6 is o ten assumed in rou
. gh ca l culati ons for steam at theusual boil er
pressu res in p ow er pl a nt pra ct i ce for superh eats l ess t h an 1 5 0 F M ea n v a l ues of
°
.

the speci fic h eat of superh eated steam are giv en by the curv es in Fig 3 0 . .
 1 4 T H E ST EA M TU RBINE

the fl ow of the stea m i nstead of being interm ittent is co ntinuo us

, ,
.

Stea m is co nti nu ally pu sh ed into th e nozzl es or simil a r stea m ,

p assa g es and exp andi ng exp end s its i nternal energy in p roduci ng
, ,

v eloci ty V a nes or bl ad es fi xed to a ro ta ti n g wh eel are pl a c ed

.
,
‘

nea r the nozzl es so th a t the j ets of stea m a re di rec ted a g a i nst

th em T h ese bl ad es or v a nes thu s set in mo tio n mov e the wh eel

.

and wi th it the sh a f t which tra nsmi ts the pow er .

Th eo reti ca lly th e wo rk f rom ex pand i ng stea m beh ind a pi sto n

is ex a c tly th e sa m ea s tha t we Obta i n f rom a nozzl e Th e difi erence .

is o nly in th e m etho d for m ak i ng th e h eat energy ava il abl e for

'

doi ng wo rk .

B efo re goi ng f arth er wi th the di scu ssio n of h ow the stea m tur

bi ne co nv erts h eat energy i nto wo rk the mo re f a mili a r c a se of the ,

recip roc ati n g stea m en gi ne will b e co n sid ered b ri efl y b ec a u se it ,

is a ssum ed the rea d er is a l rea dy mo re or l ess f a mili a r wi th its

h ea t p roc esses B y the sta ti c pressure in the stea m pip es and in
.

the boil er the stea m is pu sh ed i nto the en gi ne cyli nd er a nd c a u ses

the pi sto n to mov e up to the poi nt wh ere the supply of stea m is

Shu t O ff T h en the stea m exp a nd s reduci ng a t the sa m e tim e

.
, , ,

the p ressu re till the pi sto n ha s rea ch ed the end of the cyli nd er
'

O n the retu rn strok e the stea m is di sch arg ed a t a nearly co nstant

low p ressu re i nto the a tmo sph ere or i nto a co nd enser N ow on .

the wo rki ng strok e wh en the stea m is b ei ng pu sh ed i nto the

a nd wh en it is exp a ndi ng the stea m is doi n g wo rk a t ,

the exp ense of the h ea t energy put i nto it by the fires u nd er the

boil er T he h eat in a pou nd of stea m at a giv en p ressu re a nd

.

temp eratu re rep resents a d efini te a mou n t of energy Exp ansio n .

of the stea m in the cyli nd er a f ter cut O ff is a ccomp ani ed th erefo re —

, ,

wi th a reduc tio n of p ressure and temp era tu re a nd the wo rk do ne ,

is in p ropo rtio n to the h ea t energy lo st by the stea m T hu s h ea t .

energy and wo rk go h and in h a nd A lo ss to one is a g a i n to the .

U nt il i
f i ea hed l l the ti me th t steam is bei ng push ed
the po nt of cu t~ o f s r c , a a

i nto the yl i nde w o k i bei ng d one t the expense of the boil e p es u e A tuall y
c r r s a r r s r . c

the p essu e in the boil e i

r r li ttl e l owe f te the mou nt of ste m eq ui red fo a
r s a r a r a a r r

t ok e h as been t ak en out th n it w s bef o e

s r W hen h ow eve the strokes of
a a r .
’

, r,

t he engi ne come in q ui ck succes i on the v ri ati on i n boil e p essu e is not per

s ,
a r r r

ceptible .
 T HE EL EM EN T A RY T HEO RY OF HEAT

ot h e r F
. ig 7 s how s a typic .
a l s te a m e n gi n e i n dic a to r c ard re p re ,

se nt i n g di ag r
,
a mm a t ic ally th e h e a t re l a t io n
,
s th a t h av e ju ’
st b e en

d i scu ssed T he ho rizo ntal sc al e of co di

.
o r n a t e s ( b ci
a s ss as ) pre re

se n ts vo l u m e s a n d th e v e rt,
ic a l sc al e (o r di n a te s ) r ep re se n ts

ssu res It is obviou s th en th at an y a re a i n clud e d by th e li ne s

p r e .

hi di g m p e e n t wo k do n e by t h e s te a m In thi s
of t s a r a r e r s s r .

fig e u r P a nd v re p re se n t i n iti a l p r e ss u r e a n d v ol u m e a n d P a n d , 2
I 1

o o i l d i ti m e n i n g t h e p e u r e n d
v2 the c rresp nd ng fina c o n o n s a r ss a
,

F IG .
7 . P ressure- V o l ume D i agra m Sh ow i ng Wo k r A reas .

”
1 . Area AOI B is the wo rkdo pu hi g ne inm i s n the stea nto

the cyli d g
n er a ainst the e r s i sta n c e of th e pi s to n to mo tio n .

2 .Area rz CB is th e wo r k do ne wh e n th e st e am is e xp a n di n g .

Area A4 3 2 0 is the wo rk lo st in th e h e a t e n er g y di sch a r g e d

3 .

in the exh au st * .

4 .Are a 4 0 1 2 3 is th e n et wo rk do ne .

T he di scu ss nio giv en a bov e is of cou rs e f o r t h e id e

,
a l c a s e
,

wh ere the cyli nd er cl earanc e is negl ec ted and exp ansion to

b ack p ressu re (P2 ) is complete
- .

I f n lmo t pe fe t v uum we e
a a t ta
s in bler tchi l
aco w ou lrd be
a p ra ctic all ya s ss

negligi bl e . Actuall y wi th the best condens n i g apparat us it is q uite large .

I6 T H E ST EA M TU RB INE

T he sa m e di a g ra m ( Fig 7) c a n a l so b e u s e d for th e a n
. a ly si s of
the wo rk do ne by stea m exp a ndi ng in the n ozzl es or simil ar
p assa ges of a tu rbi ne Th e w o rk do n e in p ushing the stea m .

i nto the engi ne cyli nd er has its cou nterp art now in the wo rk do ne
by the stea m in enteri ng the nozzl e so th a t , ,

1 Area A O I B is the wo rk d o n e in
.
p u sh i n g th e stea m out of

th e pip es or rec eivi n g v essel s in to th e n ozzl es ?

2 Area 1 2 CB is the wo rk do ne d uri ng ex pa nsio n a t the exp ense

.

of the h eat energy to giv e v elo ci ty to the stea m , .

A rea A4 3 2 0 is wo rk l o st by the stea m in fo rci ng its w a

3 .
y
a g a i nst the externa l or exh a ust p ressu re .

4 A r
.ea 4 0 1 2 3 is the wo rk d o n e in pro d uc in g v elo ci ty .

T he wo rk of pu shi ng the stea m i nto the nozzl e p rod uc es ”

“
i n i ti al vel ocitygt or v eloci ty of a pp ro a ch ”
In al l p ra c tic a l stea m .
,

tu rbi ne nozzl es thi s i ni ti al v eloci ty comp a red w i th the fin al ,

v elo ci ty a f ter expa nsio n is v ery sm all For thi s rea so n in the , .
,

c a lc ul atio ns requi red for the d esigni ng of nozzl es and bl ad es ,

thi s i n i ti al v eloci ty is u su a lly negl ec ted Pra c tic a l d esigners .

,

th erefo re a re i nterested o nly in the h ea t energy of the a rea 1 2 3

,

and the v eloci ty it rep resents In o rd er to secu re high effi ci ency .

a nd low stea m co n sump tio n the d esig ner is alw a y s strivi ng to

m ak e thi s a rea as l arg e as po ssibl e allowi ng of cou rse for o th er , , ,

limi ti ng co ndi tio ns .

As the resul t of the comp ari so n of the h ea t fu nc tio ns of stea m

tu rbi nes a nd recip roc a ti ng stea m engi nes W e should O b serv e , ,

th en th a t the h eat energy in a pou n d of stea m a v a il a bl e for per

,

fo rmi n g u seful wo rk is ex a c tly the sa m e wh eth er the stea m go es

to the one or to the o th er It follow s th en al so th a t th eo reti ca lly
.
, ,

In so me types Of turb nes t ere i h are no no zzl e s, b ut i nste ad i

st a t on a ry b l a d es

a re used
‘

w hi ch a re arra ng ed to ex pa nd the j ust

stea m as in a nozzl e . In t i s h
“
c h a pter, h f
t ere ore, w ere the term h no zzl e ”
is u sed it w ill be a ssu med to l
a pp y as

ll i
i g b l ades “ex ”
we to stat on ary pand n .

TT he mount of thi s wo k o the a ea A O B

a r , r r I , is very s m a ll in the ca se of th e

tu r bi ne om p red wi th th t in the ste m engi ne

c a a a .

V 2

i T his i ni ti l vel o i ty
a c , V 0, is l l
ca cu a ted f ro m the l i
re at on P 1 71 1
0
w ere h
g 2

PI a nd v, are i i i l pres the n t a su re a nd v l o ume of a pou nd of steam a nd g is the

a cc el e ati on d ue to g a vi ty
r r A ll v l i i e oc t es a re in eet per second f .
 T HE E L E M E N T A RY T HE O RY O F H EA [ 7

the stea m o
m ptio n for the sa m e co ndi tio ns of tem peratu re and
c n su

pr es sure is th e sa m e f or th e turbine a s f or a ny o th er f o rm of
engin e D i scu ssio n of th e m eri ts of di ff erent fo rm s of stea m
.

mo to rs wi th o nly the th eo retic al vi ew poi nt in mi nd is th erefo re , ,

u sel ess O nly the co ndi tio ns in p ra c tic e a ffec ti ng the d esign of
.

comm erci al m achi nes a re of any Sig ni fic a nc e in d etermi ni ng the

typ e of stea m mo to r to b e u sed for giv en co ndi tio ns of servic e
‘

H EAT T H EO RY R EL AT I N G T O T H E D ES IG N OF N O ZZ L E S
B L AD ES AN D .

D i ag ra m s simil ar to tho se m ad e on a steam engine indi c a to r

( g
F i showi
. n g for a n engi ne s trok e t he co ndi tio ns of pressu re
and vol um e insid e the cylind er a re v ery u seful in the d esig n and ,

op eration of recipro cating steam engines but th ey a re of v ery ,

littl e use for wo rk rel a ti ng to steam tu rbines In a steam tur .

bine it is not p ra c tic abl e to put a m easu red amo unt of steam
”
th rough a nozzl e a t a tim e as the flow is p ra c tic ally con
\

tinuous The p ressu re vol um e di ag ram has th erefo re a v ery

.
-

, ,

limi ted applic a tio n Another k ind of diagram th e deta il s of .

,

which are somewhat more difi cul t to understand is universall y ,

used by steam turbin e engineers In t hi s d ag ram which wi ll

i

.
,

now be d esc rib ed any surface represents accuratel y to given ,

scal es a quantity of h eat Absol ute temperatures (T) are the .

_

ordinates and entrOpies ( )

o a re the
, a b s ci s sas .

m Ent hi ch Perr y ca l ls the

py, w gh ostl y q ua nt i ty has no rea l ph ysi ca l
I f dQ is a smal l amount
,

signi fica nce so t h a t compl ete defini t i on is not possibl e

,
.

of h ea t added t o a body a nd T is the a bsolute tempera t ure a t whi ch the h ea t is

,

added t h en the cha nge n entrOpy o

,
i f t h at body s i
d
—Q do EntTOpy of

m abov e the entrOpy of water a t f zi g poi nt ( 3 2 F ) is ea si ly

°
sa turated stea the ree n .

xr
l
ca cula ted For sa t urated stea m at a ny pressure, t en, h n (or wh ere x
7
. ,

is the ua ty q li of t he stea m, r is the l a tent hea t v apor v

of e aporat on or i h ea t of

T is the absol ute tempera ture and n ( or 0) is the entropy of t he liq uid
”
ization , ,

( wate r) A ll v a lues
. of l a tent h ea t of ev apo ra t i on h e a t of t he l iq ui d total h eat , , ,

etc giv en in stea m tabl es a re in h eat uni ts abov e 3

.
,
F 2
°
.

The symbol s used h ere are t h ose gi v en in Pea body s Stea m a nd Entropy Ta bl es
’
,

p ub lish ed by J o h n W il e y So n s N ew Y ork a nd in M ark,

s a n d D a v is S ,
tea m ’

Ta bles and Diagrams published by Longmans G reen , CO New Y ork ,

.
, .
 1 8 T H E ST EA M TU RB INE

Fig . 8 how s
impl e h ea t di a g ra m l aid out wi th ab solu te
s a s

temp era tu re and entrO py fer the coOrdina tes Stea m a t a c ertai n .

co ndi tio n of temp era tu re and

entropy is rep resented h ere

by the poi nt A T h en if som e .

h eat is add ed i nc reasi ng both ,

temp eratu re a nd en tropy ,

the final co ndi tio n is repre

sented by the poi nt B a nd ,

the area AB CD represents

th e h ea t a dded in passing
f ro m
o i tio n a t A to th e c nd

th e co nd i tio n a t B Such a .

di a g ra m is u su ally c all ed
E ( 93 )ntropy
a n entro py tempera ture dia -

F G I A S i mpl e Ent opy

.
r

T empe tu e D i g m ra r gr a m
a raa l though the name
.
,

h ea t diagra m would p rob

a bly be mo re a pp rop ri a te si nc e ev ery a rea represents a defini te
,

amo un t of h ea t .

Ano th er entropy temp eratu re di a g ra m is show n in Fig 9

-
.
,

representing by th e v ari o us sha ded a rea s th e h ea t added to w a ter

at 3 2 F to com pl etely v apori z e it a t the pressure P T he um

°
.
,
.

Sh a d ed a rea u nd er the i rregul a r cu rv e AB rep resents the h ea t in a

pou nd of w ater at the freezi ng poi nt ( 3 2 F or 4 9 2 in ab solu te °

.
°

temp eratu re) The area OB CD i s the h ea t a dd ed to the w a ter

.

to b ri n g it to the temp era tu re of v a po riz a tio n or in o th er wo rd s , ,

thi s l ast a rea rep resents the h ea t of the liquid ( q ) giv en in the

stea m ta bl es for the p ressu re P Fu rth er h ea ti ng a f ter v a po riz a

,
.

tio n b egi ns is a t th e co nstant tem perature T co rrespo ndi ng to the I

p ressu re P a nd is rep resented by an i nc reasi ng area u nd er li ne

,,

CE Wh en stea mi ng is compl ete the l atent h eat or the h eat

.
, ,

of v a po riz atio n (r ) is the area B OEP I f a f ter all the w a ter is

,
.

v apo riz ed mo re h ea t is add ed the stea m b ecom es superh eated, ,

a nd the a ddi tio nal h ea t requi red would b e rep resented by an area

to the righ t of EF .

T he use of the entropy temp eratu re di a g ra m in exhi bi ti ng the

-
 T HE E L E M E N T A RY T HEO RY OF H EA T

b eh avio r of stea m du ri ng exp ansio n a nd the v ariou s h ea t lo sses

and exch an g es in the p assa g e of stea m th ro u gh a tu rbi ne will now

be di scu ssed and illu strated wi th a p ra c tic al ex a mpl e .

Stea min g

Entropy T emperat ure D i agram

-
s h owi ng t he T ot a l H eat in 3. Poun d
of D ry Sa tu ra ted Steam at the T emperature

S tea mi ng

. 129 . 566 EntrOpy ( 613)

F IG . 10 . Pract i cal l I l l ust
Ex a mp e d w
ra t e i th an Ent ropy T emperatu re D
-
i ag ra m
.

Fig . illu strates the h eat p roc ess goi ng on wh en feed w a ter
1 0

is rec eiv ed in the boil ers of a pow er pl ant at 1 0 0 F is h ea ted a nd °

.
2 0 T H E S T EA M TU RB INE

co nv erted i nto stea m a t a temp erature of 4 0 0 F a nd th en lo ses °

.
,

h ea t in doi ng wo rk Wh en the f eed w a ter first enters the boil er

.

its temp erature m ust be ra i sed f rom 1 0 0 to 4 0 0 F b efo re a ny

° °
.

“stea mi ng ” b egi ns T he h eat add ed to the li uid is the area

.
q .

M N C D T hi
. s a rea re p re se n t s th e diff e re n c e b et w e en th e h ea t

of the liq uid of stea m a t 4 0 0 F ( q ) a nd a t 1 0 0 F ( q ) a nd is °

. c
°
. n

a bo u 3t 0 6 B T U T h.e ho r
.
izo. n ta l o r en tr opy s c a l e sho w s th a t

the di ffe re n c e in en tropy b e tw ee n w a te r a t 1 0 0 a n d 4 0 0 F is

° °
.

a bou t

Ev ery rea d er should u nd erstand how such a di ag ram is con

struc ted and esp eci ally how the cu rv es a re ob ta ined In thi s .

c ase the curv e N C is co nstructed by plo tti ng f rom the steam tabl es
the v alu es of the entropy of th e liquid ( u su ally m ark ed wi th the
symbol n or 0) for a numb er of di ff erent t emp era tu res b etw een
°
1 00
°
and 4 0 0 F
I f now w ater at 4 0 0 F is co nv erted i nto steam a t th at te m
°
.

p er a tu re th e cu
,
rv e rep resenti ng the ch ang e is nec essarily a con

stant temp era tu re li ne and th erefo r e a ho rizo ntal CE P rovid ed ,

.

the v apo riz a tio n ha s b een compl ete the h eat a dd ed in the ,

“steami ng ” p roc ess is the l atent h eat or h ea t of v apo riz a tio n

°
of steam (r) at 4 0 0 F which is app roxim ately 8 2 7 B T U .
,
. . .

The change in entrOpy d uring v apo riz ati on is th en the h eat , ,

uni ts add ed ( 8 2 7 ) divid ed by the ab solu te temp era tu re at whi ch

the ch ang e occu rs (4 0 0 8 60 F ab sol u te) or
°
4 60 .

r 8
3 1 .

.
9 6 2 .

T 8 60

entropy of steam
°
The total compl etely v apo riz ed at 4 0 0 F .

is th erefo re the sum of the entropy of the liquid (W

, ,
a ter) 5 6 6 and

To rep resent th en by
L
the entropy of the st eam 9 6 2 or 28 1 .
,
.

CE thi s final condi tio n of the steam the poi nt E is plo t ted wh ere ,

entropy m easu red on the ho rizo ntal sc al e is as shown in the

As . a ctua lly determi ned from M ark s and Da vi s ’

Steam Ta bles , pp 9 and 1 5 , .

f
the di f erence in entropy is 5 66 3 . 1 2 9 5 or .
43 68 . Pract i ca ll y it is impossi bl e t o
const ruct l g v ery a ccuratel y
the sca es in the fi ure .

TEntrOpy lik e the tota l h eat ( H) and t he h ea t

, ,
of t he liq ui d (q) ,
is measured
abov e the cond i t i on of f reezi ng wa ter 2 F °
2 2 T HE STEA M TU RB I N E

te mp era tu re di a g ra m rep resent qu a nti ti es of h eat and th a t in thi s

ex pansio n th ere is n o ex ch ang e of h ea t it is obviou s th a t the area ,

under a curv e of a diaba tic ex pansio n mu st be z e ro ; a nd thi s con

di tio n can be sati sfied o nly by a v ertic al li ne which is a li ne of

co nstant entropy * For the c ase in Fig 1 0 the exp ansio n cu rv e
. .

will lie th erefo re a lo ng the li ne EF and if the temp eratu re f all s

, , ,

to 1 0 0 F the exp ansio n will be f rom E to G a nd du ri n g thi s

°
.
,

ch ang e som e of the stea m has b een co nd ensed I f now h ea t is .

remov ed f rom thi s mix tu re of stea m a nd w a ter till a l l the stea m

is reduc ed to the liquid sta te but wi thou t fu rth er low eri ng of the ,
.

tem perature the ho rizo nta l li ne GN Tw ill rep resent the ch a n g e in

,

its co ndi tio n T he qu anti ty of h ea t a b so rb ed in thi s l ast p roc ess

.

tech nic ally k now n a s co nd ensi n g th e stea m is rep resented

by the a rea MNCF a nd the h eat co nv erted into wo rk is th erefo re , , ,

the a rea NCEG ; a nd thi s is c a ll ed the av ail abl e en ergy

,
By .

m eans of di a gra m s lik e tho se in the p rec edi ng figu res it will now ,

be show n how the a v a il abl e energy of dry sa tu ra ted steam for

a ny giv en co ndi tio n s can be rea d ily ca lcul a ted f rom the d a ta giv en

in steam t abl es .

Fig 1 1 is a n entropy temp era tu re di a g ra m rep resenti ng d ry

.
-

satu ra ted stea m which is exp a nd ed a d i aba tic a lly f rom a n i n i ti a l

temp era tu re T co rrespo ndi n g to a p ressu re P to a low er final

, ,

i
S nce in i h
a n a d ab at c i h g i li nes of onst nt
expa ns on t ere is no c a n e of entropy, c a

ent opy in practi e a e of ten call ed

r , cad i b ati cs
,
r I t i ve y e i n ste m tu b i ne a s r ra r a r

work t h at t he expansi on in a nozzl e d epa ts fa r f om the ad i aba t i c F or t hi s reason r r .

oth er ki nds of expansi on are not ment i oned h e e r .

T T h at the steam migh t b e d y a nd satu ated the expansi on woul d h a ve h ad r r ,

to f oll ow the u v e E T nd G w ou l d h a v e appea ed t G

’
c r a r a .

T he h e t of the l iq u i d q of pou nd of steam at 1 0 0 F i rep esented by O B N M

°
a , ,
a . s r ,

a nd th e h eat of v po iz ti on ( ) is M N G F o th t the tota l h ea t ( q l o H )

' —
a r a r s a r r

is GEN G E T he tot l h eat of wet team is exp essed by q

’ ’
. a x w h e e x is s r r, r

the q u a li ty or el at ive d yn e s I n the case of t hi

r d i b ti expa nsi on th en
r s . s a a a c , ,

q is as b e f o e O B N M arnd x is M N GF I t is ob vi ou l o th t th e li nes N G
r . s a s a

a nd N G h av e the s me el a ti on to e ch oth e s th e a ea s u nde t h em o t h at

' r s
a r a r a r ,

li ne N G re M N GF xr
o
NG a a
r
li ne N O e MN GF N G ’
ar a
’ ’
r
’

S h ow i ng th at the q u li ty of the stea m at a ny poi nt G on

a o nsta nt tempe atu e , , a c r r

li ne ( w hi ch fo satu ated steam is a l so a constant p essu e li ne) is d etermi ned as

r r r r

in thi s c se by the rati o of N G to N G

’
a
 T H EO RY O F HEA T 2 3

a p ressu re P 2
. T he o th er initial

h [
ea t H
( ) a nd entrO py (gb) a re

sub s c rip ts 1 a nd 2 T he a v a il a bl e .

at can be do ne by a p erf ec t en gi ne und er

It is now d esi red to ob ta i n a

Ent ropy
0 1 2

F IG . I I . Ent ropy T empera tu re D

-
i g a ra m for Steam I ni t i l l y D
a r
y a nd

S at u ra t ed .

Simpl e equ a tio n exp ressi ng thi s av a i l a bl e energy E in terms of ,

to ta l h ea t a bsol ute tem pera ture a nd entro py

,
Expl a na tio ns of ,
.

the p rec edi ng fi g ures sho uld m a k e it cl ea r th a t

H, a rea OB N CEGF ,

H2 a rea OB N G F
’ ’
,

E, a rea s ( OB N CEGF F GG F ’ ’
) OB N G F
’ ’
,

E, H, H, F GG F
’ ’
,

h
t ere fo re E , H, H .
(b
c 2 b
g, ) T

pplic a tio n of thi s eq ua tio n w ill be m a d e a t o nc e to d eter

An a

mi ne the h ea t energy a v a il a bl e f rom the a di a b a tic exp ansio n of

It h ou l d
s be O bser ved th at t hi fo
m is fo r the ca se w h ere the stea m is i nitia ll v
s r
.

d ry a nd sa tu ra
ted . Fo r the ca se of su perh ea ted stea m a sligh tl y di ff erent form is

q i
re u red w hi ch is given On p ge 5 5
a .
2 4 T H E S T EA M TU R B INE

a pou nd of dry sa tu rated stea m a t an i ni ti al p ressu re of 1 6 5

pou nd s per squ are i nch a b solu te to a fina l p ressu re of 1 5 pou nd s
er squ a re i nch a b solu te
p .

Exampl e . P, 1 65 T,

P2 1 5 T2 f omr m bl stea ta es * .

H1 f rom steam tabl es .

H2 f rom steam t abl es .

p
cl f rom steam tabl es .

4» from steam tabl es .

Sub sti tu ti ng th ese v alu es in qu ation

e we h av e

Ea

B T U per pound of
. . . stea m .

N ow if
ui ta bl e pi ec e of app ara tu s lik e a steam tu rbi ne
in a s

nozzl e all thi s energy th a t is theo retic ally a v a il a bl e could be

,

ch ang ed i nto v eloci ty th en w e h a v e by the w ell k nown fo rmul a

,
-

in mechanics Tfor u ni t m a ss , ,

2
V
— Ea ( foo t poun d s-

) Ea X 7 7 8,
2 g

V x 2 E
g a
'
x/E

wh ere V i s th e v eloci ty of the jet and g is the acc el era tio n d ue to

,

ra vi ty b o th in f eet per seco nd

g .

Solvi n g th en for the th eo retic a l v eloci ty ob ta i na bl e f rom the

av a il a bl e energy in the p ra c tic a l ex a mpl e a bov e ,

v V I 7 4 4.6 x 2 9 53 f eet per second J;

The important co nd i tio n assu med b asi s for the d etermina
as the
t io n of equ ation th a t the steam is ini ti all y dry and saturated ,

v al ues of the properti es of steam giv en in

The the exercises are tak en from
M ark s and D a vi s Steam Ta bles and D iagra ms
’
.

TSee Ch urch s M echanics of Engineering p J ameson s

’
Applied
’
,
. 672 , or

M echanics and M echa nical Engineering vol I p 4 7 ,

.
,
. .

I Losses in nOzz les are negl ected A carefull y made nozzl e may . h av e pract i
cally 1 0 0 per cent effi c ency i . F or discuss on of no i zzl e l osses seepages 4 9 , 50 , and 86 .
 T HE E L E M E N T A RY T HEO RY O F H EA T

mu st not be ov erlook ed in its a pplic atio n . T h ere a re, th erefo re,

two o th er c a ses to be consid ered z

( )
I wh en the stea m is i ni ti a lly w et ,

( )
2 wh en the stea m is i ni ti ally sup erh ea ted .

Av ail a bl e Energy of Su perh eated and W et Steam T he super .

he a ted co ndi ti o n iS somew ha t complic a ted a nd will not be d is

s

cu ssed a t thi s pl a c e b ec a u se it can be wo rk ed out mo re simply

'

wi th the aid of the entro py to ta l heat chart in the app endix : T he

-

m ethod to be u sed for thi s c a se will be di scu ssed th erefo re a fter

the use of thi s ch a rt ha s b een expl ai ned ( See p a g es 5 nd
5 a .

T he c a se of in i ti al ly w et steam is how ev er easily trea ted in the

, ,

sa m e w a y a s d ry and sa tu ra ted stea m Fig 1 2 is an ex a mpl e of. .

¢x ¢ 1 ¢2 Ent ropy

F IG . 12 . Ent ropy Tempera ture D i ag ra m for I ni t i a ll y W et S team .

the c ase in h and At the i ni ti al p ressu re P the to tal h eat of a

.
,, .

pou nd of wet steam ( q x r ) is rep resented in thi s di a g ra m by

, , ,

the area OB NCE p T he i ni ti al qu ali ty of the stea m (x ) is repre

’
.
,
”
CE
sente d by the ratio of the li nes T he a v ail a bl e energy f ro m
CE
a di a b a tic exp ansio n f rom the i ni ti a l temp era tu re T ( co rrespo nd ,

ing to the p ressu re P ) to the final temp eratu re T ( co rrespondi ng

, 2
2 6 T H E S T EA M TU RBI NE
” ”
to thep ressu re P ) is the a rea NGE ,
C . If w e c all thi s a v ailabl e
energy a we h av e ,

a rea OB N CEGF F GG F ’ ’
OB N G F
’ ’ ”
G E EG
”
,

H1 H 2 l (95 " "

¢) 1
T2 (7 1
5 S 1? )
5 T
( 1
’

I
H1 H2 l “

(9 75
¢1 > 2
T “

i ( I x1
) ( 1
T T2 ) (I )
I

i
‘

The v eloci ty co rrespo ndi ng to thi s energy is fou nd by substi

tution in equ atio n ju st a s for the Case wh en the stea m w as
i ni ti ally d ry and sa tu ra ted .

Ex a m pl e C a lcul a tio ns for the v eloci ty resul ti ng f rom a di a

.

b a tic exp ansio n for the sa m e co ndi tio ns giv en in the p rec edi ng
ex a mpl e on p a g e 2 4 exc ep t tha t the stea m is i ni ti a lly 5 per
'

c ent wet a re giv en b elo w

.
,
.

PI 1 6 5 lbs . abs . TI F .

P2 1 5 l b s . abs .
-

T2 F .

H1 B T U . . .

H2 B T U . . .

p
cl

¢ 2 I
7 54 9
r1 B TU . . .

. 05 .
95 .

B TU . . .

\
/a x 2 8 8 6 f eet per second .

In gene lra term s,

b = H ere
g

951 (9, because x 1 .

¢ 1 951
T HE E L E M EN T A RY T HEO RY O F H EA T

F IG . 1 3 . E xamp e ofl a W ell -

igned
des No zzl e.

D eLa v l Type
a .

N oz z l e

ph ra gm

Curtis T ype .

F IG
. 14 . Ex a mpl es of Standard D es igns of N ozzl es .
2 8 T HE STEA M TU RBI NE

I t isob served th at the th eo retic al v eloci ty is reduc ed f ro m

2 9 53 to 2 8 8 6 f eet per seco nd by the p resenc e of moi stu re in

t he steam The p erc entag e reduc tio n in v eloci ty is how ev er

.
, ,

o nly abou t 2 per c ent while the amou nt of moi stu re is 5 per
.

c ent .

The sh ad ed area N ORG in Fig 1 1 is al so k now n as the the .

o retical R ank i ne cy cl e for the c ase wh ere the steam suppli ed

i s i ni ti ally d ry sa tu rated The a v ail abl e energy th erefo re as

.
, ,

giv en by equ atio n ( 1 ) on p age 2 3 mul tiplied by 7 7 8 giv es the ,

m a xim um th eo retic al foo t pou nd s of wo rk th at can be aecom -

p l is hed wi th t hi s cycl e negl ec t i ng lo sses f rom a pound of dr

, y ,

s team T h ere are.

X 60 foo t pound s in one ho rsepow er -

h ou r and h enc e di vidi ng

, X 60 hy:E X 7 7 8 we get the a

“
th eoreti cal steam co nsumpti on ( water rate ) of an engi ne or
”

t u rbi ne u si ng the id eal R anki ne cycl e wi th steam i ni ti ally dry

" "
saturated
r Simil arly the a rea N GE G in Fig 1 2 show s the
. .

a v ail abl e wo rk for the th eo retic al R ank ine cycl e wh en the steam

i s ini ti ally wet and the th eo retic al steam consump tion of the
,

*
R anki ne cycl e for thi s c ase is 3 3 0 0 0 x 60 di vid ed by a ,X
Fig 3 2 p ag e 5 7 show s al so the R ank ine cycl e for steam ini
.
, ,

t ially sup erh eated Calcul at io n of th eo ret ic al steam consump

.

t io n is simil ar to the c ases al rea dy expl ai ned .

The mo st impo rtant p art of the d esign of a nozzl e is the d eter

mi natio n of the areas of the v ariou s sec tions esp eci ally the

sm all est sec tion if the nozzl e is of an exp anding or di v erging

,

t yp e Variou s fo rm s of stand ard nozzl es are shown in Fi gs 1 3

. .

a nd 1 4 In o rd er to c alcul ate the a reas of nozzl es we mu st

.

know how to d etermi ne the qu anti ty of steam (flow) per un i t of

t im e p assi ng th rough a u ni t area It is v ery essenti al th at the
.

n ozzl e is w ell rou nd ed on the

“ entranc e
”
sid e and th at sh arp
,

edg es alo ng the p ath of the steam a re avoid ed O th erwi se it

“

i s not impo rtant wh eth er the sh ap e of the sec tion is ci rcul ar ,

ellip tic al or rec tangul ar

,
wi th rou nd ed co rners T ypic al .

“s u are ” “rec tangul ar and ci rcul ar nozzl e sec tio ns u sed in

q ,

d i ff erent m ak es of commerci al tu rbi nes are shown in Fig 1 5 . .

From Eq uation g
pa e 2 6 .
2 8b THE ST EA M TU RBI N E

Exa mpl e. Wh at is the th eo retic al steam consump tion (w ater

rate) of the R ankine cycl e for the co ndi t io ns giv en in the ex

ampl e on p ag e 2 4 ; t h at is for stea m ini ti ally d ry sa tu ra ted ?

,

x 778
Exampl e. Wh at is the th eo retic al stea m consump ti on of
the R ank ine cycl e fO r st ea m i ni t i ally wet at the condi tions
st at ed in the ex ampl e on p ag e

x 7 78
 C HA PT ER III .

F L OW OF STEAM AND NO ZZLE D ES IG N .

”
F low of Steam through Nozzl es T he w eigh t of stea m dis . ~

rged th ro ugh a ny w ell d esig ned nozzl e w i th a rou n d ed i nl et

-

ila r to tho se illu stra ted in Fig s 1 3 a nd 1 4 d epends o nl y on .

,

th e i n i ti al a bsolu te pressure if th e pressure a ga in st w hi ch

th e nozzl e d i sch arg es ( P ) do es n ot ex ceed 5 8 of th e in i ti a l pres
,
.

T hi s impo rt a nt sta tem en t is w ell illu stra ted by the foll ow

ing ex a mpl e I f stea m a t a n i ni ti a l p ressu re ( P ) of 1 0 0 pou nds
.
,

e r squ a re i nch a b solu te is di sch a rg ed f rom a nozzl e the w eigh t

p ,

of stea m fl owi ng in a giv en tim e is p ra c tic ally the sa m e for all v alu es
of the p ressure a g ai nst which the stea m is di sch a rged ( P ) which ,
’

a re eq ua l to or l ess th a n 58 pou nd s per sq uare i n ch a b solu te .

I f how ev er the final pressu re is mo re th an 5 8 of th e i ni ti al

, ,
.
,

th e w eig ht of stea m d i scharged w ill be l ess nea rly in pro po rti o n ,

a s th e difi eren ce betw een th e in i tia l a nd fi nal pressures i s red u ced .

( Se e p a g es 3 2 a nd
T he mo st sa ti sf a c to ry a nd a cc ura te fo rmu la for the co nstant
”
flow co ndi tio n m eani ng wh en the fina l p ressu re is 58 of the
,

i ni ti al p ressu re or l ess is the followi ng d ue to Gra shof * wh ere F

, , ,

is the fl Ow of stea m T ( i ni ti a lly d ry sa tu ra ted ) in pou nd s per

G hof The eti he M hi nenleh e ol iii; H atte T he bu h l
ra s ,
or sc asc r ,
v . 1 ,
a sc n c ,
vo . 1 ,

pa ge 3 3 3 . G ras h of sta tes the fo m u l

r a,

F . 0 1 6 5 4 A oP

formul gi ven in eq u ti on ( 3 ) is ac u te enough fo

b ut the a a c ra r allpra ct ca u ses i l .

TNapi er s formul a i very commonl y u sed by engi neers gh

’
s a nd is accu ra te enou

for mo t ca l cul a ti ons

s I t is usua ll y st ted in the form
. a

A oP l
1

7 0

h
w ere F , P , ,
‘
a nd AO h a ve the sa me s ig ni fi c a nce as i n Gra shof ’
s fo r m ul a . T he
foll owi ng formul a is gi ven by R a teau, w ho h as done some very good theo eti r cal

2 9
3 0 T H E ST E A M TU RB INE

o
sec nd , A is the a rea of the sm all est sec tio n of the nozzl e in squ are
O

i nch es and P is the i ni ti a l a bsolu te p ressu re of the steam in

, ,

pou nd s per sq uare i nch ,

or, in term s of the a rea ,

T h ese fo rmul as are for the fl ow of stea m i ni ti ally dry and

sa tura ted An illu stra tio n of th ei r a pplic a ti o ns 1 s gi v en by the
.

followi ng p ra c tic al exa mpl e .

Ex a m pl e T he area of the sm all est sec tio n ( A ) of a sui ta bly

.
O

d esigned nozzl e is 54 squ a re i nch Wh a t is the w eigh t of the .

flow ( F ) of d rysa tu ra ted stea m per seco nd f rom thi s nozzl e wh en

the i ni ti al p ressu re ( P ) is 1 3 5 pou nd s per squ are i nch a b solu te
,

a nd the di sch arg e p ressu re ( P ) is 1 5 pou nd s per squ are i nch ,

a b solu te ?

Here P is l ess th a n 58 P and Gra shof s fo rmul a is a pplic able

2 .
,
’
,

F
-
54
60
.
54 pou nd s per seco nd .

60

Wh en stea m p asses th rough a seri es of nozzl es one a fter the

o th er as is the c a se in m any typ es of tu rbi nes the p ressu re is .

reduc ed a nd the stea m is co nd ensed in ea ch nozzl e so th at it

b ecom es w etter a nd w etter ea ch tim e In the low p ressu re noz .

-

z l es of a tu rbi ne th erefo re th e stea m ma y be v ery w et a l though

, ,

an i l
d pra ct ca w or k on steam turb nes, i b ut h is fo mul a is
r too co mpli cated for
convienent u se :

F . 00 1 A OP , .
96 ( log P , log .

C ommon or b a se 1 0 l og a i th m
r s a re to be u sed in t hi fo
s r m ul a .

6O
A cur ve f ro m w hi ch v al ue s of
97
ca n be rea d is given on g
pa e 3 8 ( Fig .

P1
,

5 4—X 1 35
l l formul a fo th s ex mpl e
.

T he fl ow ( F ) c a cu a ted by N api er s r i a 13 F -

7 5
or pou n d s
per second .
 NO ZZ L E D ES IGN

i ni ti ally it was dry T u rbi nes are al so som etim es d esi gned to
.

op era te wi th steam which is initially wet and thi s is u su ally the ,

c ase wh en low pressure steam turbines ( see C h ap ter IX ) are

-

op erated wi th the exh a u st f rom non co nd ensi ng recip roc ati ng -

engi nes a p ra c tic e which is d a ily b ecomi n g mo re commo n

—
In .

a ll th ese c ases the nozzl e a rea mu st be co rrec ted for the w etness

of the stea m For a giv en nozzl e the w eigh t di sch arged is of

.
,

cou rse greater for wet stea m th an for d ry; but the p erc enta ge
,

i nc rease in the di sch arge 1 5 not nearly in p ropo rtio n to the per
c entag e of moi stu re as is of ten sta ted T he g eneral equ atio n for .

the th eo retic di sch arg e ( F ) f rom a n ozzl s in e fo rm

e i th *

F = K

T he gene a l eq u t io n
r a fo r the t eo ret h i c fl ow is

F = AO

h
w ere the sy mbol s F A O P , , , , a nd g are used a s in e q u ti ons ( 2 ) a nd
a P is 2

the press ure at any sect on of i the no zzl e , v, is the v ol u me of a pound of steam t a

the pressu re P , , a nd l: is a consta nt . T he fl ow , F , has its maxi mum v al ue w h en

2 k +1

(n
is a ma xi mum . if
D f erent i ti ng
a a nd e q uati ng the fi rs t i
d ff erent i al to ze o gives
r

1!

P, k + 1

P 2 is now the pressure at the s mall es t section, a nd wr t i i ng for c l ea rness P 0 for

P2 , a nd su bst i tuti ng thi s l a st q
e u a t on i in the fo r mul a for fl ow ( F ) a bo ve ,
we h a ve

)( )
P 0 7‘ P 1
F — Ao
.

PI vi

N ow reg a rd l ess h at the fin l pressu e may be the p essure

of w a a t the sma ll est r , r

secti on of a nozzl e ( A ) is a l w ays nea l y 5 8 P fo d y s tu a ted steam

0
M aki ng r , r r a r .

th en i n the l ast eq uat i on P 8 P d i g f k Z v l f

’

5 a n putt n or 0
euner s a
. ue o ,

for d ry satu ated steam w e may w ri te in gene a l terms the form stated a bove
r ,
r ,

F = K

h
w ere K is a not her constant . See Peabod y s T hermodyna mics
’
of the S tea m
En gi ne, page 1 3 2 ; Zeuner ’
s Theorie der T urbi nen, pa e 2 68 g ( Ed . of
3 2 T H E S T EA M TU RBI NE

wh ere P is the i ni ti a l a b solu te p ressu re a nd v is the sp eci fic

, ,

volum e ( cubic f eet in a pou nd of stea m a t the p ressu re N ow ,

negl ec ti n g the volum e of the w a ter in w et stea m which is a u su a l ,

a pp roxim a tio n the volum e of a po u nd of stea m is p ropo rtio na l

,

to the qu a li ty F or w et stea mthe eq ua tio n a bov e b ecom es

th en

The equ a t io n show s, th erefo re, th at the fl ow of wet m

stea is
inv ersel y pro porti o nal to th e sq u are root of th e q ual i ty ( )
xl .

Grashof s equ a tions can be stated th en mo re g enerally as

’

97
A OP1
°

60 \
/x ,

AO
60 F\
/x
97
PI

T h ese equ atio ns b ecom e of cou rse

, ,
the sa me a s (3 ) a nd

for the c a se wh ere x 1 , .

Flow of Stea m wh en the Fi na l Pressure is mo re th a n 5 8 of th e .

Ini ti al Pressu re For thi s c ase the di sch a rg e d ep end s upo n the
.

fina l p ressu re as w ell as upo n the i ni ti a l N o sa ti sf a c to ry fo rmul a

.

can b e giv e n in simpl e term s a n d the fl ow is mo st easily c a lcul a ted

,

wi th the aid of the cu rv e in F ig. 1 6 due to R ateau T hi s cu rv e is .

u sed by d etermi ni ng first the ra tio of the fina l to the i ni ti a l

P2
p ressure ,
and rea d i n g from the cu rv e the corres
pon d rn
g co
5 1

effi ci ent showi n g the ra tio of the requi red di sch arge to th a t cal
cul a ted for th e giv en co ndi tio ns by ei th er of the equ a tio ns ( 3 )

or T he co effi ci en t f rom the cu rv e tim es the fl ow c a lc ul a ted

f rom equ atio ns ( 3 ) or (4 ) is the requi red resul t Obviou sly the .

di sch a rg e for thi s co ndi tio n is a l w a y s l ess th a n the di sch arg e

wh en the final p ressu re is equ al to or l ess th an 58 of the
i ni ti al
.

T he a c tu a l d esign of the nozzl es for a comm erci al tu rbi ne will

 NO Z Z LE D ES IGN 33

be tak en up in the next p arag ra ph ; but b efo re thi s is do ne one ,

o th er equ a tio n u sed a lmos t co nt i nu a lly in nozzl e and bl ad e d e

”

sig ns mirst be expl a i ned It is to find the q ua li ty of the stea m

.

a f ter an a diaba tic ex pansio n T he i ni ti al qu ali ty of the stea m is

.

u su al co ndi tions in the boil er equipm ent or ,

P2
R a tio of F i nal t ol ni tia l P ressure
PI
F IG . 1 6 .
— C oeffi cients o f t he D i sch a g e r of S t ea m w en h t he Pressu re is
G rea t er t h an .
58 of th e I ni ti l
a Pressu re .

is giv en in the engi neer s sp eci fic a tio ns for a new d esign but the
’
,

qu ali tyO f the stea m a f ter each exp ansio n mu st be c alcul ated .

T he g enera l equ a tio n for adi a b a tic fl ow ( co nsta nt entrop y is

+ 0

a nd s olvi ng ,

+ 01 “
02 (5 )
l
l

. wh ere the su bscri pt 1 atta ch ed to the symbol s ref ers to the i ni ti al

co nd i tio n a nd th e su bscri pt 2 to th e fi na l
, T he term s 0 and d .
, ,

See footnote on p ge a 1 7 .
34 T H E S T EA M TU RB INE

a re opi es of the liquid ( w a ter) a t the i ni ti al and fin al con

the entr

d itions and the o th er symbol s a re u sed a s b efo re

,
.

T o a void the l a bo riou s c a lcul a tio n of eq ua tio n ( 5 ) to d etermi ne

the qu ali ty a f ter adi a b atic exp ansio n curv es of ste am qua l i ty ,

h a v e b een c alcul ated and plo tted on the entro py to tal h eat chart -

in the a pp endix T o illu strate the use of th ese cu rv es a n ex a mpl e

.

is giv en b elow .

Ex a m pl e Stea m at 1 6 5 pou nd s per squ are i nch a b solu te

.

p ressu re which is 4 per c ent wet (x is exp and e d

.
,

a di a b atic a lly in a nozzl e to 1 pou nd e qu are i nch ab solu te

5 s p r s

Wh at is the qu ali ty a f ter exp ansio n

M etho d A poi nt is first loc ated on the ch art w
. h ere the qu ali ty
cu rv e forx 9 6 c ro sses the p ressu rel i ne for 1 6 5 pou nd s a s show n
.

di a gra mm atic a lly in Fig 1 7 A ho rizo ntal li ne of co nstant. .

entropy d rawn th rough thi s poi nt Show s at its i ntersec tio n wi th

F IG . 1 7 .
— I ll u r
s t a t es th e U se o f t he Ent ropy T ot al H eat C h art t o D et ermi n e
-

the Q ua li ty of S team f
a t er Expa nsi on
.

the p ressu re li ne for 1 5 pou nd s the qu ali ty a f ter exp ansio n In .

thi s c ase the qu a li ty is 8 3 7 For p ra c tic al d esigni ng to get sati s

. .

f ac to ry resul ts the qirality should be read to th ree sig ni fic ant

fi gu res .

Nozzl e Ca l cul atio ns In the c a lcul a tio ns to d etermi ne the dimen

.

sio ns of a nozzl e it is nec essa ry to h av e giv en the followi ng d ata

( ) 1 w eigh t of stea m th at is to be d eliv ered th rou gh

the the

nozzl e to d ev elop the requi red pow er in the tu rbi ne .

36 T HE ST EA M TU R BI N E

AO a rea of nozzl e a t the sm all est sec tio n in squ are i nch es .

A, a rea of nozzl e a t an sec tio n of exp andi ng po rtio n in

y
squ a re i n ch es .

VO v eloci t y of stea m a t thesm a llest sec tio n in f eet per seco nd *

.

V, v eloci ty of stea m a t any sec tio n in feet per seco nd

v0 sp eci fi c volum e a t the s m a ll est sec tio n in cubic f eet er
p
pou nd .

sp eci fi c volum e a t a ny sec tio n in cubic f eet per pou nd .

x0 qu ali ty of steam at the sm all est sec tio n .

xx qu ali ty of stea m a t any sec tio n .

T he p roduc t 2 9
X 1 2
X 5 3
wh en c alcul ated for the l arg est
V3 v0 x0

se c tio n or mou th is of ten c all ed the expansi on rati o (see Fig 2 1

,
.
,

p ag e and is v ery nearly p ropo rtio na l to the ra t io of the

i ni ti al to the final p ressu re .

An ex ampl e will n ow be giv en to Show how the a c tu a l a rea of

t he nozzl es of a comm erci al tu rbi ne can be c alcul a ted .

Ex am pl e A test of a D e L a v al tu rbine was as follow s :

.

P ressu re in the steam ch est (PI) pou nd s ab solu te

-

Va cuum ref erred to 3 0 in b arom eter in m ercu ry

—
. . .

M oi stu re in steam p er c ent .

B rak e ho rsepow er .

333
Stea m co nsum p tio n per b rak e ho rsepow er
,

hou r as w eigh ed w et pound s

N umb er of nozzl es Open 8

In thi s c ase P2 is giv en as i nch es v acuum whi ch is l ess ,

t h an 2 poun d s ab solu te p ressu re an d is th erefo re l ess th an 58 P I ,

a nd fo rmul a is a pplic abl e so th a t the th ro at area of the

,

eigh t nozzl es is exp ressed by

60 F \
/xl
A0
37
P1
Si nce pra ct i ca ll y all zzl e occurs before the steam emerges
the oss inl a no

from the th roat the same coeffi cient appli es to both V and V and cancel s when
, 0 3,

expressed in eq ua t i on The non expandi ng nozzl es sh own on page 5 1 are no

-

more effi ci ent t h an eq uall y well made expandi ng nozzl es .

 NO ZZ L E D ES IGN

wh ere x , .
97 8 ,
P , pou nd s per s qu are i nch ab solu te ,
I

and

F Q M M pou nd s wet steam per seco nd .

3 6 0 0

60 5 5 6 1
X X V 97 8
6
‘ '

3 00

AO ,3 3 3
X £5
9
X 989 .

, 7
4 2 qu are i nch es
s .

T he area of th e thr o a t of ea ch n ozzl e is th erefo re . 0 5 9 0 s q uare

i nc hes .

60
T he v al ue of was rea d f rom the cu rv e of
F ig . 1 9 .

T he nozzl es of mo st comm erci al typ es of stea m tu rbi nes a re

m ad e wi th straigh t sid es a s show n in Fig 1 8 so th a t in addi tio n .
,

to t he area a t the th ro at o nly one o th er area mu st be fou nd to

fully d etermi ne the exp andi ng po rtio n T hi s is obviou sly mo st .

ea sily d etermi ned a t the mou th Si n c e the v eloci ty mu st be cal cu ,

l a ted f rom the a v ail a bl e energy for a n adi ab atic exp ansio n f rom
P ,
2 1 1
5p ou nd s p.er s qu are i n ch a b solu te to P p ou n d s 2

p e r squ a re i n ch a b solu te i nch es v a cuum ) T hi s a v a il a bl e .

energy can b e c a lcu la ted by equ a tio n ( 1 for i ni ti ally w et stea m ’

,

b ut the c alcul a tio n is l a bo riou s and i nstead the energywil l now ,

be rea d f rom the entro py total hea t ch art in the a pp endix

-
T he .

poi nt is first loc ated on the ch art wh ere the li ne for 2 1 1 5 pou nd s .

p ressu re c ro sses the 9 7 8 steam qu a li ty li ne ( estim ated ) R ead

. .

ing the sc a l e of a b sci ssa s a t thi s poi nt w e find th a t the to tal h ea t

energy in a pou nd of stea m a t thi s co ndi tio n is 1 1 8 1 B T U By . . .

followi ng a ho rizo ntal li ne from thi s poi nt ac ro ss the ch art as

i ndic ated di a g ra mm atic ally in Fig 2 0 till it i nter sec ts the p res .

su re li ne co rrespo ndi ng to pou nd s ( estim ated ) the to tal h ea t ,

energy esc a pi ng wi th the exh au st stea m a f ter adi a b atic exp ansio n

ve w s made in thi s fo m to m ake the fi nal form of

T he cu r a r the resu t l more
convenient fo sli d e rul e or n ell ti on c l u l at i ons
'

r -
ca c a a c .
38 T H E S T EA M TU RB I N E

I nitial P ressure, P, ( 5 to 50 L bs ) .

m
1 00 1 20 1 40 1 60 1 80 200 2 20
1m
.

Lb s ) .

F IG . 1
9 .
-
v
C ur es S owh i ng Va l ues of

1 1 81 B T U
. . .
874 B T U
. . .

T otal H eat ( H)

FIG . 2 0 . I ll us t ra tes t h e U se of th e E ntropy T ot a H ea t C

-
l h a rt f or D eter
mi ni ng t he A v ail ab l e E n ergy l n a Pound of St ea m .
 NO ZZ L E D ES IGN

a s rea d c l of a b sci ssa s is 8 7 4 B T U The diff erenc e

on the s a e . . .

betw een the two rea di n g s or is the av a i l abl e energy ,

E
( ) aT h e q
. ua l i ty a t th e end of ex pan s io n ( x , ) a s read f rom th e

curv es is 7 6 7 In thi s wa y he l a bo r of c a lcul a ti ng x is sa v ed

.

i .
, .

F rom the v a l ue of the av a il a bl e energy due to exp ansio n E ,

the v eloci ty V a t the mo uth of the nozzl e is c a lcul a ted by equ a tio n
,

V, \
/E
39 9 1 f eet per se co nd .

In o rd er to d etermi ne the ra tio of the a rea at the mo uth of the

nozzl e ( A ) to th a t a t the sm al l est secti o n ( A ) by equ a tio n ( 6 )
'

, O

the v eloci ty ( V ) a nd the qu ali ty (x ) mu st be d etermi ned

0 0
.

T h ese ev alu a tio ns a re mo st ea sily m ad e in the sa m e w a y a s for

V a nd x by m ea ns of the entropy to ta l h ea t ch a rt
, ,
N ow the -
.

a v a il a bl e energy E co rrespo ndi ng to the v eloci ty V mu st be

a 0

c a lc ul a ted for adi a b a tic exp ansio n f rom

P, po und s a nd x ,

P0 .
5 8 P T ,
pou nd s .

Thi s
v ail abl e energy
a is 4 4 B T U
. . . and x0 is .
93 9 . The
—
v eloci t y V 0 is th erefo re , , x/ EO a
« i f, 1 4 83 f eet
e r seco nd i
p
For s tea m ni ti all ydry an d sa tur a ted, th e q u al ty af ter a di a b a t
i i i c expansion
(x,) for all pract ic l a c a ses is very ne l y exp e ar r sse d , empi ri ll y bv the eq ua ti on
ca ,

a nd q u li ty t the th oat ( x ) m y be t ken 9 6 5 fo ll p ti l e eg d

t he a a r
0
a a as . r a ra c ca c as s r ar

l e of the i ni ti al nd fi n l p e rire
ss a a r ss s .

T I t i w ell e t bli h ed by th ermod yn mi

s s a l ul ti o n nd by tu l experi
s a c ca c a s a ac a
.
ment t h t the p essu e P
a t the ma lle t e tion of
r r nozzl e i,,
l w ays very ne l y
a s s s c a s a ar

.
5 8 of the i ni ti l p e u e a r ss r

1 V e y el bo te u ve of the v el o i ti e e ul ti ng f om the d i b ti exp n i on

r a ra c r s c s r s r a a a c a s

of d y s tu
r ted te m h a ve been p ep red nd pub li h ed in ome Ameri
a ra s a n b ook r a a s s ca s .

C onsi de i ng the seve l t ge i n ne l y ll types of tu b i ne

r ra s a u h u ve s n be of ar a r s, s c c r s ca

v e y li ttl e use to p ti c l men be ause the ondi ti on th t the te m d m i tted to

r ra c a , c c a s a a

the nozzl e is d y nd s tu ted o cu rs i nf eq uentl y

r a T h t ome of the uth o s
sa ra c r . a s a r

negl e ted to m k the u ve f o team i ni ti ll y d y nd tu ted dese ve ”

c ar c r s r s a r a sa ra r s

seve e cri t i i sm
r T he u v e a s gi ven
c . e ve y mi l e d i ng as th ey a e appa
c r s, , ar r s a ,
r r

entl y i ntended fo gene l ppli ti on forll q u li ti e nd u pe h e t

ra a ca r a a s a s r a s .
4 0 T HE ST E A M TU RBINE

In a ddi tio n v al ues a l ready ob ta i ned it is o nly nec essa ry

to the

to get and v ( the Speci fi c vo l u m es of dry sa tura ted stea m a t the

,

co rrespo ndi ng p ressu res P a nd P ) to d etermi ne all the term s in 0 ,

the eq ua tio n for the exp an sio n ra tio a s a l read v giv en and pu ttin g ,

n ow th e su bscript 2 f or x in eq u a tio n ( 6 ) to exp ress the co ndi tio n s

co rrespo ndi ng to the p ressure P th en

A
H V0 V t
)
. _

X — Z
X
AO V , vO

1 4 83 6
7 7
A2 u are Inch es ( a rea
.

X X X . 0 59° 3 0 s
q
39 1 9 3-64 2 9 39
at mo uth ) .

T he a u tho r ha s fou nd as the res ul t of som e i nv estiga tio ns

rega r di ng the d esig n of nozzl es th a t the ex pan sio n ra tio
p rop erly d esrgned nozzl e is v ery nearly propo rtio nal to the rati o of
th e i n iti a l pressu re ( P ) to th e final pressure , T he cu rv e
S how n in F ig 2 1 h as b een c a lcul a ted on thi s b a si s for wid ely
.

d i ff erent co ndi tio ns bu t for ra th er s m a ll exp a nsio ns a nd has b een ,

f ou nd to be a ccu ra te enough for p ra c tic a l pu rpo ses in d esigni ng

tu rbi nes of mo re th an one sta g e A simil a r cu rv e is now b ei n g .

u sed by the nozzl e d esigners of one of the l a rge m anufa c tu ri ng

comp ani es Af ter the rel a tio ns shown by Fig 2 1 had b een
. .

wo rk ed out it wa s fo und th at Z eu ner had arriv ed a t a simil a r

,

resu t l m at h em a tic a lly a f ter m a ki n g c erta i n assump tio ns ;

* but
‘

I n Z eu ner Theori e der T urbi nen, pa

’
s ge 7 2 0 , the foll owi ng eq uati on i given s

to express i
the ra t o of the a rea a t the m out h to th at a t the m ll est secti on ( expa n
s a ~

i
S on rat o i )

w h ere the terms A a nd P are u sed a s i n t h e e ua t q i on

s a bo ve
. h
T ere is proba b y l
x2
s o me error
0

In Z eu ner
’
s a ssu m pti o ns beca use
o

,
a ctua ll v l ue
y a s of — - are not
x0
q ui te
0

P,
c onsta n t for v aryi n g v l ue
a s of
PI
 NO ZZ L E D ES IGN 4 1

i tself is p ra c tic ally u sel ess on a ccou nt of b ei ng

ShapeS of Expandi ng Nozzl es T he i nsid e w a ll s of the exp and

'
.

a re u su a lly su rfa c es wi th straigh t li ne -

E x pa nsion of K oa l a

F IG . 2 1 .
-
v
C ur e S h ow i ng th e A pp ox im t e R el at i on bet ween Expa n i on R at i o
r a s

of a N o zzl e a nd th e R a t i o of th e I ni t i l to th e Fi na l P e u e
a r ss r .

l m ents m eani ng th a t in any sec tio n of the nozzl e alo ng th e

ee ,

axi s lik e Fig

,
1 8 the i nner w all s a re Sho w
.
n by stra igh t li nes
,
.

T he a ut ho ’
r s cu r ve in Fig . 2 1 is expressed by,

A more accurate fo m f or pressure ratio

r s g rea ter tha n 2 5 is the foll owi ng
212
P,
4 2 T H E ST EA M TU RBI NE

P a renty has how n th at for the high est effi ci ency th eo ret
s , ,

i ca lly su ch a sec tio n a lo ng the a xi s should be sligh tly ellip tic a l

,

wi th the focu s in the th ro at but p ra c tic ally thi s sh ap e show s no ,

a dv a nta g e a nd is much too di ffi c ul t to co nstruc t For m aki n g .

n ozzl es lik e tho se in C u rti s tu rbi nes wh ere the wo rk is do ne ,

l arg ely wi th h a nd tool s the co nstruc tio n of ev en the simpl est ,

f o rm is v ery exp ensiv e and the co st of a n ellip tic a l cu rv a tu re is

‘

ra c tic a lly p rohibi tiv e T he h p e to giv e the b est exp a nsio n

‘

p s a .

cu rv e ha s b een the subj ec t of i nv estig a tio n by v a riou s experi

m enters * AS the pra c tic a l resul ts a re p artic ul arly i nteresti ng
.
,

i t ma y be w ell to d esc rib e b ri efl y a typic a l fo rm of a pp ara tu s

u su a lly employ ed in th ese exp erim ents a s show n in Fig 2 2 T he . .

F IG . 2 2 . S ea rchi ng T ub e A ppa ra t us fo r D eterm i ni ng t he Pressures in N ozzl es .

n ozzl e to be tested is m ark ed A in the figu re The stea m enteri ng .

t he p a ssa g e B di sch arg es th rough the noz zl e di rec tly i nto the
exh a u st pip e E A sm a ll searchin g tube C i s p rovid ed
.
, ,

which is sea l ed at one end and has a v ery sm al l hol e D a sho rt , ,

di stan c e f rom thi s end T he o th er end of the tub e is a tta ch ed to

.

a m ercu ry colum n o r p ressu re g a ug e Sui ta bl e m eans a re p rovid ed .

”
f or slidi n g th e sea rchi ng tub e wi th its p ressu re g a ug e b a ck a nd

ii
T he cond t ons of p es ure nd vel o i ty of te m i n i de
r s nozzl e e di
a u ed c s a s a ar
'

sc ss

v e y om pl etel y f om the m th em a ti i a n vi ew poi nt i n D ie D mpf tn bi nen by ’

r c r a c s a r

S tod ol a 3 d ed i ti on page 4
, r to 7 5 a nd i n Z ei tsch f t j it das Ges mte T u bi nen
,
s 2 ,
ri r a r

w esen Aug ,
1 90 6 pa.ges 3 2 5 —3 7
1 0, ,
2 .
44 T H E S T EA M TU RB INE

b efo re m ak e the nozzl e show n in F ig 2 4 wi th exp andi ng straigh t

,
.

li ne w all s p refera bl e if the th ro at and m ou th areas are p rop erly

d esigned Fig 2 4 how ev er is i ntend ed to sho w p rim a rily the
. .
, ,

eff ec t O f u si ng a nozzl e for non co nd en si n g servic e which w a s

-

d esigned to be u sed co nd ensi ng For thi s rea so n the exp ansio n

.

in the nozzl e is g rea ter

th an it should b e for the

p ressures wi th which it
is op erati ng ; and for thi s
reaso n the p ressu re i nsid e

thenozzl e a s illu stra ted by

,

the cu rv e f a ll s b elow the

,

exh a u st p ressu re T hi s
.

is c a ll ed ov er expansio n -

or ov er com po unding
-

a nd is a lw a y s a ccom a
p
ni ed b y : a lo ss in effi ci en cy .

In fa c t a s will be show n
,

a g a i n l a ter the eff ec t of

,

ov er exp ansio n or m a ki ng
-

a nozzl e too l arg e a t the

mo uth ,reduc es nozzl e effi

ciency m u ch mo re th an if

it is m ad e th e sa m e per
c entag e too sm all ( See .

Fig . T he c urv es
Di t in Fig 2 4 show th a t the
'

long A i
s ance a fN
x s o le ozz .

F IG 2 4 — E p n i on C u v e of
. . x a s r N ozzl e w i th p
a
ressu re at the mo uth
St igh t W ll
ra a s
is a li ttl e low er th an the
.

at mo s ph e ric exh a u st ,
a n d a p a rti a l v a c uu m i s th u s s ec u r e d
a t the bl a d e s oppo s i te th e n ozzl e s W . h e n such n ozzl e s a r e

op erated non co nd ensi ng th ere is som e g ai n from the redu e

-

io
t n of di sk a n d bl a d e f ric tio n b e c a u s e th e wh ee l a n d bl a d e s

re volv e in a l ess d e n se m e dium ; b u t wh e n co n s id er i n g a l so

the n i c re a se d lo ss e s I n th e n ozzl e i ts e-
lf b e c a u s e of ov e r

e xp io
ans n t er ,
h e is c e rt a i n ly n o n e t g a i n ov er h a vi n g a n ozzl e
 NO ZZ L E D ES IGN 45

d esig ned ex a c tly for the exp ansio n co rrespondi ng to the op erat
ing co ndi tio ns .

Fig 2 5 is i ntend ed to Show an a b no rm a l but i nteresti ng fo rm of

.

nozzl e which giv es som e id ea of the b eh a vio r of stea m w h en th e

ex pansio n is not gradua l and co ntin uou s It w a s a rgu ed by a .

d esigner who m ad e thi s nozzl e th at thi s fo rm Sho uld be a s effici ent

as a ny o th er . It wa s
his th eo ry th a t if the
areas
'
at the th ro a t

and at the mou th.

w ere of the righ t Siz e ,

the Sh a p e of the w a ll s

b etw een was of no

co nsequ enc e and In
, ,
1 40
fa c t
,
t h at the ste m a 3
of i tself would tak e
the co rrec t p assa g e
$ 1 20

T hu s by p rev enti n g g
the stea m p a rticl es
f rom to uchi ng the _

w a ll s the fric tio n

lo sses in the nozzl e
Should be reduc ed It .

will be ob serv ed how , W “ m “N w e, on, , e ,

ev er f rom the cu rv e F G
, E n i o IC u v e in n A b no m l N zzl e
s n r a r a o
5 p . 2 . x a .

in the figu re d eter

mi ned f rom som e exp erim ents wi th thi s nozzl e th at the p res
su re fi rst d rop s a b ru p tly in the th ro a t to 58 of the i ni ti al .
,

a s in a n y o th er nozzl e a nd th en fo rm s a seri es of w a v es f rom

, ,

which it a pp ea rs th a t the p a rticl es of stea m strik e the w a ll s and

rebou nd ,
to m eet a g a i n a t a po in t a s a t A wh ere an i n c rea sed
, ,

p ressure is p rod uc ed and so on till the mo uth is rea ch ed T he

,
.

p rob a bl e p a th O f the stea m is sho wn by the do tted li nes in the

d ra wi ng of the nozzl e T h ese experim ents Show th erefo re th at
.

the steam will not tak e th e co rrect pa ssage throu gh a nozzl e wi th

out th e provi sio n of pro perl y d esi gn ed w a ll s of gra dual l y in crea sin g
 46 T HE ST EA M TU RB INE

o
a rea c rrespond ing to th e ex pan sio n required T he impo rtanc e .

of c a reful wo rkm anship in the m anufa c tu re of nozzl es is th erefo re

obviou s .

'

T he resul ts shown by Fig 2 5 b ri ng up n a tu ra lly the di scu ssio n .

of the p rop er l eng th for a nozzl e a s the one in thi s figu re was ,

obviou sly much too lo ng .

Prob a bly the b est d esig ners of the C u rti s typ es of tu rbi nes m a k e
th e l eng th of the nozzl e d ep end o nly on the i ni ti a l p ressu re In ‘

o th er wo rd s the l eng th of a nozzl e for 1 50 pou nd s per squ a re i nch

,

i ni ti a l p ressure is usu ally m ad e the sa m e for a giv en typ e rega rd

l ess of the fina l p ressu re And if it h a pp ens th at th ere is .

c rowdi ng for sp a c e one or mo re of the nozzl es is som etim es

,

m ad e a li ttl e sho rter th an the o th ers .

D esig ners of D e L a v a l nozzl es follow pra cticall y the sam e

el astic m ethod T he div ergen c e of the w all s of non con
” -
.

densing nozzl es is abou t 3 d egrees f rom the axi s of the nozzl e and ,

cond ensi ng nozzl es for high v a cuum s may h a v e a div erg enc e Of

as much as 6 d egrees for the no rm al rated p ressu res of the

tu rbi ne .

T he a u tho r ha s u sed su cc essfully the followi ng empi ric a l

fo rmul a to d etermi ne a sui ta bl e l eng th L of the nozzl e b etween , ,

the th ro a t a nd the mo uth ( in i nch es )

wh ere A is the area a t the th ro a t in squ are i nch es

O .

T he d esig n of the nozzl e c a lcul a ted in the ex a mpl e on p a ge 3 6

can now b e compl eted wi th the d etermi na tio n of its p rop er l eng th ,

L X . 0
59 .
9 i n ch .

T he impo rtant dim ensio ns of nozzl es of ci rcul ar sectio n sui tabl e

Accord i ng to D r c . 0 R e k e if the tot l d iv e gen e of
a .r c a , s nozzl e i mo e th n
r a

6 degrees edd i es w ill begi n to form in the jet

,
T h e e is no d oubt t h a t a too rapi d . r

di v e gence prod uces a v el oci ty l oss

r .

W h en a num be of nozzl es i ntended fo d iffe ent i ni ti l p e u e

r e uppli ed r r a r ss r s ar s

for use in the me tu b i ne the l ength

sa r d ete mi ned by the t pe is u u ll y m d e
,
as r a r s a a

to co espond to th e p e u e th t i to b e m o t u ed
rr r ss r I nspe ti on of the D e L a va l
a s s s . c

nozzl e i n Fig 4 S h o
. w t
1 h t i t i necesy to m k ea l l t he nozzl
s e of the s m e l engt h
ssa r a a s a

for a given ize of D e L v l tu b i ne so th at the nozzl es m ybe used i nte h ngeabl y

s a a r ,
a rc a .
 NO ZZ L E D ES IGN

for thi s D e L av a l tu rbi ne tested by D ean 8: M a i n may be tabu

l ated follow sas

Area at th ro a t ( A ) 0 59 0 squ a re i nch D i a m eter ( D ) 2 7 4

O , . .
O ,
.

i nch .

Area a t mou th sq ua re i n ch es D i a m eter .

i nch es .

L eng th O f nozzl e (L ) as d etermi ned by equ a tio n 9 i n ch . .

L eng th of nozzl e a ssumi ng a div erg enc e O f 1 2 d eg rees ,

i nch es .

It will b e ob serv ed f rom the l a st c a lcul a tio n th a t a d e

s ig ner of D e L a v a l nozzl es would m a k e the l eng th a bou t twic e

th a t c a lcul a ted by equ a tio n T he nozzl es of D e L av a l '

t u rbi nes a re m ad e u nu su a lly lo ng l arg ely for m ech anic a l rea

s o ns T h ere is p rob a bly v ery li ttl e lo ss in thi s a ddi tio na l

.

l eng th .

A n ozzl e of ci rcul a r sec tio n sui tabl e for th ese co ndi tio ns is
S how n at the top of p ag e 2 7 ( Fig I t will be ob serv ed th at .

a round ed entra n ce to the nozzl e ha s b een m a d e I f a well

'

rou nd ed entra n c e is not p rovid ed the ra te of flow th rough the

'

noz z l e ma y be o nly 50 to 7 0 per c ent (d ep endi ng O f cou rse on the .

s h a rp n ess of the co rners ) of the no rm a l flow c a lcul a ted f rom

G rashof s fo rmul a s giv en in equ atio ns ( 3 ) and T he effi

’

ciency is al so v ery much reduc ed if the stea m is not l ed to the

thro at alo n g a su rfa c e of g a du a l cu rv tu e

r a r * .

J ude h a t ve y l ge ounded i nl et ppears to

sta tes t a r ar nozzl e r a
“ch oke” the
“
a li ttl e He ad mi ts th t it gi ves m xi mum d i ch ge but t the expense of ki neti s a
-
. a a ar c

ene g y th a t i of the ki neti c ene gy eff ective in an a xi a l d i recti on T he resul ts

”
r ,
s, r .

of R teau s ex peri men t seem to sh o w h o weve th at the effi ci ency of a convergen t

’
a s ,
r,

n ozzl e sui ta bl y round ed is u ni ty I f a ny l oss does resul t from a rounded ent a nce
. r

w hi h i too l a ge it is p ob bl y of negligi bl e mount

c s r r Some concl usi ons d aw n
a a . r

f om R os enh ai n s experim ents eported in P oc I nst Civil Engineers vol 1 4 0

r
’
r r . .
, .
,

may be of i nte e t i n thi onnect i on A se i es of expe i ments w a s m de w i th v ri

r s s c . r r a a

o u nozzl es wo k i ng f om
s
po un
r d to 0 0 pound s per S q uare i nch g ug e pre su e
r 2 0 s 2 a s r

w i th atmosph e i exh ust T he most effi i ent form of nozzl e u p to a bout 8 0 pound
r c a . c s

gauge pressu e appea to be a pl i n o i fi e in a th i n pl ate, as measured by nozzl e

r rs a r c

reacti on ( see p ge but thi d oe not i mpl y th a t such a form is the best nozzl e
a s s

for tu bine u nd e Si mil

a r cond i ti on r W i th thi s ki nd of ori fice th ere i too much
ar s . s

S pread i ng of the et i l i a nd w hi l are too vi ol ent for useful

j n d t he nte n ed d,
esa r a r s

a ppli cati on a t the poi nt w h ere the jet strikes the turbi ne vanes .
48 T HE S T EA M TU RBI N E

It has b een show n by Stodol a s experim ents that the diff erenc e ’

in p ressu re b etw een the ou ter a nd i nner po rtio n s of the et i nsid e

j
a nozzl e of a pp roxim a tely co rrec t d esig n a re p ra c tic a lly negligibl e .

T he co nclu sio n is th erefo re th a t the jet a lw a y s compl etely fill s

, ,

the nozzl e a nd th a t th ere is no

,
zo na l fo rm atio n m eani n g ,

a n ou ter zo n e movi n g a t a d iff eren t v elocit f rom the i nner one

y ,

a l though th ere is c erta i nly a

co nsid era bl e a mou nt of f ric ,

tiona l d ra ggi ng of the stea m

a t the su rf a c e Obviou sly of .

,

cou rse the sta tem ent do es not ,

hold for a b su rdly div ergi ng

fo rm s of nozzl es and in such ,

c a ses the stea m l eav es the

w all s wi th app arently mu ch
lo ss of v eloci ty a s in the ex
show n by Fig 2
5 . .

Stodol a ob serv ed a l so th a t
in a ny nozzl e the p ressu re
'

u su ally f all s in the vi ci ni ty

of the th ro a t to co nsid er
I h m nc es f ro
d f h N t he en
a bly l ess th a n the di sch a rg e
o t e oz z l e
.

F IG 2 6 i
i th an Ex pand
Ex per ments w
W l th Sud d en
. .

I l Se
‘

a
i ng N ozzl e Sh ow i ng t he Eff ect of V a ry
ing th e Fi na] P essure r mm ed i a tely a f ter the fa ll
.
I .

T hi s eff ect is show n by

p ressu re cu rv es in Fig 2 6 plo tted f rom Stodola s d ata ta k en
.
,
’

in a div ergent nozzl e lik e the one r ep resented a t the tOp of

thi s figu re Simil ar eff ec ts o nly mo re p ro nou n c ed ob serv ed in
.
, ,

a stra igh t non exp andi ng noz zl e wi th ro un d ed i nl et a re show n

’

in F ig 2 7 Here a l so a sudd en d rop b elow the di sch a rg e

. .

occu rs ; and p eculi arly the poi nt of d ep ressio n p rogresses a lo n g

, ,

the a xi s of th e nozzl e a s the p ressure d ec reases V ery pro .

noun ced os cill a tio n s are set up which ex ten d ev en i n to the

exh a u st sp a c e for a di stan c e of a bou t on e a nd a h a lf tim es the

l en g th of the nozzl e T he o scill atio ns are a pp aren tly mo st

.

vi ol ent for th e middl e ra n g e of p ressu re a nd tend tow a rd a

-

,
 NO ZZ L E D ES IGN

mi nimum wh en the lower p ressu re a pp ro a ch es a p erfec t

v a cuum .

In the div erg ent nozzl e how ev er th ere a pp ea r to be no i nterna l

, ,

o scilla tio ns O f p ressu re a fter tho se a t the th ro a t haV e di ed out .

T he Siz e and mo st lik ely a l so th e s h a p e

of the ex ternal sp a c e ha s a co nsid era bl e
eff ec t on th ese o scill a tio n s of p ressure .

Jud e states in thi s co nnec tio n th at

th ere Is a g rea ter lo ss in v eloci ty d ue ,

to o scill a tio ns or edd i es in a sq ua re or 5

80
,

rec tangu l ar nozzl e th a n in a ci rc ul a r

R ec ent exp eri enc e wi th nozzl es 3

5 $ 60

one .

5 b
.
e

of thi s typ e do es n t b o e ar o u t thi s 3

e

sta te
r
u
m ent exc ep t in the c a se p rob a bly
,
s
s
e
r

of squ are or rec tan gul ar nozzl es w i th P

no ro undi ng a t the edg es An effici ency .

of 9 7 per c ent is not u nu su a l for p rop

. I mM nch es f ro o ut h

erly d esig ned sq uare a nd rec ta n g ul a r F 7 E pe iment w i th IG . 2 .

— x r s

Sh a p ed nozzl es wi thou t a n
“ q u a re
N ’ a °ZZ °
y s
S h w g th e Eff e t f o rn c o
edg es ; a nd C i rc ul a r nozzl es h a v e c erta i nly
V yi g th e Fi n l P e u e ar n a r ss r .

nev er giv en 99 per c en t effi ci en cy . .

Under an d Ov er Expansio n T he b est effi ci ency of a nozzl e is

-
.

ob tai ned wh en the exp ansio n requi red is th at for which the nozzl e
was d esig ned or wh en the expan sio n ra tio for the co ndi tio n of the
,

stea m co rrespo nd s wi th the ra tio of the a rea s of the mou th a nd

th ro at of the nozzl e A li ttl e under ex pansio n is far b etter how

.
-

ev er th a n the sam e a mou n t of ov er expan sio n m ea ni ng th a t a

,
-
,

nozzl e th a t is too s m a ll for the requi red exp a nsio n is mo re effi ci en t

th an one th at is co rrespo ndi ngly too l a rg e * F ig 2 8 show s a . .

ve y g ood meth od nd o ne often d opted to de ig n nozzl e SO th t

I t is a r ,
a a , s s a

a t the r ted a p i ty the nozzl e u nd e exp nd

a c ac t l ea t per ent
s nd m ybe
r
-
a a s 1 0 c .
,
a a

2 0
per ent c T he l oss fo these ond i ti ons i i nsig n i fi nt
. r nd the nozzl es
c an s ca , a c

be ru n for l ge ove l oad ( wi th i ncrea ed p es u es) in nearl y ll types w i th out

a ar r s r s r a

i mmed i tel y reduci ng the effi ci ency ve y m u h T hi s a ppli es especi ll y to tu

a r c . a r

b i nes gove ned by utt i ng out nozzl es in the fi t t g e ( see pag e

r c ) nd w i th no rs s a 2 2 1 a

c ontrol of the nozzl e in the oth e s ta g es

s U nde ex p n i on d ue to a th ottli ng
r . r
-
a s r

governor is a l so a n i mpo t nt ond i ti on affect i ng the effi i en y of nozzl es

r a c c c .
5 0 T H E S T EA M TU RBIN E

cu rv e rep resenti ng av era g e v alu es of nozzl e lo ss u sed by v ariou s

Am eric an and Eu rop ean m anuf a c tu rers * to d etermi ne di sch arg e
v eloci ti es from nozzl es u nd er the co ndi tio ns of under or ov er
expansio n T hi s cu rv e will be ref erred to a g ai n in co nnec tio n
‘

wi th the d esign of bl ad es and is v ery u seful to the p ra c tic a l

d esigner .

Non expanding Noz z l es

-
All the nozzl es of R ateau tu rbi nes .

a nd u su a lly a l so tho se of the low p ressu re sta g es of Cu rti s tu rbi nes -

30 25 20 10
15 5 5 10 15 20 25
P ercent age Nozz l e is too Smal l Percent a ge Nozz l e i s too La rge
”( Mouth ( Unde r Ex pa nsi on )
l at Month ( Over Expansion)

F IG . 28 — C urv e of N ozzl e V eloci ty Lo ss .

are m ade non exp andi ng ; m eani ng th a t th ey h av e the sa m e area

-

a t the th ro a t a s a t th e mou th F or su ch co ndi tio ns it has b een .

sugg ested th at i nstea d of a seri es of s ep a ra te nozzl es in a row a

si n gl e lo n g nozzl e migh t b e u sed of which the sid es w ere a rc s of

ci rcl es co rrespo ndi ng to the i nsid e and ou tsid e pi tch di a m eters

of the bl a d es Adv anta g es would be secu red bo th on a ccou nt of
.

ch ea p ness of co nstruc tio n and b ec ause a l arg e a mou nt Of f ric tio n

a g a i n st the sid es of nozzl es would b e elimi na ted by omi tti ng a

n umb er of nozzl e w a ll s Such a co nstruc tio n ha s not p rov ed .

d esi ra bl e b ec ause by thi s m ethod no w ell fo rm ed j ets are secu red

,
-

a nd th e l e ss f rom eddi es is exc essiv e T he g enera l sta tem ent .

_

may be m ad e th a t theth ro at of a w ell d esig ned nozzl e should h av e —

a nearly sym M al shape as for ex a mpl e a gigg le a squ a re etc , , ,

.
,
fl u

ra th er th an such sh a p es a s ellip ses and lo n g rec ta n gl es T he .

* C . P . Ste nmet i z ,
P roc . Am . S oc . I ll ech E ngi neers, M ay,
. 1 g
9 0 8 , pa e 6 2 8 .

A . J ude , T he Theory of the S tea m T urbine pag e 3 9 ,

.
5 2 T H E ST EA M TU R B INE

th at it co rrod es so readily is a v ery sati sf a c to ry m ateri al Com .

mercial copp er ( abou t 9 8 per c ent ) is sa id to h av e b een u sed wi th

.

a f a i r d eg ree of su cc ess w i th high su p erh ea ts ; b ut for such con ~

ditions its tensil e streng th is v ery low Steel and cup ro nick el
.
-

( 8 C u 2 N i ) a re a l so s ui ta bl e m a teri al s a nd the l atter h,

a s

the adv antag e of b ei ng p ra c tic ally non co rrodibl e -

.

SUP E R H EAT ED ST EA M .

In the followi n g p ages the impo rtant p rop erti es of sup erh eated
stea m wi th which th e mod ern en gi neer mu st d ea l will be b ri efl y

di scu ssed It is generally recog niz ed th at a ga i n in steam eco nomy

.

resul ts f rom the use of sup erh ea ted stea m in ei th er stea m tu rbi nes

or recip roc a ti ng engi nes but an a ccu ra te a n a ly si s of tests for the

,

a c tu a l g ai n l n eco nomy of a pl a nt is v ery di ffi cul t b ec a u se th ere

a re so m an y f a c to rs enteri n g T he p eculi a r ci rcum stan c e a l so

.
, ,

th at w ater can exi st i nd efini tely in the liquid sta te in the p resenc e

of sup erh eated steam m a k es co nclu sio ns f rom exp erim enta l d a ta
,

of ten u n c erta i n .

Flow of Superh ea ted Steam thro ugh Nozzl es T he di sch arge .

of sup erh eated steam from a nozzl e is one of the mo st impo rta nt
subj ec ts of which the engi neeri ng p rof essio n g enera ll y has no

co rrec t d a ta T he a u tho r has ob serv ed in his p ra c tic e a ga i n a nd

.

a g a i n th a t the fo rmul a s o rdi na rily giv en for the flow of sup er

h ea ted stea m w ere not co rrec t a nd mo re reli abl e d ata had to be

fou nd T he fo rmul as giv en h ere w ere a c tu ally d etermi ned f rom
.

the d a ta of L ewick i s exp erim ents wi th a 3 0 ho rsepow er D e L a v a l

’ -

tu rbi ne but w as l a ter ch eck ed wi th a g rea t m ass of d a ta in the

po ssessio n of the Genera l El ec tric Comp any T he p reci sio n .

wi th which the fo rmul a a ppli es to Lewick i s d ata is sho w n in the ’

tabl e giv en on the nex t p ag e .

A fo rmul a was d esi red to exp ress the flow of sup erh ea ted stea m
di sch arg ed from a nozzl e in the fo rm of fo rmul a ( 3 ) for the fl ow
of d ry satu rated steam togeth er wi th a sui tabl e co effici ent to
,
-

Zeit V erein deutsche

. r I ngen ieure, A pr il
4 , 1 9 0 3 , pa ge 4 9 4 .

M itteil zmgen fi ber F orseh ui zgsa rbeiten, H e t I 2 f Za lent afel 2

5 .
 NO ZZ L E D ES IGN

co rrec t for the ef e t f c of sup erh eat . A fo rmul a of th is fo rm is

exp ressed by

60 (1 . 0 0 0 65 D)

60 F (1 . 0 0 0 65 D)
AO

wh ere F is the weigh t in pou nd s of sup erh ea ted steam di sch arged
er seco nd A is the a rea of the sm a ll est sec tio n of the nozzl e in
p , O

squ a re i n ch es P is the i n i ti a l p ressu re in pou nd s per squ are i n ch

, I

a b solu te and D is the su p erh ea t in d eg rees F a hrenheit

,
* .

Lewick i s d ata for the testS ] giv en b elow w ere in m etric u ni ts

’ L

but are reco rd ed h ere in the co rrespo ndi n g Engli sh u ni ts .

I ni ti al p ressu re P pou nd s per squ are i nch a b solu te

I .

Fi nal p ressu re P pou nd s per squ a re i nch a b solu te2 .

N u m ber of T es t .

T empera tu reof stea m, d egrees F .

4 63 . 1 49 1 .
9 61 9 7
.

h
Super ea t, d e rees g F .

Flow , pou nd s per our ( tests) h

D)
Flow , po und s per our, corrected h
f
by ormu a ( 8 ) to e u a ent
‘
l q iv l
fl ow of d ry sa tura ted stea m 91 1 . 0

V o l um e of Superheated l io ns Stea m . T h ermodyna mic re a t

show th a t the flow of sup erh eated stea m is i nv ersely p ropo rt io na l

'

to the squ a re roo t of the sp eci fi c volum e 1 so th a t f rom the ,

a u tho r s equ a tio n for the fl o w of sup erh ea ted stea m ( 8 ) the fol
’

lowi ng fo rmul a for the sp eci fic volum e is ea sily ob tai ned

( (9 ) 0 0 0 65 D) 2
1 . v,

It i tated th t M
s s A R D od g e has how n p actica ll y the same resul ts f om
a r . . . s r r

the N ew port te t of Cu t i s tu bi ne epo ted by M

s s G H B rus
a r r r r r. . . ar .

1 M itteil ungen fi be F o s h ung beiten Levvi k i Heft Za lentafel 2 5

"
r r c sa r , c , 1 2 .

I T hi el ti on i d i cu sed by the a uth o in M e h nica l Engi nee ( London)

s r a s s s r c a r ,

Aug 4.
9 7 pa g e 7 7
2 , 1 nd i n the H
0 , v d E ngi nee i ng J ou n l
2 J une 1 9 7
, a ar ar r r a , , 0 ,

pag e 3 6 Compare wi th Stod ol

.
o D ie D mp f tu b nen 3 rd cd pa ge 9 a, a r z
’

, .
, .
 T H E ST E A M TU RB I NE

wh ere V is the volum e in cubic feet of one pou nd of sup erh eated
3

stea m v is the volum e in cubic f eet of one pou nd of d r s tu ted

, y a ra

stea m at the sa m e p ressu re as for v and D is the sup erh ea t in 8 ,

F a h renh ei t d eg rees * .

Av a il abl e Energy of Su perh eated Steam In the followi ng .

p ara gra ph s the signi fic anc e of the entropy temp era tu re cu rv es for -

sup erh ea ted stea m will be expl a i ned and it will be sho wn a l so ,

how th ey are to be u sed to d etermi ne the av ail a bl e energy and the

co rrespo ndi ng th eo retic a l veloci ty resul ti ng f rom adi ab atic expan
sio n in a nozzl e .

Speci fi c H eat of Su perh eated Steam In mod ern p ra c tic e .

,

sup erh ea ted stea m of ten enters our c a lcul a tio n s and a troubl esom e

modi fic atio n of the entropy di ag ra m resul ts The di fficul ty .

ari ses b ec a u se the sp eci fi c h ea t of sup erh ea ted stea m is not a t a ll

a ccu rately k now n T he di a g ra m s in the a pp endix are c a lcul ated

.

for the sp eci fic h ea t d etermi natio ns by K nobl auch and Jak obsl ‘

T he sp eci fic h eat of stea m v a ri es wi th the temp era tu re and p res

su re a s show n in Fig s 3 0 a nd 3 1 givi ng v alu es of the m ean and
.
,

the true sp eci fi c h ea t a t co n stant p ressu re ( Cp ) .

True speci fi c h eat rep resen ts the ratio of the a mou nt of h ea t to

be a dd ed to a giv en w eigh t of stea m a t som e p a rtic ul a r co ndi tio n
of temp era tu re and p ressu re to ra i se the temp era tu re on e d eg ree
to th a t requi red to ra i se the temp eratu re of w a ter a t m a xim u m
d ensi ty one d eg ree T he mean speci fi c h eat is almo st i nv ari a bly
.

u sed in stea m tu rbi ne c alcul atio ns .

Entro py D i agram of Superheated Steam T he g ra phic repre .

sentation of the h ea t a dd ed du ri n g th e sup erh ea ti n g of stea m

is ea sily a ccompli sh ed wi th entropy temp era tu re di ag ra m s -

.

Fig 3 2 show s the sam e di a g ra m th at rep resented d ry satu ra ted

.

stea m in Fig 1 2 wi th the add ed area EHJF to show the sup er

.
,

h eati n g f rom the temp eratu re T co rrespo ndi n g to the p ressu re , 1

i s formul a gives v a l ues of spe i fic v ol ume ep esentin g a f i ve ge

Th c r r a r a ra

of esu l ts ob ta i ned f om the f o mu l s of Zeune T uml i

r r K nob l auch nd Schm i dt
r a r, rz , , a

( based upon H i n s experi ment )

’
r s .

T Zeit V e ein deut che I ngenieu e Ja n 5 9 0 7

. r s V l ues of mean speci fi c
r r ,
.
, 1 . a

h eat a e t aken f om M e h ni l Engi nee J ul y 9 7 nd P ofesso A M G reene s

r r c a ca r, , 1 0 , a r r . .
’

paper in P roc A merica n Soci ety of M echanica l Engi neers, M ay,

. 1 90 7 .
 NO ZZ L E D ES IGN

P, to the temp eratu re of the sup erh eated steam T T he to ta l

‘

, 3 .

h eat in a pou nd of stea m a bov e t he f reezi ng poi nt is now repre

sented by the area OB CEHJF O For adi a b a tic exp ansio n of .

sup erh eated stea m at the temp era tu re T a nd p ressu re P to a . ,

p ressu re P the av a il abl e energy is the area CEHK L

2
.

T oo much c alcul atio n is i nvolv ed in the co nstru c tio n of entropy

di agram s to m a k e a new di ag ra m for ev ery p articul ar c ase f ro m

250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 7 00 7 50

o
Tempera ture F

F IG 30
. .
-
M ean V al ues of Cp C a l cul ated by I nteg rati on f ro m K nobl h
auc and

J a k ob s D at a
’
.

the p rop erti es u su ally fo und in stea m ta bl es ; but the co nstruc tio n
of such di a g ra m s should be u nd erstood F rom the expl anatio ns .

th at h av e p rec ed ed the co nstruc tio n of al l the li nes exc ep t EH

,

should be obviou s T hi s li ne is ob ta i ned by c alcul ati n g the

.

entropy of sup erh eated stea m for v ariou s v alu es of temp era tu re

from the followi ng w ell k now n rel a tio ns : -

6
98 9151
"

01
’

¢ 8
qb, C pm g lo T 8
1Ogi o T1
 5 6 T H E ST E A M TU RBI NE

wh ere Cpm is the mean v al ue ta k en f r om the cu rv es in Fig 3 0 for .

t he temp eratu re T

General R em ark s R egard i ng N ozzl es Fi nally it ma y be stated

.

t h at th ere is p rac tic ally no di ff erenc e in the effici ency of the nozzl es

2 00 250 300
0
Tempera ture 0 .

F IG 3 1
. . Va l ue
s of t he T ru e i
S pec fic H ea t of h
Super ea ted S t ea m
.

u sed comm erci al tu rbi nes if th ey h av e smoo th su rfac es and

in
a re p rop erly d e sig ned for the co rrec t ra tio of the a rea at the

t h ro at to th a t a t the mou th a nd if the l en gth is not m ad e much

“

l ess th an nor mo re th an po ssibly tw ic e th a t c alcul ated by

,

f o rm ul a
“
 NO ZZ L E D ES IGN 5;

Wheth er thenozzl e sec tio n is th roughou t ci rcul ar squ are or , ,

rec tangul ar ( if th ese l ast sectidns h a v e rou nd ed co rners ) th e

effi ci en cy a s m easu red b y the v elo ci ty will be a bou t 9 6 to 9 7 per

c ent co rrespo ndi ng to an equiv al ent energy effi ciency of 9 2 to 9 4

.
,

a nd P1

E nt ropy

Ent ro py T empera t u re D i g m fo r S uperh ea ted S tea m

.

F IG 3 2
. .
-
a ra .

per c ent Sp eaki ng comm erci ally th erefo re it do es not seem to

.
, ,

b e wo rt h whil e to Sp end a g reat d ea l of tim e in the Shop s to m a k e

nozzl es v ery ex a c tly to so me di ffi cul t Sh a p e Simpl er a nd mo re .

ra pid m ethod s of nozzl e co nstru c tio n should b e i ntrod u c ed In .

som e shop s the tim e of one man for tw o d a y s is requi red for the

h and l a bo r alo ne on a singl e nozzl e .

Simil a rly to the equ a tio ns for a v ail a bl e energy on p age 2 3

for dry satu ra ted stea m and on p a g e 2 6 for wet stea m the ,

a v ail a bl e energy E for sup erh ea ted steam is wh en the fin al con

a,

di tion is wet
E = H1 — T
1) .

Wh en at the final condi tion it is sup erh eated th en ,

Ea , H1 TI) Cm (T ,
’
T2 ) ,
wh ere o th er symbol s u sed a s b efo re and T is i ni ti al tem
a re
’
pera ture and T, is the final temp eratu re wh en superh eated .
 CHAP T ER I V .

STEAM TU R B I NE TYPES AND B LAD E DESIGN .

ALL the typ es of bo th w ater and stea m tu rbi nes are commo nl y
d ivid ed i nto two g eneral cl asses d esignated by the d esc rip tiv e
,

term s impul se and reactio n Wi thou t fu rth er expl anatio n th ese

.
,

term s a s th ey a re u sed in tu rbi ne p ra c tic e would be v ery mi sl ead

“

, ,

ing b ec a u se p ra c tic ally all comm erci a l typ es of stea m tu rbi nes
,

O p era te by bo th the impul se a nd the rea c tio n of steam L o ng .

u sage how ev er has d etermi ned the a cc ep ted m eani ng of th ese

, ,

term s and it is u sel ess now to try to ch ange th em B ri efly the .

,

F IG 3 3
. .
— I mpul se of a Jet Ex erted on a Fl at Su f
r a ce .

p hy sic al ph enom ena k now n a s impul se a nd reac tio n will first be

d esc rib ed to be follow ed by an expl ana tio n of the tech nic a l sig
,

n ificance of th ese term s a s th ey a re u sed by engi neers .

In all impo rtant comm erci al typ es of steam tu rbi nes the bl ad es
58
60 T H E ST EA M TU RBI N E

Fig 3 4 is
.
i ntend ed to Show the signi fic anc e of impul se and
rea c tio n as th ey a re u sed in reg ard to tu rbi nes In thi s c a se .

w a ter f rom the tank impi ng es a ga i nst the cu rv ed surf a c e of a

wood en block and b efo re it l eav es thi s surfa c e it is tu rned ba ck
,

upo n itself th ro ugh an angl e of 1 8 0 d e rees T h e block i th ere

g s .

fo re a c ted on by two fo rc es simul taneou sly bo th tendi ng to mov e ,

it to the righ t Wh en the jet first strik es the su rfa c e of the block
.

FIG .
35 .
—
I mpul se W h eel i h B lad e
w t s F IG 3 6 —
. . I mp l u se W h eel wi t h
of S i ngl e C u v r at u re
.
”
Bl
a d es of D oub e C u r l v a t ure.

an impul se fo rc e tend s to mov eit and wh en l ea vi ng th ere IS a c ti n g

, ,

in a b a ckw ard di rec tio n a rea c tio n equ a l to the impul se I f the .

j ets rep resented in the two fi gu res h av e the sa m e v eloci ty and

d ensi ty and fric tio na l lo sses a re negl ec ted the p ressu re on the
, ,

block in Fig 3 4 will be tw ic e a s g reat a s on the bo a rd in Fig 3 3

. . .

F ig 3 5 show s a nozzl e a nd a bl a d e wh eel in which the bl a d es

.

h av e a si n gl e cu rv atu re as comp ared wi th the cu rv ed su rfa c e

in Fig 3 4 ; th at is the stea m in its p a ssa g e th rough the bl ad es is
.
,

not
“tu rned b a ck on i tself
”
or in o th er wo rd s the cu rv a tu re
, ,

of the bl ad es is l ess th a n 9 0 d eg rees I f thi s wh eel w ere h eld .

 ST EA M TU RBI N E T Y PES AN D -
BLAD E IGN
D ES

s ta t io nary so th a t the bl ad es could not mov e the steam would ,

l eav e th em in a di rec tio n nea rly parallel to the sh af t The o nly .

f orc e th erefo re th a t is effec tiv e for movi ng the bl ad es is the

, ,

impul se .

Fig 3 6 o n th e o th er h and show s bl a d es wi th nearly 1 8 0 d egrees

'

.
, ,

cu rv atu re which tu rn the steam b a ck on i tself on l ea vi ng The .

wh eel is thu s mov ed first by the impul se fo rc e of the steam ex erted

’
on the bl ad es in the di rection of flow a nd th en by its rea c tio n A ,
.

bl ad e tu rni ng the steam th rough l ess th an 90 d eg rees lik e the one

in Fig 3 5 will ex ert o nly abou t h alf as much p ressu re as one turn
.

ing the steam th rough nearly

1 80 d eg rees lik e the one in
Fig 3 6
. .

A tu rbi ne wh eel w hi ch
would be c all ed a reaction
type is show n in Fig 3 7 It . .

di ffers f rom the one in Fig 3 6 .

chi efly in the bl ad e sec tion B ,

show n a t the top of the d raw

ing In thi s t yp e the expan

sio n of the stea m
.

in the noz
z le is o nly p a rti al a nd the ,

bl ad es are m a d e so th at p art
of the exp ansio n occu rs in
th em . In the t yp es Shown
in Fi g s 35 . a n d 3 6 on the ,

o th er h and all the exp ansion ,

is in the nozzl es wi th no ex
Simple R eaction Wh eel
,
.

i i the bl a d es
*
p a n s o n a t a l l n .

The a mou nt of ex pansion of th e steam in th e b l a des m ark s

,

th erefo re the essenti al d iff erence between th e two im ortant

, p
types of steam tur bines illu stra ted by Fig s 3 6 and I n i m
37 . .

p ul s e turbines th ere is no exp ansio n in the bl ad es while in

,

The t urb i ne wheel ill ustra ted in Fig 3 7 is not howev er typi ca l of commerci al
.
, ,
”
rea ct i on types in which th ere are of ten a h undred or more ressure sta g es
p .
 62 M RBI NE
‘

T HE ST EA TU

react on i xp anding bl ad es are u sed wi th the resul t

turbines e ,

th at som e of the ki netic energy of the stea m is ch anged to

v eloci ty in flowing th rough th em .

F rom the expl anation th at has p rec ed ed it is obviou s th at bo th

of the types represented by th e l ast two fi gu res operate by bo th
impul se and reacti on .

Impul se and R eacti on of Flui ds The ki netic energy of a .

fl ui d jet di sch argi ng from a nozzl e may be rega rd ed as p roduc ed

by a co nstant impul se fo rc e I a c ti ng upon a w eigh t W of the
fluid di sch arg ed for one second D u ri ng thi s second the v eloci ty
.

has ch a ng ed f rom z ero to V f eet

per seco n d and ha s go ne t h rough
a sp a c e of V f eet The wo rk do ne by thi s fo rc e in p roduci ng
.

the ki net ic ener gy ( K foo t pou nd s

-

per se cond ) is I X Y which ,

2

is equ al to K or

We h a v e th en

i i i l i i g i hi g f
In pract ce t he pr nc pa d st n u s n .
i i
ea t ure of rea ct on t urb nes is t he app ca li
i i l i ll i g
t on of sta t ona ry b a des for pa rt a y expa nd n the stea m T he rest of t he ex .

p a nsion t a ek
s p ace l
in t he mo n vi g l
b a des .

I t is somet i mes stated a l th ough i naccurately th at the angl es of t he movi ng

, ,

blades may be used a s a cri teri on for d i sti ngui shi ng t he t wo types Accordi ng to .

t h ese auth ori t i es the movi ng b l ades of i mpul se t urbi nes a re symmetri ca l l ik e Fig 3 6
, .
,

a nd th ose of react i on turbi nes resemble in contour t h ose of Fig 37 I n many . .

cases the rule coul d proba bl y be appli ed but th ere are al so many except i ons
,
T he e . r

a re some b l a des made for Curt i s turb i nes whi ch a re not nearl y symmetri ca l a nd ,

no one woul d ca ll a Curt i s turbi ne a react i on type .

The d iff erence between i mpul se a nd re a ct i on t urb i nes can be v ery ea il y sh ow n s

experi menta ll y by putt i ng a pressure ga uge between the nozzl e and the wh eel In .

t he i mpul se type beca use the expa nsi on is compl eted in the nozzl e it w ill be f ound
, ,

t h ere is no drop in the pressure of the steam in pa ssi ng th rough the bl ades ; but in

the rea ct i on type the g aug e w ill record a high er pressu e th an t h a t in the casi ng r .

As th ese words i mpul se and reacti on are used at the present t i me t he e

”
r

is rea ll y li ttle connecti on between the usual meani ng of the words and the i deas
t h ey are to conv ey in reg ard to stea m tu bi nes Actua ll y all commerci al steam
r .

t urbi nes work by i mpul se and by rea ct i on A German w ri ter ha s used i nst ead
.

of i mpul se and reacti on the more accurate words gl ei ch druck and ,

meani ng eq ua l pressure a nd uneq u al pressure whi h t o

” ”
ungleichd ruck , ,
c

the aut h or seem much more app opri a te r .

 ST EA M TU RB IN E TYPES AN D BLAD E D ES IGN

In the fi rst p rincipl es of phy sic s it was l earned th a t impul se

”
and react on i w ere equ al and Op po si te so th at if the reac tio n ,

is p
re resente d by R in pou nd s th en R ,
I —

g
Exampl e . I f the v essel shown in Fig
di sch arg es 1 0 pound s .
33
of w a ter per seco n d a t a v eloci t y of 3 2 2 f eet per seco nd wh a t is ,

the fo rc e I ( impul se) pu shi ng the wood en block a w a y f rom the

*
v essel ? Ans 1 0 0 pou nd s . .

Al so wh at is the fo rc e R ( reac tio n) pu shing the v essel i tself

t ow a rd the l ef t ? A ns 1 0 0 po und s . .

Exampl e I f w ater is di sch arg ed ag ainst fl at bl ad es of a

.

w a ter w heel m a d e up of v anes Simil ar to the block shown in

Fig 3 3 a t the ra te of
. pou nd s per seco nd at a v eloci ty of
2 0 0 f eet per seco nd and is sp a ttered f rom the wood en block s
”
wi th a residu al v eloci ty (l ea vin g the v anes) of 1 0 0 feet per
seco nd wh a t ho rsepow er is thi s w a ter wh eel c ap abl e of d evel
,

oping ?
Solution Calli ng the residu al
. v eloci ty V 2 we h a v e

2 X
1
ho rsep ow er .

55 °

WV 2

T he m a xi mum th eo reti c a l ho rsepower of the wh eel 1 5

28 X 55 0

if the w a ter is di sch arg ed at z ero v eloci ty . We h a v e (in thi s

2

c ase) M or hp .

2 X 55 0 550

The effi ci ency of the ( bl a d es of thi s) w a ter wh eel is th erefo re

.
75 or 75 per c ent .

6
3 3 6

Ex am pl e Steam
di sch arg es f rom a nozzl e a t the ra te of
.

pou nd s per secon d wi th a v eloci t y of 4 0 0 0 feet per seco nd

a g a i ns t the bl a d es of a s team tu rbi ne and l ea v es th em wi t h a

I t is a ssu med t hat the wa ter l ea v es the b l ock w i t h pract i call y no v eloci ty ,

t ha t is ,
all the v el oci ty is abso bed r in prod uci ng the i mpul se f orce .
63a T HE STEA M TU RBI N E

v eloci ty of 1 0 0 0 f eet per seco nd N egl ec ti ng f ric tio nal lo sses

.
,

Wh a t is the m aximum ho rsepow er th a t thi s tu rbi ne wh eel can

dev elop ? Calcul ate the effi ci ency ( p erc entage) of the bl a d es in
thi s tu rbi ne . A ns 1 50 0 ho rsepow er;
.
p er c ent .

Exampl e . The steam di sch a rging f rom the bl a d es of the

tu rbi ne wh eel in the l a st ex erci se is fin ally di rec ted upo n the
'

bl ad es of a seco nd tu rbi ne wh eel A ssumi ng th ere has b een no .

lo ss of v eloci t y in p assi ng f rom one tu rbine wh eel to the o th er

and th at the stea m l ea v es the seco nd one a t 1 0 0 f eet per seco nd ,

c alcul a te the m aximum ho rsepower th at could be d ev elop ed in

thi s second turbine wh eel and the effi ci en cy of its bl ad es
'

A ns 99 ho rsepow er ; 9 9 per c ent

. .

Exampl e . I f we co nsid er the two tu rbi ne wh eel s m entioned

in the two p rec edi ng ex erci ses as combi ned in a sin gl e tu rbi ne ,

wh at woul d be the to tal ho rsepow er of the tu rbi ne and the ’

ov er all effi ci ency if f ric tional and o th er lo sses are negl ec ted ?
-

A ns 1 599 ho rsepow er ;
.
p er c en t .

Suggestion The sam e resul t could h a v e b een ob tained by

.

c alcul ati ng the to tal ki netic energy of the combi ned wh eel s ,

u si ng V 4 0 0 0 f eet per second V 2 1 0 0 f eet

p
,
er seco n d a nd
W 3 54 2 pou nd s of steam
. .

Exampl e . R em emb eri ng th at impul se and reac tion are equ al

and oppo si te wh a t I S the fo rc e of the rea c tio n ag a in st the pl a te
,

suppo rti ng the nozzl e requi red to giv e a v eloci t y of 4 0 0 0 f eet

p e r seco n d to a flow of p ou n d s of steam per seco nd ?

A ns 4 4 0 pou nd s . .

Suggestion . R eac tion imp ul se (I ) M

g

Exam pl e . The ozzl e is 3 2 2 sq uare Inch How

area of a n . .

m any pou nd s of steam per seco nd h avi ng a d ensi ty of 1 4 4 pou nd .

p er cubic foo t mu st be di sch arg ed f rom the nozzl e in o rd er to

ex ert a p ressu re of 9 0 pou nd s a g a i nst a pl a te sui tably d esigned

to tu rn a w a y the steam wi th z ero v eloci ty ? A ns 9 66 pou nd . . .

Suggesti on In thi s c ase all the v eloci ty is ab so rb ed in p roduc

.

ing the p ressu re ( impul se) upon the pl ate .

 STEA M TU RBIN E TYPES AN D BLAD E D ES IGN

Sub sti tu ti ng the v a lu es gi v en in the ex ampl e and sub sti tu ting

in the equ a tio n for impul se we h a v e,
’

. 00 0 3 2 2 V,

2
. 0000 1 V ,
g

a nd s n i c e the impul se is 90 pou nd s ,

we h av e
00 0 0 1 V 2
9 0 pou nd s
2
V
V 3 0 0 0 f eet per second .

Sub sti tu ti ng thi s v alu e of V in the equ a tio n at

p ag e ,

W . 000 3 2 2 x 300 0 .
9 6 6 po und per seco nd .

Ex ampl e . Stea m of
m e densi t y as in the p rec eding
the sa

ex erci se di sch a rg es a t the ra te of 3 4 7 8 pou nd s per hou r and pro

duc es a rea c tio n ag ai nst the pl a te i nto whi ch the nozzl e is in

serted of 9 0 pou nd s Wh a t is the v eloci ty of di sch arge?
.

A ns 3 00 0 f eet per seco nd . .

E A X M PLES OF IM PUL SE TU RBI N ES .

A simpl e impul se tu rbine is rep resented by di ag ra mma tic d raw

i ng s in Fig 3 8 In the sh a d ed d ra wing s in thi s fi gu re Sec tio n
. .
,

”
A is m ad e by a pl a ne cu t tin g one of the bl ad es and p assi ng
th rough the c enter of the s h af t T he o th er vi ew Sec tio n B
.
, ,

show s a sec tio n m a d e by a pl ane p arall el to the Sh af t and p assing

th rough the c enter of one of the nozzl es in the tu rbi ne In the .

sam e fi gu re Cu rv e I show s the d ec reasi ng p ressu res in the nozzl e

,

and the co nstant p ressu re th ro u gh the bl ad es Cu rv e II show s .

simil arly the v eloci ty ch a ng es In the nozzl e the stea m v eloci t y

.

i nc reases as the p ressu re f all s while in the bl ad es the v eloci ty

,
-

of the steam is ab so rb ed in movi ng the wh eel Thi s Simpl e .

impul se tu rbi ne rep resented by th ese di ag ram s is typic al of the

D e L av al typ e T h ese tu rbi nes h a v e alw a y s a singl e set of
.

nozzl es and one row of bl ad es .

 S ECT IO N A
SECT ION A

S ECT IO N 8
S ECT IO N B

Noz zle

V el o ity T i ngl es
c ra

F IG 3 8
. . D i ag ams ofr Si ngl e
a

st ag e I mpul se T urb ne i .

V el ocity T ri a n l esg
F IG D a ra ms of an
— i g
39. .

I l
mpu se T urb ne W i t i
.

h
l i
T wo V e oc t y S ta es g .
64 T HE ST EA M TU RBI N E

are the b est ex ampl es of the typ e illu strated by Fig 3 9 wi th sev eral .

row s of bl ad es followi ng a set of nozzl es In the l a test d esigns .

of the l arger siz es of th ese tu rbi nes th ere a re two row s of movi ng
“
bl ad es and one set of i nterm edi ate bl ad es for each set of
nozzl es so th at the a rra ng em ent Show n in Fig 3 9 is typic a l of
,
.

th ese
In F ig 4 0 ano th er di sti nc t typ e of stea m turbine is illu stra ted
.
~
.

T he l ef t h a nd h alf of thi s figu re rep resents a Si ngl e impul se wh eel

—

a s in Fig 3 8 and the righ t h and h a lf is p ra c tic a lly a duplic a te of

.
-

th a t on th e l ef t I n thi s co nstruc tio n ea ch of the h alv es

. a —

Si ngl e nozzl e or set of nozzl es wi th the bl ad es followi ng is c a ll ed

a pressure sta g e or v ery commo nly it is c a ll ed simply a sta g e
,
.

T he di ff erenc e b etw een the op era tio n of thi s tu rbi ne a nd the

Si ngl e impul se wh eel in Fig 3 8 is b est shown by comp ari ng the.

p ressu re and the v eloci ty cu rv es at the top of the two figu res In .

C u rv e I showi ng the p ressu re for the si ngl e impul se wh eel the

, ,

stea m d rop s f rom the boil er p ressu re to th a t of the exh a u st in a

si ngl e nozzl e th a t is in a si ngl e sta g e

, ,
In Cu rv e V of Fig 4 0 . .

th ere is a bou t equ a l reduc tio n of p ressu re in ea ch of the two

nozzl es a nd the v eloci ty ch ang e a s C u rv e V I show s is a bou t

, , ,

th e sam e for ea ch of the two stag es T hi s fi gu re rep resents .

,

di ag rammat ic a lly a numb er of typ es th at are mo re compl ex

, .

I t sho uld be m entio ned h ere th at th ere a re often two or mo re

g roup s of nozzl es and bl ad es ea ch lik e Fig 3 9 in su c c essio n ( cf
, .
,
'

Fig . Ea ch o f th ese g roup s is th en c a ll ed a sta g e In o th er .

wo rd s,the first set of nozzl es and all the row s of bl ad es u p to the

nex t nozzl e m a k e the first stag e a nd so on T hi s l ast arrang em ent
, .

is typic al of the Cu rti s tu rbi nes wi th mo re th an one p ressu re

sta g e and the v a riou s R a teau d esigns .

T he bl ades h own in s A “Secti on

of Fig 3 9 h a ve the sam e h eigh t on the
.

” “exi t si d es I t is h oweve a very common p cti e to m k e the

”
ent a nce a nd
r .
, r, ra c a
“
exi t
”
si de of the i ntermedi ate bl ades of Curti s tu bi nes a li ttl e higher th an
”
r

the entrance si de so a s to i ncrea se the cross secti onal area a nd th us a ll ow for

-

the l essened v el oci ty due to f i ct i on a nd edd i es a nd th ereby prev ent

,
r ch oki ng
,

in the b l ades T h ere is t h erefore a li ttl e expansi on in th ese bl ades

. .
ST EA M TU RBI N E T YPES AN D BLAD E D ES IGN 65

SECTION 8

g
V el ocity T ria n l es
F IG 40 . D i ag ra ms of an Impulse T urbi ne w i t h
T wo Pressu re Sta es g .
66 THE STEA M T UR BI NE

S ECTIO N A

SECTIO N 8

g
V el oci ty Tri an l es

F IG
.
4 1 . D i g
a ra ms of a T h ree st ag e R ea ct i on
-

T u rb i ne.
 ST EA M TU RB I NE T Y P ES AND B LA D E D ES IGN 67

The R ateau tu rbi ne has f rom p ressu re stag es wi th a

20 to 4 0 ,

set of nozzl es and a si ngl e bl adé wh eel for ea ch The d rop in .

p ressu re is th en of cou rse comp a rativ ely sm all in ea ch stag e

, ,
.

R EAC T I O N TU RBI N ES .

T he a rrang em ent of bl ad es in the w ell k now n Parso ns tu rbine -

is illu stra ted in Fig 4 1 . T hi s is the typi cal mo dern rea ctio n tur
.

bine . T h ere a re no nozzl es T he stea m fl ow s f rom the boil er

.
,

”
i nto the a dmi ssio n sp a c e of the tu rbi ne ( see Sec tio n A )“ ”

wi th p ra c tic a lly no v eloci ty F rom thi s sp ac eit enters the first set
. .

of statio na ry bl ad es wh ere it exp and s and a tta in s som e v eloci ty

,

a s the p ressu re d rop s C u rv es V II a nd V III Show the ch ang e of

.

v eloci ty wi th ch ange of p ressu re Wh en the stea m l eav es the fix ed

. .

bla d es it enters immedia telythe first set of movi n g bl a d es Here .

‘

it exp and s a g a i n ; but a t th e sa m e tim e som e of the v eloci ty f rom

the exp ansio n is ta k en a w a y or in o th er wo rd s the v eloci ty is
, , ,

reduc ed in movi n g the bl a d e wh eel s The p ressu re a nd v eloci ty.

cu rv es Show pl a i nly wh a t h a pp ens in tu rbi nes of thi s typ e as the

stea m p a sses a l tern a tely th rough the fi x ed a nd movi n g bl ad es .
,

exp andi ng in ev ery row till it esc a p es in the exh a u st T h ere is .

h ere co nsid era bl e exp a nsio n in the movi ng bl ad es and conse ,

q uently b ec a u se the p ressu re is not the sa m e on bo th sid es of th ese

bl ad es it is c a ll ed a rea ctio n tu rbine All the o th er th ree typ es .

( Fig s 3
. 8 —
4 0
) a re impul se tu rb ines b ec a u se the p ressu r e, is p r a cti
c ally the sa m e on bo th sid es of the movi ng bl ad es .

We should ob serv e h ere th a t a ll the po ssibl e simpl e combi na

tio ns h a v e b een m entio ned exc ep t the c a se of exp a nsio n o nly in

the movi ng bl ad es and wi th no exp a nsio n in the sta tio na ry p a rt s .

Such an a rrang em ent would be fea sibl e b ut has p rob a bly nev er
b een used .

In a rea c tio n tu rbi n e a n y two row s of bl a d es the fi rst sta tio na ry ,

a nd the seco nd movi n g m a k e a p ressu re sta g e In a Pa rso ns

,
.

rea c tio n turbi ne th ere a re som etim es mo re th a n a hu nd red sta g es .

Gra ph i ca l D i a g ram s of Steam V elo ci ti es A v elo ci ty d i agram .

rep resenti n g g ra phic a lly the stea m v eloci ti es in the a ssa g es of

p
ea ch of fo ur typ es of tu rbi nes Show n in Fig s 3 8 4 1 is rep resen ted .
—
68 T H E S T EA M TU RB INE

at bo ttom of ea ch of th ese figu res T h ese di ag ra m s in the

the .
,

sh a p e of v elo ci ty tri a ng l es are re

p resented h ere wi th the nozzl es
,

a nd bl ad es in th ei r p rop er o rd er In p ra c tic a l d esig ni ng how

.
,

ev er thi s pic to ri a l eff ec t is omi tted a nd o nly the tri an gl es a re

,

d ra wn T he li nes of th ese tri angl es show by th ei r l ength s the

.

m ag ni tud es of the bl ad e as w ell as the stea m v eloci ti es in the tur

bi ne As all of th ese tri angl es a re d ra wn to the sam e sc al e th ey
.
,

Show how di ff erent the v elocit i es a re in the fou r typ es In ea ch .

c ase the bl ad e sp eed ( V b) is tak en a t a bou t the v alu e th at has b een

fou nd by exp eri enc e to giv e the b est effici ency Such v eloci ty .

di ag ra m s a re u sed by engi neers for d etermi ni ng the b est rel a tio n

b etw een the v eloci ty of the bl ad es and the v eloci ty of the stea m .

I n o rd er to i nterp ret such di a g ra m s i ntellig ently the sig ni fic an c e

© I absolu te and rel ativ e v el oc ities of the stea m mu st be cl early
4“T hi s d i sti ncti on between bsol ute nd el ative vel o i ti e h oul d p ob bl y be
a a r c s S r a

m de pl ai ner for th o e w ho e unf am ili

a s ar w i th th ese te ms
ar A th o ough u nd e r . r r

sta nd i ng of w h at is mea n t b y a bsol ute a nd rel tive vel oc i ti e is v ery nece ry to

‘

a s ss a

w o k i ntelligentl y w i th the v el o i ty d i ag ms on w hi ch the w h ol e theo y of tu b i ne

r c ra r r

a ti ce depend s
r c Suppose a t a i n is j u t movi ng out of
r s st ti on a t the a te of 3 feet
a ra 0
p .

e rse cond nd a a m n ta nd i ng i n the mi d d l e of the t ra ck behi nd the t ra i n t h row s

a s
p ,

b ll wi tha a vel oci ty of 4 feet per a 0

econd t h ough the b

s rk d oo of the ac r

l t T h en a pa senge in the t a i n
as car . s r r

w ill see the b ll movi ng th ough the c a ar r

t a v el oci ty of onl y
a feet pe se ond 1 0 r c .

I n thi case th e vel oc i ty of the b ll or

s a ,

4 f e e t p e 0 s e o n d is i ts a bsol u te v el o
r c ,

i tyw i th e pect to bod i e th t re not

c r s s a a

movi ng nd feet pe se ond i the

,
a 1 0 r c s

el t ive v el o i ty of the b l in the t a i n

r a
l c a r .

I n thi onne ti o n s c sligh tl y d iff erent

c a

e h ou l d l so be on i d ered
c as s a Sup c s .

o se now the b ll i t h row n u pon a a s

p
bo t mo vi ng i n a t eam at a vel oc i ty of
a s r
F IG 4 2
f cond by a ma n sta ndi ng
. .

3 e e t p e
0 se r

o n th e b ank at P a s represented i n Fig 4

. L 2e t. u s a ss u m e t h e b so l u te v l i
e o c ty a ,

d b
o the v el oci ty w i t h w hi h the b a l l is t hro g i 4 f p h
w n a s n 0 ee t
a ae se c o n u t t at r ,
r c ,

now the path of the b a ll m a k e a n a n gl

s e o f w2 0i t h t h
°
e d i re ct i o n o f t h e m o vi n g b oa t .

h l iv v l i ll i h h d i t i n f th e b o a t is
T en the re at e e oc ty of the b a ( V ) t
w t e e t to es re c c o o
r r p
h g hi ll i gl v l i i A B C i t h fi u e w h e e A C i s th e
rap ca y by a tr a n e of e o t e s n e g r r
s ow n c ,

l v l i ll BC i h v l i t f t he b o t ( V b) a nd A B s I
a b so ute e oc ty ( V ) of the b a
s t e e o c y o a ,
, ,

v
t he rel ative e oc ty (l i V ) o f th e
r b all w i t h r e s p e c t to t h at of the bo t a .
 ST EA M TU RBI N E T YPES AN D BLAD E D ES IGN

u nd erstood An ab solu te velo ci ty of a body is its v eloci t y wi th

.

resp ec t to immov abl e poin ts on the earth A rel ativ e v el oci ty is .

its v eloci ty wi th respec t to poi nts th a t are al so movi ng .

The di rec tion of the li ne rep resen ti ng the v eloci t y of the

steam rel ativ el y to the bl ad es sho uld b e such th a t the lines of

flow of the steam enter the bl ad e ta ng en ti ally to the conven

tionally stra igh t po rtio n of th e b ack of the bl a d e ( see Fi gs 4 3 .
,

49 a nd
, I f the b ack s of the bl ad es are m ad e to any o ther
a ngl e th ere will be lo sses due to impact and eddi es
‘

EFF C EN CI I Y or TH E BLAD ES OF IMP UL SE T UR BI N ES .

In the v eloci ty di ag ram in Fig 3 8 the i ni ti al v eloci ty of the

.
,

steam enteri ng the nozzl e is m ark ed V 1 the v eloci ty in the ,

th ro a t is V 0 and the ab solu te vel oci ty of th e steam as it l eaves

,

the noz z l e and enters the bl ad es is V 2 m aki ng an angl e a wi th the ,

di rec tion of mo tio n of the bl ad es The vel oci ty of th e bl ades

.

V b w hi ch is th e peri pheral vel oci ty of the wheel p roduc es a

, ,

rel ati ve v elo ci ty of th e steam in the blades V 2 The angl e 1

4 .

“
6 show s th en the th eo retic al entrance angl e for the bl a d es

th at the steam may en ter wi thou t lo ss of v eloci ty due to shoc k

or imp a c t Th ese angl es
. and B a re m ark ed pl ainl y in the d ra w
a

The rel ati ve v elo ci ty of th e steam l eaving

”
ing of Sec tio n B .

the bl ad es is represented by Of ten the bl ades for impul se

tu rbi nes are m ad e symm etric al so th a t the angl e 7 on the ,

“exi t ” sid e of the bl ad es is equ al to the ngl e on the en

a 6
tranc e sid e The ab sol ute v elo ci ty oi th e steam l eaving th e
.

bl ades is fou nd by g eom etric ally sub tra c ting ag ain the bl a d e
v eloci ty V b The v eloci ty of the bl ad es is alwa y s sub tra c ted a
.
°

seco nd tim e b ec au se the di rec tio n of the steam ha s b een rev ersed
,

in p assi ng th rough th em The steam is d i sch arg ed wi th th e

.

”
absol ute velo ci ty V 3 which is c all ed commo nly the residu a l
,

v eloci ty.

Cond i ti ons of B est Efli ciency The co ndi tio n for the high est
.

effi ci ency of thi s Simpl e tu rbine (Fig 3 8 ) will now be di scu ssed . .

The sam e v eloci ti es rep resented a t the bo ttom of Fig 3 8 a re .

Show n a g ai n wi th the addi tio n of an enl a rg ed sec tio n of a bl ad e

 7 0 T HE ST EA M TU RBI NE

in Fig .
43 . The no tatio n is the sam e as in Fig s 8
3 4 1 V 2
. and .

V3 are the ab s ol ute velo cities of th e steam entering and l eaving

the bl ade, of which a sh ad ed sec tio n is shown . Va and are

FIG 4 3
. . V eloci ty Triangles for an mpulse Turbine I .

th e corresponding rel ative ve ocit es of l i th e stea m as it passes

t h rough the
bl ad e N ow the energy in the steam is m easu red
.
,

o f cou rse in term s of its a b solu te v eloci ty and is proportional

, ,

t o the square of its vel ocity T The energy th en in a pound of .

, ,

2 2

s team enteri ng a bl ad e is
i and on l ea vin g is
i The energy
g g f ;
I
by the bl ades is , th erefo re, (V 2 ) Here g
2 2
t ak en away V3
—
.

2 g
i s the cc el era tio n due to g ra vi ty
a and for all p ra c tic a l

pu rpo ses is a co nstant v alu e E n ergy co nv erted i nto wo rk in a .

Observ e th a t V 2 , V 3 , V I , etc .i ndi ca te ab solute v el oci ti es and V fl V V “

, , , rs, ,

etc .
,
a re re at l i ve v el oci ti es . T hi s rel at i on sh oul d be of much assi sta nce in read i ng
t he d i agrams .

i
The order in the use of subscr pts o ows the met od used for the no f ll h zzl es in the
“

preced n c ap t i g h
ers T he su b s cri pt 1
. is st usill
ed to represent t he ini tial cond i t i on

o f the st ea m as it enters the nozzl es of an i mpul se t urbi ne or t he first row of sta

tionary bl ades in a rea ct i on t urbi ne whil e t he sub script o is for the condition
,

a t th e th roat of a nozzl e The first

“ d i sch arge v el oci ty ei t her f rom nozzles or
.
”

s tat i onary b l ades is t h eref ore rep esented by t he subscri pt 2 r .

I See d i scussi on of ki neti c energy a nd v eloci ty page 2 4

“
.
,
7 2 T H E ST EA M TU RBI N E

( 2
V CO S a V b) has itsl arg est v alu e; or we get the m aximum
ener gy ta en k f rom the steam wh en

whi ch is th e condi tio n when the l ine 3 1 or V 3 is perpend i cul ar to , , ,

V b th at is wh en th e steam l eav es th e bl ad e perpend i cul ar to the

, ,

p l an e of th e wh ee l T .

The co ndi tio n for which the l ast set of equ atio ns has b een
wo rk ed out rep resents the u su al condi tio ns in p rac tic e Th at is .

“ nozzl e angl e is u su ally a ssum ed ( abou t 2 0 d eg rees) and

t he ,

the bl ad e angl es 6 and 7 are m ad e equ al F or thi s c ase equ atio n .

a bov e rep resents the b est bl a d e co ndi tio ns wi th the abso

m
, ,

lu te v eloci ty of the stea enteri ng the bl ad es ( V2 ) and the

v eloci ty of the bl ad es ( V b) as the o nly v ari abl es .

We can exp ress the efli ciency of th e action of th e bl ad es by

di vidi ng the energy tak en a w a y in p erfo rmi ng wo rk by the energy
rep resented by the v eloci t y of the en teri ng stea m ; thu s ,

Energy tak en away for work or th e actual work done ,

2 2
V2 V3
2 g
To tal energy in th e steam , wh i ch is a m easu re of th e to tal work
2
V2
pos s i bl e
2 g
u
act al work d one V2 2
V3 2
V2 2
V2 2
V3 2
Efli ciency
to tal work po ssibl e 2
2 g 2 g V2

N ow , in equ a tion ( )
1 2 w e h a v e for the b est condi tions ,

( V 2 COS CX V b)
2 2
V2 V3 4 Vb
If mak e the subst i tuti on V 2
we 2
V 3
2
y, V b x, K V2 cos a ,
h
t en for
eq ua t i on ( 1 2 ) we ca n wri te y 4 x (K x ) 4 Kx 4 x
2
.

For the maxi mum v al ue of y ,

dy
4 (K
dx
x éK ,
or Vb l
V g cos a .

1 Wi th out
“
the l l
ca cu us demonstrat i on it is vi ous that V
ob V is l arg est 2
2
3
2

for g i v en v a l ues of V wh en 2, V 3 is sma ll est , and t hi s is w h en the li ne in the

tri angl e is sh ortest ; or ,
in h
ot er words, wh en the d i rect i on of V is perpen 3

dicular to the d i recti on of V b .

 STEA M TU RBI N E T YPES AN D BLAD E D ES IGN

Then sub sti tu ting thi s in e qu ation ( 1 4 )

I f fu rth er
, ,
the n ozzl e angl e a is 20 d eg rees , as is so com
mon in p rac tic e th en
,

Effi ci ency

1
The o nly v ari abl e l ef t in thi s qu ation
e is the ra t io
2
7 ,
and

it follow s th en th at the efi ciency of a singl e row of bl ades wi th

a gi ven nozz l e angl e and eq ual entrance and exi t angl es for th e

bl ades d epend s only on th e ratio of th e velo ci ty of th e blad es to

th e velo city of th e steam d i scharged from th e noz z l e .

I mpul se F orce D ue to Stream Fl ow Across Stati onary B l ad es .

In Fig 4 3 a a stream of fluid is show n impi ngi ng on a bl ad e at

.

Entran ce

F IG .
4 3a . S t ream Li ne
s in T urb i ne B l ade
.

"
A wh ere the di rec tion of flow is ho rizo ntal and p arall el to the
co ntou r of the tip of the bl ad e A t A the stream ex erts an .

pul se 1 in the di rec tio n of flow and as it l eav es the bl ad e it ex erts

,

a rea c tio n R p a rall el to the di rec tio n of flow a t the o th er end but
,

op po si te to the i ni ti al di rec tio n of flow The component of R .

in the di rec tion a t whi ch the stream enters the bl ad e ( ho rizontal )

,

is R cos B wh ere B is the angl e the l ea ving stream m ak es wi th

,
74 THE STEA M TU RBI NE

i tsi ni ti al di rec tion ( ho rizontal ) B ut sinc e impul se is eq ual to .

rea c tion (see p ag e I = R Consequ ently the to tal p ressu re

'

upon the bl ad e due to bo th impul se and reac tion is

I+ R cos 3
f or I ( 1

Wh en the stream flow has b een tu rned th rough 1 80 d egrees

in its p assag e ov er the bl ad e 6 0 cos B 1 and the to tal , , ,

p ressu re is 2 I It has b een shown ( p age 6 2 ) th at

.

a nd th erefo re to tal p ressu re on the bl ad e is

2 WV

Al so wh en 6 90 d eg rees as is a pp roximately
,
the c ase in
F ig 3 3 ,
. cos B 0 ,
and the to tal p ressu re is

WV
g

Impul se F orce D ue to Fl ow Across M oving B l adesStream .

Wh en a re al so co nsid ered the impul se of th e

v eloci ti es of bl ad es
WV 2
s tream entermg the movmg bl a d e as In Fi g 4 3 IS
,
cos 6 . .

'

8
Simil arly the strea m l ea v es wi th the rel ativ e v eloci ty V , 3 of which
3
the compo nent in the di rec tio n of mo tion of the bl ad e is
’
c OS
g
W ,”
of an gl e
t h erefo re,
3, 1 , or
2 ( b
V V ,3 cos T o tal impul se is ,

WV 72
cos B (V b V , 3 cos y) .

For fu rth er d emonstration see Ex erci se 6 in App endi x .

In Fig 44 a cu rv e is shown which ha s b een c alcul a ted to repre

.

sent equ a tio n ( 1 6 ) for v aryi ng v alu es of bl ad e sp eed ( V b) and

'

wi th an ini ti al steam v eloci ty ( V 2 ) of f eet per seco nd The .

in c rease in effici ency wi th inc reased bl ad e v eloci ty should be

 STEA M TU RB I NE T YPES AN D BLAD E D ES IG N 75

ob serv ed ,
and t h at o btained when the
the hi ghes t efi ciency is

bla d e speed (V b) is about half th evel o city of the steam d i scharged

from the nozz l e(V 2 ) Thi s is a go od ro ugh and ready rul e to
.
- -

rememb er I f th en the steam v eloci ty is

.
, ,
f eet per second ,

the p eriph eral v eloci ty of the bl ad e wh eel for the hi gh est effi ,

ciency should be abou t

,
feet per seco nd F or m ech anic al .

reasons it is diffi cul t to co nstruc t tu rbine wh eel s to run at sp eed s

0 2 00 400 600 800 1 000 1 200 1 400 1 600 1 800 2000 2 200
Bl a d e S peed V
b
'
F t per Sec
. .

F IG 44
. .
— v
Cur e of Effi ci ency of an I mpul se T urb i ne w i th One Row of Bl
ades

a nd a N ozzl e Angl e of 20 g
D e rees for V a r yi ng B la d e Speeds .

much grea ter th an 50 0 feet per h a t m any d esi gners se co nd ,

so t
will g enera lly use low blad e speed s to get v eloci ti es mo re sui table
for comm erci al applic a tio n knowi ng w ell th a t in thi s respec t
,

th ey are sa c ri fi ci ng th ei r hi gh est effi ci ency .

In d esign ing bl a d es for tu rbi ne wh eel s the entranc e and exi t

a ngl es (6 and 7 ) should a lw a y s be m ad e as nea rly as po ssibl e of

the siz e d etermined by the v eloci ty di ag ram s I f the angl es are .

m ad e much di fferent th ere is a sudd en ch ang e in the di rec tio n of

,

the steam instea d of a g radu al ch ang e wi th a co nsequ ent lo ss ,

due to shock or imp ac t .

Effi ci ency of V elo ci ty Stages An impul se tu rbi ne wi th mo re .

th an one row of movi ng bl ad es in a si ngl e p ressu re stag e (vel oc

ity stage t yp e) is rep resented by Fig 3 9 T he energy tak en .
. .

aw a y f rom the stea m for wo rk a s exp ressed in equ a t io n ,

can

be rea dily modi fied to sui t thi s c ase We should h a v e ob serv ed .

th at ea ch tim e stea m p asses th rough a mo ving bl ad e the bl ad e

veloci ty ( V b) is twic e tak en a w a y (sub tra c ted g eom etric ally )
7 6 T H E ST EA M TU RBI N E

in the v eloci ty di a g ra m s . If th ere are N o ws of moving

r

bl ad es ,
4 NV , (V 2
2 2
V2 V N + 2 cos a

And imil arly ( comp are wi th equ atio n

s 1 4, p ag e
Effi ci ency

and for a 2 0 -
d eg ree nozzl e ,

Effi ci ency ( 1 8)
V2

Effi ciencyof a Simpl e I m pul se Turbine for Giv en B l ad e Speed .

In the di scu ssio n o f the m aximum bl a d e effi ci en cy of impul se

tu rbines which has p rec ed ed the v eloci ty of the steam enteri ng ,

the bl ad es was assum ed to be kn own and a sui tabl e bl ad e sp eed

w a s d etermi ned in term s of the en tranc e and exi t an gl es whi ch ,

w ere assum ed to be equ al T hi s is the p robl em which ari ses .

.

wh en a si ngl e stag e impul se tu rbi ne is to be d esig ned for giv en

-

i ni ti al and final p ressu res Wh en how ev er an impul se tu rbi ne .

, ,
‘

of mo re th an one stage is to be d esig ned wi th a fix ed bl ad e sp eed

( )
L
V b of say5 0 0 f eet per secon d ] it is d esi rabl e t o d etermi ne the ,
.

Thi s can be sh own geometri ca ll y v ery easil y by the meth od ill ustrated a t the
t op of Fig .
43 whi ch w ill be h ere drawn for three rows of moving blades As in .

F IG .
45

the ot er fi ures, V2 isthe

h g v el oci ty of the steam enter n i g the first row of blades .

a nd V72 ~ V r3 i th en in Fig .
45 .

( O V b)
2
V5 Y2 2 2
2 V 2 X 6 V b COS a .

V 2
2
V5 2
1 2 V5 ( V2 cos a 3 V b) ; a nd V2 ?
V 2
N +2 4 N V }; ( V2 cos a

N V b) , if N is the number of row s of movi ng bl ades .

TM a ny manufa cturers hav e a

l ade speed and all sizes of turbi nes standard b
a re designed for thi s standard The blad e speeds of i mpul se turbi nes v ary from
. .

3 5 0 to 2 0 0 feet per second

1 The l at ter fig ure it is stated has been used success
.
, ,

full y by a European manufacturer .

 STEA M TU RBI N E T YPES AN D BL AD E D ES GN I 77

pressure drop in the fi rstg e (and p rob ablyal so in the second

sta

s tag e d epending on the a c tio n oi the v alv e g ear) to ob tain the

’
,

high est effi ci ency in thi s sta g e T hi s is b ec au se the b est resul ts

.

a re ob tai ned in mo st typ es by g etting a l a rg er p roportio n of

wo rk f rom the first sta ge th an f rom the o th er sta ges *

Effi ci ency .
,

th erefo re is a mo re impo rta nt co nsid era tio n in thi s stag e th an in

,

the o th ers .

We h av e thu s ob ta i ned a v ery simpl e fo rm for c alcul a ting the

effi ci ency of an impul se tu rbi ne; but it mu st not be ov erlook ed

th at if the entranc e a nd e xi t angl es are not equ al and in the c ase ,

of v eloci ty stag es if the exi t angl e of the statio na ry in terme

di ate bl ad es is not the sam e as the angl e a t whi ch the steam is
di sch arg ed f rom the p rec eding bl ad es th ese fo rmul as mu st be ,

co nsid erably modi fied and the resul t would not be nea rly so
simpl e .It should be ob served al so th at all lo sses f rom f ric tio n
and eddi es h a v e b een negl ec ted T h ese mo re p ra c tic al con
.

sid era tio ns are di scu ssed in co nnec tio n wi t h the ex a mpl es of

a c tu al d esig ns of bl ad es on p a g es 8 5 to 9 6 .

I I
EFF C EN C Y OF TH E BLAD ES OF R EACT I ON TU
‘
RBI N ES .

As in the c ase of the impul se tu rb ine, the exp ressio ns for energy
a nd efi ciency will now be d eriv ed for the reaction turbine ,

assuming ag a in th a t th ere a re no lo sses to be co nsid ered We

“

mu st rem emb er th a t in the rea c tio n tu rbi ne th ere are no nozzl es

for exp anding the steam but th a t the exp ansio n occu rs in bo th
the sta tio nary and the movin g bl ad es so th a t as the stea m goes ,

th rough the tu rbine its v eloci ty is g radu ally and co ntinu all y
ch angi ng .

We Sh all first co nsid er a rea c tio n tu rbi ne (Fig 4 6 ) wi th o nl y .

two sets of bl ad es As th ere a re no nozzl es the first set is of

.
, ,

cou rse m ad e sta tionary The steam exp and s in goi ng th rough
,
.

The reason for designi ng the first l argest amount of work

g
sta e for the
from 2 5 to 50 per cent more than in any of the oth er stages is most apparent in
.

t urbi nes Operated by cut off gov erning lik e the Curti s and Wilki nson t urbi nes
-
”
.

T his meth od of gov erni ng permi ts a constant sta ndard pressure ( presumably tha t
giving the maxi mum effi ci ency) in the first sta ge at all l oads whil e wi th fl uctuati ng ,

loads the pressures wil l v ary consi derabl y in the other stages .
7 8 THE ST EA M TU RBI N E

th ese ionary bl ad es and attains the veloci ty V 2 wh en it

stat

rea ch es the first set of movi ng bl ad es The rel ativ e v eloci ty wi t h .

whi ch the steam enters the movi ng bl ad es is V fl N ow in these .

,

FI G 4 6
. . V eloci ty D i ag ra ms for One Stage of a R e ti on T u bi ne
ac r .

bl ades the steam Is agai n exp and ed so th at ju st b efo re it l eav es ,

the mov ing bl ad es its rel a tiv e v eloci ty is which is g reater th an

V z
r The ab solu te v eloci ty a t which it is di sch arg ed f rom the
.

mov ing bl ad es is V 3 and we hav e the following energy rel ations :

,

yg
k ineti c energy d evel oped in th e stati onary bl ad es, or the
2 g
kinetic ener gy enter n i g the mov ing bl ad es .

2 2
V V r2
k inetic energy d evel oped in th e moving bl ades
1 3
‘

2 g
2
V3
k inetic energy carried away in th e d i sch arged s tea m}
2 g
The ac tu al work done on th e moving blades is ( kin etic Wk
energy of the steam enterin g the mov ing bl a d es) (kinetic en
ergy d evelop ed in the moving bl ad es) ( ki net ic energy c a rri ed
a w a y ) or ,

V2 2
v3 2
V 2
2
v3 2

( 9)
r 1
_
1
_

2 g 2 g 2 g

I f the steam had l ef t the moving bl ad es wi th z ero v eloci ty ,

and ,

th erefo re, no energy had b een c arri ed a w ay in the disch arg ed

stea m the energy a v ail abl e for wo rk would be
,

2 2 2
Y V T3 V r2
_

_
2
_

2 g 2 g

See note at the bottom of pageb q regardi ng thi s i

nota t on .
 T HE S T E A M TU RBINE

V’ “ 2

ki netic ener gy d ev elop ed in the thi rd mo vi ng

bl ad es .

2
V0
;
ki netic ener gy c arri ed a w a y in the di sch a rg ed stea m .

2
_

We ob serv e h ere th at the v elo ci ti es V an d V 5 a re not lo st but a 3 ,

rep resent v eloci ti es th a t ca n b e eff ec tiv e in the succ eedi ng sta g es .

For thi s reaso n th ei r energi es do not enter the di scu ssio n of

effi ci ency T he a ctal wo rk in movi ng the bl ad es is th en
.

w. _

2 g

N ow , d esig ni ng a reactio n tu rbine it is d esi rabl e to

in
assum e th a t the bl ad e v eloci ti es and the co rrespo ndi ng angl es

of the bl ad es are the sa m e and th at equ al steam v eloci ti es are

d evelop ed in each of the th ree stages so th at , ,

v
V
V r.)

it
I/ 2

Wk
_

r3
= —
+
3
.

T he to tal energy in the stea m a v ail abl e for wo rk in thi s c a se is

W . 3

T he effi ci ency is th en

( 2 3 )
w , v 2
+ v
2 —
V

I t iscl ear th en th at in the exp ressio n for effi ci ency the l ast
, ,

term in the nu m era to r ch ang es its co effi ci ent wi th the numb er of

stag es and w e see in wh at p ropo rtio n the effi ci ency is i nc reased

,

wi th the nu mb er of stag es .
 S T EA M TU RBI NE T Y PES AND B LA D E D ES IGN 8 1

P R ACT I C A L D ES IG N I N G OF B L A D ES .

In d esigni ng bl ad es for stea m tu rbi nes w e mu st d etermi ne wi th

accu ra cy ,

( )
1 T he a n gl es fo r th e edg es of th e bl a d es .

( )
2 T he ra di a l h eigh t or l en g th of t he bl a d es .

F rom the p rec edi ng di scu ssio n of v eloci ty di a g ra m s and bl ad e

effi ci enci es it Shoul d be cl ea r how the b est angl es for the edg es are

ob tai ned It is first nec essary to c alcul ate the v eloci ty resul ti n g
.

f rom adi a b atic exp ansio n b etw een the limi ts of p ressu res in the
sta g e for which the bl ad es a re i ntend ed T h en v eloci ty di a g ra m s
.

mu st be co nstru c ted v aryi ng the bl ad e angl es if the bl ad e sp eed is

,

assum ed till the b est effi ci ency is ob ta i ned T hi s will be wh en .

the stea m l ea v es the l a st bl a d es nea rly a t righ t angl es to the

l ane of the wh eel ; th a t is wh en the a b solu te v eloci ty of the stea m

p ,

l eavi ng the bl ad es is in the di a g ra m nearly p erp endicul ar to the

, ,

li ne Showi ng the bl ad e v eloci ty ( see p age

D esign of B l ades for Impul se Turbin es We sh all co nti nu e wi th
.

the di scu ssio n of the d esig n of bl ad es for an impul se tu rbi ne wi th

nozz l es and wi th a si ngl e row

of blades assumi ng now th a t

,

the entranc e a nd exi t a ngl es

( 8 a n d 7 ) h a v e b een d eter

mi ned We Sh all assum e al so

.

th a t the to ta l area of the noz

z l es at th ei r l arg est sec tio n ha s

b een c alcul ated a s it has b een

expl a i ned on p a ges 3 6 to 4 1

T o a void lo sses by eddi es ,

nozzl es a re of ten a rrang ed in

g roup s pl a c ed symm etric ally

wi th resp ec t to the p eriph ery F G 4 8 D i g m Sh owi ng Lo ti n of
I ‘ ,
—
a ra ca o

of the bl ad e wh eel Usu ally .

N ozzl e in D i ph g m s a a ra .

the nozzl es would be a rrang ed

in two g roup s di a m etric a lly oppo si te in a ci rcul ar pl ate c all ed a ,

d i aphragm a s in Fig 4 8
, We sh all assum e th at ea ch nozzle
. .
 82 4 T H E ST E A M TU RBI NE

g roup cov ers one fou rth of the ci rcumferenc e of the bl ad e wh eel
-
.

T h en if the bl a d es in the wh eel w ere remov ed so th a t th ey

could not ob struc t the fl ow of stea m the area th rough which the ,

stea m can p ass is app roxim at ely i n D h for ea ch nozzl e g roup

'

wh ere D is the m ean di a m eter of the bl ad e wh eel and h is the

h eigh t of the O p eni ng from which the bl ad es h av e b een remov ed .

Wh en how ev er th ere are b l ad es on the wh eel the h eigh t h

, ,

mu st be i nc rea sed b ec au se the eff ec tiv e a rea for the p assa g e of

,

stea m is reduc ed .

Fig 4 9 show s two vi ew s of a sm all segm ent of a bl ad e wh eel

.
.

T he pi tch of the bl ades is m ark ed p and the bl a d e a ngl e is 8 If ,

.

th ere are no bl ad es the a rea for the p assa g e of stea m in a l en g th p

,

is app roxim ately p x h Wi th the bl ad es in the wh eel the a rea

.

is o nly p X h sin fl * It follow s th en wh en w e h a v e bl ad es

.
,

u nd er the nozzl e g roup s th at the eff ectiv e area u nder each grou p
,

is u D h sin fl I f we c a ll A the to tal area of th e nozzl es a t the

.

l argest cro ss sectio n ( mo uth ) we can w ri te

-

sin
( 2 4)
2 D fl
For stea m v ery high v eloci ty the h eigh t of the bl ad es as cal cu
at

l ated will be too sm all for p ra c tic a l wo rki ng co ndi tio ns ; so th at

bl ad es l ess th an 2 5 i nch high are not often m ad e T hi s mi nimum
. :

h eigh t is d etermi ned mo st on a ccou nt of m ech an ic al di ffi c ul ti es ;

but stea m l eak a g e th rough the cl earan c e ou tsid e the bl ad es al so
be com es exc essiv e wh en v ery sm all bl ad es are u sed .

In impul se tu rbi nes wi th o nly a few sta g es no effo rt is m a d e to

m ak e use of the v eloci ty a s such of the stea m l eavi n g the l ast
, ,

bl a d es of a sta ge T hi s m eans som e lo ss ; and mo re exp erim enta l

.

wo rk migh t w ell be do ne wi th the obj ec t of showi ng how thi s lo ss

ca n b e turn ed to b etter a cco un t .

Fig 5 0 show s how impul se turbi ne bl ad es a re l a id out

. T he .

I t is a ssu med in su c h l l i
ca cu at ons t h at the t hi k ne
c ss of g
the ed es of the b l ades
is pra cti ca ll y negligi b l e .
 T H E S T EA M TU RB INE

p lai nly the c enter for th ese arc s T hi s co nstru c tio n m a k es the .

p erp endicul a r wid th of the stea m p assa ge nea rl y co nsta nt

”
.

B l ade V elo ci ty Lo sses V a rio us attemp ts h av e b een m ad e by

.

exp erim enters to d etermi ne the v eloci ty lo sses in bl a d es wi th

s ta tio nary app ara tu s u su a lly by som e m ethod of m ea su ri ng the

,

reactio n som ewh at in the sa m e w ay a s the co effi ci ents giv en in

.

F ig 2 8 w ere ob ta i ned for nozzl es

. Such resul ts ho w ev er are .
, ,

n ot sa ti sf a c to ry for a pplic a tio n to d esi g ni ng F ri ctio na l ed dy ,

a nd im pact lo sses in movi ng bl a des are c ertam v ery d ifi ere

.
,

nt

f rom w hat th ey a re i n sta tio n ary bl ades App arently th ere are .

o nly two w a y s to et good d a ta reg a rdi n g th ese lo sses E i th er

g .

t he v eloci ty mu st be m easu red b etw een the bl a d es of an op era t

ing tu rbi ne wi th a Pi to t tub e or simil ar d evic e or th ey mu st ,

b e d etermi ned by the

“ cut and try
”
m ethod th at has b een
g enerally follow ed by d esig ners T he l atter m ethod is c ertai nly .

exp ensiv e a nd a slow one for ob ta i ni ng resul ts It seem s th ere

fo re th at mo re wo rk should be do ne alo ng the li ne of the fo rm
.
,

, er

m ethod by the a pplic atio n of the Pi to t tub e In the l atest d esigns .

of steam tu rbi nes th ere 1 5 no di ffi cul ty a bou t g etti ng suffi ci ent

s p a c e for a p ressu re tub e b etw een the bl ad es a s the a xi a l cl ea r ,

a nc e in l arg e tu rbi nes is of ten a s much a s

1
75 i n ch .

Fig 5 1 show s v alu es of the v eloci ty co effi ci ents to be a pplied

.

in d esig ni ng stea m tu rbi ne bl ad es Cu rv e A is for bl ad es re .

ceivin
g stea m f rom n ozzl es C u rv e B is fo r sta.tio n a ry bl a d es ,

or for movi ng bl ad es rec eivi ng stea m f rom sta tio nary bl a des .

V a lu es of bo th cu rv es v ary wi th the rel a tiv e v eloci ty of the stea m

in th e bl ad es T he tru e v eloci ty in the bl ad es is fou nd by mul
.

tiplying the th eo retic a l rel a tiv e v eloci ty by the co effi ci ent f rom

the T he v alu es giv en by th ese cu rv es ma y be ta k en

a s f a i rly rep resenta tiv e for a ll the w ell k now n comm erci a l typ es -

V a ues l given by t eseh v

cu r es a g
ll w i th the d ete mi nation made by
ree we r s

R a te u Stev ens a nd H oba t f om the na l y i of th e l o es in opera ting tu b i ne

a , ,
r r a s s ss r s .

Hob a t ca l cul ated th at th e b l ad e f i ctio n l n d ed dy l osse in a 7 5 h o sepow er

_
r r a a s 2 -
r

D e L a v a l tu b i ne a e 1 7 pe cent of the ste m vel o i ty w hi h in thi case is a bout

r r r . a c c s

4
. feet per se ond He state l o th t g ene ll y in tu b i nes of thi type th i s
00 0 c . s a s a ra r s

l os is about 1 5 per cent of the el t ive v el o i ty in the b l ad es It is tated th at

s . r a c . s

d esig ne s of R ateau tu b i ne assume a b l de v el oci ty effici ency of 9 6 per cent at

r r s a .

rel ativ e v el o i ti e of bout 6

c s f eet pe e ond O b viousl y ne r z e o v eloci ty the
a 00 r s c . a r
 STEA M TU RBI N E T Y PES AN D BL AD E D ES IGN

in wh i ch the bl d
a es h a v e smoo t h s u rf a c es a n d th e en tra n c e

dg
e es are m d
a e comp a ra t iv ely s h ar p an d a t a tr u e an gl e T h es e .

cu rv es are in tend ed to be read

for o nly two signific ant figures .

The ini ti al stea m v eloci ti es

in tu rbines of the P arsons t yp e
a
‘

t
n
e
is
i

v ary f rom I 50 to 60 0 feet per

c
fi
f

e
o ‘ s
C
seco nd in R a teau tu rb ines f rom
, t
y s
i

5 0 0 to 1 50 0 f eet per seco nd in ,

l
o
e
a
V
a
Cu rti s tu rbines f rom 1 50 0 to
f ee t e r seco nd and in the
3 0 0 0 p ,

D e L av al type f rom 2 50 0 to 4 500 m 500 1 000 1 500 2500

R m ela tive V el oci ty of Stea
f eet per second .
mm F , . ,

T l e efi crency Of
'
i f
V CI SIOII 1 11
energy con

bl ad es Of Steam C u ve A fo movi ng b l de follow i ng

the
FIG .
51
r
. Bl ade

r
V el oc i ty Coeffi ci ents
a
.

u b i v i f om 6 t e nozzl e C e B f t t i b l d
t r n e s a r es r 0 o 7 p
0 r u o on y e s . rv rs a ar a s

o fo movi ng bl d e foll ow i ng t r r a s s a
c ent for siz es f rom 3 0 0 to 3 00 0
t i n y b l de o ar a s .

k i lowatts Tand 1 s roug hl y abou t

,

e r c ent for sm all er si es of impul se tu rbines do wn to abou t

5 p
0 .
z
1 0 kilow at ts Still sm all er siz es may h a v e effi ci enci es l ess than
.

5 p
0 e r c en t . d ep e,
n di ng l a rg ely on the t yp e of co nstru c tio n F o r .

any siz e of tu rbi ne th en the di ff erenc e b etw een 1 0 0 per c ent

, ,
.

and thi s effi ci ency o f energy co nv ersio n is the lo ss due to di sk and

bl ad e ro tatio n l eak age residu al v eloci t y and ra di a tio n
, , ,
.

In a w ell d esigned tu rbi ne of say 3 0 0 to 50 0 k ilow atts c a p aci ty ,

’
-

loss is pract i call y zero D esig ners of Parsons and Curt i s turbi nes must use some
.

B
what l arg er coeffi cients ( cf Curv e ) for combi nat i ons of sta t i onary and movi ng
.

bl ad es , because sta ti ona ry bl ades are not as f i

efi c ent as no zzl es . The d a ta for
h curv es were obtai ned by mea suri ng wi th mod i fied Pi tot tube appara tus the
t ese
v el oci ty of stea m d i scharged f rom sta ti onary bl ades of v ari ous desig ns The .

steam was di rected upon the bl ad e s f rom cal i bra ted nozzl es .

In stati ng t hi s effi ci ency i t is assumed t ha t ad eq ua te provi si on is made in

th ese turbi nes to prev ent l eak age: in i mpul se t urbi nes bet ween the diaphragrns ,

and the Sh af t ; and in reacti on turb i ne, s ov er the ends of the b l ad es through the
, _

radi al cle a rance Thi s leak age loss is as much as 1 0 to 1 5 per cent in some good
. .

commerci al turbi nes It sh oul d be red uced h owev er to not more than 5 per cent
.
, ,
.

TA well k nown engineer sta tes that the energy efli ciency of the 90 0 0 to
-

kil owatt turbi nes i nstalled in N ew Y ork and Chi ca go is as high as 80 per cent On .

a conserv a t iv e basi s h owever about 7 0 per cent can be assumed for sooo ki lowatt
, , .
-
.

siz e s and 7 5 per cent for kil owat t sizes

.
-
.
 86 THE ST EA M TU RBI NE

the sum of the lo sses due to

f ric tio n disk and blade ro tation or ,

wind ag e leak age residu al v eloci ty and ra di ati on lo sses is

, , , ,

t h erefo re abou t 4 0 per c ent

, B ut th ese are not all ac tu al lo sses
.
.

T he energy equiv al ent of each of th ese lo sses exc ep t th a t due to ,

ra di atio n which is v ery sm all is i mm edi ately co nv erted into

, ,

h eat and is p arti ally reg ained in reh eati ng the steam The sum
, .

of th ese lo sses ac tu ally reh eati ng the steam exp ressed as a per ,

.
c entag e of the to tal av ail abl eenergy is c all ed thereheating factor , .

D ES IGN OF BL AD ES FOR AN IM PUL SE TU RBIN E

B l ad es are to be d esigned for a 3 00
kilow att tu rbine to operate -

wi th steam at 50 F sup erh eat at an i ni tial p ressu re of 1 6 5

°
.
,

pou nd s per squ are i nch ab solu te and exh au sting at 1 pound per ,

squ are i nch ab solu te ( app rox im ately 2 8 inch es v acuum ) B l ad e .

sp eed V , is 50 0 f eet per seco nd at the rated speed 3 60 0 r

p m .

I t is assum ed th a t the nozzl e wi ll be co rrec tly d esig ned for the

p ressu re so th at thenozzl e v eloci ty lo ss is 3 per c ent Gov erning
,
.

”
is to be accompli sh ed by the m ethod of cu tting out nozzl es
i n the fi rst stag e ( see p ag e B y thi s m ethod a p rac ti cally
c o nstant s team p ressu re is m ai ntained in the nozzl es of the first
s tag e f rom ligh t lo ad to ov erlo a d and the v eloci ti es in thi s stag e
,

a re a t all lo ad s app roxim ately tho se gi vin g the b est bl ad e effi

ciencies In the o th er stages how ev er wh ere the numb er of

.
, ,

n ozzl es op en is not co ntroll ed by the gov erno r the v eloci ties are ,

v ari abl e For thi s reaso n a l arg e p ressu re d rop is to be u sed

.

*
f or thi s stag e and to u ti liz e the resul ti ng high v eloci ty effi ci ently
,

t h ere a re to be t wo v eloci ty stag es in thi s p ressu re stag e A

“

reaso nabl e v a lu e for the fi rst stag e p ressu re is a bou t 3 5 pou nd s

e r squ are i nch ab solu te T h e o th e r sta g es a re to be d esigned

p .

for high est eflflciency wi th a si ngl e bl ad e wh eel in ea ch p ressu re

stag e Such a d esig n will be a compou nd t yp e
.
4 the first stag e
r esembli ng the Cu rti s and the o th er stag es the R a tea u tu rbi nes
, .

T he energy a v a il abl e f rom a di ab ati c exp ansio n in the first stag e

n ozzl es ( as rea d f rom the entrop y h eat ch art) f rom 1 6 5 pou nd s
‘

°
‘

p e r squ are i nch a b solu te and 50 F sup erh eat to 3 5 pou nd s .

”
See f ootnote on page 7
g
88 T HE STEA M TU RBI N E

not beg reater th an twic e the bl ad e sp eed Equ ation ( 1 8 b ) .

show s the rel a tio n b etw een the stea m a nd bl ad e v eloci ti es for

the high est effi ci en cy a nd thi s equ atio n can be u sed for determin
,

ing qui te a ccu ra tely the best energy di stri bu ti on B ec au se a .

d esigni ng co effi ci ent ( C) mu st be i nserted to co rrec t for the v eloci ty

lo ss in the bl ad es thi s equ atio n will now be w ri tten
,

C VL
Vb z — .

(19 )
2 cos §fl ~

Now the v eloci ty co effi ci ent for si ngl e bl ad e wh e

el s is a bou t
T he angl e 8 is u su a lly a bo ut 4 0 d eg rees B l ad e sp eed .
,

V b, is 50 0 f eet p er seco n d T h en .

B ut from equ a tio n (2 we h av e the re at l io n th at t he a v a il abl e

energy (E ) in term s of v eloci ty is
a

B T U
. . .

I t is S hown th en th a t q d energy per stag e i s b etw een

the re ui re

and 2 0 B T U e r sta g e T h e energy di stribu tio n wi th

p . . . .

reh eatin g (4 0 per c ent ) was c alcul a ted wi th the h elp of the ch art
.

for 1 9 5 and for

. B T U per sta g e and it was fou n d po ssibl e
. . .
,

to get almo st ex a c tly e qu al energy di stribu tio n wi th 1 2 stag es

ea ch of B T U b etw een 3 5 pou nd s p ressu re ( qu ali t y 9 8 5)
. . . .

~
and the exh a u st p ressu re pou nd Thi s di stribu tio n is shown .

in Fig 5 2 The qu ali t y of the steam in each sta g e is reco rd ed

. .
,

so th a t the di sk and bl a d e f ric tio n can be c alcul a ted l a ter f rom

the fo rmul as in Ch ap ter V .

See Fig 5 T o determi ne a n approx i mate v a l ue for thi s coeffi ci ent the
. 1 .

prob ab l e rel at iv e v eloc i ty must b e esti mated I f a v e y l a ge e o w e e mad e . r r rr r r

in assumi ng thi s coeffi ci ent it w ou l d be d i s ov e ed as soon as the v el oci ty d i ag ams

c r r

a e made as the rel ativ e v el oci ty a nd the coeffici ents a re th en accu atel y d e
r ,
ter r

mi ned .
 ST EA M TU RB I N E T YPES AN D B L AD E D ES I GN 89

Veloci ty of the stea m di sch arg ed from . the first sta g e nozzl es

V2 .
97 X V I 2 2 2
39 8 feet per seco nd ,

and t h at from ea ch of the o th er sta ges is

V ,
’
.
97 X V IES 6
9 5 f eet per seco nd .

~ v eloci ty co effi ci ents giv en

T he in Fig . h av e b een u sed to
5 1

l a y out the tri angl es in Fig s 5 3 . and 54 .The a pplic a tio n can
be b est illu stra ted by the
tri angl es in Fig 53 Show .
,

ing the v eloci ti es of the

first sta g e .

For co nstruc ti ng the

tri angl es in F ig 5 3 V is .
, 2

l aid off i ncli ned 2 0 de

g rees (the nozzl e angl e)
to the ho rizo nta l and

m ad e to sc al e 2 3 9 8 feet .

. . l i
F IG 53 V e oc ty T r a n es for T wo V e oc ty i gl l i FIG 54 . . l i i gl es for
V e oc ty T r a n
g
Sta es in O ne Pressure Sta e g . a Si mpl e I mpu l se Wh eel .

T o the m e sc a l e the bl ad e sp eed ( V b ) is l aid off for 50 0

sa

f eet m a ki ng the rel ative velo ci ty

,
in the first row of
bl ad es 1 93 8 f eet per seco nd and the entranc e angl e ( B ) of ,

th ese bl ad es is fou nd to be 2 5 } d eg rees T he entranc e and 7 .

di sch arg e angl es will be m ad e equ al so th at the angl e C is al so

.

2 55 d eg rees d etermi ni ng the slop e of the rel a tiv e v eloci t y

,

The v eloc ity co effi ci ent tak en f rom cu rv e A in Fig 5 1 for a .

rel ativ e v eloci ty of 1 9 3 8 f eet is 8 8 so th a t V 1 93 8 X 8 8 or

.
, , 3
.

1 7 0 5 f eet
(
V b is a g ai n l a id off in a ho rizo ntal di rec tio n and the
.
,

a b solu te v eloci ty of the stea m di sch arg ed f rom the first row of
9 0 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E
,

bl ad es ( V 3 ) as read by the scale is 1 2 7 0 f eet and the tru e dis ,

ch arge angl e ( D ) is 3 5 d eg rees In o rd er th at the stea m ma y .

enter the sta tio nary i nterm ediate bl ades wi thou t shock the ,

entran c e angl e of th ese bl a d es mu st b e al so 3 5 d eg rees a nd the ,

di sch arg e angl e (E) will be m ad e 2 0 d eg rees the sam e as the nozzle ,

angl e .T he v eloci ty co effi ci ent is now rea d from curv e B in

'

Fig 5 1. fo r 1 2 70 f eet * which is 8 7 a nd V is l aid off for

,
.
, ,

1 2 70 X 87 1 1 0 5 f eet
. Compl eti ng the tri angl es V
. is 6 6 2 , ,4 ,

a nd the entra nc e a nd di sch arge angl es F and G are ea ch 3 5

d eg rees T he v eloci ty co effi ci ent ( read f rom cu rv e B ) is 9 3 so
. .
,

th at V 5 is 6 1 5 f eet a nd the fina l di sch arg e v eloci ty ( V ) is 3 55

, 5

f eet .

V eloci ti es and bl ad e angl es are d etermi ned in the sam e w ay

( by a pplyi ng a v eloci ty co effi ci ent ) for the 1 2 si ngl e wh eel sta g es

as show n in F ig 5 4 . .

'

D ata a nd results of th ese v eloci ty tri angl es a re tabul ated

b elow for co nv eni ent ref erenc e
B l ade Angl es and V elo ci ti es of F irst Stag e .

Fi rst row ( movi ng ) : entranc e and di sch arg e angl es 2 5% d eg rees .

I nterm edi ate ( statio nary) : entranc e angl e 3 5 d eg rees ; di sch arg e
a ngl e 2 0 d eg rees .

Seco nd row ( movi ng ) : entra nc e and di sch arg e angl es 3 5

d eg rees .

Vb 5 00 V 1 93 8 X 8 8 . 1 7 0 5 V 66 2

V2 2 39 8 V3 1 2 7 0 V,5 66 2 X
V 1 93 8 V4 1 2
7 0 X 87
. 1 10 5 V5 3 55 .

B l ade Angl es and V elo ci ti es of Seco nd to Th i rteenth Stages .

Si ngl e row ( movrng) : entran c eand di sch arge a ngl es 3 9 % d eg rees .

V, 5 0 0 V ,3 5 2 5 X 9 6 .
5 4
0 .

V2 6
9 5 V3 339
Vfl 5 2 5
ligh tly high er effici ency could h av e b een ob tai ned if the first
A s

stag e p ressu re ha d not b een a ssum ed but h ad b een d etermi ned

‘

I n stat ionary b l ades the absol ute a nd rel ative v el o i ti es are equa l c .
9 2 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

Simil arly for the seco nd sta g e (al so thi rd to t hi rteenth g

sta es )

we h av e,

B l ad e Effici ency 2
V,

)
2
69 2
2
B l ad e Efli ciency

B l ad e Effi ci ency per c ent .

N o zz l e and bl ad e efi ciency of the l ast tw elv e sta g es is th erefo re

X V 97 .
per cent .

The combined
“total
o zl e and bl ad e efi ciency of
or
”
n z th e

turbine, p ro ra ted acco rding to stag e energy is th en , , ,

X 1 2 2 X X 1 2 *
per c ent .

1 2 2 X 1 2 )
B esid es ozzl e and bl ad e lo sses th ere a re b ea ri ng lo sses
the n , ,

i ncludi ng the f ric tio n of the gl and or stuffi ng box on the sh aft -

a nd the pow er for the gov erno r and oil pump s a mou nti ng to ,

a bou t 2 per c ent in a tu rbi ne of thi s siz e ] T he ra di atio n lo ss is L

a bou t 1 per c ent the lo ss d ue to l ea k a g e of stea m alo ng the sh af t

,

b etw een the stag es should not be mo re th an 7 per c ent and the .
,

A t l hough giv e as high net b l ade effici ency the adopt i on

vel oci ty stages do not ,

of thi s type fo th e fi rst stag e ma k es it poss i b l e b ecau se of th e l

r
ge va il abl e energy ,
ar a

req u i ed fo thi s st ge bythi s meth od to ma k e th e tu b i ne v ery econom i ca l a t ligh t

r r a ,
r

l oads B y p ovi d i ng a sui tab l e v a lv e g ear the number of nozzl es open i n thefi st
. r r

st ge a n b e ont oll ed by th e g ov e no
a c c r ( See pa g es 2 2 r r
. 1

I B ea ri ng l oss in tu b i nes is usua ll y v ery sma ll A cco d i ng to L asch e of the

“
r . r

A llg emei ne Electricitat G esell sch af t B e li n the fri cti on coefli cient (f ) is ,
r ,

=
f 2 (t X P) ,

h
w ere t is th e temperature of the b ea r i ng in deg ees C a nd p is the pressure in r .

kil og ams per squa e centi mete T he oto of a 0 0 0 kilow att P a sons tu b i ne
r r r. r r 1 -
r r

w eigh s about 3 0 0 0 po und s a nd the d i sk s a nd sh af t of a n i mpul se turb i ne woul d

,

o b ab l y w eigh l ess
p r .

L a ng en in the Z ei t ch f ur das Gesamte Turbi nenwesen ( O ct 1 9 1 9 7 ) states

s . .
,
0

that the b ea i ng ( j ou na l ) f i ct i on of a w ell d es ig ned P a rsons tu b i ne is a bout

r r r -
r

.2 pe cent r a nd th at th e tota l f i ct ion l oss i ncl ud i ng g ov e nor a nd oil pump arel y

.
,
r r r

exceed s 1 per cent .

Stodola
’
s tests of a Zoelly turb i ne w i th of cou se a much sh orter casi ng th an
, , r ,

t h at of a P arsons type, sh ow th e rad i at i on l oss f rom the casi ng to b e about 7 per .

 ST EA M TU RBI N E T Y PES AN D BLAD E D ES IG N 93

a c tu al net lo ss of h ea t a v a il abl e due to ro ta tio n of di sk s and

The sum of the b earing ,
*
bl a d es will be abou t 1 0 per c ent .

ra di atio n l eak a g e and ro ta tio n lo sses is th en a bou t 2 0 per c ent

, ,
.
,

a nd the effi ci ency of th e turb in e a s m easured by wo rk d o ne at

th e shaf t is abou t 8 1 per c en t ( f rom p ag e 9 2 ) l ess 2 0 per c en t

. .
,

or abou t 6 1 per c ent .

The th eo retic al steam co nsump tio n ( w a ter ra te) of a p erf ec t

engi ne op era ting wi t h stea m a t the sa m e i ni ti a l p ressu re sup er ,
L
h eat and exh au st p ressu re is
,
po un d s per kilow a tt hour ) -
.

Sinc e the sh af t effi ci en cy is 6 1 per c ent the equiv al ent steam .

,

co nsump ti o n per shaf t k ilo watt h o ur d ev elo ped in the bl ad es is -

6 1 or
.
,
pound s Genera to r effi ci ency mi gh t be .

assum ed to be a bou t 9 2 per c ent for a good d esig n sui ta bl e for .

thi s high sp eed rel a tiv ely to the siz e and the steam co nsump tio n ,

kilow t t hou “ t the wi tchbo d ”

would be bou t
p e r a r a -
s a r a

.
9 2 poun d s i
The energy effici en cy negl ec ting lo sses of each sta g e wi th a
, ,

Si ngl e row of bl ad es can be exp ressed app roxim ately b y equ a tio n
.

thu s ,

Effi ci ency 87 ( nearly ) .

6
9 5
The nozz l es for this turbine d esigned to di sch arge mu st be
a t f ull l oad 3 00 X pou nd s or 54 7 8 pou nd s per h0ur at
° “
50 F sup.erh ea t T o ta l th ro a t a r
.ea of t he n ozzl es ( A O) can

be c alcul a ted by equ a tio n for sup erh ea ted stea m wh ere ,

The actual rota t on i l oss for thi s d esign formulas can be l l

ca cu a ted by the
“
giv en in the followi ng ch apter B ut a la rge pa rt of the tota l l oss as cal cul a ted
.
”

becomes ag ai n a v a il able as the resul t of reh ea t i ng The mea n pi tch d i a meter of .

t he blades is
50 0 X 60

TA kil owatt hour is eq ui val ent to

-
foot pounds or 3 4 1 2 B T U per -
. . .

hour foot pounds per mi nute) In t his case the total a v a il abl e energy
-
.

tak en a s one expansi on is ( 1 2 2 5 8 9 ) 3 3 3 B T U per pound of steam a nd the

2 . . .
,

theoreti cal steam consumpt i on is 3 4 1 2 3 3 3 or pounds ,

.

I G uaranteed stea m consumpti on woul d be about 1 0 per cent more th an the .

est i mated wa ter rate It is the usua l practi ce of ma nufact urers of stea m turbi nes
.

and engi nes to add a percen ta ge of about t hi s v a l ue to a ll ow for possible def ectiv e
work manshi p in const ruct i on .
 94 T HE STEA M TU RBI N E

D 50 d eg rees F
, 5 7
4 8 x
3 6 oo
,
,
or - pou n d s per se co nd ,

nd P i pou d : T h e
‘

n n
'

a 5 s

( 1 6 5V
7

The v alv e gear will be d esig ned to op en 8 nozzles for the first .
,

stag e a t f ul l lo a d wi th p rovi sio n for op eni ng 4 mo re a t ov erlo a d

, ,

SO that 50 per c en t ov erlo a d can b e c arri ed effi ci en tly by th e

‘

‘
-
.
.

tu rbi ne Th ese nozzl es will all be of the sam e siz e

. Ea ch fi rst .

stag e nozzl e will h a v e a

“ ”
th roa t a rea of 6 6 5 08 qu a re
"

3 s . .

i nch I t will be assum ed th a t the sec tion of the nozzl e a t the

.

throa t i s app roxim a tely squ are ( wi th rou nd ed corners) and th at ~

its width (in the ra di al di rec tio n wi th resp ec t to the bl a d e di sk ) is

con stant f ro mthroat to mou th or is V 08 3 i nc h ,
.
,
.

A c alcul a tio n should now be m ad e to d etermi ne the h eigh t

of the bl ad es to giv e su ffici ent area for the p assage of the ‘

stea m For thi s pu rpo se the l eng th of the nozzl es at th ei r

. . .

mo u th s mu st also be c alcul ated It is obviou s th at a no zzl e

'

'

FIG .
55 . D eta il s of the N ozzl e M outh .

c anno t be d esi gned to be our off a t the eh d of the exp andi ng

“
po rtio n at ri gh t angl es to its ax1 5 ; but an ex tensio n or tail is”

nec essary to di rec t the steam upo n the bl ad es T o avo id Sp read .

ing the jet a nd m a ki ng the exp ansio n ratio u nc erta i n thi s ,

“tail ” is often m ad e non exp andi ng so th at its w all is p arall el -

to the a xi s T he vary ing dim ensio ns of the nozzl es for thi s d esign
.

can be determined th en from the exp ansio n ratio whi ch a cco rd , ,

ing to the cu rv e in Fig 2 1 is app roxim a tely 1 5 2 for the expan .

,
.

sio n in the fi rst stag e nozzl es A rea a t the mou th 1 5 0 8 3 X 1 5 2 . . .

1 2 6 1 squ are i nc h but a s one dimensio n is co nstant the lo ng er

.
, ,
 9 6 THE ST EA M TU RBI N E

the resul t of exp i c h v

er en e and well defined sci en ti fic b asi s
a e no -
.

Som e of th ese fo rmul as will n ow be giv en t o d etermi ne the num

ber of stag es the rel atio n b etw een the m aximum bl ad e h eigh t and
,

the di am eter of the ro to r the n o lo a d steam co nsump tio n etc

,
-

,
.

T he ro to r of a P arso ns tu rbi ne exc ep t for m ari ne servic es is

, ,

m ad e commo nly in th ree sec tio ns of diff erent di am eters At the .

-

high p ressu re end a sec tio n of sm all di am eter is u sed and the ,

i nterm edi ate and low p ressu re sec tio ns are m ad e rel a tiv ely l arger
to allow for the i nc reased volum e of the steamas it exp and s in

the bl ad es . In an impul se tu rbi ne on the o th er h and the wh eel s, ,

in the sev eral sta g es a re u su ally of the sa m e di am eter T hi s .

radic a l di ff erenc e in th e typ e of co nstru c tio n resul ts f rom a dmi t

ti ng in the rea c tio n tu rbi ne high p ressu re stea m a rou nd the whol e
p eriph ery of the ro tati ng p art whil e in the impul se tu rbi ne the
,

a dmi ssio n stea m is di sch arg ed th rough nozzl es occupyi ng u su ally

o nly a sm all p art of the p eriph ery .

T he di a m eter of the low p ressu re sec tio n of the ro to r of a

m
.

rea c tio n tu rbi ne is d etermi ned by the p er i ssibl e bl ad e sp eed

and the rated sp eed of ro ta tio n ( revolu tio ns per mi nu te) Wi th .

a d rum co nstruc tio n it is not p ermi ssibl e to a dop t p eriph eral

sp eed s for the ro to r high er th an a bou t 3 0 0 f eet per seco nd The .

sp eed of the ro to r ( revolu tio ns per mi nu te) will d ep end on the

c ap a ci ty of thetu rbi ne or mo re p articul arly if it is to be co nnec ted

, ,

to an el ec tric g enera to r on the allow abl e sp eed of the g enerato r

, .

A tabl e on p ag e 9 7 giv es the rated sp eed s of a numb er of

di ff erent siz es of comm erci al tu rbi ne generato rs of the Parso ns -

'
typ e som e of which it wi l l b e ob serv ed are not for stand ard
, , ,

f requ enci es in Am eric a .

It is much mo re di ffi cul t to d esig n a tu rbi ne g enerato r wi th -

su ffi ci ent streng th in a ro tati ng field or arm atu re th an the

tu rbi ne p arts . T he di am eter of the low p ressu re sec tio n is gen -

erall y m ad e V 2 tim es th at of the i nterm edi ate sec tio n and the ,

di a m eter of the i nterm edi ate sec tio n i s V 2 tim es th at of the

high p ressu re sec tio n It follow s th en obviou sly th at the ratio
-
.

of the bl ad e sp eed s of succ essiv e sec tio ns is al so V 2 .

T n I n t of Engi nee
ra s . s . nd Shi pbu il de ( 9 5
rs a rs 1 0
 ST EA M TU RB I N E T YP ES AN D B L AD E D ES IG N

T he sp eed of ro tatio n of tu rbi nes di rec t co nnec ted to al ternat

ing cu rrent el ec tric g enerato rs is u su ally d etermi ned by the
-

f requ ency For the u su al f requ ency in Am eric a for el ec tric

.

ligh ti ng ( 6 0 cycl es ) the genera to r mu st be op erated at 3 60 0 ,

1 8 0 0 or 0 0 revolu tio ns er mi nu te; a nd for 1 5 cycl es the revol u

9, p
tio ns c anno t of cou rse exc eed 9 0 0 per mi nu te as a g enera to r
, , ,

c a nno t be buil t wi th l ess th a n two pol es .

Peri h era l Bl ad e
Speed
p
eet per S eco nd . N umb er of
R ev l uom
N orma1 0 utput of T urhine “
R o ws
i éia
Fi rs t
Expans ion
Las t
E xpa ns ion 8&3n Mi nut e.

( Secti on) .
( Secti on) .

U su ally in d esig ns wi th th ree di fferent di am eters of the ro to r

( th ree sec t io ns ) t he numb er
,
of r ow s of bl ad es or stages i s

a rra ng ed so th at one qu arter of the to tal wo rk is do ne in the

-

high p ressu re sec tio n T he interm edi ate sec tio n tak es al so one
-
.

qu arter of the to tal wo rk and the low p ressu re sec tio n one h alf
,
- -
.

D esig ners of P a rso ns tu rbi nes h av e lo ng u sed the followi ng

fo rmul a to d etermi ne the numb er of row s of bl ad es
Vb n co nstant z
,

wh ere V b is the m ean p eriph eral v eloci ty of the bl ad es o f any

sec tio n and n is the co rrespo ndi ng to tal numb e r of row s of

bl ad es on the ro to r or in o th er wo rd s the numb er of sta ges

, , .

D esig ners of m arine tu rbi nes u su ally assum e the v alu e of the
co nstant at abou t to but for el ec tri c

g en er ato r se rvi ce wh ere much high,

er p eriph eral s p eed s ar e

allo wabl e the v a lu e of thi s co nstant v a ri es f rom

,
to

d ep endi ng som ewh at on the allowa bl e radi al cl ear

a nces T he low er v alu e ca n be u sed wh en the m achi ne
.

wo rk is a ccu rate a nd the d esigni ng has b een do ne wi th g reat

9 8 T HE ST EA M RB I N E
TU

c are to elimi nate u nequ al exp ansio n b etw een the ro to r and the
c asi ng ( see p age
It som etim es h a pp ens wh en arrangi ng the bl a di ng in g roup s ,

th at a fra c tio n al p art of a sta g e is shown b y the c a lcul atio ns .

In such a c ase two g roup s may be combi ned i nto one of abo ut .

the a v era g e h eigh t if in thi s w a y a whol e numb er of row s ca n be

,

secu red . Prob ably it will th en b e fou nd th at one or tw o of the

l ast row s of bl ad es do not giv e su ffi ci ent a rea for the p assa g e of the
stea m and thi s area is th en i nc rea sed by
“ ”
g augi ng the bl ad es in
,
“ ”
bo th the ro to r and c asi ng T hi s g augi ng is do ne by fo rci ng a
.

pi ec e of metal p ref era bly not much h ard er th an the m etal of the
bl ad es b etw een the bl ad es so as to twi st th em mo re nearly p aral
l el to the a xi s M anuf a c tu rers u si ng steel bl ad es h av e u su ally
.

sp eci al k ey s m ad e for the pu rpo se of twi sti ng the bl ad es by h and

“ ”
bo th for the pu rpo se of g augi ng and for ch angi ng the bl ad e
angl es in o rd er to secu re a n a ccu rate b al anc e b etw een th e end

t h ru st of the b al anc e pi sto ns ( see p ag e 1 56) and th a t of the bl a d es

.

I t is stated on v ery good a u tho ri ty th a t thi s twi sting of the bl ad es

a nd ch angi ng the angl es wi t h resp ec t to the steam flow a s much as

5 d eg rees do es not app reci ably a l ter the eco nomy of the tu rbi ne .

An ex ampl e illu stra ti ng the d esign of a comm erci al t yp e of

rea c tio n tu rbi ne will now be di scu ssed .

T he diffi cul t p art and th a t requi rin g the b est judgm ent in the
d esigning of a rea c tio n t yp e of steam tu rbi ne is in d eterm ini ng
as a ccu ra tely as po ssibl e the volum e of steam th a t wi ll p ass

th rough the bl a d es for its full c ap a ci ty ; th a t is wh en all the

,

v alv es controlli ng the admi ssio n of steam are wid e op en ; or in

o th er wo rd s wh en th ere IS no th ro ttling of the steam p ressu re .

I t is for thi s flow th at all the bl ad es mu st be p ropo rtioned for

th ei r b est effi ci ency I t is p resum ed th at for bo th ligh ter and
.

h ea vi er lo ad s the effici en cy and the steam co nsump ti on will not

be so good In o rd er to d etermi ne the volum e of steam flowi ng
.

a t thi s co ndi tio n obviou sly the a c tu al n umb er of pound s of

stea m to b e u sed by the tu rbi ne mu st fi rst b e kn ow n .

 1 00 THE STEA M TU RBI NE

1 50 0 kilowa tts h a vi ng reaso nably l arge cl earances at

to 50 0 0 ,

the tip s of the bl ad es .

Practi cal Exam pl e A reac tio n tu rbi ne wi th a drum ro to r of

.

t h ree sec tio ns is to be d esig ned to giv e a ra ted ou tpu t of 2 0 0 0

kilow atts op era ti ng a t 1 50 0 rp m Wh en suppli ed with steam

,
. ,

a t 1 6 5 pou nd s ab solu te p ressu re 1 0 0

0
F sup erh ea t and 1 pound ,
.
,

a b solu te exh au st p ressu re ( abou t 2 8 i nch es v a cuum ) the tu rbine ,

sh all c a rry 1 5 e r c en t ov erlo ad b efo re the b p o ov e lo d

p y as s r r a -
.

v alv e (see p ag e 1 7 0 ) op ens .

F or thi s d esig n ( 2 0 0 0 kilow a tts) th erefo re the v alu e of the , ,

co effi ci ent should be O rdi na tes of the cu rv e in

Fig ssa show th a t the co rrespo ndi ng effi ci ency ratio is abou t
.

. 67 5 .

i; The a v a il abl e energy

f rom the entrop y to tal h eat ch art f rom -

the i ni ti al co n di tio ns of 1 6 5 pou nd s per squ are in ch ab solu te

0
p ressu re and 1 0 0 F sup erh eat to the final p ressu re of one pound
.

a b solu te is 1 2 5 2 9 0 8 o r 3 4 4 per po un d of s te a m D iv idi ng .

t he B T U equiv al ent of a kilow a tt hou r whi ch is 3 4 1 2 by the

. . .
-

, ,

a v a il abl e energy per pound of steam ( 3 44 ) we ob ta i n a theoreti

c al steam co nsump tio n of po und s. The th eo retic al steam

consump tion di vid ed by the effi ci ency ratio giv es the ac tu al
s tea m co nsump tio n of the tu rbine per kilow att hou r as m eas -

ured a t the tu rbi ne sh af t or 6 7 5 is pound s I f we . .

a ssum e 5 per c ent lo ss for g enerato r and connec tions to the

.

s wi t chbo ard th en the steam co nsump tio n per kilow a tt a t the

s wi tchbo ard is 95 o r pou n d s of st ea m.wh en d ry

s atu ra ted (no sup erh eat) .

The steam co nsump tio n of reac tion tu rbi nes is reduc ed a t

l east 1 0 per c ent if the steam is sup erh ea ted as in thi s c ase
.
,

1 00 F (see p age
0
. so th a t the a c tu al numb er of pound s of

s team to be p assed th rough the tu rb ine for the co ndi tio ns sta ted

for thi s d esign is X 90 or pou nd s per hou r per kilo

.

w a tt a t the swi tchbo ard .

The tu rbi nemu st be d esig ned for a to tal steam co nsump tio n of
X 2 0 00 x pound s per hou r or pound s
er seco nd a t maximum o utput wh en the a dmi ssio n v alv e will
p ,
 ST EA M TU RBI N E T Y PES AN D BLAD E D ES IGN

be wid e open so th at th ere is no th ro ttli ng T h en the steam .

entering the first row of bl a d es will be a t 1 6 5 pound s a b solu te

0
p ressu re of which the volum e at 1 0 0 F sup erh ea t is
,
.

cubic feet per poun d The vol um e of steam admi tted to th e .

tu rb i ne per seco nd is X cu b i c f eet and ju st ,

a s in the d esig n of impul se tu rbi nes the bl ad es mu st be d esi gned ,

for the p assa g e of thi s amou n t of steam .

The bl ad es are d esig ned by d etermini ng the entranc e and di s

ch arge angl es by v eloci ty tri an gl es lik e tho se in Fig 47 af ter .

the a v ail abl e energy for ea ch sta g e has b een c alc ul a ted Som e .

d esig ners m ak e th ei r c alcul a tions for the ra ted full lo ad condi

tions and not for the m aximum ou tpu t ob tained ju st b efo re the
'

stag e v alv e opens The diff erenc e b etw een the two m ethod s is
.

th a t u n til the m axim um ou tpu t is reach ed wi thou t op enin g the ,

sta g e v alv e th ere is obviou sly som e th ro t tli ng in the admi ssio n
,

v alve ] a nd wh en d esig nin g for full lo a d co ndi tio ns thi s th ro ttl ing
L
,

mu st be allow ed for For thi s reaso n it is pref erabl e to d esi gn for

.

m aximum ou tpu t wh en th e a dmi s sio n v alv e mu st be wi d e o pen }:

T he av a il abl e energy is th en c a lcul a ted by step s f rom the ra ted

M k ar s and vi s Stea m T bles a nd Diagra ms In th ese tabl es the speci fic

Da
’
a .

v ol umes h a v e been ca l cul a ted by K nobl a uch s eq uat i on whi ch giv es consi derabl y ’

larger v a l ues th an eq ua ti on The resul ts of difi erent in v es t ig a ti ons do not

giv e any sort of ag reement the ra te of i ncrea se of v ol ume w i th superh ea t i ng v ary
,

ing a s much as 1 0 0 per cent I t is usua ll y sta ted th at the speci fic v ol ume of super
.

h eated steam is 1 5 per cent la rger for 0 0 F of superh ea t th an tha t of dry sa tura ted
. 1
°
.

Accord i ng to K nobl a uch s eq ua ti on used by Peabody this pe cen ta ge i

’

stea m
’

.
,
r s

a bout 1 7 a nd a ccord i ng t o eq ua t i on ( 9 ) it is abo ut 1 3

,
.

“
TT h ere is some th rottli ng ev en in the pul sa t i ng v al v es used in nea l y all r

types of Parsons t urbi nes .

I The stea m consumpt i on a t ft l and fracti ona l loads ca n be est i ma ted by

. .

d rawi ng a Willans li ne of tota l steam per h our (pag e

”
Unl ess the desig n
of a steam turbi ne is rad i ca ll y wrong usua ll y beca use of i nsuffici ent area of the,

stea m passag es w hi ch is ca ll ed ch oki ng the stea m it has been sh own by expe

”
, ,

rience t h at the poi nt s represent i ng tota l stea m per h our pl ot ted a g a i nst f ra ct i ona l

loads w ill be on a straigh t li nef om no l oad to t he ma xi mum output ( wi th out a

r .

stag e v a lv e At no l oa d a Pa rsons t urb i ne usua ll y ta k es one eigh th of the tota l

.
-

q ua nt i t y req ui red a t t he norm a l m a xi m um ou tpu t B yp lot t i ng t h ese t wo poi nts .

( no l oad a nd maxi mum output) a nd j oi ni ng th em wi th a stra igh t li ne the total ,

st eam consumpt i on at all oth e l oad s ca n be read a nd t he stea m pe kil owa tt h our
r r -

or per h orsepower h our ca n be ca l cul a ted w i t h consi derabl e accuracy

-
.
roob T HE ST EA M TU RBI NE

a dmi ssion to the exh au st p ressu re T hi s a v ail abl e energy migh t .

b e d etermi ned for ev ery stag e as it is do ne for d esig ni ng impul se

t ur bines but thi s is u nnec essarily l abo riou s as the p ressu re drop
, ,

i s so sm all App roxim a tely the sam e resul t is ob tai ned by cal
.

c ula ting a ssum ed exp ansio ns in sta g es of 1 0 B T U wi th the . . .

sam e reh eati ng f a c to rs as would be u sed for the sam e siz e of

i mpul se tu rbi ne For a 2 0 0 0 to 3 0 0 0 kilow a tt siz e the reh eat

.

ing f a c to r should be not much mo re th an 3 0 per c ent A ssuming .

t hi s v alu e the to tal a v ail abl e energy as rea d f rom the entropy
,

h ea t ch art wi th reh ea ti ng for ev ery 1 0 B T U f rom 1 6 5 pound s . . .

0
a b solu te and 1 0 0 F sup erh eat to 1 pou nd ab so lu te exh au st is
.

2 60 Wi thou t consid eri ng reh ea ti ng it would h a v e b een

3 34 B T U
. .bu t wi.t h 0
3 p er c en t reh ea t i ng i t is o nly 2 4 0 B T U . .

T he qu ali ty of the steam in the l ast stag e af ter reh eating by

s tep s is 8 8 6 . .

F or thi s d esign it will be assum ed th at

z
V b n 2 ,

I t has l
dy b een stated th at the diam eters of the sec tio ns of
a rea

t he ro to r i nc rease as V 5; and a s the bl ad e sp eed s mu st i nc rease in

t he sa m e propo rtio n as the di am eters the followi ng Speed s of th e ,

b l ad es wil l be assum ed w hi ch are not at v ari anc e wi th good prac

,

t ic e:
V b of first sec tio n of ro to r 1 4 0 feet per seco nd .

V b of seco nd sec tio n of ro to r 2 0 0 f eet per seco nd .

V b of thi rd sec tio n of ro to r 2 8 0 f eet per seco nd .

T he v alu e of p eriph eral sp eed 1 4 0 f eet per second for the first ,

s ec tio n of the ro to r co rrespo nd s a t the sp eed of ro ta tio n req ui red

,

( 5
1 0 0 revolu t io ns p er mi nu te) t o a di a m eter of

x 1 5 0 0

hi s a v a il abl e ene gy sh oul d be read in the sa me way as for the desig n of the
T r

i mpul se turbi ne ill ustra ted in Fig 5 2 ; mean i ng th a t the energy sh oul d be obt ained
.
,

b y sub tract i ng from t he tota l h ea t a t the i ni t i a l cond i t i on of pressure and super

h ea t the tota l h ea t a t t he final pressure without the last reheati ng T h ere are some
, ,
.
rood T H E ST EA M TU RBI N E

t h an 5 7 X '
. the ou tpu t wh en th ere is no t h ro ttli ng in the m ai n
i nl et v alv e . In thi s c ase th en

57 X 2 000 X ( see p ag e
or ( 1, mu st be a t l east i nch es whi ch co rrespo nd s to a p eriph
,

— 3 L
3 6 X— L
I 4 1 6 X 1 5 0 0
eral of f eet co nd
' '

speed
—
or 2 2 1 per se .

1 2 X 60

The v alu e sel ec ted for thi s sta g e ( f eet per seco n d ) f rom t h e 2 80
v i ewpoi n t of p ermi ssibl e stresses is w ell abov e thi s mi ni mum

limi t B l ad e sp eed s a s high as 4 0 0 f eet per second are now u sed

.

in som e Am eric an d esig ns of steam rea c tio n tu rbi nes .

Ha vi ng d etermi ned th a t the co nv entio nal bl ad e sp eed s are

v ery sati sf ac to ry for thi s d esig n the requi red numb er of rea c tion
stag es will b e c alcul a ted in the u su al m anner a s follow s

I f the bl ad e sp eed of the whol e tu rbi ne had a constant v alu e of

1 4 0 f eet e e co n d t h en
p r s ,

X n ( ly ) n 1 2 8 near .

A s, how ev er ,
only one fou rth of the wo rk is to be do ne by the
-

fi rst sec tio n op era ti ng a t thi s bl a d e sp eed the numb er of stages ,

1 2 8
in the fi rst se c tio n is 3 2 . T he v alu e of n for the seco nd
4
se c tio n is 64 ; and as one fou rth of the wo rk is done al so in thi s —

sec tio n the numb er of stag es is 1 6

,
F or the thi rd sec tio n it is .

3 2 ,
a n d Si nc e on e h alf of th e wo rk is do ne in thi s sec tio n the
-

numb er of sta g es is 1 6 .

Ea ch sec tio n of the ro to r is commo nly divid ed i nto two or

”
fou r g roup s or exp ansions .

R eac tio n tu rbi nes are u su ally d esig ned for equ al wo rk (energy )
e r sta g e for a giv en sec tio n of the ro to r I n t h e high p ressu re
p
-
.

or fi rst sec tio n one qu arter of the wo rk is do ne and the a v a il

,
-

abl e energy for ea ch of its thi rty two sta g es is 2 6 0 B T U -

. . .

(4 X 3 )
2 B T U Simi l a rly th e a v a il abl
. e en e
.rgy fo r .

each sta g e of the i nterm edi a te sec tio n is 2 60 B T U (4 x 1 6 ) . . .

and for each stag e of the low p ressu re sec tio n

-

is 2 60 B T U ( 2. x 1 6.
) . B T U I t m ay b e ass um e d . . .

See pag e 9 7 .
 STEA M TU RBI N E TY PES AN D BLAD E D ES IGN

th at abou t one h alf of the av ail abl e energy in ea ch stage p roduc es

-

v eloci ty in the statio nary bl ad esand the o th er h a lf in the movi ng

bl ad es The th eo retic al angl es are d etermi ned f rom v eloci ty tri
.

angl es applyi ng the co effi ci ents f rom cu rv e B in F ig 5 1

,
by the .
,

u su al m ethod s as expl ained for impul se tu rbi nes The di sch arg e .

angl es for all the sta g es exc ep t the l ast g roup s in the low p ressu re -

sec tio n will be assum ed to be 2 0 d egrees T he angl es for th e l ast .

stag es wi ll be m ad e 4 5 d eg rees I t is obviou s of cou rse th a t

.
, ,

the di sch arg e angl e is alw a y s the sa m e as the a b solu te angl e

a t w hi ch the steam enters the succ eedi ng row of bl ad es : In thi s

d esign no allow anc es are m ad e for p rob abl e g auging of the

*
bl ad es to adju st the th ru st on the ro to r or for o th er reaso ns .

The v eloci t y of the steam l ea vi ng the fi rst row of sta tio nary
bl ad es in the high p ressu re sec tio n is abou t 2 2 5 Tf eet per seco nd
-
.

A net area of cubic f eet 2 2 5 or 1 2 7 squ a re f eet or ,

.
,

squ are i nch es is requi red to p ass the steam

,
A s the di sch arg e .

angl es of the bl a d es in the hi gh p ressu re and interm edi a te sec -

tio ns are to be mad e 2 0 d eg rees th a t v alu e will be tak en for thi s

,

d esign and the a c tu al area of the bl ad e ring will beapp roxim a tely
,

3 4 2.
I or , squ a re i nch e
s .

The bl ad e sp eed of the hi gh p ressu re ro to r is 1 4 0 f eet per

- -

seco nd § , so th at the m ean di am eter of the bl ad e ri ng is

It has been h some mak ers of mari ne turbi nes who h a v e not had
sta ted t at
much experi ence in buil d i ng th em will of ten de s ign t urbines to giv e consi derably

la rg er output t h an is i ntend ed for t he servi ce and t h en red uce the output to the
req ui red ra ti ng by gaugi ng the bl ades ”
.

TIn a rea cti on turbi ne the maxi mum v el oci ty in each stage is atta i ned wh en the
st ea m is d i sch arg ed from the sta t i onary b l ades Al th ough th ere is expans i on also
.

in the movi ng b l a des more v el oci ty is absorbed in th em th an is prod uced and the
, ,

v el oci ty of the steam di sch arged from the movi ng blades is consi derably l ess th an
2 2 5 feet per second .

I The tota l area of the annul us for bl ades w i th di sch arge a ngl es of 2 0 deg rees is
the net req ui red area divi d ed by sin 2 0 degrees ( see Fig Pra ct i ca l desig ners .

of ten ca ll t he sin of 2 0 degrees one thi rd a nd mak e the area of the a nnul us t h ree
-

ti mes the net req uired a rea .

M anufacturers generally appreci ate the gai n from operati ng at high periph eral
spe ed s of the rotor T o d ay eff orts are directed g enerall y by all ma k ers of d i rect
.
o

connected turb i ne g enerators to i m rov e the mech ani ca l construct i on of the gen
p
-

crator to run at high er speeds .

1 02 T HE ST EA M TU RBI NE

1 5 0 0 X
fi rst row of bl ad es on thero to r is app roxim ately 53 3 squ are i nch es .

X 8 0 or nearly fi ( see tabl e p ag e 1 0 3 ) i nch

.
,
.

Wi th full rated p ressu re in the admi ssion ch amb er abou t 7 per

.
“
c ent of the to tal steam l eak s th rough the d ummi es or b al anc e
”

pi stons at the high p ressu re end of the tu rb ine Thi s l eak age
-
.

as w ell as th at arou nd the tip s of the bl a d es th rough the radi al

cl earanc e is not co nsid ered h ere in the ca lcul ations It is p rob .

abl e how ev er th at the a moun t of thi s l eak ag e is qui te suffi ci ent

, ,

*
to allow for the thi ck ness of the bl ad es on the di sch arg e sid e .

T he volum e of the exh au st steam ( 1 po und per squ are i nch abso
lu te p ressu re and 88 6 qu ali ty ) is 2 9 7 cubic feet per pound
. .

I ni ti ally the volume was cubic f eet per po und so th at the ,

volume in the l ast row of bl ades is tim es th a t a t admi ssio n .

Si nc e one fou rth of the wo rk is done in the bl ad es of the first

-

sec ti o n one fou rth of the to tal exp ansion occu rs in th em or the
,
-

,
’
L
volum e enteri ng the seco nd sec tio n is V 9 2 5 1 or tim es the .
,

o rigi nal volum e Si nc e the m ean di am eter is to be m ad e 6

.

t im es th a t a t the hi gh p ressu re end and the steam v eloci t y is to

-

be al so V 5 tim es as grea t so as to co rrespo nd wi th the inc rease

in bl ad e sp eed ( w hi ch is V 5 tim es th at in the first sec tio n See .

p ag e the h eigh t of the bl a d es in the first row of the inter

m edi ate sec tion will be tim es t h at of t he first

x/2 X 2

row p ressu re sec tio n Si mil arly the bl ad e h eigh t for

in the high -
.

the first row of the low p ressu re end will be 1 55 ti m es th at of the -

.

fi rst row of the i nterm edi a te sec tio n Each of th ese sec tio ns will .

”
be di vi d ed i nt o fou r g roup s or exp ansio ns Si nc e the vol um e .

is i nc reased fou r tim es for ea ch sec tio n the bl a d e h eigh t of each ,

h omas uses a coeffici ent of 1 5 to i ncrease the area of the blades to a l low for
T .

the t hi ck ness a t the d i sch arg e si de I f the bl ades are made t hi n a t t h ei r edges as
.
,

in good d esigni ng it is not customary to use a coeffi ci ent for the t hi ck ness of the
,

”
blades .

i Let 9
’
v ol ume at end of thi rd secti on ,

i n v ol ume at begi nni ng of first secti on ,

x number of expansi ons ,

v
'
2
2
4 a nd v
, i7 r7
1 .
1 04 T HE ST EA M TU R B INE

At the low p ressu re end of the tu rbi ne the l ength of the bl ad es

would be co nsid ered exc essiv e in p ra c tic e It is a rul e g enerall y .

follow ed by d esigners of reac tio n tu rbi nes not to m a k e the

g reatest bl ad e h eigh t mo re th a n one six th the m ean di a m eter of -

the bl ad es for the sec tio n co nsid ered T he m ean di a m eter of .

the low p ressu re sec tio n is X X x/2 i nch es .

In thi s c a se the m a ximum h eigh t w o uld b e th erefo re a bou t , ,

i nch es In o rd er to red uc e the l ength of the bl ad es so th at

.

F IG .
56 . D et a il s of the D es ig n of R ea tion B l ade c s .

p ra c tic al req ui rem ents sh all not be exc eed ed the di sch a rg e angl e ,

of the bl ad es m ust be m ad e g rea ter th an 2 0 d eg rees Such bl ad es .

“
wi th enl arg ed exi t angl es are c all ed wi ng bl ades T he tan
”
g ent .

to the cu rv e a t the b a ck of th e bl ad e on the entranc e Sid e b ecom es

a bou t 0 d eg rees n d t th e di ch rg e sid e 4 d e g rees i nstea d

9 a a ,
s a 5
of 2 0 d eg rees As the resul t of thi s ch ang e the net area for the
.
,

p assa ge of the steam is 7 1 ( Sin 45 d e g r.e e s ) i ns te a d of th e

sta nd ard of h ulu s wi thou t bl a d e W i g bl a d es

T t e a nn s n .

7 i n ch es lo n g ca n b e u se d to re pl a c e sa t i sf a c to r ily th e bl a d es in

the 5 th g roup ; b ut a s tho se of the 6 th 7 th and 8 th g roup s mu st , ,

‘

I n th e tu b i ne of th e te me M u et ni
r s w i ng b l d e givi ng
s a r a r p a g ewa, y a s a assa a

of . 86 of th e a nnu us l w ere used , but su c h a l a g e deg

r ree of
“w i ngi ng
”
is not

a dopted in steam turb i nes fo r elec fric g enera tors .

T T h e sin of 20 d eg ees is
r
3 4 , but pract i ca l d esig ne rs f
ta k e it o ten for con en ence v i
in l l i g
ca cu a t n as é .
 ST EA M TU RB I N E T YP ES AN D B L AD E D ES IGN

b e m ad e of the sa m e l eng th , th ese bl ad es will be sho rter th an th ey

s hould be T hi s co nstric tio n of the stea m p assa g e how ev er can
.
, ,

not w ell b e a void ed wi thou t m a ki ng the ro to r in fou r di a m eters .

Fig 5 6 show s how the bl a d es of rea c tio n tu rbi nes a re l a id out

. .

As expl a na to ry of thi s figu re a ta bl e is giv en b elow showi ng the

co rrespo ndi ng dim ensio ns u sed by one In the
tabl e d a ta for five stand ard bl ad es a re giv en for v a ryi ng di sch a rg e

angl es (0 ) f rom 2 0 d eg rees to 3 5 d eg rees a nd bl a d e w id th s ( w )

of 2 5 3 7 5 and 50 i nch All the li nea r dim ensio ns are giv en

.
, .
,
. .

in i nch es i h ra nc e a ngl e of the bl a d es

3 s t .e en t .

B l ad e N u mber
.

Ano th er ta bl e is giv en here showi ng the p ri ncip a l dim ensio ns

of a 4 0 0 kilow att rea c tio n tu rbi ne wi th 3 4 and 5 g roup s per
-

, ,

sec tio n T he bl a d e numb ers in thi s tabl e refer to the co rre

.

Spond ing numb ers in the tabl e above T hi s ta bl e is pa rtic .

ul a rly u seful for showi ng v a l ues a ssum ed by d esig ners for the

bl a de pitch It is not co nsid ered p ra c tic a bl e in thi s typ e of bl a d e

.

co nstruc tio n to use a sm all er pi tch th an 1 7 7 i nch wh en a c alki ng .

tool mu st be i nserted b etw een the bl ad es M a nuf ac tu rers h a ve .

u su ally cu rv e sh eets of empi ric al d ata f rom which the pi tch and
'

o th er stand ard dim ensio ns are ob tai ned .

The Engi neer, D ec . 1 6, 1 90 7 .

1 06 T H E ST EA M TU R B I NE

F I R ST I
S EC T O N .

m
N umb er D iameter of D is B l de a
Bl de
V l o ume
'

of Sect ion in cha r e H ei g ht i n C ubic F eet Vb —s V

Nu ber
Group . Feet . A ng e . In ch es .
per P oun d .

I 00
.

~
20

SE C O N D S EC T O N I .

TH I RD S EC T O N I .

Radial Leak age volum e of the stea m i nc reases the

. As th e ,

area of the annulu s of ea ch ri ng of bl a d es mu st of cou rse i nc rease , ,

p ropo rtio nally T hi s i nc reased area would be ob tai ned mo st

.

easily as wi th impul se tu rbi nes by i nc reasi ng the bl ad e h eigh ts

, ,

In each ri ng T hi s m ethod how ev er would m ak e it nec essary

.
, ,

to c arry as stock in the sto re ro om a g reat numb er of bl ad es of

’

di ff erent siz es In o rd er to reduc e the stock of bl ad es and to

.

reduc e the co st of m a chi ni ng the ro to r and c asi ng it is cu stom ,

ary to m ak e a g roup of sev eral row s of bl ad es of the sa m e h eigh t ,

 1 08 T HE ST EA M TU RBI NE

is i nc reased but th ere is al so a comp ensa ti ng eff ec t in th at the

,

numb er of l ea k ag e a reas is co rrespo ndi ngly reduc ed .

The read er will h a v e ob serv ed th at the d esig n of reac tio n

tu rbi nes is l arg ely by cut and try m ethod s F or thi s reaso n .

it is a financi a l ab su rdi t y for a m anuf a c tu rer to d ay to b egi n -

making reac tion tu rbi nes u nless he has p rac tically u nlimi ted
resou rc es and can ob ta i n f rom m ak ers of simil a r m a chi nes a t

not too l a rg e a co st the resul ts of th ei r exp eri enc es .

The m ethod expl ai ned h ere of d etermi ni ng the impo rtant and
u niqu e p arts in the d esign of a reac tion tu rbi ne for a giv en set
of co ndi ti ons as reg ard s m aximum ou tpu t steam co nsump tio n
, , ,

p ressu re sup erh eat and v a cu um al though v ery simpl e in all

, ,

essenti al s as reg ard s standard practice giv es resul ts on which it

,

is impo ssibl e to imp rov e by the mo st el abo rate m a th em atic al

a naly si s im a gi nabl e In f ac t all el abo ra tely m a th em a ti c al anal
"
.

y se s of the a c tio n of st ea m in a rea c tio n tu rbi ne d ep end finally

on the sub sti tu tio n of c ertai n co effi ci ents mo st of which h a v e

,

no b asi s in f ac t .

D ES IG N OF A CO MBI N ED IM PUL SE AN D R EACTI ON

T URBI N E .

The d esign g d s the g eneral m ethod for a combi ned

as re a r

impul se and rea c tio n tu rbi ne will be sim il ar t o th a t for t he

d esign of the impul se tu rb ine ( p ag es 8 6 whi ch had two
v eloci ty stag es in the first p ressu re sta ge wi th two row s of movi ng
bl ad es or buck ets All the o th er p ressu re stages had only one
.

v eloci ty stage and th erefo re only one row of moving bl ad es .

F or the combined impul se and rea c tio n ( simil a r to Fig 1 0 7 .

,

p ag e the fi rst stag e migh t w ell be a rrang ed wi th two v eloci t y

stag es as in the d esign ref erred to and the o th er sta g es could th en
,

be d esigned as a sep ara te two secti on reac tio n tu rb ine a ssumi ng ,

the steam to enter the rea c tio n po rtion of the tu rbi ne at the
qu ali t y d eterm ined by a di ab atic exp ansio n in the first stag e .

Assum e twic e as much wo rk is do ne in the seco nd rea c tio n sec

'

tion as in the fi rst Wi th thi s u nd erstandi ng it is c erta i nl y

.
 ST EA M TU RBI N E T YPES AN D BLAD E D ES IGN

c
unn e essar y go th rough a g a in in d etail the d etails of the de
to
sig ni ng of the bl adi ng of the reaf ztion po rtio n .

Ano th er m ethod would be to di vid e up the wo rk to be do ne

by the v ariou s sec tio ns as in the d esign of the compl ete rea c tio n
t u rbine; th a t is one fou rth of the wo rk woul d b e do ne by the
,
-

first p ressu re stag e h avi ng its two v eloci t y stag es ( as in Fig 1 0 7 .

,

p ag e ano th er fou rt h would be do ne by the fi rst sec tio n of

the rea c tio n bl a ding a nd the rem a i nin g h alf of the wo rk by the
,

seco n d and l ast sec tio n of rea c tio n bl a di ng .

In the c ase of a doubl e fl ow tu rbi ne in whi ch the low p ressu re

- -

sec tio n is di vi d ed i nto two h a lv es the equ a t io n giv en on p ag e

,

mod for mi nimum p ermi ssibl e di am eter of the l ast stage woul d
be fou nd to be app roxim a tely

X 5 7 X ou tpu t in kilow a tts

. 2 85 X ou tpu t in kilow atts .

In the m e conn
sa ec tio n pu rch a sers of stea m t u rbi nes should

gu ard w ell th ei r i nterests by ex erci sing good bu siness judgm ent

in pu rch a ses L ik e a ll o th er ki nd s of m a chinery th ere will be
.
,

“troubl es ” wi th new typ es of steam tu rb ines and unl e s he

s t ,

m anuf ac tu rer is k nown to be financi ally respo nsibl e and w ell

establi sh ed in the bu siness the pu rch aser should not buy un til
,

he has m ad e v ery c areful i nv estig atio ns of the m eri ts of the new

m achi nes ; and he should alwa y s i nsi st on h a ving accu rate and
compl ete a cc ep tanc e tests m ad e p referably by di sinterested
,

engi neers of repu te .

Exerci se .D esig n the bl ad es for a 3 00 ho rsepow er ( m axi

- -

mum ou tpu t) impul se turbine wi th two pressure stages and two

v eloci ty sta ges in ea ch p ressu re stag e (Curti s type) I ni ti al ad .

mi ssio n p ressu re is 1 6 5 pou nd s per squ are i nch a b solu te at 1 0 0 F 0

.

sup erh ea t and the exh au st p ressu re is 1 pou nd per s ua re i nch

, q
a b solu te
. B l ad e sp eed 50 0 feet per Seco nd R eh ea ti ng fa c to r .

is 50 per c ent Use 8 nozzl es a nd arrang e for equ al energy dis

.

tribution in the v a riou s stag es N ozzl e lo ss is 2 per c ent of

. .

v eloci ty and tak e bl ad e lo sses f rom cu rv es on p ag e 8 5

, .
1 0 8b T HE ST EA M TU RBI N E

Exerci se . D esign of
bl ad es for a reactio n tu rbi ne wi th
—
the

5 stag es (Parsons
0 type)
for the sam e condi tions of pow er p res ,

su res and sup erh ea t as in the p rec eding ex ampl e .

Exerci se D esign thebl a d es of a combi ned impul se and re

.

a c tio n tu rbi ne h a vi ng a si ngl e p ressu re stag e of the impul se

,
»

t yp e wi th tw o v eloci ty stag es ( Cu rti s typ e) and the u sual type

of reac tion bl adi ng Co ndi tions of pow er p ressu res and sup er
.
,

h eat are to be the sam e as in the p rec edi ng ex erci ses .

G EN ER AL CO M PARI SON OF COMM ER CI AL IM PULSE AN D

R EACTI ON T URBI N ES .

IMP U LSE .

1 . g
Few sta es .

2 Expansi on in nozzl es
. .

3 L arge d rop in pressure in a stage

. .

4 I ni ti al steam v el oci ti es are in g ene a l high ( 1 0 0 0 to 4 00 0 fe

. et per second )
r .

5 B l ade v el oci ti es 4 0 0 t o 1 2 0 0 feet per second

. .

6 B est effi ci ency wh en b l ade v el oci ty is nea l y h a lf the i ni ti al v el oci ty of

. r

steam For a si ngl e wh eel per pressure stag e

. .

REA CTI ON .

1 . M any sta ges .

2 . No nozzl es .

3 . Small drop in pressure in a sta ge.

4 . All stea v el oci ti es a re low ( 3 0 0 to 60 0 feet per second)

m .

5 . B l ade v el oci ti es 1 50 to 4 0 0 feet per second .

6 . B est effi ciency wh en the bl ade v el oci ty is nearly eq ual to the high est v el oci ty
of the stea m .
1 IO T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

mak e di al cl earanc es as sm all a s is m ech anic ally po ssibl e

ra ,

bec a u se in th ese tu rbi nes the stea m exp and s in the movi ng as
well as in the statio na ry bl ad es and th ere is a d rop in p ressu re
betw een the two sid es of ev ery row of bl ad es O n a ccou nt of .

thi s p ressu re d rop th ere is a co nti nuou s flow of stea m a rou nd the
edg es of the bl ad es which is l a rg e or sm all in a mou nt in pro
,

po rtio n to the srz e of the radi al cl earanc es T he cl ea ranc e .

b etw een the statio nary bl ad es fix ed to the c asi ng and the su rf ac e

of the ro to r is of cou rse ju st a s impo rtant a s th at b etw een the .

movi ng bl ad es and the c asi ng An Am eric an m anuf ac tu rer of.

th e P arso ns rea c tio n tu rbi nes sta tes th at the radi al cl eara nc es a re
f rom 0 2 to 1 0 i nch v aryi ng wi th the di am eter of the d ru m
. .
,
.

T h ese limi ts are giv en for d rum s b etw een 1 foo t a nd 1 0 f eet in
di a m eter R adi al cl earanc es of l arge siz es of Pa rmns turbi nes
.

m a d e by B row n Boveri Co are f rom 2 to 3 m

-
. illim eters
to 1 2 . A tta i nm ent of mi nimum sa f e radi al cl ear
a uc es is the go al for ev ery d esig ner of rea c tio n tu rbi nes .

A xi al B l a de Cl eara nces A xi al cl ea ranc es wi th resp ec t to

.

impul se and rea c tio n tu rbi nes p resent co ndi tio ns ju st oppo si te
from tho se for ra di al cl earanc es In reac tio n turbi nes a xi al .
,

cl earanc e is not an impo rta nt f a c to r in the d esig n Until rec ently .

,

how ev er it was co nsid ered v ery impo rtant in the d esign of im

,

pul se tu rbi nes to m a k e the a xi al cl earanc e b etw een the movi ng

bl a d es and nozzl es or statio nary bl a d es as sm all as po ssibl e; and
, ,

i nd eed u nfo rtu nately som e impul se tu rbi nes in the early d a y s
, ,

w ere buil t wi th v ery sm all a xi al cl earanc es so th at the l east

‘

vib ra tio n of the sh a ft would c au se striki ng of the movi ng bl ad es

a g a i nst the nozzl es It has b een show n how ev er by a c tu al
.
, ,

exp eri en c e as w ell a s by exp erim ent th a t a xi a l cl ea ra n c es ca n be

m ad e as l arg e as 2 0 i nch wi thou t a pp reci abl e lo ss ; or in o th er

.
,

wo rd s p ra c tic ally a s l arg e as in rea c tio n tu rbi nes u su all y

,
—

a bou t 1 0 to 2 0 i n ch
. . .

T he di ffi cul ti es of the d esig ners of the first comm erci al

impul se tu rbi nes can w ell be im a gi ned wh en it wa s co nsid ered
so essenti al to m a k e the a xi a l cl earan c es not mo re th an 0 2 or 0 3 . .

i nch In the c a se of one sm all tu rbi ne buil t wi th th ree stages

.
 ST EA M TU R B INE T YPES AN D B L AD E D ES I GN

the a xi al exp ansio n of the sh a f t in the l eng th i n clud ed betw een

the high p ressu re nozzl e mou ths a nd the bl a d es of the thi rd

sta g e w as 1 0 i n ch by a c tual m ea su rem ent

. T o a llow for a shif t .

ing of the bl a d es of 1 0 i n ch wi th o nly 0 3 i n ch a xi al cl eara n c e in

. .

a tu rbi ne wi th v elo city stages w a s not an ea sy p robl em .

A xi a l cl ea ranc es in C u rti s impul se tu rbi nes a re 0 6 to 1 5 i n ch . .

for 50 0 kilow a tt siz es and in l arg er m achi nes are som etim es a s
-

much a s 2 5 i nch In R atea u impul se tu rbi nes th ese cl ea ran c es

. .

a re f rom 1 2 to 2 5 i n ch
.
* . .

M ateri a l s for B l a des and Ero sio n R oll ed steel is a v ery .

sui ta bl e m eta l for tu rbi ne bl a d es wh en u sed for d ry or sup er

h ea ted stea m a t ei th er high or low v eloci ti es if the tu rbi ne is

k ep t in p ra c tic ally co nti nuou s O p era tio n Wet stea m how ev er .
, ,

will w ear a w a y steel bl ad es v ery ra pidly by ero sio n a nd wh en a ,

tu rbi ne fitted wi th steel bl ad es is idl e for d a y s a t a tim e the

bl ad es will co rrod e so th a t wh en it is sta rted a g ai n the p a rticl es

,

of i ro n oxid e ( ru st ) will be c a rri ed a wa y by the stea m to a ct

.

lik e a sand bl ast on the bl ad es in succ eedi ng sta g es Steel is .

an exc ep tio nally good m a teri a l for bl ad es u nd er f a vo ra bl e con

d itions b ec a u se it ca n be roll ed ch ea ply i nto b a rs of a ny sh a p e

of section T and it is u nequ al ed for streng th Copp er a lloy s
,
.
,

“ ”
k nown in the tra d es as ex trud ed m eta l are m ad e i nto b ars ,

“ ”
of any sh a p e of sec tio n by d ra wi ng a s wi re is m anufa c tu red .

N o m etal has a ll the phy sic a l p rop erti es d esi ra bl e in a bl adi ng

m ateri al R ec ently a compou nd m eta l k nown a s M o nno t or
“dupl ex m eta l ha s b een d ev elop ed It co nsi sts of a steel c ore .

cov ere d wi th a thi n copp er sh ea thi ng ch emic ally w eld ed to the _

steel in such a p erf ec t m a nner th a t the bl a d es ma y be d ra w n

cold f rom the o rigi na l i ngo t i nto the requi red fini sh ed sec tio n
i l
I n mpu se turb nes w t no es d i ih zzl
is h a gi ng rad i a ll y i nto b l ad es o buck et
c r r s

on the rim lik v

e th e Sturte a nt, T erry, or R ied l e Stumpf type it is stated th at th e e
r -
s, r

is no a pp eci ab l e ch a ng e in v el oci ty l oss w h en the

r d i l l ea a nce ( b etw een th e ra a c r

nozzl e a nd the b uck ets) is i nc ea sed f om to 4

r i nch r . 1 0 . 0 .

TRoll ed ba s a e ut up i nto l eng th s o espond i ng to th e h eigh t of the b l a de

r r c c rr

p l u s
a n a d d i t i ona l l eng th fo d o v et a ili ng i nto t
rh e im of th e t u b i ne w h eel Wh en r r .

t hi s dov et ili ng meth od is used ( F ig 6 3 ) the b l a des a e sepa a ted f om each oth er
a . r r r

by spa i ng pi eces of su i tab l e sh ape to fit between the b l ad es

c .
1 1 2 T H E ST EA M TU R B INE

wi thou t in anyf c ti ng the bo nd b etw een the copp er and

w ay af e

the steel Fig 5 8 show s a n etch ed sec tio n of a bl ad e of thi s

. .

m ateri a l f rom a Westi nghou se tu rbi ne .

B l ad es lik e tho se for ex ampl e in Figs 5 9 6 1 which a re too

, ,
.
-

i rregul ar to be roll ed or d rawn are u su a lly ca st of b ro nz e or copp er

F IG .
58 . Etc h ed Sect i on of a B l de m
a a de of M onn t Met l
o a ( Steel a nd C opper) .

alloy s Fo rk ed bl ad es (Fig 5 9 ) simil a r to tho se u sed in Wilki n

. .

son tu rbi nes a re commo nly c a st wi th the fo rk s fa r eno ugh a p a rt

so th a t th ey w ill p a ss ov er the enl a rg ed sec tio n of th e rim a nd are

fo rc ed togeth er wh en th ey a re In pl a c e Ano th er m ethod is to .

‘

F IG 59. . F IG 6 0 . . F IG 6 1 . .

D es ig ns of Stea m T u b i ne B l
r a d es .

cut a w a y the enl a rg ed p art of the rim sec tio n for a sho rt l eng th ,

a nd bl a d es c a st wi th the fo rk s in th ei r no rm a l po si tio n can b e

i nserted at thi s pl a c e a nd can th en be p ush ed a rou nd on the rim

till all the bl a d es are in pl a c e T he p a rts of the ri m cut a w a y
.

mu st be repl a c ed to sec ure the bl ad es at th at sec tio n .

T he bl ad es of sm all siz es of Curti s tu rbi nes are som etim es cut

in the rim of a solid di sk by a u tom atic m a chi nery D e L av al .
1 1 4 T HE ST EAM T U R B I NE

bl ad es are m ad e of steel fo rg ed i nto the p eculi ar sh a p e requi red

for i nsertio n i nto the di sk wh eel ( See Fig . .

It is stated th at the u su al alloy u sed in Engl and for bl ad es of

P arsons tu rbi nes is 63 Cu 3 7 Zn ; but any zi nc alloy is qui te
u nsui tabl e for sup erh eated steam or for high veloci ti es .

Fig 6 5 show s the eff ec t of the ero sio n d ue to stea m on bl ad es

.
*

F IG . 65 . P hotogr ph
a of T urb i ne B l ades Sh owi ng Erosion .

m ad e of D el ta m etal a bo ut 60 C u l 3 7 Zn 3 F e T h ese —
.

bl ad es w ere h eld statio nary in a stea m jet for 1 2 8 ho urs T he .

bl ad es on the l eft sid e of the fi g ure w ere subj ec ted to steam at

2 9 0 0 feet per second ; and tho se on the righ t to stea m at 6 0 0

f eet per second L ow v eloci ty steam erod ed the bl ad es so li ttl e

.
-

th at the tool m ark s put in the bl ad es wh en th ey w ere m ad e are

still vi sibl e .

T he a ut h or is i ndebted to Mr . F ra nc si H odgki nson for hi s ph otog raph

t .
 CH APT ER V .

M ECHANI CA L L OSSES IN TU B NES R I .

IN the d esigns of turbi nes on the p rec edi ng p a g es the nozzl e

a nd bl a d e effici en cy w a s fi rst c a lcul a ted a nd th en the to ta l or , ,

“ov er all ” sh a f t effici ency wa s ob ta i ned by sub tra c ti ng o th er

-

lo ss es a s follow s
( )
1 D i sk
bl a d e f
a nd
ric tio n or wi nd a g e ,
d ue to ro ta tio n i n a ,

fluid m edium ( stea m ) .

( )
2 L ea k a g e of t he ste a m chi efly th rough th e cl ea ra n c e

b etw een the sh a f t a nd the di a ph ra gm s of a mul ti sta g e impul se -

tu rbi ne a nd th ro ugh the radi al bl a d e cl ea ra nces in a rea c tio n

tu rbi ne .

( 3 ) B eari ng a nd stuffi ng box fric tio n lo sses

-
.

( )
4 R a di a tio n .

Of th ese the first th ree a re in a w a y m ech a nic a l lo sses in the

, ,

sense th a t the d eta il s of m ech a nic a l d esig n l a rg ely d etermi ne

th ei r v al ues .

T he first of th ese lo sses di sk a nd bl a d e ro ta tio n lo ss is by fa r

, ,

the mo st impo rtant a nd will be di sc ussed first .

Lo sses D ue to F ric tio n of Tu rbi ne W h eel R evo l vi ng in Stea m .

L o sses d ue to revolvi ng di sk s or wh eel s in stea m a re v ery d ifli

c ul t to d etermi ne wi th a cc ura cy T ests to d etermi ne th ese .

lo sses a re u su a lly m ad e wi th the wh eel ro tati n g in sta gnant

stea m a nd it is p ra c tic a lly impo ssibl e to h a v e u nd er th ese con
, ,

ditions stea m of the sa m e qu ali ty or sup erh eat in all p arts of the
,

c a si ng A numb er of fo rmul as h av e b een p ropo sed for the

.

f ric tio n lo sses of di sk s and bl a d es in d ry satu ra ted stea m but ,

th ere is no good a g reem ent of the resul ts of di ff erent experi

m enters In fa c t no g rea t a ccu ra cy can be exp ec ted b ec a use

.

th ere is no d oti b t th a t the expo nents of log a ri thmic f ric tio n

1 1
5
 1 1 6 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

cu rv es plo tted f rom such tests v ary co nsid era bly wi th the d etail s
of d esign a nd b esid es it is v ery diffi cul t to get good tests *
, , .

An impo rtant rea so n why th e tests f rom di ff erent d esig ns of

tu rbi nes do not a g ree b etter is th a t cl ea ra n c es b etw een movi ng

a nd statio na ry p arts h a v e a n a pp reci a bl e eff ec t I f the cl ear .

a nces a ll arou nd the wh eel are v ery sm a ll the wh eel a nd bl ad e

f ric tio n lo ss will be som ewh at l ess th an for a wh eel revolvi ng in

l a rg e cl ea ra nc e sp a c es T hi s eff ec t is mo st m a rk ed a t low sp eed s
. .

Wh en high er sp eed s a re rea ch ed th ere is mo re tend ency for the

“ ”
wh eel to cut th ro ugh the su rrou ndi ng stea m wi thou t increa s
“
in g the di stu rb an c e in p ropo rtio n to the i nc rease in sp eed .

T he a u tho r has f rom tim e to tim e i nv estig ated l a rg e nu mb ers

of tests to d etermi ne the fric tio n lo sses of wh eel s and bl a d es of
tu rbi nes in stea m a nd a ir and thi s exp eri enc e has show n th a t the
,

followi ng fo rmul a s will giv e fa i r a v era ge resul ts for fo rw ard

ru nn i n g in p ra c tic a lly sta gn ant stea m T he ro ta tio n lo ss or .

ski n f ric tio n of a pl a i n disk Trevolvi n g in dry satu rated stea m is

exp ressed by the followi n g fo rm ul a in h o rsepow er

08 d 2
.

wh ere d is the di a m eter of di sk to i nner edge of bl ad e in f eet .

u is the p eriph era l v eloci ty of di sk in feet per seco nd ]:

is the d ensi ty of su rrou ndi n g m edium in pou nd s e
7 p r

cubic foo t ( recip roc al of the sp eci fic volum e) .

A simil ar term to d etermi ne the ro tatio n lo ss of one row of

bl a des F b ( wi thou t the di sk) in ho rsepow er is , ,

u
Fb .
3 dl
_ _

( 2 6)
1 00

T h e pecu li a i
r c rcu msta nce t h at w a ter in the liq u i d st a te ca n i
ex st, i ndefi ni tel y ,

in the presence of h eated steam l ead i ng some to p opose vergasung

super ,
r a s

w a rme, is one of th e g eatest d iffi ul ti es

r c .

T Si m il to th ose in C u ti a nd R ate u tu b i nes O n a ccount of the thi k

ar r s a r . c

h ubs of D e L a va l d i sk s ( Fig s 8 3 a nd . bout 5 pe ent sh oul d be a dded to

a 1 r c .

the e u l ts gi ven by eq ua ti on ( 5 ) to a ll ow fo th e l
r s 2 ge surf a ce of th ese d i k s
r ar r s .

T It is of ten stated th at the d i k a nd b l de f i ct ion l o es v a y as the thi d pow er

s a r ss r r

of th e speed . B ut thi s v a l ue a nnot b e stated w i th a ny cl a i m to great a ura cy

c cc .

Expe i mente s do not a ll ag ee on thi s v a l ue a nd v a l ues f om 2 5 to 3 5 are giv en by

r r r ,
r . .

d i ff e ent auth o i ti es
r r T he a titho
. f om the esul t of the expe i ments he has
r, r r r
1 1 8 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

O r the cu rv e giv en i n Fig 6 8 can be u sed to

.
. co rrec t equ atio ns
a nd ( 2 7 ) by m eans of a co effi ci ent .

Whil e the ef e t f c of sup erh eati ng is to reduc e th ese lo sses ,

moi stu re ,
on the o th er h and i nc reases th em v ery a pp reci a bly
,
‘

60 80 1 00 1 20 1 40 1 60 480 200 220 2 40

Superh ea t D e -
g rees F ah r .

FI G 6 8
. . C ur ve to Co rrect R ota t oni L osses for Super h eat

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
P ercent M oisture in S t ea m
.

FI G 6 9 . . v
C ur e to C orrect Rot tion L
a osses for M i o sture .

Fig 6 9. how s a cu rv e givi ng the co effi ci ents to be a ppli ed to the

s

lo sses c alcul ated by the abov e fo rmul as for dry satu rated stea m
to co rrec t for moi stu re .

Exampl e Ca lcul a te the f ric tio nal ro tatio n lo ss of a di sk 3

.

f eet in di a m eter of a non co nd ensi ng si ngl e sta ge tu rbi ne ( stea m

-
 M ECHAN I CA L L OSSES IN T U RB IN ES

p ressu re 5 pou n
1 d s per squ are i nch a b solu te) wh en the stea m

is ( 1 ) d ry satu rated ( 2 ) sup erh ea ted 1 0 0 F , (3 ) 1 0 per c ent 0

.
,

wet . T he sp eed is 3 6 0 0 revolu tio ns per mi nu te

. D etermi ne .

al so the ro ta tio n lo ss of a si ngl e row of bl ad es 1 i nch lo ng on

thi s di sk .

At high p eriph eral speed s the ro ta tio n lo ss of a non co nd ensi ng -

tu rbi ne wi th the wh eel s revolvi n g in stea m a t a tmo sph eric p res

su re is qui te l arg e a s the ex a mpl e a bov e illu stra tes

,
T hi s lo ss .

d ec reases how ev er v ery ra pidly wi th i nc rea sing v a cu um a nd

, , ,

is in f a c t nea rly p ropo rt io na l to the p ressu re T hi s f a c t is

, ,
.

not how ev er alw a y s a pp reci a ted by d esigners Of cou rse

‘

, ,
.
,

wh en di sk and bl ad e ro tatio n lo sses a re b ei ng c alcul a ted for a

seri es of p ressu res for the sev era l sta g es of a tu rbi ne as is u su ally ,

do ne b efo re d ecidi ng on the nozzl e p ropo rtio ns it is o nly neces ,

sa ry if the w h eel d im ensio ns a re co nsta nt to c a lcul a te for one

, ,

p ressure and d etermi ne the v alu e sfor the o th er stag es by mul ti

plyi ng by a co nsta nt rep resenti ng the ratio of the d ensi ti es Of .

all the v a ri a bl es in equ a tio ns a nd the d ensi ty is

the o nly term v aryi ng as the first pow er For mo st wo rk it will .

be allow abl e to a ssum e w ithin a sm all ra ng e the d ensi ty pro

, ,

po rt io nal to the pressu re; th at is if the d i sk and bl a d e lo ss has

,

b een c alcul ated in stea m a t som e giv en p ressu re the co rrespo nd ,

ing f ric tio n lo ss at a ny o th er p ressu re ma y be fou nd by the ratio

of the p ressu res .

T he d i sk and bl ad e ro ta tio n lo sses of a Parso ns or o th er d rum

typ e may be c alcul ated wi th the abov e fo rmul a s by cal cu

l ati ng the lo ss for each group of bl ad es of the sa m e l eng th and

di a m eter and addi ng to the sum of the bl ad e lo sses the ro tatio n
lo ss d ue to di sk s a pp roxim ately equiv al ent to the ou tsid e su rf a c e
of th e d rum As the f ric tio n lo ss d ue to the d ru m i tself is sm all
.

comp ared wi th th at of the m any row s of bl ad es no g reat a ccu ra cy ,

need be attemp ted in thi s c alcul a tio n .

In sm all siz es of stea m tu rbi ne g enera to rs the ro ta tio n lo ss is a

-

co nsid erabl e p erc enta ge of the to tal ou tpu t T he di sk and bl ad e .

lo ss of a si ngl e sta ge tu rbi ne wi th a singl e row of bl a d es rated by ,

the m anuf a c tu rer at abou t 2 50 kilow atts a t 3 6 0 0 is shown

1 20 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

in Fig 7 0
. .T he cu rv es show th at the ro ta tio n or wi nd a g e lo ss
of the genera to r alo ne is a bou t 3 0 kilowatts and the to tal ro ta tio n
lo ss is 50 kilowatts or 2 0 per c ent of the rated ou tpu t Simil arl y
. .

S peed R E M
-
.

F IG 7 0
. . R i
otat on Lo
ss C ur v es of 2 5 0 -
K ilow a tt T urb i ne G ene
-
ra to r
.

the t tao l ro tatio n lo ss of a 2 0 0 0 to 3 0 0 0 kilowa tt tu rbi ne gen -

cra to r is f rom 1 0 to 1 5 per c ent of the rated ou tpu t

. .

M eth o d of M ak ing Tests to D etermine Wh eel and B l ade

Ro tatio n Lo sses of a Steam Turbi ne T he simpl est m ethod for .

m aki ng such a test and the one commo nly employ ed is to attach
, ,

an el ec tric mo to r to the tu rbi ne sh a f t ( som etim es in a di rec t

co nnec ted set the generato r is u sed as a mo to r) and run it a t a

numb er of di ff erent sp eed s In taki ng a seri es of speed s no
.
,

“ ”
ob serv atio ns are m ad e u ntil co ndi tio ns h a v e b ecom e steady ,

a nd the sp eed mu st be h eld co nstant for sev era l mi nu tes so th at

a numb er of rea di ng s ca n be ta k en on the e l ec tric al i nstrum ents

m easu ri ng the i npu t of the mo to r T he resul ts give the ro ta.

tio n lo ss of the wh eel and bl ad es in stea m a s w ell a s b eari ng

”
f ric tio n and the ro tatio n or wi nd age and el ec tric al lo sses of the
mo to r T h en the tu rbi ne wh eel is remov ed l eavi ng the p acki ng
.
,
1 2 2 T HE STEA M TU RBI NE

of the di sk and bl ad e lo sses a re reg ained by the reh ea ti ng and ,

th a t th erefo re the a c tu al f ric tio n lo sses in an op era ti ng tu rbi ne

are abou t thi s amou nt sm all er th a n in stagnant stea m In c ases .

of full admi ssio n tru e bl ad e f ric tio n di sapp ears ; and a p ropo rtion
a te reduc tio n will al so ta k e pl a c e a cco rdi ng to the d eg ree of
,

a dmi ssio n wh en it is p arti al

,
.

I nv estig atio n of wh eel and bl ad e f ric tio n lo sses by the a u tho r ,

u si ng a modi fic atio n Of the m ethod first sugg ested by L a sch e of

B erli n did not Show the reduc tio n in th e
,
se lo sses to b e exp ec ted

wh en d etermi ned u nd er O p erati ng co ndi tio ns T h ese resul ts .

,

howev er c anno t be co nsid ered co nclu siv e as the typ e Of m a chi ne

, ,

u sed w as not w ell sui ted for the pu rpo se and o nly 2 5 per c ent of ,
.

the bl ad es w ere fill ed wi th stea m It has b een sta ted th a t wh en

.

a l a rg e qu anti ty of stea m p asses i nto the c a si ng th rough a sui t

a bl e op en i ng wi thou t p a ssi ng th rough nozzl es a nd esc a p es th rough

the exh au st ( wi thou t i nc reasi ng the p ressu re) the di sk and bl ad e ,

ro ta tio n lo sses a re i nc rea sed a s much a s 2 0 per c ent T hi s .

a pp arently is a n i nflu en c e to cou ntera c t the eff ec t O f filli ng the

bl ad es .

In all the analy si s th a t ha s p rec ed ed th ere are so m any uncer

ta i n v a ri abl es enteri ng th a t it is impo ssibl e to
g et a g reem ent ,

al though a pp arently w e h a v e a l arg e a mou nt of d ata f rom which

, ,

to d raw It may be sta ted how ev er th at all in all the b est d a ta

.
, , ,

on di sk a nd bl a d e f ric tio n seem to show th at it is sm all er a nd of

l ess signi fic anc e th an the resul ts of mo st i nv estig ato rs would

show .

A li ttl e sp a c e should be giv en to L asch e s v ery i nteresti ng

’

m ethod * A tu rbi ne g enera to r set was u sed in which the number

.
-

Of nozzl es d i sch argi ng i nto th e tu rb i ne co ul d be regu l a ted a nd the

o utput of the g enera to r wa s O b serv ed for ea ch setti ng Of v alv es ,

and tests wi th v aryi n g lo a d s w ere m a d e a t a numb er O f diff erent

Sp eed s T he tu rbi ne wh eel was th en remov ed f rom the sh a f t

.
,

an d by ru nni ng the g enera to r a s a mo to r the f ric tio n lo sses in the

stuffi ng box a t th e g enera to r end of the tu rbi ne a nd in the b eari ng s
-
,

as w ell as the wi nd a g e lo ss of the g enera to r w ere d etermi ned ,

.

la
Stodo ,
D i e D a mp
f turbi nen, t hi rd ii
ed t on, pa e 1 3 1 g .
 M ECHAN I CAL L O SSES IN T U R B I N ES

T he resi stanc e of the a rm atu re and b ru sh es w as al so m easu red to

c alcul ate the h eating ( Pr) lo ss The sum of th ese lo sses was cal
.

cul ated for a numb er Of lo a d s ( kilow atts ) and cu rv es simil ar to

tho se in Fig 70 w ere ob ta ined

. Cu rv e A in Fig 7 1 show s the el ec
. .

N ozzl es Open

FI G 7 1
. . FI G 7 2
. .

C urves for D etermi ni ng D i sk and Bl a de Rot ti on L

a osses at O perat n i g C ond i t i ons .

trical ou tpu t at 3 50 0 r p m Cu rve B in the sa m efi gu re rep resent

. . .
,

ing the pow erd eliv ered to the sh a f t by the tu rbi ne wa s O b tai ned ,

by addi ng to the generato r ou tpu t for ea ch se t Of nozzl es O p en

( cu rv e A ) t h e co rre spo ndi ng g enera to r lo sses

( wi nd a g e h eati ng , ,

and b eari n f ric tio n) The low er po rt io ns of cu rv es A a nd B

g .
1 2 4 T H E ST EA M TU RB I NE

a re p ra c tic ally straigh t li nes and by p roduci ng cu rv e B to the

,

ho rizo ntal axi s its i ntersec tio n rep resents on the sc al e of ab sci ssa s
,

the disk and bl ad e ro ta ti on l o sses of th e turbin e a t the sp eed O f

the test and u nder actual o perating co ndi tio ns .

B y m aki ng a seri es O f such tests at di fferent sp eed s cu rves of

ro ta t io n lo sses can be m a d e Fig 7 2 show s typic a l cu rv es of sh aft
. .

ou tpu t for sp eed s of 3 0 0 0 350 0 a nd, 4 0 0 0 r

p m , A l though . . .

thi s m ethod requi res v ery c areful exp erim enti ng the sa m e mu st ,

be sa id of any o th er method of O b ta i ni ng th ese lo sses and mo st ,

of the resul ts th at h av e b een publi sh ed are v ery poo r At l east .

it mu st be a dmi tted th at by thi s m ethod a numb er O f uncerta in

“
f ac to rs to be co nsid ered in the sta gnant stea m m ethod a re”

elimi nated .

.
“
T he li nes in Fig 7 2 are really the sam e as W ill an s lines and ”

“
mi ght j u st as w ell be pl o tted for total fl ow of steam per ho ur
”‘

as for nozzl es o pen In f ac t in tu rbi nes wh ere th ere a re no

.

“ ”
nozzl es the flow of stea m mu st be u sed It is obviou s th at .

a ny lo a d cu rv e of b ra k e ho rsepow er givi ng the to tal stea m con

sump tio n can be u sed to d etermi ne the ro tatio n lo ss by p roduci ng

”
the flow li ne to the a xi s on which the ou tpu t is sc al ed A .

g ood ch eck on th e resul ts o f such ro tatio n lo ss tests is secu red by

Ob servi ng wh eth er the li nes for the sp eed s nea r the rated sp eed

c ross ea ch o th er at a bou t the rated ou tpu t In a good d esig n the .

speed ou tpu t cu rv e will be lik e the cu rv e in Fig

-
8 0 givi ng .
,

nearly the sa m e ou tpu t at sp eed s co nsid era bly abov e or b elow

the rati ng .

T he no lo ad steam co nsump tio ns O f 2 0 0 0 50 0 0 and 9 0 0 0 kilo ,

w att Curti s turbin e genera tors are resp ec tiv ely abou t 1 4
-
,

and 8 per c ent of th at at fu ll lo ad In o th er wo rd s th ese

. .

perc entag es are o nly from one to two per c ent greater th an the .

sum of the di sk and bl ad e ro tatio n and g enerato r wi nd a g e

lo sses Generato r wi nd ag e lo ss is p rob ably abou t equ al to

.

the sum Of all the t u rbi ne lo sses It is g enerally assum ed th at

.

the no lo ad steam co nsump tio n Of a P arso ns t u rbi ne ( wi thou t

the g enerato r ) is abou t 1 2 per c ent of th at at the no rm al .

maximum outpu t .
 C HAP T ER VI .

M ETH OD F OR COR R ECTING STEAM TURB I NE TESTS .

Standard Co nditio ns for Steam Turbine Tests . If tests of steam

t u rbi nes could alw ay s be m ad e at som e stand vacuum super ,

h eat and a dmi ssio n pressure th en tu rbi nes of the Sa m e siz e a nd

, ,

of the sa m e typ e could be readily comp ared a nd a n en gi neer ,

c ould d etermi ne wi thou t a n c lcul t io n s which of tw o tu bi n e

y a a r s

was mo re eco nomic al for at l east th ese stand ard co ndi tio ns B ut .

stea m tu rbi nes and engi nes ev en of the sa m e m a k e a re not O f ten

d esi gned for and operated at any stand ard condi tions so th at a ,

di rec t comp ari so n Of steam consump tio ns has u su al ly no signifi

c anc e .

It will be sho wn now how good comp ari so ns of di ff erent tests

can b e m a d e by a li ttl e c a lcul a tio n i nvolvi ng the reduci ng of the

resul ts ob tai ned for v aryi ng co ndi tio ns to assumed standard

condi tio ns T he m ethod giv en h ere is th a t g enerally u sed by

.

manufa c tu rers for comp a ri ng di ff erent tests on the sa m e tu rbi ne

“ch cki g ”
p oc di f yp d mi
( a e n r ess ) or o n f er e n t t es to e ter n e t h e

rel ativ e p erfo rm anc e . T o illu strate the m ethod by an applic a

t io n a comp arativ ely simpl e test will first be di scu ssed
, .

Pra ctical Exampl e . Co rrec ti o ns for F ul l L o ad Tests T he .

c u rv e in F ig 7 3 show s th e stea m co n sump tio n for v aryi ng

.

lo ad s ob ta i ned from tests of a 1 2 5 kilow att steam turbine -

O p erati n g a t i nch es v a cu um 50 F sup erh ea t and 1 7 5

°
,
.
,

pou nd s per squ are i nch a b solu te a dmi ssio n p ressu re (at the
nozz l es ) .It is d esi red to find the equ iv al ent stea m consump
t io n at 2 8 i nch es v a cuum 0 F sup erh ea t a nd 1 6 5 pou nd s per
,
°
.
,

s qu a re i nch a b solu te a dmi ssio n p ressu re for comp a ri so n w i th

“gu arantee tests ” Fi of m of bou h
( g .
7 4 ) a s t ea en gi n e a t t e

s a m e c a p a ci ty O p era ti ng a t the l atter co ndi tio ns of v a cuum ,

s up erh eat a nd p ressu re T he m anufa c tu rers O f the stea m

.
,

12 6
 M ETHOD FO R CO RR ECT IN G ST EAM T URB IN E T EST S 12 7

80 1 00 1 20 1 40 . 1 60 1 80 3 X)
Oti tput a l l owatts

F IG 7 3
. . Lo
ad C urve of a i
T yp cal 1 2 5- K il ow att Steam T urb i ne
.

80 1 00 1 20 1 40 1 60 1 80 2 00
Output tn K il owatts

FIG .
74 . Comparat ive Load Curv es of a Rec i procati ng Stea m Engi ne a nd a Steam
T ur b i ne B oth of 1 2 5 K il owatts C apacity at F ull Load
 I2 8 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

u rbi ne h av e p rovid ed the cu rv es in Fi gs 7 5 7 6 and 7 7

t .
, ,

showi ng the ch a ng e of eco nomy wi th v a ryi ng v a cuum sup erh ea t

, ,

a nd p ressu re Wi th the h elp Of th ese co rrectio n curv es the

.

stea m co nsump tio n of the tu rbi ne ca n be reduc ed to the co ndi tio ns

of the engi ne tests Fig 7 5 shows th at b etw een 2 7 and 2 8 i nch es

. .

va cuum a diff erenc e of one i nch ch ang es the stea m co nsump tio n

pou nd Fig 7 6 shows a ch ange of. . pou nd s per 1 0 0 F °

.

s u erheat a nd f rom Fi
z
p g 7 7 we O b serv e a ch ange of
, . pou nd s
zi n the stea m co nsump tio n for 1 0 0 pou nd s d ifl erence in a dmi ssio n

p ress u re C omp are

. d wi th t he engi ne tests the stea m tu rbi ne w a s
O p era ted a t i ch low v cuum F high sup erh ea t a nd
°
5 n er a
50 e r , .
,

1 0 pou nd s high er p ressu re At the co ndi tio ns of the engi ne .

tests th en the stea m co nsump tio n of the stea m tu rbi ne should be

, ,

r educ ed pou nd to giv e th e equiv l en t t 8 i n ch e v cuum

5 .
.

a a 2 s a ,

b ut is i nc rea sed pou nd to co rrespo nd to 0 F su perh ea t a nd °

.
,

.
5 pou n d mo re to b ri ng it to 1 6 5 po u n d s a b solu te a dmi ss io n

p ressu re T he full lo ad stea m co nsump tio n for the steam tur

.

b i ne at the co ndi tio ns requi red for the comp ari so n is th erefo re , ,

5 .
5 o r pou n d s * .
,
.

P erso ns who are not v ery f a mili ar wi th the m ethod of m a ki ng

th ese co rrec tio ns will be li abl e to m a k e mi sta k es by not k nowi ng
wh eth er a co rrec tio n is to be add ed or sub tra c ted A li ttl e .

thi nki ng b efo re w ri ti ng down the resul t should how ev er p rev ent , ,

s uch erro rs Wh en the p erfo rm anc e at a giv en v a cuum is to be

.

co rrected to a condi tio n of h i gh er v acu um th e co rrectio n mu st be

s ubtracted b ec au se Obviou sly the stea m co nsump t io n is reduc ed

b y op erati ng a t a high er v a cuum Wh en the stea m co nsump tio n .

w i th sup erh eated stea m is to be d etermi ned in its equiv al ent of

d ry satu rated stea m ( 0 sup erh eat ) the co rrec tio n mu st be a dd ed°

b ec au se wi th low er sup erh eat th ere is l ess h eat energy in the

s tea m and co nsequ ently th ere is a l a rg er co nsump tio n Usu a l .

ion is found to be nea l y the s me as th at w hi ch

T he corrected stea m consumpt r a

t h e t h ee co e t i on cu v es sh ow fo the sa me cond i t i ons th a t is a bout

r rr c r r pound s , ,
.

I f th e e had been a d iff eren e of mo e th an about 5 pe cent betw een the co ected
r c r r . rr

s tea m consumpti o n a nd th a t of th e co ect i on cu v es for th e sa me cond i t ions the

‘

rr r ,

at i o
r meth od as expl a i ned on pag e 1 3 0 for f ractional l oads sh oul d h a v e been used
a l so fo f ul l l oa d
r .
1 30 T H E ST EA M TU RB IN E

co rrec tio ns for di fferenc es in admi ssio n p ressu re are not l arg e;
but it is w ell esta bli sh ed th a t the eco nomy 1 5 Imp rov ed by
in c reasi ng the p ressu re .

Corrections for F racti on al Loads It is the g eneral exp eri enc e .

of stea m tu rbi ne m anuf ac tu rers th at f ul l lo ad co rrec tio n c urv es ,

“
if u sed by the followi ng ratio or p erc enta g e m ethod can be ,

u sed for co rrec ti ng f ractio nal or ov er l oa ds T hi s statem ent .

a ppli es a t l east wi thou t a pp reci a bl e erro r f rom h alf to one a nd a

h alf lo a d and is the o nly p ra c tic abl e m ethod for q uarter lo ad a s

,

w ell * Stated in a few wo rd s it is a ssum ed th en th at the stea m

.
,

co nsump tio n a t f ra c tio nal lo ad s is ch ang ed by the sa m e percent

a ge as a t f ull lo a d
,
for a n i nch of v a c uum a d eg ree of sup er
, ,

h eat 0 1 a pou nd of p ressu re It will now be show n how thi s

,
.

m ethod a ppli es to the co rrec tio n O f the stea m co nsump tio n of

the tu rbi ne a t fra c tio nal lo ad s N ow a cco rdi ng to the cu rv e in .

Fig 7 5 the stea m co nsump tio n a t 2 7 5 i nch es

. pou nd s ) mu st .

obviou sly be mul tipli ed by the ra tio 3 53—9 TO f ,

‘

which the nu m er
at o r is m co nsump tio n at 2 8 i nch es and the d enomi nato r
the stea

at 2 7 5 i n ch es, to get the equiv al ent co nsump tio n a t 2 8 i nch es

.

v a cuum T hi s reaso ni ng esta bli sh es the p rop er m ethod for

.

m a ki ng co rrec tio ns th at is th at the base for th e percentage , ,

( d enomi n a to rof th e f ra c t io n ) mu st b e the stea m co nsump tio n a t

the co ndi tio n to which the co rrec tio n is to be a ppl ied T Simil a rly .

the co rrec tio n ratio to ch a ng e the co nsump tio n at 50 F sup er

°
. .

h eat °
F is
2 5 0
and co rrec t pou nd s p ressu re
to 0 .
_ _
to 1 75 to 1 65

v eryexh austiv e i nv estig ation of thi s has been made byT Stevens a nd H M
A . . .

Hoba t w hi ch is eported in E ngi neeri ng M a h

r r 9 6 ,
rc 2 ,
1 0 .

T A ssum i ng th at thi sh ort l eng th Of th e curv e may b e t k en for a st a igh t l i ne

s a r

w i th out a pp e i a b l e e o r c rr r .

I In ne l y a ll book s touchi ng thi subj ect so i mporta nt to th e p acti ca l

ar s r ,

c onsu l t i ng o sa l es engi nee th e a l te nat iv e meth od of ta ki ng th e steam consump

,
r r, r

t i on at th e eq u i ed ond i t i ons a s th e base fo

r r th e pe centag e ca l cu l a t i ons is
c r r

i mpli ed B y su h a meth od percentag e co ect ion u ves de ived f om st a igh t

. c rr c r r r r

li nes lik e Fig s 7 6 a nd 7 7 woul d be st a igh t li nes a nd in a ppli cation give ah

. r , ,

su d resul ts
r A ctua ll y such pe centag e correct ions w ill f all on cu v es ( see Figs 8 7
. r r .

and
 M ET H O D FO R CO R R ECT I N G ST EA M TU R B I NE T EST S 1 31

pou nd s the ra t io is —
zl’
é D ata and c alcul ated res ul ts ob ta i ned
by thi s m ethod may th en be tabul a ted as follow s

Con d it ions R eq u ired Co rrect ion Perc en t a ge

of Test . Cond it ion s . R a t io . Correct ion .

V ac uum , in hec s 2 34

Superhea t, degrees +4 . I 7%

Adm i ss ion p e r ssu re, pou nd s a b so u tel

N et c o e ti on
rr c .

l l mi tted in the ta ble mak ing the

2 < O .

Steps in the ca cu ati on are o , th us .

9 7 6 6 or per cent .
,
2 5 6
l
.

correction 1 0 0 9 7 66 , or per cent It ma y seem unreasona b e to th e read er tha t these percent

.

a ge
s are cal cu a ted l to t hree g
fi ures g
w hen the thi rd fi ure Of the a ues of stea m consu mpt ion is vl
d oubtfu l v
In practi ce, howe er, the ru n of the curve sheets
. li g mus t be much finer and to l ge
ar r sca le
so v
th a t the cur es ca n be read more a ccurate y l .

T he igns and s are u sed in the p erc enta g e colum n to

i ndic ate wh eth er the co rrec tio n will i nc rease or d ec rease the
stea m co nsump tio n N et co rrec tio n ”
is the alg eb ra i c sum O f
.

the qu a nti ti es in the l ast colum n .

T he followi ng ta bl e giv es the resul ts of a pplyi ng the a bov e

net co rrec tio n to f ra c tio nal lo a d s .

Loa d }
a Lo a d it Loa d 1»
Loa d
kw . kw . kw . 1 2 5 kw .

Steam consu mpti on f ro m

test ( Fig 7 3 )
.

N et correcti on
Corrected steam consu mp
i
t on

Cu rv e B in 7 4 how s th e co rrecFig
ted cu rv
. e of stea m con s

sump tio n for the stea m tu rbine as plo tted f rom the a bov e tabl e .

B y thu s Combi ni ng on the sa m e cu rv e sh eet cu rv es A and B as

, ,

in thi s fi gu re the po ints Of b etter eco nomy of the tu rbi ne are

,

readily u nd erstood .
1 3 2 T H E ST EA M TU RB IN E

R esul ts of eco nomy of the v a rio us tu rbi nes giv en on the

tests

p rec edi ng p a g es a re of v ery li ttl e v al ue for comp ari so n wh en the

”
stea m co nsump t io ns or w ater rates are giv en for all so rts of con
d itions Wi th the assi stanc e how ev er of cu rv es lik e tho se show n
.
, ,

in Fig s 7 5 7 6 a nd 7 7 if th ey a re rep resentativ e of the typ e a nd

.
, , ,
.

s iz e of tu rbi ne tested it is po ssibl e to m a k e v alu a bl e comp a ri

,

so ns b etw een two or mo re di ff erent turbi nes Som e v ery rec ent
'

d ata O f Cu rti s and Westi ngho use Pa rso ns tu rbi nes are giv en -

b elow togeth er wi th sui tabl e co rrec tio ns adop ted by the m a nu

,

fa cturers for simil ar m a chi nes .

23 24 25 26

V acuum I n h e of M e u y
c s rc r

FI G 7 8
. . T yp ca i l V a cuum Cor e t ion C u v e Of a 50 0 0 K il owatt I mpul
r c r ~ se

T u b i ne r .

T he followi n g test O f a Westi n ghou se Pa rso ns tu rbi ne rated -

a t 7 50 0 kilow a tts w as ta k en a t Wa ters id e Statio n N O

,
2 of the .

N ew Y o rk Edi so n CO and a comp ari so n is m a d e wi th a test

.
,

of a five sta g e 9 0 0 0 kilow att C u rti s tu rbi ne a t the Fi sk Street

- -

Statio n of the C ommo nw eal th El ec tric Comp any of Chic a go .

As no p ressu re co rrec tio n is giv en for the Cu rti s m a chi ne the ,

N ew Yo rk Edi so n test is co rrec ted to the p ressu re a t which the

o th er m a chi ne was O p erated ( 1 7 9 pou nd s per squ are i nch g auge) .

A pp roxim ately an av era g e v a cuum for the two tests is ta k en

for the stand ard and 1 0 0 F sup erh eat is used for comp ari ng
°
.
,

the sup erh eats T h ese a ssum ed stand ard co ndi tio ns m a k e the
.
1 34 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

T h ese resul ts s how

di ff eren c e of o nly 2 0 pou nd in the cor
a .

rected stea m corn sum tion

p so th at for ex a c tly the sa m e con
,

d itions th ese two m achi nes would p rob a bly giv e a pp roxim ately
the sa m e eco nomy Ea ch turbi ne is doub tl ess b est for the
.

Sp eci al co ndi tio n s for which it w a s d esig ned .

T h ese resul ts are equival ent to resp ec tiv ely 9 58 pou nd s and .

pou nd s per indi cated ho rsepower assumi ng 9 7 per c ent as the effi ,

cien c O f the g enera to r and er c en t th e m ech n ic l effi ci en cy

y 9 p1 a s a a

of a l arg e Co rli ss engi ne acco rdi ng to fig ures giv en by Stottfil <

F rom exp eri enc e wi th o th er simil a r turbi nes it seem s as if the

v a cuum co rrec tio ns giv en a re too low for ea ch tu rbi ne T he .

co rrec tio n for the Cu rt i s turbi ne was ob ta i ned f rom the c urv e in
Fig 7 8 a s giv en b etw een 2 7 and 2 8 i nch es whil e it w as u sed
.
,

b etw een and i nch es where the curv e O f steam consump ,

tio n mo st lik ely slop es som ewh at as show n by the do tted cu rv e in

the fi gu re which was d eriv ed f rom the p

, erc enta g e ch a ng e of

the th eo retic al stea m co n sump tio n c alcul ated f rom the a v a i la bl e

energy T he co rrec tio n O f

.
p er c en t p er i nch of v a cuum .

for the Westi nghou se Pa rso ns turbi ne is p rob a bly too low a l so
-

al tho u gh the p erc enta g e co rrec tio n would n ot be nearly a s

l arge as for the Cu rti s I f bo th of th ese co rrec tio ns are too

.

low the eff ec t of Inc reasi ng th em would be to i nc rea se the cor

,

rected stea m co nsump tio n of the Curti s tu rbi ne and redu c e th at

of the Westi nghou se P arso ns .

L arg e siz es of stea m tu rbi nes are al so m ad e by the Alli s '

Ch alm ers Comp any but su ffi ci ent d ata a re not given wi th pub
,

lished tests to m ak e a comp ari so n h ere .

T ests O f a 50 0 0 kilow att Cu rti s a nd a 7 50 0 kilow a tt Westi ng

- -

hou se Parso ns tu rbi ne are al so reco rd ed h ere for comp ari so n

-
.

T he two tests a re co rrec ted to the assum ed stand ard co ndi tio ns
of pou nd s g auge p ressu re 2 8 i nch es v acuum and 0 F , ,
°
.

sup erh eat For the test of the Cu rti s m a chi ne the sa m e per
.

c entag e co rrec tio ns w ere u sed a s for the 90 0 0 kilowatt tu rbi ne; -

Journal J ul y 1 9 0 7 It is stated a l so in thi s art i l e th at the vacuum

El ectric , , . c

correct i on of a West i ngh ou e Pa rsons tu b i ne is 3 5 pe cent per i n h betw een 2 8

s -
r . r . c

and 2 8 5 i nch es
.
J ude states th at the vacuum correction for Parsons tu b i nes is
.
r

five to six per cent .

 M ET HOD FOR CO RRECT I N G ST EAM T URB I NE T EST S 1 35

a nd for the test Westi nghou se tu rbine the v acuu m co rree

of the
tio n is th at giv en in the foo tno te at the bo ttom of p a g e 1 3 4 (3 5 .

e r c ent er i nch ) whil e the o th er p erc enta g e co rrec tio ns are the
p p .
,

sa m e a s in the p rec edi ng test of a simil a r m a chi ne T he West .

inghouse turbi ne wa s O p era ted wi th wet stea m In a test of a .

recip roc a ti ng en gi ne the equiv al ent eco nomy wi th dr ste m is

y a

c alcul ated by m erely sub tra c ti ng the p erc enta g e of moi stu re b ut
,

in a tu rbi ne test the co rrectio n is general ly stated a s being a l i ttl e

mo re tha n tw ice the percentage of moi sture In o th er wo rd s in a .
,

tu rbi ne test the moi stu re mu st be sub tra c ted twic e T he rea so n .

for thi s di fferenc e in the m ethod s of co rrec ti ng w ater rates Of

engi nes and tu rbi nes is the v ery l arg e i nc rease in the di sk a nd -

b l a d e ro tatio n lo sses in w et stea m ( cf Fig . .

5 0 00— K ILO WATT F I V E—S TAGE C U R TI S T UR B IN E . L STR EE T ST A T IO N .

B O STO N ED ISO N CO M PA N Y . Tested Ja n . 2 9 , 1 9 0 7 .

Co rrec ted Co rrec t ion .

to per Cen t .

i
D ura t on of test , ours h
v l i
Speed , re o ut ons per m nute i .

v
A era ge steam pressure, pound s au e g g
A era e acuum, in ( re erred to 3 0 i n ba rom )
v g v . f . .

v g
A era e su per eat, degrees h F
v g l
A era e oad o n enerators , g
ow a tts kil
Steam consumption, pound s per ow att ou r kil -
h .

N et correct on i 1 7 76
Corrected steam consumpt o n, pound s per o i kil
wa tt our -
h

7 5 00— K ILO WA TT WESTI N G HO US E PA R SO N S -

TUR B I N E ( SI NGLE F LOW
T Y P E) I NT E R B O R O U G H R A PID T R A NSIT
. CO M PA N Y N EW Y O R K , .

Tes t ed in 1 9 0 7 .

Co rrec ted Correc t ion .

to per Cen t .

i
D urat on of test, ours h
v l i
S peed , re o ut ons per m nute i
v g
A era e steam pressure, pounds gau e g
v g v
A era e acuum, in ( re erred to 3 0 in ba rom )
. f . .

v g i
A era e mo stu re, per cent
v g l
A era e oad on enera tor, g
ow a tts kil
Steam consumpt on, pou nds per i ow a tt our kil -
h
( wet) .

N et correcti on
C orrected steam consu mpti o n pound s per , kil o
1 6 . 1 0
1 36 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

It is d th at the stea m co nsump tio n Of the I nterborough

state

Comp any s tu rbi ne is pou nd s at full lo ad and pou nd s

’

at 0 0 0 kilow a tts wh en the ov erlo a d v alv e op ens Th e e n

9 g .

era tor co nnec ted to thi s tu rbi ne is ra ted a t o nly 5 50 0 kilow a tts .

Wi th a g enerato r mo re nearly the ra ti ng of the tu rbi ne it is

p rob abl e still b etter resul ts would be secu red .

Co rrec ted tests O f a 2 0 0 0 kilow a tt Cu rt i s a nd a 1 0 0 0 kilow a tt - -

Westi nghou se Parso ns tu rbi ne g enerato r are al so giv en h ere

- -
.

Assum ed sta nd ard co ndi tio ns and co rrec tio ns are ta k en the sa m e
a s in the two tests p rec edi n g exc ep t th a t the West i nghou se test ,

is co rrec ted to th e stea m p ressu re of the C urt i s test

'
.

2 000- K I LO W A TT C U R TIS T U R B INE , CO M M O NW EA LT H E LECTR IC CO M PA N Y

C H I CA G O . Test ed M a y , 1 9 0 5 , b y S a rgent Lu n d y .

Correc t ed Co rrec t ion ,

to per Cen t .

i
D ura t on of test, ou rs h
v l i
Speed , re o ut ons per m nu te i .

v g
A era e steam pressure, pound s au e g g .

v g v
A era e acuum, in ( re erred to 3 0 i n b a rom . f .

v g
A era e super eat, d e rees h g F
v g l
A era e oa d on enerators, ow a tts g kil
Steam consumpt on, pound s per i
ow a tt ou r kil -
h
N et correct on i 2 0 .
53
C orrected steam consumpt on, pou nd s per o i kil

l OOO— K I LO W A TT “
W EST I N G H O U S E P A R SO N S -
TUR B IN E . Tes t ed Sept em b er,
1 9 0 7 , by S . G il l ia rd .

Correc t ed Correc t ion ,

to p er Cen t .

i
D u ra t o n O f test , ou rs h
v l i
Speed , re o ut ons per m nute i .

v g
A era e steam pressure, tpou nd s a u e g g
v g v
A era e acuum , in ( re erred to 3 0 i n b a rom ) . f . .

v g i
A era e mo sture, per cent .

v g l
A era e oad on w a ter bra e, k
q iv l v
E u a ent a era e oad I n g l
ow a tts ( enerat r kil g o
f i
e fi c ency
Steam consumpt on, pound s per b ra e orse i k h
power our
-
h
i
Steam consum pt on, pou nd s per e u a ent i o q iv l kl
w a tt our -
h 1 9 35

C orrected stea m co nsu mpti on, pound s per kil o

w a tt -
h ou r
1 38 T H E ST EAM T U R B INE

of the tu rbi ne showi ng th at at 50 per c ent ov erlo ad the engi ne

,
.
,

d esigned for equ al wo rk in the cyli nd ers requ i res for the same
ou tpu t 4 3 p er c en t mo
. r e s te a m th a n th e t u r bi n e .

h
T ese res ul ts a re p a rt icul a rly i nte re st i n g b ec a u s e th e p ea k
c a p a ci ty of a statio n wi th a given equipm ent of bo il ers and .

a uxili ar i es is i nc r ea se d in p ropo r t io n t o th e re duc t io n of st ea m

co nsump tio n at ov erlo ad s .

For a g en iv i nv e st m en t t h e t u r bi ne giv e s a much l arg er r a n g e

800 1200 1600 2000 2400

Speed
’

FIG 8 0 T orque Speed O utput, a nd Effi ci ency Curves of a T ypi cal

. . ,

5 00 -
K ilowatt Steam T urbi ne .

of lo a d a nd mo reov er a f fo r d s th e m e a n s by which t h e p e a k
, ,

c ap a city of exi sti ng statio ns can be g reatly i nc reased .

o
Th e speed utput cu e ( g rv F i 8 0
) is v er
y u
. sefu l to e ngi
,
n e e rs to

d etermi ne if a tu rbi ne is ru nni ng at its b est sp eed I f the cor

'

.
~

res po di
n n g cu v
r es of t
s ea m co n s ump tio n p er kilow a tt ou tpu t

u u lly c ll d w kilow tt ) n d e fi i en y e ca l cu
( c a
a e ater ra te pe r a a c r
s a

l ated a cco rdi ng to the fo rm on p a g e 2 7 2 a g reat d eal of i nfo rm a

io b
t n is O ta ne a i d bou t the op e ra t io n a n d e co nomy of a tu rbi n e .

T he torque li e n n i Fig 8 0 i s a lw
. a y s d r a w n s tra igh t ju st a s a ,
.
 M ET HO D F O R CO RR ECT I N G R I
ST EA M T U B N E T EST S 1 39

Willans flow li ne A cu rv e of total stea m co nsump tio n is u su ally

.

a stra igh t li ne for the no rm al op erati ng limi ts of a tu rb ine but ,

u su ally b ecom es cu rv ed wh en a by p ass v alve O p ens on overlo ad

-

or wh en the tu rbi ne is ov er its c a p a ci ty so th at the p ressu res

are not no rm al in the sta g es .

The to rqu e li ne show s why a turbine engine is not adaptabl e to

automo bi les . T he sta rt i ng to rqu e of a sm all comm erci al tur
bi ne is not l arg e so th at sta rti ng would be di ffi cul t wi th a sm all
,

wh eel and reversi ng and sp eed reduc tio n would be a s diffi cul t
,

a s wi th a g asoli ne engi ne .T he recip roc a ti ng stea m engi ne a s

w ell a s the g asoline engi ne has th erefo re adv anta ges ov er the
, ,

stea m tu rbi ne for thi s servic e .

 C HAPT ER VI I .

COM M ER C A I L TYPES .

IN s om e resp ec ts the o rd er in which the comm erci al typ es of

steam tu rbi nes are di scu ssed on the followi ng p a g es is som ewh at

a rbi trary ; but essenti a lly it is in theo rd er of rel ativ e simplici ty

, , .

D e L a v a l and P arso ns of the mod ern d esigners w ere fi rst in

, ,

the field T h ey w ere in f a c t pio neers in the d ev elopm ent of

.

comm erci al stea m tu rbi nes and o th er d esigners h av e follow ed

, .

mo re or l ess in th ei r step s T he reaso ns for givi ng p rec ed enc e

.

to the typ es which they d ev elop ed are th erefo re O bviou s a nd no ,

o ther expl anati o n is need ed .

B ec au se of its greater simplici ty the comm erci al D e L av al is

first di scu ssed and is follow ed wi th d esc rip tio ns of the v ariou s
,

fo rm s of the P arso ns tu rbi ne and the mo re rec ent typ es .

DE L AV A L ST EA M TU RB I N E .

R atio nal gi neering d ev elopm ent is nowh ere b etter exempli

en

fied th an in the succ essful p erfo rm anc e of the D e L av al steam

tu rbi ne . In nearly ev ery resp ec t ev en to d eta il s it is still prac
, ,

t ic ally the sa m e as the tu rbi nes d esig ned u nd er the p erso nal
di rec tio n of D e L av al .

T he e ssenti al el em ents O f thi s tu rbi ne a re: ( 1 ) the noz z l es in

w hich the stea m exp and s ; ( 2 ) a wh eel or disk wi th sui tabl e bl ad es

on its p eriph ery ; ( 3 ) a sl ender sh aft on which the wh eel is mou nted ;

a nd ( 4 ) a set of reducing gears to ch ang e the high sp eed of the

tu rbi ne sh a ft to a low er sp eed ad ap tabl e for d rivi ng m a chi nery .

D ra win g s of a sm all D e L a v al tu rbi ne a re show n in Fig 8 2 . .

The tu rbi ne wh eel W is suppo rted upo n the fl exibl e shaft

, ,

b etw een the b eari ng Z p rovid ed wi th a sph eric al seat and the
, , ,

gl a nd or stuffi ng box P T eeth are cut i nto the m eta l of the

-

,
.

tu rbi ne sh a ft to m a k e the pi nio ns on ea ch sid e of K fit the g ear

1 42 T HE STEA M RB I N E
TU

the d rawi ng in Fig 8 3 is u sed Wh en thi s d esign is u sed the

. .
,

hub of the wh eel is bo red out and a thi n steel bu shi ng is d raw n
into it by m eans of a nut Shown in the figu re at the righ t h and end -
.

B efo re thi s bu shi ng is put i nto the wh eel it is fo rc ed on the sh af t ,

FIG 8 3 . De L v a al T urb i ne Wh eel w ith a Hol e at the C enter a nd D etail s of the

Bl a des .

a nd pi nned in pl a c e as show n T he wh eel can be remov ed f rom

.

the sh af t by taki ng off the nut and d ra wi ng it f rom the bu shi ng .

The stren gth of a di sk or a wh eel of a di sk typ e in which th ere

, ,

is a hol e at the c enter is at b est not mo re th an h alf as stro ng as one

.

FI G 8 4
. . De L v l T u b i ne Wh eel without
a a r a Hol e at the C enter.

wi thou t a hol e * . On thi s a ccou nt in the l arger

iz es of D e L av al s

tu rbi nes it has b een fou nd nec essary to use the d esig n show n
in Fig 8 4 . In thi s arrang em ent a solid di sk is p ermi tted
. .

T he hub is rec essed at ea ch end and the fl exibl e sh af t is m ad e ,

An expl anati on of thi s remark ab l e ph enomenon is giv en on pag e3 3 3 .

 CO MM ER CI AL T YP ES

wi th enl arged fl anged end s w hich fit i nto the rec esses and are
bol ted solidly in pl ac e T he rec esses and fl anges are m achi ned
.

with a fou r per c ent tap er in o rd er th at the p arts m a y be accu rately

.

c entered and fitted .

T hi s fo rm of wh eel d i sk wi th the sec tio n i nc reasi ng f rom the

rim tow ard s the hub is a rriv ed at by p ropo rt io n i ng it to h av e

equ al u ni t stre sses th roughou t B ut thi s co nd i tio n do es not

.

hold tru e at the rim wh ere ju st b elow the bl ad es annul ar

,

g roov es are tu rned on ea ch sid e Weak eni ng of the wh eel at .

the rim is a v ery good m ethod of p rovidi ng for ab no rm al stresses

th at resul t in c ase of a f a ilu re of the gov erno r to co ntrol the s peed .

T he pu rpo se in m a ki ng th ese g roov es is to h av e the wh eel bu rst

a t thi s reduc ed sec tio n wh ere the stresses per u ni t of a rea are

a bou t 50 per c ent l a rg er th an a t a ny o th er p art of the wh eel

.
,

rath er th a n near the c enter wh ere the d a m ag e f rom f a ilu re would

be so much g reater At no rm al sp eed the f a c to r Of safety at

.
,

thi s sm all est sec tio n is a bou t five and si nc e the u ni t stresses
, ,

v ary a s he squ a e of the sp eed the wh eel will f a il at thi s pl ac e

t r *
,

a t a li ttl e mo re th a n twic e the rated sp eed As th ese wh eel s are .

co nstru c ted no g rea t d am a ge to the tu rbi ne will resul t th erefo re

, , ,

f rom the f a ilu re of the wh eel rim It has been shown by ac tu al .

exp erim ents wi th such wh eel s th at wh en f a ilu re occu rs the rim ,

holdi ng the bl ad es is b rok en up i nto v ery sm all pi ec es which

will not d am age the wh eel c ase It is stated how ev er th at .
, ,

wheel s without thi s reduc ed sec tio n wh en tested to f a ilu re h av e

’

, ,

b een b rok en u p i nto two or th ree l a rge pi ec es by bu rsti ng th rough

the c enter and th ese pi ec es h av e b een d riv en th rough an experi
,

m ental wh eel c asi ng m ad e of two i nch steel c asti ngs -

.

T h ere is al so ano th er co nsid eratio n th at is esp eci ally i nteresti ng

to engi neers Wh en a po rtio n of the rim b reak s off the wh eel
.

b ecom es u nb al anc ed and as the cl earanc e b etw een the h eavy

,

hub of the wh eel and the safety b eari ng s in the su rrou ndi ng
c asi ng is v ery sm all as can be seen in Fig 8 2 the fl exibil i ty of the
,
.
,

WV 3

Centrifug al force ( see page 3 1 4 ) a nd is th erefore proport i ona l to the

gr
sq ua re ofv el oci ty ( speed ) . T he fa ctor of sa fety at h i
ot er sect ons of a De L v l
a a

wh eel is about eigh t .

1 44 T HE ST EA M RB I NE
TU

s h aft will p ermi t the hub of the wh eel to com e i nto co ntac t wi th
t he ci rcul ar O p eni ng s in the c asi ng i nto which it extend s T he .

f ric tio n of th ese su rf ac es will a ct as a b ra k e a nd a ssi sts in b ri n gi ng

the wh eel to rest .And thi s is easily a ccompli sh ed b ec au se wi th ,

t he bl a d es remov ed the stea m no lo ng er a c ts to ro tate the wh eel .

T he di a m eters of the wh eel s are rel ativ ely sm all a s can be seen ,

f rom the followi ng tabl e:

Wh eel s for D e L av al tu rbi nes are u su ally m a d e of a sp eci al

f o rg ed nick el steel sa id to be rath er high in c arbo n .

Nozzl es . .Fig 8 5 is a typic al illu stratio n of a 2 O kilow att -

D e L a v a l tu rbi ne g enerato r and giv es a g eneral id ea of how the

-

n ozzl es which di rec t t he stea m a g a i nst the bl ad es are arrang ed

a rou nd the p eriph eryof the tu rbi ne wh eel T h ey are atta ch ed

.

t o the tu rbi ne m ech anic ally by b ei ng fitted i nto the ci rcumfer

enc e of the steel c asti ng which serv es as the c asi ng for the wh eel .

T he numb er of nozzl es v ari es a cco rdi ng to the siz e of the tu rbi ne .

T he nozzl es are p rovid ed wi th h and v alv es which can be seen ,

i n the fi gu re by which th ey can be clo sed wh en the tu rbi ne is

,

ru nni ng at ligh t lo ad s In thi s way som e of the nozzl es are cut

.
“
”
o ut and a rel ativ ely high effici ency is O b ta i ned at ligh t lo ad s .

I n thi s p articul ar c ase a bou t h alf of the O p eni ng s in the c a si ng

,

for nozzl es are clo sed by plug s ; but by removi ng th ese plug s
a nd i nsert i ng nozzl es i nstead the c ap a ci ty of the tu rbi ne would
,

be g reatly i nc reased .

T he nozzl es are the o nly p arts of a D e L av al tu rbi ne th at

a re ch ang ed to m a k e it sui tabl e for a ny p articul ar p ressu re ,

d eg ree O f sup erh eat or v a cuum ,

T he ratio of the admi ssio n
.

( u su a lly boil e r ) p ressu re to the exh a u st p ressu re is th e mo st i m

p o r ta n t f a c to r i n flu enci ng the d esig n of a nozzl e B ri efly s t
.a ted
thi s ratio of p ressu res d etermi nes the a rea s of the c ro ss sec tio n -

O f the nozzl e a t the th ro at and at the mou th and th erefo re its ,

d iv erg enc e or tap er .

1 46 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

R eam ers u sed

p roduc e the requi red ta p er on the i nsid e
are to

of th ese nozzl es In the wo rk s at T rento n ov er 6 0 0 rea m ers are

.

k ep t in the tool room T he ta p er of the nozzl e ranges from six .

to tw elv e d eg rees a nd the cl ea ran c e b etw een the mou th of the

,

nozzl e and the bl ad es ( a xi al cl earan c e) is abou t an eigh th of an

i nch .

B l ades D e L av al bl ad es are m ad e of d rop fo rg ed steel and

.
-

h ave bulb sh ank s which are fitted i nto sui tabl e slo ts in the wh eel ,

show n in Fig 8 3 which a re mill ed a c ro ss the rim a nd th en d rill ed

.
, .

T he bl ad es a re ligh tly c a lk ed to secu re th em in pl a c e At the .

upp er end s of the bl ad es th ey are p rovid ed wi th extensio ns “ ”

which are d esigned to m ak e adjoi ni ng bl ad es fit clo sely a nd thu s

fo rm a co nti nuou s ri ng ov er the bl ad es a t the p eriph ery of the
wh eel D eta il s of th ese bl ad es are show n mo re cl early in
.

Fig 6 4. .

Sh aft D e L av al stea m tu rbi nes h av e tw o impo rtant f ea tu res

.

di sti ngui shi ng th em from all o th er typ es T he first is the lo ng .

div erg ing nozzl e wi th the h and wh eel co ntrol al ready m entio ned ;
a nd the seco nd is the sl ender fl exi bl e sh a f t O f th e tu rbi n e A ‘
.

wh eel revolvi ng at a v ery high sp eed tend s to ro tate abou t its

c enter of g ravi ty I f it is mo unted ou a sti ff u nyi eldi ng sh af t of
.
-

, ,
'

which the axi s do es not p ass th ro ugh the c enter of g ravi ty of the
wh eel thi s tend ency c au ses viol ent vib ratio ns of the wh eel and
,

sh a f t d ue to the v ery l arg e c entrifug a l fo rc es I t is stated th at a .

w eigh t of one ou nc e atta ch ed at the ci rcumf erenc e of the wh eel of

a 3 0 0 ho rsepow er D e L av a l tu rbi ne will p roduc e a n u nb al an c ed
-

c entrifug al fo rc e of nearly 2 0 0 0 pou nd s It is m ech an ic ally .

diffi c ul t and almo st impo ssibl e to co nstruc t a wh eel so p erf ec tly

b al anc ed th at its c enter Of g ravi ty will ex ac tly coi ncid e wi th
th e g eom etric c enter O f the sh a f t on which it is mou nted .

D e L av al th erefo re d evi sed a lo ng sl en d er sh af t which as the

, , , ,

s p eed of the wh eel i n c reases yi eld s som ewh at and allow s the ,

l atter to assum e its ow n po si tio n of ro tatio n abou t its c enter of

g ravi ty .

T he d i mete of the h f t f a h ep w e D e L v l tu b i e i i h d
r s a O a 1 0 0- o rs o r a a r n s 1 nc an

of a 3 0 0 -
horsepowe r i
t u rb ne is abou t 1 5; i n h es
c .
 CO MM ER CI A L T YP ES 1 47

T he wh eel is not mou nted midw ay b etw een the b eari ngs but
co nsid erably nearer the spheribal seated b eari ng Z F ig 8 2 at ,
.
,

the gov erno r end N ow wh en the wh eel is started up f rom rest

.
,

if its c enter of g ravi ty is not p reci sely in the axi s of the sh aft it ,

will b end and the pl ane of revolu tio n of the wh eel is th en no

,

lo ng er p erp endicul ar to the axi s of ro tatio n Wh en how ev er a .

, ,

su ffi ci ently high sp eed is rea ch ed so th at gyro sco pi c a ctio n is ,

g reat enough to pull thi s pl ane b ack to a po si tio n p erp endicul ar

to the a xi s of ro ta tio n a nod e is fo rm ed at the c enter of the
,

hub and ro tatio n will th en tak e pl ac e abou t the c enter of g ravi ty

of the sy stem T he sp eed at which the a mpli tud e of vib ratio n
.

is g rea test is c all ed

B eari ngs T ypic al b eari ng s of D e L av al tu rbi nes are illu s
.

trated in the sec tio n d ra wi ng s in F ig 8 2 At the righ t h and or . .

-

“gov erno r end th ere is a S h eri cal sea ted beari ng Z A

p ( ) .

d esig n of thi s ki nd is u sed for the pu rpo se p ri marily of givi ng , ,

g reater fl exibili ty to the sh af t and to tak e the sm all end th ru st

ex erted on the wh eel by the stea m i ssui ng f rom the nozzl es a t a

v ery high v eloci ty In smgl e wh eel tu rbi nes of the D e L av al

.

typ e thi s p ressu re or th ru st is ho w ev er v ery sligh t a s the stea m

, , ,

is exp and ed to the exh au st p ressu re b efo re it l eav es the nozzl es .

It is obviou s th erefo re th at the w h eel ro tates in stea m of v ery

, ,

nea rly the sa m e p ressu re on bo th of its sid es Such a d esig n .

has al so the adv antag e of b ei ng self alig ni ng A h elic al sp ri ng -

.

show n in the sa m e figu re hold s th e sph eric a l b eari ng a g a i nst its

sea t in the tu rbi ne c as i ng O n the o th er S id e of the tu rbi ne

.

wh eel the sh af t p asses th rough a loo se fitting b eari ng P servi ng -

, ,

p rim arily as a gl and or stuffi ng box to p rev ent the l eak ag e of -

stea m f rom the c asi ng T he sh af t do es not p ass th rough the

.

c asi ng on the righ t h and sid e so th at no p rec au tio ns are nec essary
-

to p rev ent l ea k ag e O f steam on th at sid e At ea ch sid e of the .

pi nio ns of the reduc tio n g eari ng the tu rbi ne sh aft is suppo rted ,

on pl a i n whi te m etal ( B a bbi tt ) b ea ri ng s C a nd CC

-
T he sur .

“C r t
i i ca l s peed given to th t speed of a w h eel t w hi h it tend s
is the na me a a c

to otate about it ow n ente of g

r s vi ty I n the D e L a v a l tu b i nes it o u s at
c r ra . r cc r

a bout , of th e no ma l u nn i ng speed
to a r r .
1 48 T H E ST EA M TU RB I N E

f a c e sp eed in th ese b eari ng s is u su ally d esig ned to be bou t

a

0 f eet e se co nd
7 p r .

Speed -
u ctio n Gears On accou nt of the high sp eed of the
red .

tu rbi ne sh af t reduc tio n g ears are requi red to b ri ng the sp eed

,

wi thi n p rac tic abl e limi ts for u tilizi ng the pow er T he red uc tio n
.
1 50 T HE ST EA M TU R B INE

c ent * of the pow er transmi tted wh en th ey are in good con

.

di tio n and som etim es as much as 1 0 per c ent in mod erately

,
.

wo rn gears .

After a few y ears of servic e it is u su ally fou nd th at the steam

co nsump tio n of a D e L av al tu rbi ne is sligh tly g reater th an wh en
it wa s new T hi s poo rer eco nomy is p rob ably due to the i nc reased
.

l o ss in the g ears from w ear as w ell as to the w eari ng a w ay of the

20 40 60 80 1 00 1 20 1 40 1 60 1 80 200
Superh ea t- D egs F a h r . .

F IG . 87 . g
Percenta e C ur e for C orrect v i ng De L v l
a a T urb i ne T e ts fo
s r

Superh eat .

bl ad es on the tu rbi ne wh eel which by ch angi ng the sh a p e of the ,

bl ad es c au ses a lo ss of effi ci ency .

Governor T he D e L av al gov erno r is show n in Fig s 1 6 2

. .

and 1 6 3 p ag e 2 2 0 ,
wh ere m ethod s of gov erni ng are di scu ssed
,
.

T he v alv e arrang em ent co ntroll ed by the gov erno r is a pl a i n

t hro ttli ng typ e .

R eg d i ng th e e l o e the e ul t of e pe i mente d ifi e g e t de l L ew i ki
ar s ss s r s s x r rs ra r a a . c

found th e g e i ng nd bea i ng l o in 3 h o epowe D e L v l tu b i ne g ene to

a r ss a 0- rs r a a r ra r
-
ar

to be per f ll l oad output D el aporte states th at the g ea i ng l osses

cent . of th e u .
r

of a z oo h orsepow er D e L a v a l tu b i ne a e about 1 pe cent w h en new ; a nd h e states

-
r r r .

a l so th at i n his opi nion the comb i ned g eari ng a nd b ea i ng f i cti on l osses of a 3 r r 00

horsepower D e L av a l turb i ne sh oul d b e t ak en roughl y a t about 3 pe cent r .

 CO MM ER C IAL T YP ES 1 5 r

Su perh ea t, V acuum, and Eco nomy Curv es

how s by . F ig 8 7 . s

p erc entages the effec t of superh eat on the steam co nsump tio n .

F or low v alu es of sup erh eat the g ai n for a D e L av al tu rbi ne is

much greater th an for l arger amou nts of sup erh eat Such curv es on .

a p erc entag e b asi s are som etim es v ery servic eabl e to show strik

ing v ari atio ns cl early Fig 8 8 is a simil a r p erc entag e cu rv e to

. .

sho w how the v acuum i nfl uenc es the stea m co nsump tio n Wi th .

a high v a cuum the imp rov em ent in eco nomy is much mo re .

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
V acuu m in Inch es of M ercury

Fro . 88 . g v
Percent a e Cur e for C o rrect n i g De L v l T u b i ne T e t
a a r s s for
V acuum .

m ark ed th an at low v alu es Fig 8 9 show s a pp roxim ately the

. .

stea m co nsump tio n for any s iz e of D e L av al tu rbi ne g enerato r -

op erati ng non co nd ensi ng or wi th 2 8 i nch es v acuum at 1 6 5 pou nd s

-

e r squ are i nch ab solu te p ressu re and 0 d eg rees F sup erh eat
p ,
. .

It is stated th at the h alf lo ad stea m co nsump tio n of a D e L av al

tu rbi ne is 1 2 per c ent g reater th an the full lo ad v alu e and th at
.
,

at qu arter lo ad it is 2 5 per c ent more th an th at at full lo ad . .

For such good p erfo rm anc e at ligh t lo ad s it is nec essary to

op erate the tu rbi ne wi th no mo re v alv es op en th an are need ed .
1 52 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

B ec au se the v alv es mu st b e op erated by h and such good eco nomy

”

could p rob ably not be ob tai ned wi th a ra pidly fluc tu ati ng lo ad .

80 1 00 1 20 1 40 1 60 1 80 200 220
R ated F ul l Load Output — K w .

F IG . 89 . A pprox i mate Steam Consumpt ion of a ny Si ze of D e L a val

i
T urb ne enerators -
g . D ry Saturated Steam at 1 65 Pound s

q I
per S uare nch A bsol ute P ressure .

Turbine Lo sses . T he followi ng tabl e show s how the lo sses in

a D e L av al z oo -
kilow att tu rbi ne g enerato r h ave b een divid ed up
-

by Stev ens and Hob art

N ozzl e l osses
R adi ati on l osses and l eak ag e
Rotati on l osses duet o t he tu b i ne w h eel ev olvi ng in steam
r r

Losses due t o the s team t a v eli ng o v e the b l des r r a

B eari ng f ri cti on l osses .

Losses in speed educti on g eari ng -

r

G ene ator l osses

r

Losse due to esi dual ki neti ene gy in the st e m passi ng

s r c r a

t o th e cond ens er

El ectri cal ou tput .

Tota l
1 54 T HE ST EA M TU R B INE

p rop er allow anc es for the exp ansio n due to u nequ al h eati ng of
h
t e p a rts * which in a tu rb ine wi th a l arg e numb er of stag es
,

is a v ery important consid eration Fig or is a sec tion of a

'
. .

typic al Parso ns ro to r and c asi ng Showi ng by a rrow s the l eak ag e

sp ac es for steam th rough the radi al bl ad e cl earanc es a and b .

FIG .
91 . Secti on of a T yp ca i l Pa rsons R otor a nd Casi ng Sh ow i ng th e R dia al

Bl a de l
C ea ra nces .

A se c tio n of
of the simpl est Parso ns tu rbi nes is illu strated
one ,

in F ig 9 2 The tu rbi ne ro to r co nsi sts of a lo ng d rum of three

. .

diff erent sec ti o ns suppo rted on the two bear g in s — one at each

end T he movi ng bl ad es are mou nted on the ci rc umf erenc e of

.

i
A s de f ro m the quest i on of ra d i a l cl eara nce all oth er po i nts a ff ect i ng the d esig n
,

are of mi nor i mportance as reg ards economi ca l a nd sa ti sf actory operati on T he .

most f l d esig n of a Pa sons type is the one w hi h ope ates successf ull y
success u r c r

w i th the sma ll est ad i a l cl ea a nces

r U neq ua l expa nsi on of th e d i ff e ent pa rts of
r . r

the casi ng a nd d rum i ntrodu es f a to s w hi ch a e v e y d iffi u l t to e t i mate

c c r I f th e
r r c s .

b l ad es a e mad e of d ifferent mate i a l s f rom the d um a t ome temperatu es th ey

r r r ,
s r

are l ik el to b e l oose
y .
CO MM ER CI A L T YP ES I SS
 1 56 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

thi s d rum and the statio nary bl ad es are fitted in simil ar ri n gs to

the i nsid e of the tu rbi ne c asi ng .

T he annul ar sp ac e A is the steam ch est which rec eiv es high .

p ressu re stea m T he stea m p asses th rough the al ternate row s

.

of movi ng and stationary bl ad es of the fi rst sec tio n of the ro to r ,

th rough a seco nd a nnul ar sp ac e to the bl ad es of the seco nd sec

tio n which di sch arg e i nto a still l arg er annul ar sp ac e f rom which ,

it p asses th ro ugh the bl ad es of the l ast sec tio n of the ro to r to

the exh a u st B . At the seco nd and thi rd annul ar sp ac es wh ere ,

the di a m eter of the d rum is i n c reased an u nb al anc ed p ressu re ,

or th ru st tow ard the right is p roduc ed by the p ressu re of the

°

stea m ; and thi s th ru st is i n c reased by the exp ansio n of the stea m

in the movi ng bl ad es ( seeFig T o b al an c e thi s a xi al p res

.

sure th re, e ba l an ce pi sto ns a re p rovid ed at the l ef t h and end of -

the c a si ng one for e a ch sec tio n of the ro to r T he sm all est

“
—
. .

b al an c e pi sto n is m ad e j ust l arg e enough to eq uilib rate the th ru st

,

due to the bl a d es of the first sec tio n ; the i nterm edi ate pi sto n
b al an c es the th rust on the sec o nd annul ar area and th at d ue to
the bl a d es of the seco n d sec tio n ; and the l a rg est pi sto n eq uili

b rates the p ressure on the thi rd annul ar a rea and the th ru st in

the thi rd sec tio n Ste.am p assages are co red out in the c asi ng ,

a s show n in the figu re to m ak e ea ch b al an c e pi sto n comm un i

,

c ate wi th its co rrespo ndi ng sec tio n of the ro to r so th at the p res ,

su re in the sec tio n is a lw a y s the sam e as th at a c ti ng on the

co rrespo ndi ng b al anc e pi sto n In som e d esig ns th ese co red out

.
-

p assag es are repl a c ed by pip es on the o utsid e of the c asi ng .

Sm all annul ar g roov es are u su ally cut in the b al anc e pi sto ns to

joi n wi th S imil ar annul ar p roj ec tio ns in the c asi ng T hi s con .

struc tio n c all ed a l a byrinth pack i ng m ak es the stea m p ath so

, ,

d eviou s as to eff ec tu ally p rev ent u nd ue l ea k ag e of steam arou nd

the b al an c e pi sto ns .

Oil is suppli ed to the b eari ng s u nd er p ressure by the sm al l

pump show n in the figu re .

The po si tio n of the movi ng bla d es wi th resp ec t to the statio nary

bl ad es ( axi al cl earanc e) is u su ally a dju sted by m eans of a thru st
or a dj ustment bearing at t he ex trem e l ef t h and end of the tur —
1 58 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

of stea m tu rbi nes is illu strated A wo rm g ear on the m ai n tur

.

bi ne sh af t eng ag es wi th a g ear wh eel which by m eans of o th er

gears ro tates the gov erno r sh aft .

Pack ing Gl ands In ev ery tu rbi ne gl and s or stuffing box es

.
,
-

mu st be p rovid ed wh ere the sh aft p asses th rough the end s of the

c asi ng to p rev ent the escape of steam at the high p ressu re end -

a nd the entra nce of a ir a t the low p ressu re end of co nd ensi ng -

tu rbi nes Stea m p a ck ed gl and s of v ariou s typ es a re of ten

.
-

p rovid ed ; but in the Westi nghou se Parsons tu rbi ne w ater pa ck ed - -

g l a nd s a re n ow g en erally u sed T hi s a rrang em ent co nsi sts of

.

the p rop ell er of a c entrifugal pump (F ig 9 3 ) which ro ta tes in .

the w ater suppli ed toan annul ar g roov e in the c asi ng Wh en .

4, 1 S tationa ry B l ad es

M o inv g

F IG 9 4
. . i
T yp cal B l d i ng of
a a Parsons T urb i ne
.

the t u rbi ne is op erati ng the w ater is th rown ou tw ard by the v anes

and compl etely fi ll s the sp a c e a rou nd the p eriph ery of the pro

p ell er B y thi s m eans the l eak ag e of stea m or air is effec tu ally

.

p rev ented As th ere are n o rubbi ng su rf a c es in th ese gl and s and

.

n o oil is u sed th ere is n o co nta mi n atio n of the exh au st stea m

,
.

B l ades The sh ap e and rel ativ e po si tion of the movi ng and

.

statio n a ry bl ad es in a Parso n s tu rbi ne are show n cl early in

F ig 9 4
. .Statio nary bl ad es a re show n by c ro ss h atch ed sec tio ns -

and movi n g bl ad es by sh ad ed sec tion s;

T he bl ad es of Westi nghou se tu rbi nes are secu red to the ro to r

by m eans of slo ts tu rned on its p eriph ery which are sligh tly ,
 CO MM ER CI AL T YPES 1 59

narrow er at the top th an at the bottom I nto th ese slo ts the

/
.

bl ad es which h av e b een cut at the roo ts to fit are put si ngly , .

Sof t m etal sp a ci ng pi ec es of the requi red sh a p e to fill the sp a c e

in the slo t b etw een the bl ad es are c a lk ed to hold the bl ad es
firmly by a dov eta il co nstruc tion T hi s co nstru c tion is requ i red
.

for the atta chm ent of the movi ng blades to giv e the nec essary sup
po rt ag ainst c entrifug al forc es ; but as the stati ona ry bla des which ,

a re fi x ed to the i nsid e of the c asi n g are not subj ec ted to c en trifug a l

,

fo rc es the slo ts for th ese bl ad es are not u su ally dov etail ed

, .

F IG 9 5
. . Bl ades on the Roto r of a Westi ngh ouse T urb i ne
.

B l ade Lashing and Sh rou d R i ng s

b een fou nd nec essary
. It has
to bi nd the bl ad es tog eth er at th ei r end s to m ak e a stro ng er con
struc tio n In theearli er d esigns of Parso ns tu rbi nes the bl ad es w ere
.

u su ally bou nd tog eth er wi th wi res sold ered to th ei r end s Som e .

tim es how ev er the bl ad es w ere tu rned ov er at th ei r ou ter end s to

, ,

fo rm fl ang es which w ere sold ered tog eth er i nto a solid Sh roud .

Fig 9 5 Show s sev eral row s of bl ad es of a Westi nghou se tu rbi ne

.
.
 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

All bl ad es mo re th an two i nch es lo ng are reenfo rc ed by l ashi ng

wi th a wi re of sp eci al sec tio n th read ed th rough pu nch ed hol es
in the end s of the bl ad es T hi s m ethod of l ashi ng is illu strated
.

Sfi mm5
. 5 ve
O F ra
“
.

FIG 9 6
. . Meth od of L hi ng We t i ngh ou e B l
as s s ades .

by Fig 9 6
. . T he l ashi ng e e which is d rawn to h av e a c ro ss
,

sec tion resembli n g a comm a bi nd s the bl ad es tog eth er firmly

,

enough to giv e ad equ a te streng th for n o rm al servic e yet U nlik e , ,

a v ery rigid bl ad e co nstruc tio n it will yi eld in em ergenci es wi thou t

,
1 62 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

p ri ncip ally from the usual Parso ns bl adi ng by the atta chm ent of
a U sh a p ed sh ro ud ri ng
-
B a ro und bo th the movi ng and the
, ,

statio nary bl ad es .

T he bl ad es are cut to the req ui red l eng th f rom b a rs of copp er

alloy d ra w n ,
lik e wi re to a sui tabl e sh ap e Af ter the bl ad es
,
.

are cut f rom the b ar th ey are fo rm ed in m a chi ne tool s of

,

sp eci a l d esig n so th at at th e roo t th ey h av e an ang ul ar

“ dov e
,

ta il sh ap e as illu strated in the fig ure wh ere the bl ad es are Show n

”
,

i nserted in a sui tabl e fo un datio n ring A Af ter thi s fou nd atio n ,

”
ri ng is tu rned to th e p rop er di a m eter dov eta il slo ts for the ,

bl ad es ( see Fig 9 8 ) a re cut by a sp eci al milli ng m achi ne

.

i ntend ed for v ery acc urate sp a ci ng and i ncli natio n so as to giv e

the requi red pi tch and angl e to the bl ad es .

F IG 9 8 . . Spa c i ng for Sank ey s B l adi ng

’
.

Af ter th e roo ts of
bl ad es h av e b een i nserted in the founda
th e

tio n ri ng s which in c ro ss sec tio n a re a l so of a dov etail sh ap e

, ,
-

, ,

the ri ng s a re i nserted i nto co rrespo n di ng g roov es in the d ru m s

of the ro to r and in the i nsid e of the c asi ng wh ere th ey are h eld in

“
pl ac e by k ey pi ec es ” “ ”
Each of th ese k ey p i ec es a f ter b ei ng
.

d riv en i nto pl a c e is up set in an u nd ercu t g roov e which serv es as a

locki ng d evic e T he dov etail Sh ap es u sed in thi s construc tio n
.

m ak e the atta chm ent of the bl ad es at th ei r roo ts v ery secu re .

T he ch ann el Sh a p ed Sh ro ud ri ng s are pu rpo sely m ad e thi n a t

-

th e fl ang es so th at in c ase of co nta c t b etw een the revolvi ng and

statio n ary p arts th ese fl ang es will b e wo rn off at th ei r edg es

wi thou t teari ng out or b endi ng the bl ad es B y thi s m ethod as .

,

w ell as wi th all o th er typ es of sh roud ri ng construc tio n the streng th ,

of the bl adi ng d ep end s not on the streng th of a si ngl e bl ad e

, ,

but on the to tal streng th of as m any bl ad es a s are bound tog eth er .

I the A
n lli s—C h alm ers tu rbi nes all the bl ad es in a semi ci rcum -
 CO MM ER C IA L T YP ES

ferenc e are joi ned by a Sh roud ri ng T he bl ading is thu s m ad e

.

up in h alf ri ngs which are m

, a d e almo st en ti rely by m achi nery .

FI G 9 9
. . I nte io
r r of a n A lli s C h a l mers T urbi ne C as i ng
-
, h owi ng B l a d es
S P ro
t ected b y Sh oud R i ng s
r .

Each r n i g can be tho roughly i nsp ec ted b efo re b ei ng pl ac ed in the

u rbi ne and
t the po ssibl e i na ccu raci es of h and wo rk are lik ely to
1 64 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

be elimi nated . how s the i nterio r of the c asi ng of a

Fig .
99 s

tu rbi ne fitted wi th Sh roud ri ng s on the bl ad es .

'

I f sm all rad ial clearances are d esi red exc ep tional p rec au tio ns ,

in d esign i ng mu st be ta k en to avoid u nequ a l exp ansio ns of the

p arts of the ro to r the c asi ng and the bl ad es b ec au se Sh roud
, , ,

ri n g s in rea c tio n tu rbi n es are li abl e to p roduc e di sastrou s resul ts

'

“ ”
by strippi n g the bl ad es Usu ally in c ase of a ccid ent how ev er
.
, ,

d a m ag ed or wo rn ri ng s can b e remov ed and the tu rbi ne conti nu ed

in op eratio n u ntil th ey can be repl a c ed .

F IG . 1 00. A Westi ngh ouse High Speed Fl exi bl e B ea i ng

r .

B eari ngs . u bi
In t r nes of the a P r so ns typ e op er at i ng a t a bov e

1 8 0 0 revolu tio ns per mi nu te a d esig n of ,

fl ex ib l e be a rin g ( g
F i 1 0 0 ) .

u d
is se to re duc e the vib r a t io ns of th e s h a f t by p e r mi tt i n g t h e

o
r t ro wh en p i
ass n g c i ic
its r t a s ee l p d to r e volv ,
e a bou t its c e n te r
,

of g ravi ty i nstead of its g eom etric axi s T hi s fl exibl e b eari ng .

consi sts of a nest (u su ally fou ) of oo y r l s el fi ttin g yl c in d r i c a l

b ro nz e sleeves between wh i ch oil films are maintained by capil
 CO M M ER C IA L T YP ES 1 67

bl ad es and b al anc e pi sto ns

,
T he coll ars on the b al anc e .

pi sto ns which fo rm the l aby ri nth p acki ng are pl ai nly vi sibl e .

T he i nc reasi ng l eng th of the bl ad es of the thi rd ( exh au st )

sec tio n is al so v ery a pp arent .

B esid es the Westi nghou se M achi ne Comp any of Pi ttsbu rg ,

Pa o th er impo rtant m anuf a c tu rers of P arso ns tu rbi nes a re the

.
,

followi ng :
Alli s Ch alm ers Comp any M ilw auk ee Wis
-

, ,
.

C A P a rso ns
. . CO N ewc astl e Engl and .
, ,
.

Willans Robi nso n Comp any R ugby Engl and

-

, ,
.

B row n B overi -
CO B ad en Swi tz erl and and M annh eim .
, , , ,

Germ any * .

B ri ti sh Westi nghou se Comp any M anch ester Engl and , , .

Th e Al l i s Ch a l mers stea m turbin e is a rea c tio n typ e which

-

di ffers f ro m the o rigi nal Parso ns m a chi nes p ri ncip ally in m anu
facturing d eta il s i ntend ed to remov e som e of the O p erati ng d i th
cul ties of the old er d esig ns An i nnov a tio n in the d e sig n of th ese .

tu rbi nes is in the a rra ng em ent and co nstruc tio n of the b al anc e
pi sto ns In the old er typ es of rea c tio n tu rbi nes the th ree b al anc e
.

pi sto ns w ere put at the high p ressu re end of the tu rbi ne Som e -
.

tim es how ev er th ere w as difli cul ty wi th thi s co nstru c tio n a s

, , ,

the l arg est or low p ressu re pi sto n in l arg e tu rbi nes w as of com -

p ar a tivel y l ar g e di a m eter s o th a t a n i nner web w as requi red in ,

its co nstru c tio n T hi s web som etim es tend ed to w arp so a s to

.

“ ”
b ri ng the dummy or b affl e ri ngs of the l a by rinth co nstru c tio n
on th ese pi sto ns i nto co nta c t wi th tho se atta ch ed to the c asi ng .

T o ov ercom e thi s di ffi cul ty the l argest balan ce pi ston ha s b een

.

pl ac ed at the low pressure end of the ro to r b ehi nd the l ast row -

of bl ad es In thi s loc atio n its effec tiv e area starts f rom a sm all er
.

i nner di a m eter so th at the requi red area can be ob ta i ned wi th a

,

sm all er ou ter di a m eter .

1 02 rep resents di ag ramm atic ally an Alli s Ch alm ers -

h o epow e te m tu bi ne h been on t u ted t the M nnh ei m

-
rs r s a r as c s r c a a

wo k of B ow n B e i
r s Co f the K upp teel w o k
r -
nd b l
ov r t f u n e pl nt t . or r s r s a as r ac a a

R h ei nh u en It i p b bl y the l ge t tu bi ne yet de ed fo t tion y e vi e

a s . s ro a ar s r or r r s a ar s r c .

T he g v e n i ng nd v e l o d v lve de i gn of B ow n B o e i 8 C tu b i nes
’
o r a o r a a s s r -
v r : 0 . s r

a re descr bed i a nd d i scussed on pages 2 32 a nd 2 41 .

1 68 M
T HE ST EA R B I NE
TU
 1 7 0 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

d esign of Parso ns tu rbi ne T h ere are th ree sec tio ns of the .

ro to r H J and K a nd th ree co rrespo ndi n g b al a nc e pi sto ns

, , ,

L M a nd Z T he co nstruc tio n of the ro to r of one of th ese

, , .

'

tu rbi nes is Show n in Fig 2 0

9 S tea m a dmi ssio n v a lv es are . .

show n a s in the u su a l Pa rso ns d es ig ns T he v alv e D a dmi ts .

stea m to the high p ressu re end of the tu rbi ne and is a l w a y s u nd er

-

the di rec t control of the gov ern o r T he seco nd v a lv e V c all ed .

, ,

the ov erlo ad v a lv e is op en ed o nly wh en the tu rbi ne mu st be

,

op erated at ov erlo ad or non cond ensi ng wh en the co nd enser -

equipm en t is out of servic e ( see p ag e At C the m a i n stea m

pip e enters the stea m ch est and the exh au st is a t G M ai n b ear
-
.

i ng s are at A and B .

A 5 50 0 kilow att Alli s C h alm ers tu rbi ne g en erato r is illu strated

- — -

in Fig . 1 03 .

Gov
o L ow Pressure Turbi nes The v ariou s m ethod s
ern rs a nd -
.

for gov erni ng P arsons tu rbi nes and the d esigns of low p ressu re —

stea m tu rbi nes of the P arsons typ e are di scu ssed in C h ap ters

VIII and IX .

Ra ted F
ull Loa d Output — K w .

F IG . 1 04 . Approx i mate Steam Consumpti on of Any Siz e of Parsons T u b i ne r .

Eco no my Curv es how s f a i r a v erag e v alu es of the

. Fig . 1 04 s

stea m co nsump tion of good d esig ns of P arso n s tu rbi nes for 1 6

5
pou nd s per squ are i n ch ab solu te steam p ressu re 2 8 i n ch es ,

v a cuum and 0 F sup erh eat Am eric an Parsons tu rbi nes u ntil
,
°
. .
,

rec ently w ere not m ad e in sm all er siz es th an 4 0 0 kilow atts

, .

T ypic a l tests and lo ad cu rv es of 3 0 0 50 0 and 1 0 0 0 kilow att , ,

Westi n ghou se Parsons tu rbi nes are giv en on p ag es 2 6 8 and 2 6 9

-
.

T he cu rv es in F ig 1 0 5 areb ased upon the resul ts of tests of a

.

Westi n ghou se Pa rsons steam tu rbi ne of stand ard constru c tion

-
.
 CO MM ER CIAL T YPES I7 I

I t is stated by the m anufac tu rers th at the p erfo rm anc e as shown

by th ese cu rv es is typic al of ma chi nes of thi s typ e .

“
T he di ago n a l li n es or Will ans li nes in the fi gu re Show the
to ta l w a ter w eigh ed or stea m co nd ensed per hou r a t v ariou s lo ad s .

“ ”
T he c urv es or w a ter rate cu rv es Show the v ari a tio n in w ater ,

or mo re co rrec tly in stea m co nsump tio n per ho rsepow er hou r a t

,
-

8 0000

2 0000

1 6 00 2 000

LOAD IN KILOWATT S

FI G . 1 0 5 . i l
T yp ca Economy C urves of a 1 00 0 -
K il o w a tt Westi ngh ouse P arsons-

Stea m T urb i ne .

v ariou s lo ad s th at is the w ater or steam rate of the tu rbi ne

, , .

Each ” “
w ater rate cu rv e co rrespo nd s to a Will ans li ne ”
the

upp er cu rv e to the upp er li ne the low er cu rv e to the low er li ne etc

, , .

Op erati ng co ndi tio ns of th ese tests are:

( ) Co nd ensing satu ra ted a nd sup erh ea ted stea m ( 1 0 0 F ) 0
1 .

( 2 ) N on co nd ensi ng sa tu rated a nd sup erh ea ted stea m ( 1 0 0

-
°

(3 ) One qu arter rated lo ad

-
to 1 00
per c ent ov erlo ad
. .
1 7 2 T HE ST EA M TU R B INE

In ov erlo a d tests the op era tio n of the au tom atic

the two

seco n d a ry or ov erlo ad v alv e m ay b e ob serv ed AS b efo re no ted .

,

it com es i nto a c tio nat a d efin i te p red etermi n ed lo ad a s i ndic ated

by a b end in the w ater li ne Wi th the aid of thi s v alv e the b est
.

eco nomy of the tu rbi n e is secu red th roughou t the ran g e of n o rm al

lo adi n g whil e l arg e ov erlo ad c ap aci ty is av ail abl e wh en d esi red

, ,

a l though a t Sligh tly d ec reased effi ci en cy Wh en the seco nd ary .

v alv e how ev er has com e f ai rly i nto a c tion the effici en cy und er
, , ,

go es g radu al imp rov em ent as Shown by the rev ersal of c urv ature
,

of the c urv es of steam con su mp tion .

V a cuum Inch es 0 20 40 60 80 100 1 20 1 40

Superh ea t Deg F . .

FI G 1 06 v
C u r es of Steam C on sumpt on of i a 1 5 00— K i l ow att W esti ngh ouse
m
. .

i ih i g
T urb ne w t V a ry n V a cuu a nd Su per he at .

A turbi ne d esigned for co nd ensi ng wo rk will not O p era te non

co nd ensi ng wi th q ui te a s good eco nomy a s if d esigned to exh a u st
a g a i nst a tmo sph eric p ressu re T h at thi s eco nomy is how ev er
.
, ,

exc ell ent is show n by he u pp er p a i r of cu rv es T h w a ter rate

t e .

is som ewh a t l ess th a n do ubl e the co nd ensi n g w a ter rate .

Fig 1 0 6 illu strates g ra phic a lly the eff ec t of v a cuum a nd su p er

.

h eat on the stea m co nsumptio n of a 1 50 0 kilow a tt Westi ngho use -

tu rbi ne T he p e
. rc enta g e ch a ng e in th e stea m co nsump tio n is

sa id to b e a bo ut th e sa m e for a ll S iz es .
1 74 T HE ST EA M R B I NE
TU

the o to r sh ell which fo rm s the connec ti ng p assage to the righ t

r

h and low p ressu re sec tio n Arrow s i ndic ate in the figu re the
-
.

p assa ge of the steam through the Sh ell Wh en the steam is d is

.

ch arg ed from the l ast row s of low p ressu re bl ad es it p asses i nto

-

the e xh au st pipes — of which h

t ere is ch
one at ea end
and —

th en to the con d enser .

As th ere is p ra c tic ally no ex pansio n in th e impul se bl ades th ese ,

bl ad e areas are m ad e to i nc rease o nly in p ropo rtio n to the reduc

tio n in stea m v eloci ty in ea ch row of movi ng bl a d es .
 CO MM ER C IA L T YPES 1 75

As the sam e p ressu re exi sts bo th sid es of the im pul se wh eel

on

d i sk thi s is not subj ec ted to any end th ru st and requi res no

, ,

b al anci ng The sm all th ru st due to the di ff erenc e of p ressu re

.

b etw een the i nl et and ou tl et of the Parso ns i nterm edi ate sec tio n
“
is a ccu rately equilib rated by a d u mmy or bal an ce pisto n of
”
,

mod erate dim ensio ns loc ated b etw een the impul se wh eel and
,

the righ t h and low p ressu re sec tio n

- -
T he th ru sts in the low .

p ressu re sec tio ns are in oppo si te di rec tio ns a nd are th erefo re ,

b al anc ed Wi th th ese arrangem ents it is po ssibl e for the enti re

.

tu rbi ne to run in p erf ec t equ ilib rium u nd er all co ndi tio ns of

v acuum p ressu re and lo ad It is of cou rse nec essary to p rovid e

, ,
.
, ,

m eans for accu rately fixi ng the axi al po si tio n of the ro to r and ,

for thi s pu rpo se an a dj u stm en t bearing show n at the righ t h and ,

-

end of the sh af t in Fig 1 0 7 is p rovid ed .It co nsi sts of a numb er

,
.

of coll ars tu rned in the steel sh af t i nto which fit co rrespo ndi ng ,

b rass ri ng s fix ed in the adju stm ent block s T he upp er and .

low er h alv es of the a dju stm ent b eari ng may be mov ed by m eans
of mic rom eter sc rew s thu s p ermi tti ng the axi al po si tio n of the
,

ro to r to be a ccu ra tely k now n at all tim es .

All doubl e fl ow cyli nd ers a re m ad e in two p a rts the upp er and

-
,

low er h alv es each b ei ng a one pi ec e c asti ng T he d esig n is

-
.

symm etric al th roughou t d evoid of lo ngi tudi nal fl ang es exc ep t

,

tho se a t the c enter requi red for bol ti ng the two p arts tog eth er .

T he c a sti ng s a re first rough bo red a f ter the fl ang es h av e b een

-

”
pl aned and d rill ed and are th en sea so ned wi th high p ressu re
,
-

stea m for a numb er of hou rs to remov e any loc a l c a sti ng stresses

in the m etal T h ey a re th en giv en the fini shi ng cut and assembl ed

.

wi th the bo ri ng b ar ru nni ng in the b eari ng hou sin g so as to

i nsu re a co nc entric bo re M anhol es are p rovid ed at ea ch end
.

of the cyl i nd er to p ermi t a cc ess for i nterio r ex a mi natio n and ,

au xili ary rel i ef v al v es a re fitted in ea ch of the m anhol e cov ers to

p rev ent the p ressu re in the exh au st p assag es fro m ri si ng to a

d ang erou s poi nt in c ase of f ailu re of the co nd ensi ng app aratu s
or the sticki ng of th e atmo sph eric reli ef v alv e in the exh au st

pipi ng .

A Y co nnec tio n fitted wi th two co rru ga ted copp er exp ansio n

—
,
1 76 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

joi nts loc ated b elow the b ase of the turb i ne co nnec ts the sep a ,

rate exh a u sts to the m a i n exh a u st pip e T h ese exp ansio n joi nts .

p rovid e for the d esi red freedom of mov em ent of the tu rbi ne c asi ng
d ue to exp ansio n and co ntra c tion An a tmo sph eric exh au st .

“ ”
v alv e at the sid e of the exh au st Y can be op ened to p ermi t non ,

cond ensi ng op eration .

T he ro tati ng el em ent of the tu rbi ne is buil t u p of five c ast steel -

p arts in addi tion to the sh aft AS may be seen in Fig 1 0 7

, . .
,

F IG . 1 08 .
75 0 0- K il ow att Westi nghouse T urb i ne .

h
t ese are the t h ree Parsons bl adi ng suppo rts the impul se sec tio n , ,

and a di sh ed pl ate It is stated th at the Sh a f t c arri es its lo ad a t

.

one thi rd the di stan c e f rom the poi nts of suppo rt so th at thi s
-

d esign allow s a ligh ter sh aft th an wo uld be requi red for d is

trib uted lo adi n g and the con sid era tion of d efl ec tio n is p ra c tic ally
, .

elimi n ated T hi s buil t up p a rt of the ro to r is rigidly attach ed

.
-
1 78 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

FIG . 1 1 0 . W esti ngh ouse N ozzl e B l k Sh w i g

oc , o n g
A rra n ement of zzl es
No a nd

B l de
a s .

FIG . 1 1 1 . Westi ngh ouse Sh aft Coupli ng .

 CO M M ER C IA L T YPES 1 79

consi sts of a w eigh t pin P pl a c ed di ametric ally a t righ t angl es

,

to the a xi s of the sh a f t in a c yli nd ric a l

“ ”
body sc rew ed on the
,

m ai n tu rbine sh aft at the high p ressu re end Centrifug al fo rc e

-
.

tend s to d riv e thi s pin a w a y f rom the c enter and th ro ugh the
loo sely fitti ng coll ar N T hi s fo rc e is resi sted how ev er by
.
, ,

the
“ ”
w ei ght spring shown a rou nd the pin in the fi g ures .

T he streng th of thi s sp ri ng can be adju sted by m eans of the

E LEV ER

F IG . 1 1 2 a . P h m V i ew
a n to of Westi ngh ouse Emerg ency Speed L i mi t .

coll ar N which is p rovid ed wi th a sc rew th read Such adj ust

, .

m ent d etermi nes the sp eed at which the c entrifug al fo rc e ov er

com es the sp ri n g and fo rc es the pin ou tw ard to eng ag e wi th a
tri gger cam L T hi s ca m is rigidly a tta ch ed to on e end of a Sho rt
.

sh af t 8 which c arri es at its other end a trigg er H A sm all pl ate

'

.
,

a t the bo ttom of th e v a lve l ever C is suppo rted n o rm ally a t on e

end on the trigg er H a nd at the o th er end on a sc rew p rovid ed

for a dju sti ng the sp ri n g on the a uxiliary steam valve E .

1 80 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

If p d of the tu rbi ne Should b ecom e high er th an the limi t

th e s ee
“
for which the w eigh t sp ri ng is set the pin P is fo rc ed out to ,

eng a g e wi th the cam L which in tu rn mov es the trigg er H a w a y

,

f rom the v alv e l ev er pl ate which it suppo rts In thi s way the .

v alv e E is op ened b ec au se the tension in the sp ri ng on its spi ndl e

F IG . 1 1 2 b . D ra w ni g s of W est i nghouse Emerg ency Speed L i mit .

is l d T h ere is alw a ys high p ressu re steam on the upp er

re ease .
-

sid e of the v alv e E and wh en it is remov ed f rom its sea t thi s

,

stea m ru sh es th rough a pip e co nn ec ti n g the low er sid e of the

v alv e to a sm all cyli nd er at the sid e of the m ai n steam pip e A .

sho rt rod atta ch ed to a pi sto n in thi s cyli nd er is mov ed by the

stea m p ressu re to strik e a trigg er which rel eases and clo ses the
’

em erg en cy v alv e on the m a i n stea m pip e .

1 81a T HE STEA M TU RBI NE

p ressu re po rtion is al so connec ted to a kilowa tt g enerato r -

.

T h ese figu res Show the comp ari so n to scal e of the a rrang em ents
d esc rib ed abov e .

All of th ese d esig ns would gi v e v ery exc ell ent economy and the ,

choic e of the u ni t would d ep end p rim arily on the two fa c to rs of

fi rst co st and econ omy assuming th a t in ea ch c ase the reli ai
,

bili ty for conti nuou s op era tio ns is the sam e .

FI G . 1 1 2c . D ouble fl ow
-
R e ti on Tu bi ne D e igned fo
ac r s r 1 50 0 r .
pm . .

Aclo se stu dy of the fou r arrang em ents i ndic a tes th at the

doubl e fl ow tu rb ine a t 1 50 0
-
di rec t connec ted to a Singl e
g enera to r (Fig 1 1 2 g) is the ch eap est construc tion The l arge
.
, .

FI G . 1 1 2 d . D ouble fl ow
-
R e ti on Tu bine D e igned fo
ac r s r 7 50 r
.
pm . .

area s re qui red in the low p ressu re stag es of thi s tu rbi ne m ak e

-

hi gh v eloci t y and long l eng th of bl a d es essenti al wi th the ,

nec essi t y of c a reful d esigning t o p rop erly tak e c a re of the st resses

due to c entrifug al fo rc e in the low p ressu re end -

.
 CO MM ER CI AL T YPES 1 81b

Themo st eco nomi c al combi na tion of the fou r is the c ro ss

compoun d rea c tion tu rbine wi th the hi gh p ressu re po rtion run -

nin g at 1 50 0 revolu tions an d th e low p ressu re po rtio n a t 7 50 -

FI G . 1 rze . Tandem -
co mpound R e ti on Ste m T u bine
ac a r .

revolu tio ns Wi th t hi s a rrangem ent the high est effi ci ency is

.

ob ta i ned b ec au se the m ethod of combi ni ng the u ni t i n to high

,

and low p ressu re cyli nd ers running a t 1 0 0 and

5 75 0
-

FI G . r1 2 f
. Cross -
co mpound R e ti on Ste m Tu bi ne
ac a r .

giv es the condi ti o n for b est bl adi ng p ropo rtions th roughou t the
tu rbi ne wi thou t d ep art in g f rom esta bli sh ed stand a rd s of prac
I 8IC THE ST EA M TU RBI NE

t ic e
. c onstru c tion howev er is consid erably h eavi er th an
The , ,

the si ngl e u ni t of the doubl e fl ow t yp e (Fig 1 1 2 g) and is mo re -

.

co stly to construc t and i nstall A t pow ers and sp eed s attain .

a bl e wi th si ngl e al terna ti ng cu rrent u ni ts of sa b e low

y
-

, ,

kilow atts c a p aci t y the doubl e fl ow tu rbi ne will be nea rly if not
’
,
-

equ al to the c ro ss compou nd

“ stra igh t rea c tio n
-
t u rbi ne u n d er
,

the sam e op erati ng co ndi tio ns and any di ff erenc e in effici ency ,

would p rob ably be o ff set by the lower first co st of the doubl e fl ow -

m achi ne T aki ng i nto co nsid era tion bo th first co st and effi

.

ciency b etw een kilow atts c ap a ci t y the doubl e ’

, an d ,

fl ow m a chine is u ndoub tedly the p rop er typ e of co nstruc tio n .

FI G . 1 1 2g . Secti on of Comb i ned I mpul se a n d l

D oub e fl ow
-
Re t i on T u b i ne
ac r .

T he d em and for tu rbi ne g enerato rs is g rea test b etw een 4 0 0 0

-

to kilow a tt s m a ximum ra ted c ap a ci t y wi thi n w hi ch ran g e ,

t he doubl e fl ow m a c hi nes of the combi ned impul se and reac tio n

-

t yp es of bl adi ng sa ti sf a c to rily m eet comm erci al co ndi tio ns bo th

wi th resp ec t to co st and effi ci ency Th ere is how ev er practi .

, ,

c ally the sam e to be said reg ardi ng tu rbi nes of the Cu rti s t yp e
h a vi ng fou r to fiv e p ressu re stag es .

B elow 4 0 0 0 kilow a tts c ap a ci ty the tu rbi nes consi sti ng of an

’

impul se wh eel follow ed by Si ngl e fl ow reac tio n bl a ding and a -

Straigh t si ngl e fl ow rea c t io n t u rbi ne (Fig p ag e 1 6 8

‘
-
1 02 .
, ,

and Fig 1 1 2 i) rep re

. sen t the m a chi nes b est sui ted for a v era g e
,

op erati ng condi tio ns In mo st c ases the fo rm er would be pre

.
1 81 e THE ST EA M TU RBI N E
‘

Fig . how s the rel a tiv e l eng th s of th e ro to rs of the l atest

1 1 2 h s

d esign of Westi nghou se tu rbine wi th combi ned impul se bl ading

and si ngl e fl ow rea c tio n bl a ding comp ared wi t h the co n v entio nal
-

si ngl e fl ow P arso ns t yp e wi th
-
“ b al anc e pi sto ns (see p age
N early 50 per c en t in l eng th is sa v ed m aking the di ffi cul ti es
.
,

due to sp ri ngi ng and exp ansio n of the c asing and ro to r rel a tiv ely .

sm all .

Ano th er impo rtan t co nsid era tio n in choo si ng b etw een the
”
straigh t Si ngl e fl ow rea c tio n and the combi ned impul se and
-

rea c tio n t yp es is t h a t the fo rmer is g enera lly p ref erred for

FI G
. 1 1 2 i
. Si ngl e fl ow
-
Re t i on Tu bi ne w i th K i ng
ac r
’
sbury s T h rust B eari ng .

mod erate sup erh ea ts and p ressu res whil e the l atter 1 5 sel ec ted ,

wh en the sup erh eats and p ressu res are high .

Ano th er impo rtant imp rov em ent in the co nstruc tio n of rea c
tio n tu rbi nes is shown in Fig 1 1 2 i wh ere the K ing sbu ry t yp e of
.

th ru st b eari ng is appli ed B y t hi s m eans the u su al b al anc e

.

pi stons requi red for the singl e fl ow t yp e are elimi nated -

(
.

”
A rec ent d esign of a kilow a tt tand em typ e of reao -

t io n tu rbi ne is shown in Fig 1 1 2 j A t the righ t h and sid e is the

. .
-
 CO MM ER CIA L T YPES 1 81i

FI G. 1 1 2 j
. Tandem R e ti on T u bi ne
ac r .

high p -
u re tu bi
ress r the l ef t the low p ressu re
ne and a t Thi s —
.

figu re show s mo re cl early the typ e Shown al so in Fig 1 1 2 e . .

T h ere are v ery few applic atio ns a s yet for

“ ”
l and servic e of
thi s arrang em ent al though it is commo n for m a ri ne servic e
,
.

FIG. r1 2 k . R elative Sizes of Stea m T urb i ne g enerators,

-
from One Ki l owatt to
K i lowatts .

Fig . r1 2 k illu strates the rel a tiv e siz es

m tu rbi ne g ener of stea -

a tors for c a p a ci ti es f rom one kilow att for the sm all est t o

kilow atts for the l arg est The tu rbi ne is sho wn on the righ t
.

h and sid e and the g enera to r on the l ef t .

1 82 T H E ST EA M TU RB IN E

T HE C U RT I S TU RB I N E
T he Cu rti s m tu rbi ne of which the o rigi nal p atents w ere
stea ,

i ssu ed to C G Cu rti s abou t 1 8 9 5 is m anufac tured by the

. .
,

General El ec tric C omp an y a t Sch enec tady N Y a nd L ynn , . .

,
.

M ass the B ri ti sh T hom so n Hou sto n C omp an y at R ugby

.
,
-

Engl and and the Allg em ei ne El ek triz itats Gesell sch aft at B erli n
‘

, ,

Germ any .

As in the D e L av al tu rbi ne th e steam is expanded in nozzl es ,

b efo re reachi ng the movmg bl ad es but the compl ete exp ansio n ,
‘

from the boil er to the exh au st p ressu re occu rs in thi s typ e u su ally
in a seri es of sta g es or step s as the stea m p asses th rough a suc ,

c essio n of ch a mb ers sep arated from each o th er by di aphragms

, .

T he di aph ragm s and bl ad e wh eel s of a fou r sta g e Cu rti s t u rbi ne -

a re show n by a sec tio n d ra wi ng in F ig 1 1 3 Each ch amb er or . .

sta g e co nta i ns u su ally one di sk or bl a d e wh eel Steam at the .

admi ssio n p ressure enters th e fi r st set of nozzl es th rough the po rt

A wh ere it exp and s to th e p ressu re in the fi rst sta ge and d eliv ers
,

a po rtio n of its energ yto the bl ad es in the wh eel F T he stea m .

th en exp and s ag ai n th rough a seco nd set of n ozzl es in the d ia

hra m C l eadi ng to a still low er p ressu re in the seco nd sta g e

p g ,

wh ere it giv es up a po rtio n of the energy rem a i n i n g to a second

set of bl ad es and so on
'

In the v ery s all u n i ts but one p ressu re

,
. m
sta g e is u su a lly em ploy ed but in the l arg er Siz es from two to five ,

are u sed T he g eneral a rran g em ent of the n ozzl es and bl a d es

.

in a si n gl e sta g e C u rti s tu rbi ne w as shown di ag ra mm atic ally in

-

Fig 3 9 It is typic al of th ese tu rbi nes th at th ere are alw ay s

. .

th ree or mo re row s of bl ad es followi n g each set of n ozzl es and ,

a t l ea st one row is sta tio nary T h ese statio na ry bl ad es a re .

tech n ic ally c all ed intermedi ates T h ere is p ra c tic ally no expan .

sio n in the sta tio n ary bl a d es ; the obj ec t of t he sev eral row s of

bl ad es is only to reduc e the v eloci ty and for a giv en bl ade Speed ,

T he terms va n e, bl a de, i nte ch a ng ea b l y

a nd buck et a re f
o ten used r .

C ommon p act i ce h ow ev e r eem to ,

l
pp y b l a d e
r,to th esP a sons t u b i ne a nd
s a r r ,

b u k et to the C urt i s D e L a v a l a nd t h ose of the Pel ton type

c , ,
I n o d e h ow eve . r r, r,

t h at th e notat i on may not be onf used th e te m bl a de w il l be used in connect i on

c ,
r

w i th Cu rt i s a s w ell a s oth e types r .

THE STEA M TURB I NE
 CO MM ER C I A L T YP ES 1 87

s iz es how ev er are buil t wi th a v ertic al Sh a f t suppo rted on an

, ,

i ng eniou s step bearing shown at the bo ttom of Fig 1 1 8 which is

, .
,

suppli ed wi th oil or w ater u nd er pressu re the Sh a f t thu s revolvi ng ,

on a fil m of liquid T he sm all di sk D is atta ch ed by dow el s E

.

to the m ai n sh af t T he b eari ng is b etw een the statio nary pl ate

.

C and th e di sk D T hi s v ertic al Sh a f t a rrang em ent is one of

.

the sp eci al ch ara c teri stic s of the l arg e siz es of Cu rti s tu rbi nes and ,

F IG . 1 1 8 . Step B e i ng
ar for a V ert i al
c C urt is T urb i ne .

p roduc es a v ery comp ac t d esig n T he di rec t co nnec ted el ec tric .

-

g enerato r is mou nted imm edi ately a bov e the tu rbi ne as Show n in ,

Fig 1 1 9 which is a sec tio n of a 9 0 0 0 kilow att C u rti s tu rbi ne

.
,
-

g enerato r .

.
“
Fig 1 2 0 is a ph antom vi ew of a 3 0 0 kilow att Cu rti s tu rbi ne -

g enerato r showi ng the wh eel s arm atu re and coupli ng s as if the

, , ,

tu rbi ne c asi ng and g enerato r f ram e w ere transp arent .

Cu rti s u ni ts are m anuf a c tu red f rom 1 5 kilow atts ( abou t 2 0

1 88 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

FI G . 1 1 9 . Sect ion of 900 0

-
Ki l ow a tt V ert i al
c C urt is T u rb i ne G ene ator
-
r .
1 90 T HE ST EA M TU RB I NE

ho rsepow er) at 3 60 0 to 4 0 0 0 revolu tio ns per mi nu te to as high

as 9 0 0 0 kilow atts (nearly ho rsepow er) at abou t 7 50
revolu tio ns per mi nu te the g eneral a pplic atio n b ei n g to di rec t
,
~

co nnec ted el ec tric g enerato rs for pow er or ligh ti ng pu rpo ses .

Em ergency V a lv e .Si nc e a stea m tu rbi ne can a cc el erate at

a rapid rate and thi s i nc rease in sp eed is not easily p erc ep tibl e ,

FI G . 1 2 2 . g en
Emer cy Stop V a lve.

it is impo rtant th at all th ese m achi nes be equipp ed wi th simpl e

sp e ed limi t i n g d evic es which a re op era ted a u tom at ic a lly in em er

e n cies T h e d evic e show n in F ig 1 2 1 co n si sts of a steel ri ng

g
.
.

( )
1 3 pl a c ed a rou nd the Sh af t b etw een the turbi ne an d the g en er

ato r .T hi s ri ng which is h eld in pl a c e by stud bol ts

,
is
pl a c ed in a sligh tly ecc entric po si tio n and the c entrifug al fo rc e
,

due to thi s u nb al anci ng is cou ntera c ted by a h elic al Sp ri ng

 CO MM ER C I A L T YPES 1 91

Wh en the sp eed i nc reases the c entrifug al effo rt ov ercom es the

,

sp ri ng and the ri ng mov es i nto a still mo re ecc en tric po si tio n as

i ndic ated by the do tted li nes In thi s po si tio n the ri ng strik es a

.

b ell c ra nk l ev er which trip s by m eans of a simpl e auxili ary

-

, ,

m ech an i sm and the tensio n rod L ( Fig the th ro ttl e v alv e .

on the m a i n stea m supply pip e T he rod L is co nnec ted to the .

c rank D which op erates to rel ease the sp ri ng S pulli ng up the

, ,

g ea r and th ro w i ng out the hook G w hich hold s the v alv e op en

Wh en rel eased by thi s em erg ency ri ng m
, .

ech an i sm the v alv e ,

d esc end s upo n its seat wi th a v ery po si tiv e mo tio n d ue to its

FI G . 1 23 . D eta il s of Spr i ng T ype of g

Emer ency Stop .

ow n w eigh t and the u nb al anc ed p ressu re on the a rea of the

v alv e stem .

F ig . how s a li ttl e di ff erent a rra ng em ent for trippi ng the

1 2 3 S

v alv e T he f ree end of a spira l sprin g is th row n out by centrifu

.

g al fo rc e and strik es a b ell c ra nk l ev er in v ery m uch the sa m e

-

w ay a s the ri n g do es T he em erg ency v alv e is op ened by m eans

.

of the h and wh eel show n at the bo ttom of the fig ure .

N o turbi ne Should b e k ep t in op eratio n unl ess it is k now n th at

thi s sp eed limi ti n g d evic e is in reli abl e co ndi tio n .

Gov erno r Cu rti s tu rbi nes a re gov ern ed by a m ethod com

.

“
monl y k no w n a s cu tti n g out nozzl es ”
B y thi s m ethod the .
1 9 2 T HE STEA M TU RBI N E

number of n ozzl es which are op en for the di sch arg e of steam is

’

regu l a ted a cco rdi ng to the requi rem en ts of the lo a d Thi s m ethod .

is d esc rib ed and t ypic a l Cu rti s gov erno rs and v a lv e g ears are
illu stra ted in Ch ap ter V III .

FI G . 1 24 . 2 5
-
K i l ow att Curti s T urb i ne -
G ene rator .

Sm all T u rb i nes 4 how .

5 kilowFiga tt Cu
. rt i
1 2s tu rbi
S ne s a 2 -

and g enera t o r sui ta bl e for li gh ti n g a f a c to ry The whol e set .

o ccupi es v ery li ttl e sp ac e comp ared wi th th a t requi red for a

recip roc a ti n g engi ne The Sh af t a rm a tu re and tu rbi ne wh eel of
.
, ,

thi s set are Shown sep ara tely in Fig 1 2 5 One of the l a test and . .

FI G . 1 2 5
. Wh eel , Sh af t , Armature, a nd Commutator of a Smal l Curt i s T urb i ne
.

mo st effici en t d esigns of bl a d e or buck et wh eel s for Cu rti s tur

bi nes wi th two p ressu re sta g es is sho wn in Fig 1 2 sa The . .

di sk s or wh eel s in the tw o stag es a re of the sam e di am eter but

the much g reater bl a d e l eng th tow ard the low p ressu re end -
1 94 T HE ST EA M TU RBI NE

c entrifug al gov erno r is pl a c ed a t the upp er end of a v erti cal sh af t

b etw een the tu rbi ne and g enera to r which is d riv en by wo rm ,

g eari ng f rom the m ai n Sh af t of the tu rbi ne The mo tio n of the .

m a in gov ern o r is transmi tted to the v alv e g ear by m eans of l ev ers

a nd rod s which op era te a sm all pilo t v a lv e co ntrolli ng the a d
, ,

mi ssi on of steam to a steam cyli nd er a t the upp er end of the

valv e m ech ani sm Th a t is the pilo t v a lv e serv es to a dmi t
.
,

stea m ei th er a bov e or b elow the pi sto n in the stea m cyli n d er .

The pi sto n rod ex tend s i nto the steam Ch est and on t hi s rod
a re mounted a seri es of spid ers which eng a g e a co rrespo ndi ng ,
'

seri es of annul ar doubl e sea ted a dmi ssio n v a lv es -

The spi d ers .

on the v a lv e rod are a rrang ed so th a t the v a lv es are li f ted f rom

th ei r sea ts in sequ en c e a s the rod is ra i sed by the stea m cyli nd er

u nd er control of the pilo t v alv e AS ea ch of the v alv es is lif ted .

f rom its seat steam is a dmi tted f rom the c entral sp ac e wi thin
,

the ann ul ar v alv es to co red p assag es l eadi ng to the tu rbi ne

nozzl es . Ea ch one of th ese p a ssa g es in g eneral comm uni c a tes
wi th two sec tions of the tu rbi ne n ozzl e .

Correctio n Curv es T ypic al cu rv es showing the v ari a tio n in

.

stea m co n sump tio n of a 50 0 kilow a t t Cu rti s tu rbi ne due t o in

-

c reasing sup erh eat and v acu um are shown in Fi gs 1 2 6 and 1 2 7 ,

. .

20 4 0 00 80 1 00 1 2 0 1 40 1 60 1 80 200 2 20
Superhea t Dega Eahr.

FIG . 1 2 6 . FI G
. 1 2 7 .

v h ow i ng
C u r es S h
the Eff ect of Super eat a nd V acuum on the Stea m Cons umpt on i
of a 5 00 - Ki l owatt Curt is T urb i ne .

Such cu rv es b ecom e mo st u seful howev er wh en th ey a re re , ,

duced to equiv a l en t p erc enta g es lik e tho se for D e L a v a l tu rbi nes

 CO MM ER CI AL T Y P ES 1
g4 a
.

shown on p ages 1 50 and 1 5 1 In Ch apter V I the co rrec t m ethod

.

for m akin g thi s transpo si tio n w a s expl ain ed .

Steam Consumpti o n Fig 1 2 8 is a cu rv e to Show approxi

. .

B a tei F ul l Loa d Output. t K w .

FI G. 1 2 8 . Approx i mate Steam Consumpti on of Any Siz e of C urti s T urb i ne

w i th 1 q
6 5 Pounds per S ua re nc I h Absol ute P e r ssure, 2 8 Inch e s V acuu m, and
no Super eat h .

m ately the steam co nsump tio n of any siz e of Cu rti s tu rb ine a t the
ra ted full lo a d Al l the d a ta for thi s cu rv e w ere co rrec ted by
.

u si ng p erc entag e cu rv es lik e tho se ref erred to abov e which serv ed ,

to reduc e the co n di tio ns of the v ariou s tests to assum ed co n di tio ns

of 1 6 5 pou nd s per squ are i nch ab solu te steam p ressu re 2 8 i nch es ,

v acuum and no sup erh eat To get su ffi ci ent d ata for thi s
,
.

cu rv e it was nec essary to i nclud e som e tests m a d e wi th com

mercial lo a d s m akin g its v alu es p rob ably a littl e hi gh er th an
,

t h ey would be if a ll the tests had b een run wi th a co nstan t lo a d .

Analy s i s of Lo ss es in a Curti s Turb i ne Steinm etz has calcu .

l ated the energy di stribu tio n in a t ypic al two sta g e Cu rti s tur -

bi ne and has giv en the resul ts in the fo rm of the di ag ram in

Fig . 12 9 .

WESTI N G HOUSE IM PUL SE TU RBI N ES .

Still o th er typ e of stea m tu rbine intend ed p articul arly for

an

sm all c a p a ci ti es has b een d ev elop ed by the Westi nghou se M a

chi ne Comp an y as illu strated in Fi gs 1 3 0 and

, M achin es .

of thi s t yp e are sui table for a c a p a ci t y a s low a s one kil ow att .

B y thi s co nstruc tio n it is po ssibl e to secu re wi th the use of o nly

T urb i nes of thi s type are k nown a broa d as El ectra designs .
rg4 b TH E ST EA M TU RBI NE

FIG . 1 2 9 . A na ys l is of th e L osses in a T urbi ne w i th T h ree V el oci ty

Each of T wo Press u e Stag es
r .

FI G
. 1 30 . West i ngh ouse I mpul se T urbi ne ( w i th one re ersav l) .
TH E STEA M TU RBI NE
 CO MM ER C IA L T YP ES

RAT EAU TU RB IN ES .

P rofesso rR ateau of Pari s is

l o a pioneer in the d ev elopm ent
’
a s

of a w ell kn ow n typ e of stea m tu rbin e

-
His fi rst exp erim ents .

w ere m ad e wi th a turbi ne h avi ng a si ngl e impul se w h eel ; but he

soo n a b ando ned thi s typ e in f avo r of a mul tipl e wh eel construc

FIG . r3 2 . D i g
a ra mma ti c R ep e ent ti
r s a o n of F ou r g
Sta es of a R ateau i
T urb ne .

tio n . The R ateau turbi ne is often c all ed “m ulticell ular,

m eani ng th at it co nsi sts of a large number of
“ cell s or

pr essure sta ges of which the sep ara ti n g w all s a re di a ph ra gm s

simil ar to tho se in a Cu rt i s tu rbi ne T he p ri ncipl e of the .

R ateau tu rbi ne is illu strated by the sec tio n d rawi ng in Fig 1 3 2 .

,

which show s di ag ramm atic ally fou r stag es Essenti ally the .
 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

R ateau typ e di ffers f rom th at of much C u rt i s in th at it has a

“
l a rg er numb er of p ressure stag es or c ell s but no v eloci ty
”

sta g es. T h ere is th erefo re o nly one row of bl ad es in ea ch stag e .

Exc ep t for the f a c t th a t turbi nes w i th simpl e di sk w h eel s can be

op erated at high er bl ad e sp eed s th an rea c tio n turbi nes of the
d rum typ e ( Pa rso ns ) , m aki ng the effi ci ent u tiliz atio n of stea mat
high er v eloci ti es po ssibl e the R ateau and the Pa rso ns typ es
, 3

would req ui re the sam e numb er of stag es R ateau turbi nes .

h av e f rom 2 0 to 4 0 stag es resp ec tiv ely d ep endi ng on w h eth er ,

t h ey are for non cond ensmg or for co nd ensi ng servic e

-
F or .

g iv en bl ad e sp eed s te
-
a m p ressu
,
re a nd su p erh e a t the n umb
,
e r of ,

stag es i nc reases al though not p ropo rt io nally

, as the exh au st ,

p ressu re is reduc ed .

Nozzl es and D i aph ragms Annul a r n ozzl es a re set in each of

.

t he di aph ra gm s b etw een the stag es B ec au se of the l arg e num .

b er of stag es the p ressure d rop s a re v ery sm all so th at the

, ,

nozz l es a re m ad e wi th a u nifo rm c ro ss sec tio n alo ng th ei r l eng th ; -

th at is th ey a re non expanding
,
T o allo w for the i nc reased
-
.

volum e of the stea m as it exp and s in almo st all the o th er typ es ,

of impul se tu rbi nes the nozzl es a re m ad e wi th a t l east som ewh at

.

l a rg er radi al wid th for the low er p ressu res In R ateau tu rbi nes .
,

how ev er the sam e i nc reased nozzl e area is secured by increas

,
'

ing o nly the a rc or p art of the ci rc u mf eren c e occ upi ed by the

n ozzl es In the l ast sta g es th en w h ere the enti re ci rcu mferenc e
.
, ,

of the di a ph ra gm is m ad e use of a compl ete annul a r jet ,

resul ts .

R ateau nozzl es are arrang ed in g ro up s v ery m uch lik e the

C urti s nozzl e p l ate show n in Fig 1 1 4 D i a ph ra gm s of sev era l
. .

S iz es of th ese turbi nes a re show n in F ig 1 3 3 Sev eral g ro up s of . .

nozzl es can be seen in ea ch di a ph ragm At th e high p ressu re .

‘
-

end of th e turbi ne th ere a re o nly a few g roup s ( usu ally a bou t

.

th ree) b ut in ea ch succ eedi n g sta g e th ere is a g reater numb er

,
.

B ec ause the stea m di sch arg ed f rom the bl ad es is c arri ed alo ng a

S ho rt di stanc e by th e ro tatio n of the wh eel a po rtio n of ea ch ,

g ro up of nozzl es is loc ated a li ttl e In adv anc e of the p rec edi ng ,

s et.
198 T HE ST EAM T U RB I NE
 CO MM ER CIA L T YPES

D escr i ptio n Fig 1 34 is a sec tion of a 50 0 ho rsepow er R atea u

. .
-

tu rbi ne of 2 4 stag es I t wi ll b e ob serv ed th at thi s tu rbi ne is

.

divid ed i nto th ree sec tio ns the high p ressu re and i nterm edi ate
,
-

sec tio ns b ei ng sep arated f rom the low p ressu re sec tio n by a -

“middl e” tu rbi ne b eari ng H T hi s tu rbi ne is d esig ned to

.

FI G . 1 35 . A R atea u D i sk .

op erate at 2 4 0 0 revol utio ns per mi nu te D im ensio ns can be .

c alcul ated f rom the sc al e giv en at the righ t h and sid e In thi s -
.

fi g ure B is the m a i n stea m pip e C is the th ro ttl e v a lv e co ntroll ed

,

by the gov erno r D is a bl a d e of one of the movi ng di sks E is a

, ,

n ozzl e in a di aph ragm F is a stea m pip e co nn ec ti ng the i nter

,

m edi ate and low p ressu re sec tio ns L is an auxili ary v alv e to
-

,
2 00 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

admi t hig h p ressure stea m to c arry an o v erlo ad and G is the

-

exh au st pip e l ea di ng to the co nd enser B ushi ng s of anti f ric tio n . ,

-

m etal are fitted in the di a ph ragm s wh ere the sh a ft p asses th rough

th em .

Wh eel D isk s A typic al R ateau di sk is sho wn in Fig 1 3 5

. . .

D eta il s of co nstru c tio n are show n b etter how ev er in Fig 1 3 2 , , . .

T he di sk s are di sh ed to add to th ei r l atera l streng th or to ,

m k h m sif
a e t e t f er * In the rec ent d esig ns a shrbud ri ng is
.

FI G . 1 36 . R a tea u D i ks
s A ssemb ed l on th e T urb i ne Sh af t .

fi tted ou nd the bl ad es as illu stra ted in the fig ures T he bl ad es

ar .

resembl e tho se u sed in D e L av al and C u rti s turbi n es exc ep t th at

th ey h av e a fl at p roj ec tio n a t the roo t which is p rovid ed to f a sten

th em to the fl an g e of the di sk by riv eti ng T he hol es Show n .

in the di sk in Fig 1 3 5 w ere d rill ed for b al an ci n g

. F ig 1 3 6 . .

show s a g roup of R a teau di sk s assem bl ed on the tu rbi ne

sh a f t .

D i ph ag ms of l a g e iz e
a r r s s of C urt i s tu b i ne
r s a re d i sh ed in th e sa me w a y to give
in cr eased t eng th
s r See Fig s . .
57 a nd 1 1 9 .
202 THE STEA M TU RB I N E

M anufacturers . R ateau
u rbi nes are co nstruc ted by the
t
pioneers Sau tter Harlé CO a t Pari s by the M asc hi nenf ab rik
, ,
.
, ,

O erliko n in Swi tz erl and and by m any o th er comp ani es in Eu rop e .

Am eric an righ ts are co n troll ed by the Sou thw a rk Foun d ry

M a chi ne Comp an y of P hi l a d elphi a R a tea u d esig ns are fre
.

qu ently u sed in combi nation wi th o th er typ es as for ex ampl e ,

wh en Cu rti s bl a di ng is u sed for the first stag e and R a teau bl ad ~

ing for the rem ai ni ng sta g es (see ex ampl e p ag es 8 6 9 L ic enses

,
—

to m anuf a c tu re R a tea u tu rbi nes h a v e b een i ssu ed to Goldi e

M cColloch Comp an y Gal t Ont ario Canad a
, , , .

A typic a l R ateau tu rbi n e co nnec ted to a high lif t c entrifug al -

pump is illu strated in F ig 1 3 7 . .

Low Pressu re R ateau Tu rbi nes a re ex tensiv ely u sed in Eu rop e

-

to op erate w i th the exh au st stea m f rom rolli ng mill and mi ne

engi n es Prof esso r R atea u has d esig ned a steam a cc u mul ato r
.

( Fig. 1 8 4 ) for a pplic atio n in such c a ses wh ere the stea m supply

is i ntermi ttent It is d esc rib ed in C h a p ter IX in the di scu ssio n

.

of low p ressu re stea m tu rbi nes

-
.

W ILKI N SO N TU RBI N ES .

R ateau tu rbi nes gov ern ed by th ro ttli ng the stea m p ressu re

a re

by m eans of v alv es co ntroll ed by the gov erno r M r J am es . .

Wilki nso n has i nv ented a sy stem of gov ern i ng stea m tu rbi nes
( see p a g e 2 38
) which is i nten d ed to b e equiv a l en t to th e C o rli ss
“c t ff ” gov erni ng of recip roc ti ng engi nes He has a ppli ed
u o -
a .

thi s m ethod of gov ern i n g tog eth er wi th som e o th er u niqu e

,

f eatu res to stea m tu rbi nes of the R ateau typ e which are m ad e
,

at the Co rli ss En gi ne Wo rk s Provid en c e R I

,
A Wilki nso n ,
.

tu rbi ne g en erato r rated a t 1 0 0 kilow atts for non co nd ensi ng

- -

servic e ( six sta g es ) is Show n by Sid e a nd end sec tio ns in Fi gs 1 4 0 .

a nd 1 4 1 I t will be ob serv ed th at in thi s d esig n the di a ph ragm s

.

are
“ di sh ed a s In Cu rti s tu rbi nes whil e the di sk s are fl at T he .
,

di sk s are m ad e of fo rg ed steel but the bl ad es are b ronz e c asti n g s

,

which are fil ed to a Sh arp edg e on the sid e wh ere the steam

enters .
2 04 T HE ST EA M T U RB I NE

Stage Pack ing . p rev ent the l eak ag e of steam b etw een the
To
di aph ragm s and the sh af t ( sta ge l eak age) which in som e impul se ,

tu rbi nes is a co nsid erabl e lo ss — often 1 0 to 2 0 per c ent a .

v ery i ng eniou s sy stem of steam pack ing has b een d evi sed A .

d rawi ng illu strati ng thi s sy stem is shown in Fig 1 4 2 B y thi s . .

d evic e steam contai ni ng a l arg e a mou nt of co nd ensatio n is d is

,

ch arg ed i nto groov ed p acki ng s b etw een the di aph ragm s and the
sh a f t th rough duc ts d rill ed i nto the hub s of the di sk s T hi s w et .

stea m Is tak en f rom a p art of th e l aby ri nth pack i ng a t the high

p e su re end of the u bi e th rough which th ere is alw a ys

r s t r n —

FI G . 1 42 . Wilki nson L i h
a byr nt g
Sta e Pa c ki ng .

som e l eak a g e of steam and is co nduc ted in th e duc ts show n in

the fi gu re which are arrang ed so th at the stea m di sch a rg ed i nto

,

a di a ph ra gm p a cki n g is a t a sligh tly high er p ressu re th an th at on

ei th er Sid e of the di a ph ra gm It IS p rob a bly po ssibl e in thi s w ay

.

to p ra c tic ally elimi nate the lo ss d ue to stag e l ea k a g e .

HA MILT O N — HO LZW A RT H TU RBI N ES .

A m tu rbi ne c all ed
stea th e Ha mil to n H olzw arth is
b ei n g -

d ev elop ed by the Hoov en Ow ens R entschl er Comp an y of

, ,

H amil to n Ohio which is a sligh t modi fic atio n of the R ateau

, , ‘

typ e .Acco rdi n g to d esig ns which h av e b een publi sh ed thi s ,

tu rbi ne is divid ed i nto two sec tio ns ( high and low p ressu re) -

which are sep arated by a b eari ng T he p ri ncip al di fferen c e .

2 06 THE ST EA M TU RBI N E

t op s of the bl ad es are cut off p arall el to the sh af t but a t the roo ts ,

th ey are m ad e wi th a co nsid erably g rea ter h eigh t on the d is

ch arg e Sid e th an on the entran c e sid e T hlS is of cou rse d esi r . -

a bl e to a llow for the lo ss of v eloci ty in th e bl ad es b ut it is sta ted ,

th at the h eigh t is m ad e u nu su ally l arg e to c a use the stea m to fl ow

smoo thly th rough th em wi thou t p roduci ng In o rd er

to a ccommod ate in the di ff erent stag es the siz e of the n ozzl es to
, ,

the exp ansio n of the steam the radi al w id th s of the nozzl e p a rts
,

are g radu ally i nc reased to w a rd the l ow p ressu re en d T he mo st

-
.

i nteresti ng p art of the d esign of thi s tu rbi ne is ho w ev er in the , ,

co nstruc tio n of the bl ad e w h eel s to resi st the stresses d ue to .

ex trao rdi n arily high p eriph era l sp eed s As the bl ad es for thi s.

tu rbi n e are m ad e at p resent they a re much lo ng er in comp ari so n

,
v

wi th the Siz e of the wh eel th an in any o th er tu rbi ne; in f ac t the ,

l eng th of the bl ad e is som etim es nearly one h alf the radiu s of the -

w h eel T h ese lo ng bl ad es a re tap ered off tow a rd the ou ter end s

.

in o rd er to m ak e th em of u nifo rm streng th T he di sk s are .

m ad e of fo rg ed steel and the bl ad es of n ick el steel which resi sts

ero si v e a c tio n v ery eff ec tu ally T hi s Simpl e co nstru c tio n of the
.

wh eel s and bl ad es m ak es a g reat savi ng in w eigh t T he l arge .

radi al div erg enc e of th ese lo ng bl ad es m a k es po ssibl e th e use of

v ery sm all angl es on the di sch arg e sid e of the w h eel .

T u rbi nes of thi s typ e i ntend ed for co nd ensi ng servic e a re

u su ally m ad e in two sec tio ns each abou t 5 stag es pl ac ed
— —

far enough a p art to p ermi t a b eari ng to b e loc ated to suppo rt the

tu rbi ne sh af t at the middl e .

Zoelly d eserv es the di sti nc tio n of b ei ng the first to adop t in ,

impul se tu rbi nes the use of bl ad es wi th u nequ al angl es at the

,

entranc e and exi t Sid es Simplici ty in the d esign of the wo rki ng

.

p arts is the mo st striki ng f eatu re of th ese tu rbi nes .

T h ere are a numb er of m a nu f a c tu rers of Zoelly tu rbi nes in

Germ any and F ranc e It is stated th a t a Zoelly tu rbi ne h as b een
.

co nstruc ted at the Provid enc e Engi neeri ng Wo rk s P rovid enc e , ,

RI . .

l
It is prob ab e t h at th ere is cons i de ab l e
r ex pans on i of the steam in suc h
bl ad es .
 MM ER CI AL
CO T YPES

PE T ON AN D L IMILA R B U CKET
S WHEEL TU RBI N ES .

I mpul se tu rbi nes wi th buck et wh eel s of l o the P e t n type hav e

rec en tly rec eiv ed a g rea t d ea l of exploi t a tio n f rom in v ento rs in

Am eric a Thi s t yp e has p rob ably rec eiv ed so muc h a ttentio n

.

b ec au se the P el to n w ater wh eel comm only kno wn as the bu rdy ,

g u rdy wh e el ha s p rov ed so effi ci en t in Am eric an w a ter pow er

,

pl ants wh ere a high h ea d is a v a il abl e .

Professo rs R a tea u in P ari s and Stumpf an d Riedl er in B erli n

h av e done a g reat d eal of exp erim ental wo rk on such tu rbi nes ,

but th ey h av e p ra c tic a lly ab ando ned th em for tho se wi th bl a d e

wh eel s of the common axi al flow typ e R a teau has now a dop ted .

his f amou s mul tic ellul ar typ e and R i edl er is eng ag ed in ,

d ev elopi ng the Cu rti s tu rbine in Germ any .

Sturtev a nt T urbi ne A steam tu rbi ne has b een d ev elop ed by

.

the B F Stu rtev an t Comp an y B o sto n M ass

. . f rom d esigns , ,
.
,

p rep ared by M r W E Snow which in the general buck et . . .

,

a rrang em ent is simil ar to the old R i edl er Stumpf t yp e Thi s

* -
.

tu rbine was d ev elop ed p rim arily for d ri vin g blow ers but it is , ,

of cou rse equ ally applicabl e for o th er pu rpo ses It is no tabl e

,
.

p articul arly for its ex trem e simplici ty and streng th .

Fig 1 4 3 is a good illu stra tio n of thi s tu rbi ne Showi ng the

.
,

buck ets on the wh eel and the segm ents on the insid e of the
c asing i ncluding the nozzl es and the stationary rev ersing “ ”

buck ets T h ree fou r or five of the l a tter a re cut i n to the seg
.
, ,

m ent following each nozzl e d ep endi ng on the v eloci ty of the

, ,

steam Fig 1 44 show s mo re cl early the arrang em ent of the

. .

T he uniq ue fea ture of the Ri edl er Stumpf turbine was in the buck et wh eel s -
,

of w hi ch th e Sturtev ant wh eel in Fig 1 4 3 is a g ood ill ustra t i on except th at th ere was
.

usua ll y a double row of buck ets on the rim of ea ch wh eel T h ese wh eel s were .

patented by Prof Stumpf and dev el oped w i th the a ssi stance of Prof R i edl er
. The . .

buck ets were cut i nto the rim of the wh eel by a mi lli ng ma chi ne a nd were arrang ed ,

to ov erl ap each oth er lik e the shi ngles of a roof i nstead of bei ng pl aced one in f ront ,

of anoth er as in a Pel ton wa ter wh eel Unusua l a ttenti on w as giv en to ba l a nci ng

.

the w h eel s whi ch were in the form of fl a t d i sk s

, Stumpf sta tes th a t t h ese d i sk s .

were bal anced so accura tel y th at the center of g ra vi ty came w i thi n 0 0 4 of the
‘

di ameter f rom the geometri c center T h ese d i sk s w ere si mil a r to the desig n in
.

Fig 2 6 I t is stated th at such wh eel s were designed for a factor of sa fety of 5

. 1 .

at a rim speed of 1 2 0 0 f eet per second .

2 08 THE STEA M TU RBI N E

n ozzl e wi th resp ec t to the sta tionary buck ets The nozzl e is .

the nearly squ are op ening shown nex t to the fi rst buck et cou nt ,

Ing f rom the l ef t As sho wn h ere the steam flow will th en be

.

FIG . 1 43 . Sturtev ant T urbi ne w i th the Wh eel R emov ed to the Si de to Show the
Arra ng ement of the B u k ets
c .

tow ard the righ t f rom the nozzl e into the buck et oppo si te it on
the wh eel F rom thi s movi ng buck et the stea m will be di v erted
.

b ack i nto the stationary buck et nex t to the nozzl e and the steam

FI G . 1 44 . Sturtev ant N ozzl e and Stat i ona ry B u k et

c s, s h owi ng Flang ed Connec
i
t on to the Steam C est h .

p ath co nti nu es al ternately th rough mov ing and sta tionary

buck ets u ntil the l ast stationary buck et has b een p assed wh en ,

it will esc a p e i nto the c asin g and i n to the exh au st pip e The .

sta tio nary buck et show n to the l ef t of the nozzl e is c all ed a

 T H E ST EA M TU RB I N E

it ism ad e as simpl e a s po ssibl e consi sting of v ery few p arts as ,

show n in Fig 1 4 7 . .

The m ai n b eari ng s h av e solid li ni ng s of pho spho r b ro nz e .

T h ey are of the self alig ni ng ri ng oili ng typ e

-
T he w eigh t on
,
-
.

th ese b eari ng s nev er exc eed s 1 4 po und s per sq uare i nch of b ear
ing su rf a c e .

T he sp eed of th ese tu rbi nes is f rom 1 6 0 0 to 3 0 0 0 revolu tio ns

p er mi n u t e T h
. ese low sp eed limi ts comp ared w i th the sp eed s

of si ngl e stag e D e L a v a l tu rbi nes a re

-
ad e po ssibl e by the
m

FI G . 1 47 . T he Parts of a Sturte va nt G ov e no
r r
.

a pplic ation of the v elo ci ty stage pri nci ple in the use of the
reversing bu ck ets .

Fig 1 4 8 is an illu stratio n of a Stu rtev a nt turbi ne di rec t con

.
-

n ected to a v entil ati n g fan or blow er T he gov erno r m ech ani sm .

is at the l ef t h and end

-
V a lv es for clo si ng nozzl es to a dju st th e
.

stea m supply to the lo ad to get the b est effi ci en cy of the n ozzl es

,

a nd bl a d es are show n cl ea rly ou tsid e the c asi ng

,
.

T he d eep b ase which the sm all di a m eter of thi s tu rbi ne neces

sitates is u tiliz ed for stea m ch a mb ers to which the m a i n admi s
, ,

sio n and exh au st steam pipi ng is co nnec ted O v erh ead pip es .

are in thi s way elimi nated .

 CO MM ER C IA L T YPES

T he buck et wh eel
i gl e fo rgi ng of op en h earth steel and
is a s n ,

as the buck ets are cut out of th e solid m etal a wh eel of g reat . ,

streng th is secu red B l ad e b reak ag e and striki ng are elimi

.
”

n ated b ec au se if the buck et wh eel sho uld get out of li ne and

,

to uch the c asi ng on its sid es the resul t wo uld b e m erely lik e th e
,

rubbi ng tog eth er of tw o steel pl ates which would p roduc e no ,

seriou s i nju ry .

FIG . 1 48 . Sturtev ant Turbi ne D i rect -

connected to a B l owe
r .

T hi s tu rbi ne w a s d esig ned to requi re the mi ni mum a mou nt

of a ttenti o n and rep ai rs I t is sta ted th a t it can be op era ted
.

conti nuou sly u nd er o rdi nary co ndi tio ns wi th no mo re a ttentio n

th en the w eekly fi lli ng of the oil w ell s in the m ai n b eari ng s It .

is th erefo re p a rticul arly w ell sui ted for d rivi ng a ny typ e of

auxili ary m a chi nery esp eci a lly such as may be loc a ted in i nac
,

c essibl e pl a c es Such tu rbi nes m ak e op e

. ra ti ng exp ense and

d ep reci atio n low and it is sta ted by som e engi neers th at th ey

,

h av e op era ted tu rbi nes of thi s typ e for five y ears at a tim e
wi thou t any exp ense for rep ai rs .

K err T urb ine An impul se tu rbi ne of the Pel t o n type has

.

b een p atented by M r C V K err a nd is m anuf a c tu red by the

. . .

K err T u rbi ne Comp any Well svill e N Y In thi s t u rbi ne

, ,
. .

t ypic a l P el to n doubl e cup sh a p ed buck ets are u sed i nt o which

-

j ets of steam a t high v eloci ty are di sch arg ed f rom nozzl es loc a ted ,
2 12 T HE ST EA M TU RB I NE

a s in Fig . 1 49, arou nd the p eriph ery of the wh eel T he i nsid e .

su rf a c e of ea ch buck et is fo rm ed of two i ntersec ti ng su rf a c es of

FIG . 1 49 . K e B u k et Wh eel
rr c a nd Nozzl es .

F IG
. 1 5 0 . Sect i ona l V i ew of the K err T u b i ne
r .

revolu io
t n a pp,
roxim ately ellip soid al som ewh a t lik e t h e re fl ec,
to r

of a locomo tiv e h eadligh t .

c
A se t nio of u
a K err t r bi ne is S how n in F ig 1 5 0 In t hi s . .
2 14 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E
Fig 1 5 2 show s a typic al K err turbi ne di rec t co nnec ted to an
.
—

el ec tric g en erato r B ec au se of the simplici ty of the d esig n th ese

.

tu rbi nes a re p art icul arly sui tabl e for i sol ated ligh t i n g pl ants and

for d rivi ng c entrif ug al pump s and blow ers .

Terry Stea m Tu rbin e L ik e the Stu rtev ant turbi ne the one
.
,

i nv ented by M r Edw ard C T erry b elong s to the Pel to n imp ul se

. .

typ e in which th ere are tw o or mo re v elo ci ty sta g es Statio nary .

rev ersi n g buck ets a re a rran g ed in g ro u p s one for ea ch nozzl e

aro un d the i n terio r of thec asi ng T h ese buck et g roup s a re Sho w n

.

in Fig 1 5 3 wh ere a T erry turbi ne is show n wi th th e upp er h alf

.
,

of the c asi ng rai sed for i nsp ec tio n In thi s ill ustration th ere .

a re fo ur statio na ry b u ck ets for ea ch n ozzl e O bviou sly the stea m .

FI G . 1 52 . A 1 0 0- Ki l ow att Ke rr T urb i ne G enerator

-
.

15 u rned to the movi ng b uck ets as m any tim es as th ere are

ret

statio nary buck ets in ea ch g roup T h ese statio n ary buck ets a re .

m ad e of gun m etal and ea ch has a c resc ent sh ap ed hol e at the

,
-

c enter th ro ugh which the steam part i all y exhausts T here is .

,

th erefo re app arently co nsid erabl e exp ansio n in th e movi ng

,
 CO MM ER C IA L T YP ES

bl ad es A v alve is p rovid ed for ea ch nozzl e so th at wh en it is

.
,

d esi red som e of th em can be clo sed Sp eed s of th ese turb ines.

F IG . 1 53 . T erry T urb i ne w i th the C asi ng R i

a sed .

v ary from 2 50 0 for a 10 -

ho pow
rse er s iz e to 1 6 0 0 for 3 0 0 —ho rse
pow er .

Fig 1 5 4 is an illu stratio n of a T erry tu rbi n e di rec t co nnec ted

.
-
to

a five stag e high p ressu re turbi ne pump

- -
.
2 16 T HE ST EA M RB I N E
TU
THE STEA M RBI N E
TU
 C OMM ER C I A L T YPES

SP IR O TU RBI N ES .

The Spi ro tu rbine (Fig . 1 5 7 ) co nsi sts

imply of two h erri ngbone s

gear wh eel s whi ch m esh tog eth er and revolv e in a clo se fi t ting -

c asing Steam enters a t the i nl et pip e at the bo t tom and p asses

.

a rou n d the g ears in its exp ansio n t o the exh a u st pip e a t the to
p .

Stea m disch arg es f rom the i nl et pip e th rough the sm all hol es ,

equiv a l en t to non exp an din g n ozzl es Shown in Fi gs 1 5 8 a n d 1 5 9

-
.
,

1 58 . i
T he Sp ro Cas i ng or Cyl i nder. hol es nea r
The two the centra l rib

i nsi de the cyli nder are the stea m nozzl es .

i nto thepock ets or sp a c es b etw een a dj ac ent gear teeth AS .

the ro to rs revolv e the t oo th sp a c e occupi ed by the steam

-
.

i nc reases in l eng th as the steam exp and s Finally the steam .

esc a p es wh en the ou ter end s of the teeth p ass the line of co n ta c t

b etw een the two ro to rs The i nc reased l eng th of thi s too th

.

sp a c e f rom the tim e the steam is a dmi tted u ntil it is exh a u sted
is Shown in Fig 1 6 0 b y the comp a ri so n of thel eng th of the
.
,

too th g roov es a t
-
“ A ”
wi th the l eng th of the ou ter whi te li nes .

B y h a vi ng the stea m i nl et a t the bo ttom the w ei gh t of the ro to rs

is p artly c arri ed by the stea m p ressu re and f ric tio n is much
reduc ed b elow wh a t it would be if the i nl et w ere a t the top .
2 I 7 C T HE ST EA M TU RBI NE

Spi
o tu bi
r r ui tabl o nly
nes are s con d ensi ng op era tion
e for non -

and fin d applic a tio n u su a lly for d rivi ng the a uxili ari es lik e
‘

blow ers and pump s in a pow er pl ant or in o ffic e buildi ng s wh ere

the exh au st steam is p assed th rough f eed w a ter h eaters or is u sed -

FI G . 1 59 . Sect i on of Spi ro Cyli nder and R otors a t M id l engt h -

.

FI G
. 1 60 . The R oto rs .

for h eati ng buildi ng s Und er th ese condi tions low steam con
.

sump tio n a s would be ob ta i na bl e wi t h con d ensi ng op era t io n is

, ,

u nimpo rtant Su ffi ci ent exp ansion for cond ensing op eration is

.

imp rac tic abl e wi th thi s t yp e of tu rbi ne Comp ac tness is al so .

an impo rtant f ea tu re The c asin g of such a tu rb ine is alone no

.
 CHAPT ER V III .

I
GOV ER N NG STEA M TU RB I NES .

M ETH OD S of gov ern i ng stea m tu rbi nes or in o th er wo rd s of , , ,

regul ati ng the supply of stea m to sui t the lo ad on the m a chi ne ,

may b e cl assi fi ed as follow s

1 . T h ro ttli n g or p artly clo si n g the steam a dmi ssio n v alv e .

2 . Varyi ng the c ro ss sec tio n of the steam p assag es by c utti ng

-
“
”
out nozzl es .

V yi g th t im of a dmi ssio n or
“bl ast gov rning
3 . ar n e e e , .

4 . A dmi tti n g ste a m a t boil er p ressu re a t v a riou s p omts a lo n g

“
the di rec tio n of stea m flow or b y p ass gov ern i ng
” -
.
,

Wh en the stea m admi ssio n of a tu rbi ne is partly clo sed the ,

a mou nt of stea m p a ssi ng th rough the v alv e po rts is of cou rse , ,

reduc ed ; but at the sa m e t im e th e stea m is th ro ttl ed m eani ng ,

th at the p ressu re is reduc ed wi thou t ch angi n g th e h eat co n tents

in a u ni t w eigh t Al though in thi s th ro ttli ng p roc ess the to tal
.

h eat in a p ou nd of steam rem ai ns u n ch ang ed the energy av ail ,

abl e f rom exp ansio n is co nsid erably reduc ed I f steam at 1 6 5 .

pou nd s per squ are i nch ab solu te p ressu re whi ch contai ned ini
tiall y 2 per cent moi sture is thr o ttl ed wi thou t lo ss of h eat th a t
.
,

is wi thou t doi ng wo rk to 2 5 pou nd s per squ are i nch ab solu te

, , ,

the steam a t thi s low er p ressu re wi ll h av e 4 3 d egrees F of su per .

h eat N ow if the a v a il abl e en ergy is c alcul a ted for a d i abati c

.

expansio n f rom thi s low er p ressu re and 4 3 d egrees F sup er .

h ea t to 1 pou nd ab solu te it is fou nd to be 2 0 7 B T U The

,
. . .

a v ail abl e energy for a di ab a tic exp ansion of steam a t the i ni ti al

condi tion b efo re th ro ttli ng ( co nta ini ng 2 per c ent moi stu re)
'
.

to the same final p ressu re is on the o th er h and 3 1 6

, ,

Al th ough the moi sture is re mov ed a nd h eated t h ere is no

the stea m is super

gai n to off set the l oss in a v ail abl e ene gy except th at the d i sk and bl ade rotat i on
’
r

l osses are reduced ; but the gai n f om t hi s cause coul d not probabl y exceed per
r 1 0

cent .
“ D ryi ng a ct i on t h en is not v ery i mport a nt and it will h a v e v ery li tt l e
,

i nfl uence in remedyi ng l arge l osses d ue to th ottli ng r .

2 1 8
 GOV ER N I N G ST EA M T URB I N ES 2 1 9

In th i s extreme of th ro ttli ng the av a il abl e energy of the

ca se ,

stea m is reduc ed abou t 3 5 per c ent and co nsequ ently for the .
,

sa m e wo rk a pp roxim ately 3 5 per c ent mo re stea m is n eed ed wi th

,
.

th ro ttli ng v alv es th an if the stea m could b e u sed at ligh t lo ad s

wi thou t th ro ttli ng It is not u nu su al for tu rbi nes gov erned by
.

thro ttli ng to tak e stea m at full lo ad at 1 3 5 pou nd s p ressu re

wh en the steam su ppli ed is at 1 6 5 pou nd s T h en the .

m aximum p ressu re b ecom es av a il abl e o nly on ov erlo ad ju st b efo re

the stag e v alv es op en Effi ci ency of a n exp andi ng nozzl e is
.

co nsid erably reduc ed wh en it is u sed wi th p ressu res v ery much

di ff erent f rom th at for which it w as d esig ned as shown by the ,

cu rv e in Fig 2 8 B l ad e effi ci en ci es are simil arly reduc ed wh en

. .

th e av a il abl e energi es and co nsequ ently th e v eloci ti es are not

tho se for which the bl ad es w ere d esig ned Fig 1 6 1 show s v ery . .

300 1 00

Loa d K w
-
.

FIG . 1 61 . Eff ect of T h rott li ng on Steam C onsumpt i on .

pl ai nly f c of th ro ttli ng on the eco nomy of stea m tu rbi nes

the ef e t .

T he two cu rv es in thi s figu re show the stea m co nsump tio n per

el ec tric al kilow att for a 6 0 0 kilow att tu rbi ne wh en op erati ng
-

( )
I wi th a t h ro ttli n g gov ern o r a nd ( )
2 wi th a gov ern o r v,a ryi ng
the stea m supply by ch angi ng the area of the steam p assag es th at ,
,

is gov ern i ng wi thou t a pp reci abl e th ro ttli ng

,
In spi te of th ese .

d ef ec ts how ev er gov erni ng by th ro ttli ng has b een f ai rly sati s

, ,

f ac to ry .

In the D e L av al R ateau and Zoelly tu rbi nes gov ern i n g is

, ,

eff ec ted by th ro ttli ng d evic es F or mo st tu rbi nes the gov erno r

.
,

i tself is simil ar to c entrifug al gov erno rs u sed in recip roc ati ng

engi ne p ra c tic e .
 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

FI G . 1 62 . De L v l G ve n
a a o r or a nd V a cuum V a lv e.

1 63 . Sect ion of th e M a i n Admi ssi on V lve of a D e L v l T u b i ne

a a a r .
2 2 2 THE ST EAM T URB I NE

s lid e v alv e arrangem ent for regul ati ng the flow of steam th rough
a seri es of nozzl es T hi s is one of the b est sy stem s th at can be
.

employ ed for an impul se tu rbine if an el a bo rate v a lv e g ear is to

b e avoid ed .

As the full i ni ti al p ressu re is alw ay s m ai nta ined in all the nozzl es

th at are op en th ere can be v ery li ttl e th ro ttli ng exc ep t wh en the
,

v alv e is in a po si tio n so th at one of the nozzl es is p artly cov ered .

T he lo ss how ev er due to thi s amou nt of th ro ttli ng is p rac tic ally

, ,

negligibl e for o th er than v ery ligh t lo ad s V alv e g ears h av e b een

.

d esig ned to imp rov e on thi s slid e v alv e m ethod by p rovidi ng a

sep ara te v alv e ( u su a lly of the popp et typ e) for ea ch nozzl e or ,

at mo st for a sm all g roup of nozzl es

,
T h ese v alv es are op ened
.

and clo sed sudd enly by the gov erni ng app aratu s by the use of

ei th er sp ri ng s or d ash po ts v ery much as wi th our mod ern Cor

-

li ss v alv e g ears for recip roc ating engi nes T he di fficul ty wi th .

t hi s l ast m ethod is how ev er th at th ere will b e ab rup t al though

, , ,

p erh ap s sm all v ari ations in sp eed ev ery tim e a v alv e op ens or

,

clo ses u nl ess sp eci al p rec au tio ns are tak en in the d esign I f
,
.

the servic e is for el ec tric ligh ti ng sp eed i rregul ari ti es due to such
,

gov erni ng may be su ffi ci ent to p roduc e a flick er in the ligh ts .

In tu rbi nes wi th mo re th an one p ressu re stag e as for ex ampl e , , ,

in the Cu rti s and R ateau typ es it has often b een p ropo sed to
,

co ntrol the admi ssio n to each stag e App arently the o nly objec .

tio n to su ch a sch em e would be in the v ery complic ated v alv e

'

g ear th at would be need ed ; but contrary to wh at one migh t ,

exp e c t it can be show n by tests and d emo nstrated mathemati

,

c ally th at such an arrang em ent would not giv e as good eco nomy
as if o nly th e first sta g e is co ntroll ed .

T he o nly a dv antag e resul ti ng from thi s m ethod of co ntrolling

the stea m supply is th at by m a ki ng the ligh t lo ad p ressu res mo re
nearly in the sam e p ropo rtio n to ea ch o th er as for full lo a d an d

ov erlo a d the stresses in the di aph ragm s sep ara ting the stag es are
,

mo re nearly the sam e as c alcul a ted in the o riginal d esign Th ere .

is p rob ably no comm erci al type of tu rbi ne u si ng such a compli

cated m ethod of gov erni ng exc ep t for l arg e ov erlo a d s wh en eco n ,

omyis not of impo rtanc e and the co ndi tio ns are mo re of em erg en cy
 GOV ER N I N G ST EA M T UR B IN ES 2 2 3

t h an of continuou s op era tion Gov erno rs for the l arg er Siz es of

.

t he Curtis tu rbin es Show the m eri ts of thi s m ethod to the b est

adv antag e B y gov erni ng in thi s way it is po ssibl e to v ary the
.

numb er of v alv es supplyi ng stea m to the tu rbi ne in p ropo rtio n

to the siz e of the lo ad thu s m a i ntai ni ng a co nstant i n i ti al p res
,

su re and th erefo re co nstant v eloci ty in the nozzl es and bl a d es .

In a Si ngl estag e tu rbi ne th ere is no di ffi cul ty in applying thi s

m ethod and co nsequ ently the energy and v eloci ty are alw ay s
,

tho se su i ted for the b est nozzl e and bl ad e efli ciency U su ally .

in a tu rbi ne of sev eral sta g es no attemp t is m a d e to regul a te

the nu mb er of nozzl es af ter the first stag e on a ccou nt of the ,

m ech an ic al di ffi cul ti es i nsep arabl e f rom a complic ated v alv e

g ear In o rd er to secu re a co rrec t energy and v eloci ty distri
.

b ution th roughou t the tu rbi ne the noz zl es in all the diff erent ,

stag es should of cou rse be ch ang ed in the sa m e ratio

, ,
T hi s .

sch em e is not impo ssibl e and has b een a ttemp ted in som e Germ an

d esig ns Wi th tu rbi nes lik e the R ateau and Parso ns wh ere the
.
,

d rop of p ressu re is v ery sm all in ea ch stag e and wh ere th ere ,

are th erefo re a g rea t m any stag es any m ethod of cu tti ng out

, , ,

som e of the stea m p assag es to reduc e the area at l igh t lo ad s is

imp ra c tic abl e .

T yp es of gov erno rs to be u sed d ep end a great d eal on the

‘

capacity and the ki nd of servic e T he sm al l er siz es h av e u su a lly

.

simpl e fo rm s whil e the l arg er o nes are nec essarily mo re com

,

plic ated On the sm all tu rbi nes wh ere an el abo rate v alv e g ear
.
,

is not d esi rabl e the v alv es a re mov ed by the di rect a c tio n of the
,

c entrifug al fo rc e of the gov erno r weigh ts T hi s is c all ed direct .

“
gov erni ng to di sti ngui sh it from the relay sy stem u sed by
,

mo st tu rbi ne m anuf ac tu rers for l arg e m achi nes B y the di rec t .

m ethod a comp arativ ely l arg e c entrifug al fo rc e is necessary to

mov e the v alv es ; and u nl ess th ey are c arefully b al anc ed it is
di ffi cul t to m ak e the gov erno r sensi tiv e to fl uc tu atio ns In the
lo ad B esid es if for any reaso n a v alv e sticks th ere may be
.
, ,

wid e v ari atio ns in sp eed .

B y the indirect or wh at is commo nly c all ed the rel ay “

m ethod the c entrifug al fo rc e of the gov erno r is need ed o nly to
2 2 4 T HE ST EA M RB I N E
TU
 2 2 6 T HE ST EA M TU RB I NE

giv e the sig nal as we may say which sets in mo tio n an auxil
,
”
,

iary m ech ani sm by which the v alv es are mov ed by g eari ng con
n ected to the m a i n sh a f t Or by steam or hyd raulic p ressu re In .

'

C u rti s tu rbi nes of all Siz es up to 50 0 kilow a tts the v alv es are
‘
o p erated m ech anic ally and for l arg er Siz es a hyd ra ulic a pp aratu s
,

is u sed .

El ec trom agneti c Co ntrol of V al ves Fo rm erly in l arg e Cu rti s .

,

t u rbi n es the v alv es op eni ng the nozzl es w ere op erated by the

,
-

p ressu re of stea m a dmi tted th rough a po rt op ened and clo sed by

a
“ ”
pilo t v alv e co ntroll ed by el ec trom agnets T he gov erno r .

w as co nnec ted to a v ery simpl e m ech ani sm for the pu rpo se of

m aki ng and b reaki ng the cu rrent th rough the el ec trom agnets ,
“ ”
which in tu rn mov ed the pilo t v alv es op erati ng the m a i n
, ,

v alv es on the tu rbi ne .

M ech anical V a lv e Co ntrol One of the rec ent d ev elopm ents

.

i n the v alv e g ears for l arg e tu rbi nes gov erned by cu tti ng out
n ozzl es is the succ essful repl aci ng of the el ec trom ag netic
“ rel a y
”

o u tfit fo rm erly u sed on Cu rti s tu rbi nes by a po si tiv e m ech anic al

v alv e g ear d ue to M r R ich ard H R ic o

, . . .

T hi s v alv e m ech ani sm is w ell illu stra ted in F igs 1 6 5 and 1 6 6 .

,

w h ere it is show n a ppli ed for regul ati ng the stea m admi ssio n to
t he first stag e of an impu l se tu rbi ne Stea m in the steam ch est .

C is m ai nta i ned co nstant at the p ressu re for which the tu rbi ne

w as d esig ned and the v alv es are op erated so th at th ey are alw a y s
,

w id e op en or el se tigh tly clo sed Wh en the v alv e rod t Fig 1 66 .

, .
,

i s ra i sed stea m is admi tted th rough the po rt A f rom which it ,

p a ss es i nt o an ozzl e pl a t e ( lik e Fig 1 1 4) at B to b e di sch arg ed a t .

h igh v eloci ty i nto the bl a d es of the first stage .

T he v alv e g ear co nsi sts essenti ally b esid es the wo rm g ears ,

s how n a t the righ t h and S id e of the fig u res of a co nnec ti ng rod

-

-
“
m ovi ng a b ell c rank l to which tw o dog s or c atch es w w are ”
, , , ,

a tta ch ed by pi ns T he ex trem e end s of th ese dog s m ark ed 1

.
,

will eng ag e wi th the teeth on the steel pl ates u and v An .

eccentric h ( Fig
t
,
giv es the co nnec ti ng rod k a reciprocat
.

ing mo tio n which b ei ng transmi tted to 1 mov es the dog s w w

, , ,

up a nd dow n I n Fig 1 6 6 the low er dog is show n Sl idi ng on

. .
 G O V ER N I N G ST EA M TU RB I N ES

the pl ate u and in its low est po si tio n it touch es the too th on
,

thi s pl ate T he upp er dog is k ep t out of co ntac t wi th the too th

.

on the pl ate v by the l ev er x w hich by eng agi ng wi th the low er

,

end of thi s dog m ark ed 2 in the figu re ra i ses the end 1 out of
, ,

rea ch of the too th The l etters x and s are at oppo si te end s of

.

the sam e l ev er suppo rted on the Sh a f t m In the top vi ew of .

thi s v alv e g ear show n in Fig 1 6 5 th ere are five v alv es op erated
.

by the co nnec ti ng rod k O n the sam e ecc entric h th ere is

.
, ,

al so ano th er simil ar co nnec ti ng rod j op erati ng five v alv es on , ,

the oppo si te sid e of the tu rb ine T he steam supply of the tur .

bi ne is th erefo re regul ated by ten v alv es .

T he po si tio n of the end of the l ev er at x is regul ated by m eans

of the rod 9 which is co nnec ted to the Cu rti s gov erno r i llu strated
,

in Fig 1 6 7
. Sp eed regul atio n by m eans of thi s gov erno r is
.

a ccompli sh ed by the b al anc e m ai ntained b etw een the c entrifu al

g
eff o rt of movi ng w eigh ts and the static fo rc es ex erted by sp ri ng s .

The gov erno r is k ey ed to the m ai n tu rbi ne sh aft at S and of ,

cou rse ro tates wi th it It is p ro tec ted on two sid es by a statio nary

, .

l oop ed c asi ng of which a sec tio n is show n at the top of the figu re
, .

In the o rd er of ac tio n of thi s gov erno r the w eigh ts A fly out on

a ccou nt of c entrifu g al fo rc e movi ng on knife ed es n ear th ei r
g
-

l arg est di a m eter and pull down the gov erno r rod C by the p res
,

su re ex erted on o th er sm all er k nif e edg es B T he gov erno r rod -

.

is pull ed dow n a g ai nst the ac tio n of the h eavy sp ri ng D At E .

a b all b ea ri ng gimb el
-
joi nt tho roughl y lub ric ated fo rm s a
, ,

ju nc tio n poi nt b etw een the revolvi ng sh aft of the tu rbi ne and
the statio nary l ev er of the gov erno r ( show n in the figu re

ext endi ng tow ard the righ t nearly T hi s

,

statio nary l ev er is co nnec ted by m eans of a b ell c rank to the -

rod q ( Fig 1 66 ) and thu s d etermi nes the po si tio n of the

.

l ev er x .

T 0 illu strate the a c tio n of thi s v alv e g ear and the gov erno r ,

assum e the lo ad on the tu rbi ne h as b een i nc reased and the sp eed

Connected to the stationary l ever of the g ov ernor is a n a ux ili a ry spr i ng F for

varyi ng the speed w h en syn h ronizi ng B y mea ns of a sma ll motor G the tension of
c .

thi s spri ng ca n be ad j usted f om the sw i tch boa d

r r .
2 2 8 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

has d ropp ed a li ttl e i ndic ati ng th at mo re stea m is need ed and

,

th at the v alv es h av e b een so a rrang ed * th at the on e show n in

Fig 1 66 is the nex t to be op ened Wi th a reduc ed sp eed the

. .

o ernor w eigh ts A ( Fig 6 7) will mov e in ligh tly tow rd th e

g y 1 s . a

c enter red uci ng the tensio n on the gov erno r Sp ri ng D so th at

, ,

the rod C and the l ef t h and end of the statio nary gov ern o r l ev er
-

are ra i sed B y m eans of an auxili ary l ev er and a b ell c rank the

.
-

rod q is ra i sed and th e end x of the l ev er atta ch ed to it is low ered

F IG . 1 67 . Sect i on l V iew
a of C urt i G ove nor
s r .

to en g age th e catch
of th e l ow er dog w rel ea sing at the sam e
2 ,

tim e th e upper d og which now com es i nto co ntac t wi th the too th

,

in the pl ate v rai ses the v a lv e rod t and a dmi ts steam through
,
-
,

Eac h of th e l ev e s r s contro lli ng the dog s is set at a li ttl e d i ff erent angl e

to the h o izonta l
r . T he le er v w hi ch has its end ( x ) l o
west will open its va lve
first .
 2 30 T HE ST EA M TU R B IN E

FI G . 1 68 . T h e Hyd ra ul i c O pera t i ng M e h ani

c m for V a lves of
s a i s T u b i ne
C u rt r .

stea m at all At ligh t lo ad s the v alv e op ens for sho rt p eriod s

.
,

rem a i n i n g clo sed th e g reater p art of the tim e Wh en the lo ad .

i nc reases the v alv e rem a i ns op en long er and at abou t full lo ad ,

 G O V ER N I N G ST EA M TU RB I N ES

h
t ere is full p ressure in the high p ressure bl a d es the v alv e
-

m erely vib rating wi thou t sensibly afi ecting the p ressu re of the

stea m in the p assa g es It is though t th at in thi s wa y the full
.

b enefit of high p ressu re steam can b e secu red at all lo ad s T hi s

-
.

is the id eal co ndi tion , but p ra c tic al co nsid erations greatly

modify it .

B rown B overi Parso ns Gov erning D evi ce The m ethod of reg

- -
.

ul ating the stea m supply by i ntermi ttent a dmi ssio ns or

“bl asts ”

is typic a l of nearly all the gov ern i ng d evic es fitted to Parso ns

2 32 T HE ST EA M TU RBI NE

tu rb i nes . d esig n u sed for the B rown B overi Parso ns tur

T he - —

bi nes is illu strated by Fig 1 7 1 Stea m enters the turbi ne th rough

. .

a m a i n a dmi ssio n v alv e N which is giv en a v ertic a lly o scill ati ng

mo tion A sm all pi sto n mou nted abov e thi s v alv e and on the
.

sam e spi ndl e ha s stea m a t th e p ressu re in the m a i n stea m pip e

,

on its low er f a c e a c ti ng a g a i nst the p ressu re of a stro ng sp ri ng

on its upp er f a c e An au xili ary v alv e fitted on the spi ndl e L is

.

giv en an o scill ati ng mo tio n by a n ecc entric on the gov erno r Sh af t

at M w hich c a u ses a
, t ev ery strok e th e sm all p assag e a t the
, ,

FI G . 1
7 1 . B row n—B overi -
P a rsons G ove ni ng
r vi
De ce .

low er f a c e of the pi ston to commu n ic ate wi th the exh au st ,

m a ki ng the m ai n v alv e N f all upo n its seat T he spi ndl e L is .

li nk ed up to a coll ar slidi ng on the gov erno r Sh af t T he h eigh t .

of the gov erno r b all s d etermi nes the po si tio n of thi s coll ar T hu s .

the h eigh t of th e gov ern o r a ugm ents or dimi n i sh es the a mpli tud e

of the o scill atio ns of the auxili ary v alv e on L and in co nsequ enc e ,

c au ses the m a i n v alv e N to op en a long er or a Sho rter tim e at

ea ch admi ssio n of steam T h e f req uency of the steam a dmi s
.

sio ns is a bo ut 1 50 to 2 50 per mi nu te a cco rdi ng to the sp eed of

th e tu rbi ne .
2 34 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

tu rbi ne f rom wo rm on the m ai n sh aft T hi s ecc entric giv es an

a .

o scill ati ng mo tio n to the l ev ers suppo rted at D F and E , , .

T h e gov ern o r is of the fl y b all typ e the b all l ev ers b ei ng -

mou nted on k nif e edg es i nstead of pi ns to secu re sensi tiv eness

-

, .

T he sp eed of the tu rbi ne may be v ari ed whil e ru nni ng wi thi n , ,

the limi ts of the gov ern o r sp ri ng by g raspi ng a k nu rl ed h an d

wh eel at the top of the gov erno r and b ri ngi ng the sp ri ng and
tensio n nu ts to rest Adju stm ent of the tensio n of the sp ri ng
.

can th en b e m ad e T hi s d evic e is p articul arly u seful for syn

.

chroniz ing th e sp eed of sm all tu rbi ne al tern ato rs op erati ng in -

p arall el or for di stribu ti ng the lo ad b etw een th em For syn

, .

chroniz ing l a rg e Westi nghou se tu rbi ne al tern ato r u ni ts a sm all -

mo to r co ntroll ed f ro m the swi tchbo ard is u sed to adju st the

gov erno r sp ri ng .

Alli s Ch almers Governo r M ech ani sm

-
T he gov erni ng d evic e .

of the Alli s Ch alm ers steam tu rbi ne is of the P arso ns typ e u si ng

-

hyd raulic i nstead of steam p ressu re T he gov erno r is requi red .

to op erate a sm all b al anc ed oil rel ay v alv e o nly whil e the two ,

stea m v alv es m ai n and b y p ass are co ntroll ed by oil p ressu res

,
-

of abou t 2 0 pou nd s per squ are i nch ac ti ng u po n a pi ston of ,

sui tabl e siz e The by p ass valve opens wh en the tu rbi ne is

.
- '

requi red to d ev elop ov erlo ad or the v acuum f a il s .

T he oil supply to the b eari ng s and to the gov erno r can be

i nterco nnec ted so th at the gov erno r will shu t off the stea m if the
oil supply f ail s .

B l ast Gov erning Co mpared w i th Th ro tt ling Wh en the .

m ai n stea m admi ssio n v alv e of a P arso ns tu rbi ne clo ses th ere is

still som e stea m in the tu rbi ne c asi ng a nd thi s stea m exp and s , ,

of cou rse to fill the sp ac e The sam e effec t occu rs al so wh en

,
.

the v alv es are first op ened and the stea m ru sh es i nto a regio n ,

of v ery low p ressu re In th ese tw o w ay s low p ressu res are pro

.

duced ju st as wi th th ro ttli ng v alv es al though for the sa m e , ,

a v erag e p ressu re the lo ss is not nearly so g reat

,
T he p ressu re .

v ari atio n for a 1 50 0 kilow att Parso ns tu rbi ne at one qu arter

- -

th ree qu arter
-
and full lo ad is sho w n in Fig 1 7 3
,
At a . .

li ttl e ov erlo ad th ere is p rac tic ally no v ari atio n b ec au se the

 G O V ER N I N G ST EA M TU R B I N ES

stea m v alv e is th en clo sed for sho rter p eriod s Prob ably the .

g reatest di sadv antag e from thi s m ethod of gov ern i ng resul ts

“
from i ni ti al cond ensatio n at ligh t lo ad s ”
T h ere is u sually one .

bl ast or pu ff of steam in ev ery thi rty revolu tio ns Stea m admi s .

sio ns are th erefo re far en ough a p art to allow th e i nterio r of

, ,

the tu rbi ne to b e cool ed by the f alli ng temp eratu re b etw een the
bl asts N ow wh en th ere is a f resh admi ssio n the stea m com es
.

into co ntac t wi th the rel ativ ely cool er w all s of the i nterio r Of the

Atmosph eric z o

Il od gl i nson, F
‘

FIG . 1 73 . I nd i cator C a rd s S how i ng I ni ti la P ress ures in a Pa rso ns Stea m Turb i ne

.

tu rbi ne and co nd ensatio n m ust tak e pl ac e j ust as in a recipro

,

c ati ng engi ne .

“
I f it w ere po ssibl e p rac tic ally the numb er of p eriod s would
, ,

be m ad e so sm all th at f ree exp ansio n would b e reduc ed to a

mi nimum ; but for a sati sf ac to ry Sp eed regul atio n lo ng p eriod s
are not p ermi ssibl e I t a pp ears th erefo re th at u nl ess the
.
, ,

p eriodici ty can b e m ad e low the eco nomy at ligh t lo ad s is no ,

g reat imp rov em ent on the m ethod 0f pl a i n th ro ttli ng A v ery . .

impo rtant f eatu re of thi s m ethod how ev er should not be ov er , ,

look ed T hi s is the adv a ntag e of h avi ng a v alv e m ech anis m

.

”
which is constantl y mov in g p recludi ng the po ssibili ty of sticky ,

v alv es .
2 36 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

T he tim e requi red for the steam entrapp ed in the c asi ng wh en

the v alves are clo sed to d rop in p ressu re by a giv en amou nt can
be c alcul ated v ery Simply as follow s .

Let

W w eigh t of steam ( pou nd s ) entrapp ed wh en the v alv es

1

a re clo sed ,

W w eigh t of steam ( pou nd s ) in the tu rbi ne c asi ng a fter

ex pand i ng a tim e t ,

W = w eigh t of steam ( po und s ) flowi ng per seco nd wh en

’

the v alv es a re wid e op en th at is wh en the p ressures , ,

in the c a si ng a re tho se for which the bl adi ng w as

d esig ned ,

P i ni ti al ab sol ute p ressu re of the stea m d eliv ered to the

I

tu rbi ne ,

P fi n al a b sol ute p ressu re a f ter a tim e t

.
,

and void compl ex m ath em atic al term s

to a a ss um e th at in th e
ex pa nsio n in the c asi ng in g en eral term s
, ,

Fo r — K,

wh ere v is the volum e of a pou nd of stea m and K is a co nstant

.

T h en Si nc e I) and W are recip roc al s ,

W P X co nstant ;
h
t en l o
a s

wh ere C is ano th er co nstant .

In a tim e dl w e h av e thu s

dW CP dt,

W = W
2 38 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

wh en acco rding to the cu rv e the tim e requi red to reach thi s

, ,

p ressu re wi thou t th ro ttli ng is abou t 4 to 8 seco nd ; and as the . .

lo ad is i nc reased co rrespo ndi ngly sho rter tim es .

Wilk inso n Governing D evice An impo rtant typ e of v alv e

.

g ear has b een i nv ented by M r J am es Wilki nso n and is b ei ng

.

a ppli ed to the Wilki nso n tu rbi nes T he g eneral a rrang em ent of

.

his gov erni ng d evic e is illu strated in Fig 1 7 5 showi ng gov erno r .
,

F IG . 1 75 . W ilki nson Va l ve G ea r .

e cc entric s and a seri es of v alv e c asi ng s One of th ese c asi ngs

,
.

contai ns wh at is c all ed a governo r nozzl e which is co nnec ted

m ech anic a lly wi th the ecc entric s T hi s i s a fo rm of auxili ary
. .

v alv e of which the fu nc tio n is not p rim arily to di sch arg e steam
i nto the tu rbi ne bl ad es but to admi t steam in to or ej ec t it from
the o th er v alv e c asi ng s for the pu rpo se of op en i ng or clo si ng th em .

T hi s gov erno r nozzl e is illu strated in Fig 1 7 6 The impo rtant . .

featu re of the gov erno r nozzle is a cone sh aped pi sto n at the - .

low er end of the v alv e rod p assing th rough the stuffi ng box and -

co nnec ted to the ecc entric s as shown in Fig 1 7 5 A cone sh ap ed . .

-

j et flow s co nti n uou sly ov er thi s co ne T h e c entral ch amb er of

.

the gov erno r nozzl e as w ell as the sp ac es arou nd it exc ep t a narrow

ann ul ar p assa g e commu nic ati ng wi th a simil ar p a ssag e shown

by a circular sec tion in Fig 1 7 6 at the l eft h and sid e of the

.
-
 GO V ER N I N G ST EA M T UR B I N ES 2 39

c entral ch amb er co nta i ns in no rm al op eratio n steam at the

, ,

“admi ssio n ” or i ni ti al p ressu re

T he v alv es in the o th er c asi ng s a re op erated by the fo rc e
p roduc ed in thi s annul ar ch amb er by the i nj ec to r or ej ec to r ac tion
of the co ne sh ap ed jet Steam to be admi tted to the annul ar
-
.

p assag e mu st p ass arou nd the co ne sh ap ed pi ston and the

-

po si tio n of thi s pi sto n wi th resp ec t to the annul ar p assag e d eter

mi nes the eff ec tiv e p ressu re oi the steam op erati ng the admi ssio n
v alv es Wh en the co ne sh ap ed pi ston is in its low est po si tion
.
-

the stea m in p assi ng a rou nd it to enter the tu rbi ne n ozzl es oppo si te ,

p roduc es an ej ecto r efi ect in the annul ar p assag e; but wh en the

cone sh ap ed pi ston is at the o th er end of its strok e the steam
-

p roduc es an inj ecto r effect in the annul ar p assage Wh en the .

inj ecto r eff ect pred o minates the p ressu re in the annul a r p assa g e
is g rea ter th an th at in the stea m ch est whil e wi th the ej ector
,

efi ect predo mina ting thi s p ressu re is co nsid erably l ess .

F IG . 1 7 6 . G ove no
r r No zzl e . F IG . 1 77 . Ad m i i on V a lve
ss .

One of the admissio n v al v es is Show n in Fig 1 7 7 A sm all . .

p assag e of circul ar sec tio n shown h ere in the w all of the stea m
ch est commu nic ates wi th the gov erni ng v alv e or gov erno r nozzl e .

T hi s p assag e commu nic ates wi th one Sid e of the pi sto n v al v e

illu strated h ere A sp ri ng is p rovid ed to k eep the v alv e
.

clo sed wh en the p ressu re in the p assages commu nic ati ng wi th

2 40 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

the gov erno r pi sto n is the sam e as in the steam ch est Wh en .

the p ressu re in the p assa g es is how ev er l ess co rrespo nding to th e

, , ,

ej ecto r eff ect by an a mou nt g rea ter th an the tensio n in the

,

sp ri n g ( abou t 2 5 pou nd s ) th e v a lv e is o pened Wi th the i nj ec to r .

eff ec t on the o th er h and the v alv e will be clo sed

, , .

All the admi ssio n v a lv es op erate tog eth er as the p ressu res a re ,

a pp roxim ately the sa m e in ea ch of th em T he gov erno r v alv e .

o scill ates 1 50 tim es per mi nu te T he po si tio n of its co ne Sh ap ed

.
.
-

v alv e wi th resp ec t to the annul a r p assag e commu nic ati ng wi th

the admi ssio n v alv es is d etermi ned by the h eigh t of the gov erno r

w eigh ts and is adj usted by m eans of the l ev ers shown in Fig

‘

1 75 .B y thi s arrang em ent th e du ra tio n of th e ej ecto r efl ect

opening th e v alv es is co ntroll ed by the sp eed .

All the v alv es op en a fi x ed numb er of tim es in a mi nu te b ut the ,

du ratio n of the p eriod th ey are op en v ari es wi th th e lo ad

'

B ec au se the gov erno r nozzl e is a lw a y s op en to the stea m ch est ,

stea m is nev er cut off f rom thi s n ozzl e but w

-

ith c areful d esig ni ng

,

in p ropo rtio ni n g the Siz es of the nozzl es thiS is n o p a rticul ar dis

a dv antag e .

In its a c tio n thi s v alv e g ear is not u nlikethe u sual Pa rso ns

‘
‘

gov erni ng d evic e which has al ready b eenexpl ai ned It is lik ely
‘

th at bo th are af f ec ted by qua si throttling a t y ery ligh t lo ad s To

’

som e ex tent the m a g n i tud e of thi s eff ec t wo uld p rob ably be in

p ropo rtio nto the l eng th of the c as i ng .

B y pa s s Governo rs
-
In all tu rbi ne
. s the a rea o f the steam

p assages inc reases in goi ng from the high p ressu re end to the -

exh au st Co nsequ ently it is po ssibl e to p ass a l arg er qu anti ty

.

of steam th rough a tu rbi ne for an ov erlo ad by a dmi tti ng high ,

p ressu re stea m i nto the middl e stag es in addi tio n to the stea m
comi ng th rough the high p ressu re n ozzl es T hi s is a ccompli sh ed
-
.

u su ally by the use of an auxili ary v alv e which op ens slowly wh en

an ov erlo ad com es on the tu rbi ne and admi ts high p ressu re stea m -

di rec tly i nto the low p ressu re stag es As the steam enterin g
-
.

th rough the by p ass v alv e a c ts on few er row s of bl ad es th an the

-

steam admi tted u nd er no rm al co ndi tio ns obviou sly of cou rse the , , ,

m ethod is u neconomic al and should th erefo re be u sed o nly for , ,

2 4 2 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

tu rbi ne much u sed in Eu rop e T he by p ass po rts op en only at .

-

ov erlo ad and the Sp eed is regul ated for sm all fluc tu atio ns by
,

the th ro ttli ng m ethod In the figu re the c entrifug al gov erno r is

.

m ark ed 9 and op erates by m eans of l ev ers a b al anc ed th ro ttl e

,

v alv e The by p ass v alv e 7 on the o th er h and is op erated by

.
-

, ,

the p ressu re on the pi sto n 1 0 Si nc e thi s pi sto n and the .

by p ass v alv e are on the sa m e v alv e stem th ey are ra i sed or

-

low ered tog eth er a cco rdi ng as the p ressu re in the steam ch est is
high or low Wi th a high p ressu re the pi sto n ri ses lif ti ng wi th
.
,

it the v alv e 7 thu s u ncov eri ng the p o

,
rts Show n on one sid e of ,

the tu rbi ne at 6 which admi t stea m th rough the pip es 3 4 and 5

, , ,

to diff erent p arts of the tu rbi ne c asi ng Obviou sly th ere is a .

co nsid erabl e ch ang e in the pow er d ev elop ed imm edi ately after
the steam is admi tted to one of the pip es 3 4 or 5 ; and the , ,

co nsequ ent fluc tu atio n in sp eed is tak en c are of by the th ro ttli ng

gov erno r 9 or by an el ec tric al sol enoid gov erno r i ndic ated at 1 2
,
.

FI G . B y pa ss V a
-
lv e Arrangement for a P a rsons T urb i ne .

A impl er typ e of by p ass v alv e and gov erno r arrang em ent is

s -

illu strated in Fig 1 7 9 T he by p ass v alv e is h ere di rec tly u nd er

. .
-

the co ntrol of the gov erno r The gov erno r is m ark ed 9 in the
.

figu re and op erates a by p ass pi sto n v alv e 7 The steam enters

-
.

the tu rbi ne th rough the stea m ch est ov er the by p ass v alv e -

.

Wh en th ere is no ov erlo ad on the tu rbi ne the stea m p asses ,

th rough the sid e po rt which is Show n op en in the figu re to the

, ,
 G OV ER N I N G ST EA M TU RBI NES

stea m sp ac e 2 b elow and from h ere it p asses th ro ugh the tu rbi ne

, .

Wh en how ev er th ere is an ov erlo ad the by p ass v alv e 7 is rai sed

, , ,
-

by the gov erno r and high p ressu re steam is admi tted th rough
-

the pip e 3 to som e low er p ressu re stag es Wi th still mo re ov er .

lo ad the po rts for the pip es 4 and 5 are al so op ened and high
p ressu re steam is admi tted to stag es i ntend ed for still low er
.

Wh en in o rd er to m ak e rep ai rs to the co nd enser equipm ent ,

or for o th er reaso ns it is nec essary to run a Parso ns tu rbi n e

-

non co ndens i ng the by p ass v alv e is op ened and high p ressu re

- - -

stea m is admi tted to the i nterm edi ate sta g e of the tu rbi ne By .

thi s m ethod b ec au se of the l arg er area of the p assag es mo re

, ,

stea m can be u sed and the tu rbi ne is a bl e to c arry full lo a d

wi thou t a v acuum al though of cou rse at a sa c ri fic e of eco nomy

, , , .

I f tu rbi nes are d esig ned to tak e a l arg e ov erlo ad wi thou t a

by pass the tu rbine mu st be of co rrespo ndi ngly g rea ter c a p a ci ty
-
,

th an the full rating i ndic ates T he b est eco nomy of stea m will
.

th en be at the high est ou tpu t and not qui te so good at th ree ,

.

q u a rter lo ad and full lo ad T hi s is the u su al p ra c tic e in d esig n i ng

.

impul se tu rbi nes ; but in the l arge siz es of Cu rt i s tu rbi nes sp eci al
ov erlo ad v alv es are p rovid ed .

Curtis Overl o ad V alves In Cu rti s tu rbi nes of fou r or five

.

stages esp eci a lly in the l arg er siz es au tom a tic v alv es a re pro
, ,

vided to op en addi tio nal nozzl es in the di aph ra gm b etw een the

first and seco nd stag es at tim es of ov erlo ad T he u su al d esig ns .

of such v alv es are simil ar to the one Show n in F ig 1 8 0 which is .

,

arrang ed to op erate wh en the p ressu re in the first stag e d ue

to a l a rg e flow of steam — is l arg er th an the no rm al T hi s .

d esign co nsi sts essenti ally of a pi sto n v alv e fitted wi th a sp ri ng of

suffi ci ent streng th to b al anc e the u nequ al p ressu res on its f a c es

for no rm al op eratio n of the tu rbi ne In the po si tio n Show n in .

the fi gu re the v alv e is clo sed ; th at is no steam p asses th roug h ,

it f rom the first stag e to the nozzl es di sch argi ng i nto the seco nd
stag e T he p ressu re on its upp er f ac e is th at in the first stag e
.
,

whil e the p ressu re on the low er f ac e is app roxim ately th at in

‘

the thi rd sta g e .

2
«
44 T HE ST EA M TU RB I NE

FI G . 1 80 . C u rt i s v l
O er oa d g
Sta e Va lve
.
2 46 T HE ST EA M TU RB I NE

F rac tio ns of lo ad giv en at the top of each colum n refer to

f rac tions of the mo st effici ent lo ad Stea m co nsump tio n at the
.

di ff erent lo ad s is exp ressed as a p erc entag e comp ared wi th the

stea m co nsu mp tio n a t the mo st eco nomic a l lo ad for each partic

ul ar m achi ne In o th er wo rd s if the eco nomy of any of th ese

.
,

tu rbi nes w ere as good at h alf lo ad as at full lo ad we Should h av e

'
‘

in the ta bl e u nd er the colum n for one h alf lo ad 50 per c ent etc

-

,
.

R esul ts in thi s tabl e mu st be u sed gu ard edly and not co nfu sed
w i th stea m co nsump tio n For ex ampl e the D e L av al 2 0 0 k ilo
.
,
-

w a tt tu rbi ne app ears to such good adv antag e h ere bec au se the
s y stem of gov ern i ng u sed for th ese tests w as nearly id eal Full .

l o ad stea m co nsump tio n on the o th er h and w as high com

, ,

red wi th any o th er m ak e of tu rbi ne in the li st Th e Z oell

p a y . .
,

R ateau and the 2 0 kilow att D e L av al tu rbi nes u sed simpl e

,
-

t h ro ttli ng gov erno rs

.

The Cu rti s and the 2 0 0 kilow a tt D e L av al w ere gov erned by

“
-

v aryi ng the nu mb er of nozzl es to sui t the lo ad T he o rigi nal .

P arso ns and Westi nghou se Parso ns tu rbi nes u sed the bl ast
-
“ ”

gov erno r T h ese d ata l ead to the co nclu sio n th at the Cu rti s
.

and the exp erim ental D e L av al ( 2 0 0 kilow att ) giv e the b est
-

resul ts a s reg a rd s the m ethod of gov erni ng .

Suffi ci ent d ata are not av ail abl e of the p erfo rm anc e of Wil

ki nso n and Alli s Ch alm ers tu rbi nes to be i nclud ed in thi s com
-

p ari so n
.
 CHAPT ER IX .

LOW- PR ESSUR E STEA M T UR B I NES .

EAR LY in the p eriod of

m tu rbi ne d ev elopm ent it b ec am e
stea

a pp aren t th at th ese new typ es of p rim e mov ers w ere c a p abl e of

op erati ng wi th ratio s of exp ansion far b eyo nd tho se eco nomic ally
po ssibl e wi th recip roc ati ng engi nes .

In the di scu ssio n of the eff ec t of v acuu m on stea m consump

tio n the good resul ts ob ta i ned wi th tu rbi nes ru nni ng at a high
v acuum w ere Cl early shown Wi th a high v acuum the h eat .

effi ci ency of a recip roc ati n g engi ne is not nearly so good as th at

of a tu rbi ne b ec a u se it is not d esi ra bl e to m ak e the engi ne cyl

,

i nd ers l arg e enough to h andl e eco nomic ally the g reat volum e of
stea m w e h av e to d eal wi th wh e n the exh au st p ressu re is v ery

low For p ressu res sligh tly abov e atmo sp

. h eric how ev er a first , ,

cl ass Slow sp eed recip roc ati ng engi ne has a sligh t a dv antag e
,
-

ov er the tu rbi ne We can see th en th at a combi natio n of a

.
, ,

non co ndensi ng recip roc ati ng engi ne wi th a co nd ensi n g tu rbi ne

-
,

the l atter taki ng exh au st f rom the fo rm er migh t w ell b e sug ,

g ested .

Fig 1 8 1 show s g raphic ally the volum es of the stea m in each

.

of thefive stag es of a Cu rti s tu rbi ne and illu strates how ra pidly

the volum e i nc reases at v ery low p ressu res R ecip roc ati ng .

engi nes may be d esig ned to op erate wi th imp rov ed eco n omy u p

to 2 5 or 2 6 i nch es v a cuu m ; b ut thi s is abou t the limi t Stea m .

tu rbi nes on the o th er h and will op e a e eco nomic ally

,
r t ,
* wi th
stea m at the high est v a cuu m p rac tic ally ob ta i nabl e .

T he i n i ti al p ressu re of low p ressu re stea m tu rbi nes is u su ally

-

th at of the exh au st steam f rom non co nd ensi ng engi nes Wi th

-
.

It is l not a w ays commerc a i ll y p ofitab l e to desig n a pl

r a nt fo r i
o pera t on a t a n

ext emel y high v a cuum

r , as the fi rst cost of cond ensers a nd a ux i li a ries is u sua ll y a
deci d i ng f acto r.
2 48 T HE ST EA M TURBI N E

stea m a dmi tted to the engi ne a t 2 0 0 pou nd s and exh a u sted f rom
the tu rbi ne a t 2 8 i nch es v a cuum t h eo retic ally th ere is no di ff er
,

en c e in the to tal eco nomy of a u ni t co nsi sting of a recip roc a ti ng

engi ne op erati ng wi th an exh au st tu rbi ne taking steam wi thi n

the limi ts f rom 7 pou nd s to 1 5 pou nd s per squ are i n ch
The cu rve in Fig 1 8 1 a show s the energy ( B
. m ad e a v ail abl e
P roc I nst of N aval A rchitects,
. . 1
90 8 .
2 5 0 T H E ST EA M TU RBI N E

g enerally recogni z ed and p articul arly in co nnec tion wi th m arine

,

p ropul sion P arso ns has nev er a dvi sed the i nsta ll a tion of an
.

all tu rbi ne arrang em ent for s hip s d esigned for a sp eed of

I nch es of V a c uu m .

Per cent g a i ned o v er

.

out put of engi ne w h en

w or k ed w i t h h igh v a c 2 6 3 20
uum t h e t urb i n e ex
,

h a u st ing t o a v a c uum
of 2 8 5 i nc h es
-
.

l ess th an I 5 kno ts and for mod era te or slow sp eed s his d esigners
,
“ ”
h av e recomm en d ed the combi na tio n sy stem A cco rdi ng to .

one of hi s d esig ns for a c argo v essel i n ten d ed for a sp eed of 1 1 5

—

C ub ic F eet per Poun d .

FI G . 1 81b . Cur v e of Speci fic V ol umes bet ween 2 6 and 2 9 In he c s of V acuum .

k no ts if p ro vid ed wi th a recip roc a ti ng engi ne di sch argin g steam

,

i nto the tu rbine a t 7 poun d s per squ are i nch ab solu te p ressu re ,

the steam co nsump tio n was est im a ted to be 1 5 to 2 0 per c en t l ess? .

 LOW P—
R ESSUR E ST EA M TU RBI N ES

t h an th at of an al l tu rbin e arrangem ent or of tripl e exp ansio n ,

en gin es of the t yp e u su a lly fi tted t o thi s cl a ss of v essel The .

combinatio n sy stem giv es a v essel al so g reater m aneuv eri ng

pow er th an if d riv en only by tu rb ines .

On l and low p ressu re t u rbines h a v e b een i nstall ed p ri ncip ally

-

in connec tio n wi th ro ll i ng mill engi nes in steel wo rk s and wind

ing en gi nes in mi nes In bo th c ases the engines a re stopp ed
.

or are running p ra c tic a lly idl e a l a rg e p art of the tim e Th ese .

en gin es are u su a lly rev ersi ng and a re op erated non co nd ensi ng -

.

Wh en a low p ressu re steam tu rbi ne is install ed to tak e the

-

exh a u st f rom such engi nes an equ al amoun t of pow er can be

ob ta i ned f rom the tu rbi ne (a t 2 8 i nch es v a cu um ) a s f rom the

en gin e th ereby doubling the pow er of the pl ant wi thou t increas
,

ing the co n sump tio n of co al or the siz e of the boil er pl ant .

T h roughou t th e cou ntry th ere are a grea t m an y recip roc a tin g

en gines exh a u st ing in t o the a tmo sph ere an d the exh au st f rom,

t h ese en gi nes is of ten w asted T h ere is no doub t th a t wh en th ese

.

pl ants need i nc reased c ap a ci ty an install a tio n of exh au st tu rb ines

will be p rofi tabl e ev en in mo st c ases wh ere th ere is no supply
,

of w ater for cond ensing and cool ing tow ers mu st be erec ted
,
.

T h ere are a l so m any pow er pl an ts equipp ed wi th hi gh grad e

compou nd recip roc a ting en gi nes Operati ng cond ensing whi ch h a v e
a hi gh er effi ci ency (not stea m co nsump tio n) wh en opera t in g non

cond ensi ng or a t a comp arativ ely sm all v a cu um th an wh en

, ,

op erating cond ensi ng In such c ases the install atio n of low

.

p ressu re tu rbi nes is p rob ably alw a y s p ro fitabl e A s an i nstanc e .

of the u ses of exh au st steam tu rbi nes the following p arag raph
is quo ted f rom a repo rt p rep ared by a comp any manufactur
ing l arg e siz es of bo th recip roc a ting steam en gi nes and steam
tu rb ines .

A compound recip roc a ting engine wi th cyli nd er ratio s of

3 5
.
,
1 s ay of di am eters 2 8 i nch es a nd 5 2 i n ch es wi t h 1 0 po und s
5 ,

i ni ti al p ressu re may be assum ed to h av e 1 00 0 kilow a tts econom

,

ic al c ap a ci ty wh en ru nni ng cond ensing and h a vi ng a steam con

sump t io n of abou t 2 2 poun d s per k ilo watt h our T hi s engine
-
.

if Op erated non cond ensi ng shoul d h av e v alv e gears adju sted to

-
2 5 b
0 T HE ST EA M TU RBI N E

d ev elop 1 7 0 0 wh en it woul d consum e abou t 2 0 pou nd s of

stea m per I H P per hou r
. . . T hi s giv es pound s steam
.

av a il abl e for the tu rbi ne allowing 1 0 per c ent of moi stu re in the
The to tal am
.
,

exh au st of the recip roc a ting engi ne ount of steam .

p assi ng the recip roc ating engi ne howev er b ei ng pound s , , ,

p ound s would d ev elop not l ess th an 1 0 7 3 b rak e ho rsepow er

in the tu rbine All owi ng 94 p er c ent for them ech ani cal efli
. .
.

ciency of the recip r ocating engi ne the combined ho rsepow er ,

deve lop ed would be 2 6 7 3 b ra k e ho rsepow er and the steam con

.

sump tio n of the two u ni ts pound s per b rak e ho rsepow er or -

1 8 pou nd s e kilow t t hou r whi c h is a rem ark abl e perfo rm anc e

p r a -

for engines of such c ap a ci ti es op era ting wi thou t sup erh eat .

Comp ared wi th the peiformance of the re cip roc a ti ng eng ne

i
' ‘
'

runmng conde nsing this giv es 7 5 per c ent i ncrease of pow er

, .

and 1 8 per c ent sav in g of stea m

. .

Fig 1 8 1 0 show s a v ery impo rtant i nstall atio n of 50 0 0 kilo

.
-

w att Ste am tu r bi ne g enerato rs In co m

-
b inatio n wi t h recip roc ati ng
engi nes of the sam e pow er ra ti ng A low p ressure Steam tur .
-

bi nehas b ee n i nstal led to tak e the exh au st f rom each engi ne .

Cond ensing engines wh en ch ang ed tonon cond ensi ng Op era tio n

d o not nec e ssa rily h a v e th ei r Cap a ci ty in ho rseower reduc ed
p
b ec au se of the g reat increase bf b a ck p ressu re ag ainst whi ch
th ey m u st th en op erate Such reduc tio n would app ear howev er; -

.
,

on first thou g h t to be the natu ral resul t ; but contrarily the , ,

c ap aci ty of Such an engIne wh en ch ang ed to non co nd ensi n g

op erationm ay be una l tered or ev en in exc ep tio nal c ases may be

a c tu ally i nc reased; p art icul arl Is thi s the c ase if the en gine is
y
one d eS igned for a hi gh exp ansio n ra tio U nd er th ese condi tio ns .

the high p -
ressu re cy l i n d er mu st h a v e enough volum e to p ass .

the requi red amou nt of steam wi thou t h a vi ng the cut off com e ,
-

so l ate as to sa c ri fic e all op p o rtu ni ty to u se th e steam wi th a

reaso na bly good exp ansion T h ere is an i nterest ing reaso n for
‘

the c ap aci t y of m
.

an y compou nd engi nes not b ei ng reduc ed w h en

thi s ch ang e is m a d e In thi s a dju stm ent the cut off of the high
.
-

p ressu re cy li nd er has b een Shif ted to m ak ei t l ate enough so th at

exp ansio n in the low p ressu re cyl ind er will not c au se a loop in
-
2 5 0 d T HE ST EA M RBI NE
TU

the n i dic a to r di ag ram or to a final p ressu re in the low p ressu re -

cyli nd er wh en its exh au st v alv e op ens whi ch is low er th an the ,

a v era g e p ressu re in the exh a u st li ne supplyi ng the tu rbi ne

,

which is al so the en gi ne exh au st pip e A S the resul t of thi s .

a dju stm ent of cu t off in the high p ressu re cyli nd er the t o p t

p ar
- -

of the i ndic a to r c ard s tak en f rom it will be ob serv ed to be much

enl a rg ed and of g rea ter a rea th an b efo re the i n c rease b ei ng in ,

som e c a ses g rea ter ev en th an the a rea which is lo st a t the bo ttom

of the low p ressu re di ag ram by ra i si ng its exh au st p ressu re to

-

a bou t a tmo sph eric B u t t h ere are a l so m an y compou nd en gi nes

.

op era ti ng con d ensi ng in which the rel ease in the low pressure -

cyli nd er occu rs wh en the p ressu re is rel ativ ely high po ssibly as ,

high as a tmo sph eric N ow the applic ation of a low p ressu re

.
-

tu rbi ne to t ak e the exh au st f rom thi s engi ne would h a v e the

eff ec t of v ery m ateri ally reduci n g the c a p a ci t y of the engi ne as ,

the b enefi ts to be ob tai ned to a void the loop in the low p ressu re -

di ag ram h a v e b een sa c ri fi c ed in the o rigi nal d esign of the engi ne

and th ere is n o ch an c e to i nc rease the area of the top of the

di ag ram .

Engi nes d esigned to op era te bo th co nd ensi ng and non con -

densing h av e g enerally the v alv es a dju sted so th at no rm ally

th ere will be a ra th er high b a ck p ressu re a t the poi n t of rel ease
“ ”
in the low p ressu re cyli n d er so th a t thi s loop ing of its i ndi
-

c ato r di ag ra m will be a void ed wh en ru nni ng n on co nd ensi ng or -

on ligh t lo a d s Wh en c arryi ng full lo ad s or an ov erlo a d on

.
,

the o th er h and the exp ansio n will not be compl ete and a seriou s
,

lo ss resul ts in such engi nes d esigned for op era tio n wi th lo ad s

v aryi ng co nsid erably In thi s c ase wh en the low p ressu re tur
.
-

bi ne is a ppli ed th ere will be no occ asion for the high b ack p ressu re
a t rel ease and the v a lv e setti n g can be Ch ang ed to exh a u st the
,

stea m f rom the low p ressu re cyli nd er wh en ru nni ng a t full lo ad

-

so th a t thi s p ressu re will be a bou t a tmo sph eric or po ssibly a

h alf pou nd or a pou nd abov e to assi st in g etti ng the steam readily

th rough the exh au st po rts of the en gi ne F or thi s co ndi tio n the.

bl ad es of the low p ressu re tu rbi ne taking this exh au st Should be

-

d esigned for i ni ti al p ressu re app roxim a tely atmo sph eric wh en

 LOW P ESSU
—
R RE STEA M TU RBI NES

et t i
n the a mou nt of steam used by the engi ne a t full lo a d
‘

g g .

N ow wh en the cut off is shif ted b ack by the gov erno r to k eep the
-

inl et v alv e of the engi ne op en only h alf as long as at full lo ad ,

o nly h alf as much steam wi ll be d eliv ered to the tu rbi ne and the
a b solu te i nl et p ressu re to it wi ll a l so be reduc ed to h alf its
‘

fo rm er v alu e The final resul t is th a t the exp ansio n of the steam

.

in the low p ressu re cy li nd er of the engine will be a bou t to the

-

inl et p ressu re of the tu rbi ne and th ere will be no app reci abl e
“loopi ng ” of its i ndic a to r di a g ra m i ndic a ti ng th a t the co ndi
,

tio ns as reg ard s effec tiv e exp ansio n of the stea m are exc ell ent .

In l a rg e pow er pl ant i nstall a tio ns it is the b est p rac tic e to

,

a dh ere to the u ni t sy stem th roughou t ; th at is in p rovidi ng ,

a sep ara te low p ressu re tu rbine for each engi ne and a l so a sep
-

ara te co nd enser for each tu rbi ne Thi s m ethod al though con

.
,

sidera bly mo re ex pensiv e th a n th a t of p assi n g the exh au st steam

f rom sev eral engi nes to a si ngle rec eiv er supply ing a rel a tiv ely
l arger low p ressu re tu rbi ne is howev er much to be d esi red as
-

, ,

it giv es so much g rea ter fl exibili t y in the o pera tio n of the pl ant
and reduc es v ery much the li a bili t y to an enfo rc ed shu t dow n -

of the pl ant due to co nd enser troubl es M aximum lo ad on a .

low p ressu re tu rbi ne connec ted to the engine as h ere d esc rib ed
-

th a t is wi thou t h a v ing a gov erno r on its stea m supply pip e is

, ,

u su ally reach ed in co nv entional d esigns wh en the p ressu re at

the i nl et to the tu rb ine is a bou t tw ent y pou nd s per squ are i nch
ab solu te . A reli ef v a lv e mu st a lw a y s be p rovid ed in thi s low
p ressu re supply li ne which should op en to let steam out to
a tmo sph eric exh a u st wh en t hi s p ressu re is exc eed ed Steam .

di sch arged th rough the reli ef v alv e is an exc ess abov e wh at

can be u sed in the tu rbi ne a nd is obviou sly w a sted .

All po ssibl e p rec au tio ns should be tak en to p rev ent the l eak
age of air i nto a ll th a t p art of the sy stem o era tin g a t l ess th an
p
a tmo sph eric p ressu re Thi s air is v ery d etrim enta l to the p rop er
.

ac tio n of a good co nd enser as it reduc es the a t ta i na bl e v a cu um

and co nsequ ently rend ers impo ssibl e the full n t o be e x

ga I s

p ect ed f rom the i nstall ation of low p ressu re tu rbi nes Such
-
.

l eak s occu r mo st genera lly in the joi nts of the exh au st piping of
2 5oi THE STEA M TU RBI NE

bo th engi ne and tu rbi ne al so in imp erf ec tly tigh t reli ef v alv es

, ,

as w ell as th rough the stuffi ng box es on the pi sto n rod s of the

-

low p ressu re cy li nd er of compound engi nes To elimi nate th ese

-
.

difli cul ties the pipi ng should be ex amined and tested f requ ently
by a ppl ying a ligh ted tap er to all qu estionabl e joi nts to ob serv e
wh eth er the v acuum i nsid e the pipi ng tend s to d raw the fl am e
tow ard it as would occu r if th ere w ere a l eak
, Ano th er pre .

c au tion of ten nec essary is to put a sp eci al t yp e of stu ffin g box on

the pi sto n rod s of the engi nes th ese box es b ei ng supp li ed wi th
,

stea m at a p ressu re Sligh tly a bov e a tmo sph eric so th a t air l ea k a g e

i nw ard is p rev ented .

Wh en sev eral engi nes are connected up to supply exh au st to

a si ngl e low p ressu re tu rbi ne it is alw a y s mo st d esi ra bl e to tu rn
—
,

ov er ea ch engi ne for sev eral revolu tions wi th the pipi ng co nnec

tio ns a rrang ed so th a t the en gi ne ju st starti ng will exh au st i nto
the? a tmo sph ere .Thi s should be do ne in o rd er to a void di s
ch argi ng the air in the engi ne c y lind ers i nto the low p ressu re -

tu rbi ne and i nto the co nd enser I f thi s p rec au tion is not tak en
.

wh en sev eral engi nes are op era ti ng and ano th er is started the
eff ec t in v a cuum reduc tio n will be ob s erv ed .

In m a tters of d esig n the low p ressu re steam tu rbi ne p resents

,
-

no new p robl em s In f ac t its co nstruc tio n is i n m an y resp ec ts

.

simpl er b ec au se of requi ri ng f ew er complic a ted d eta il s th an the

“
u su al t yp es of high p ressu re or compl ete exp ansion tu rbines
-
”

th at h av e b een studi ed The rel ativ ely Sho rt l eng th of the

.
.

sh af t or d rum requi red for low p ressu re tu rbi nes m ak es for

-

rigidi t y and f reedom f rom vib ra tio n stresses The skill of the .

engi neer com es i nto pl a y in thi s new field almo st enti rely in the
m ethod s of applic ation to condi tio ns th at a few y ears ago w ere
not though t of .The p rim ary consid era tion in p ra c tic ally all
th ese applic a tio ns is to u tiliz e as much as po ssibl e of the a v ail
a bl e exh au st steam abou t the pl ant ei th er in the low p ressu re
,
-

tu rbine or in som e sti ll mo re effi ci ent m ethod Whil e it is the .

obj ec t to show h ere the g reat adv antag es of thi s typ e of p rim e
mov er yet it should be poi nted out th at the
,

,
re are of ten co ndi

t io ns ari sing in pow er pl ant p rac tic e wh en exh au st steam can

2 5 h
0 T H E ST EA M TU RBI N E

wh en steam v eloci ti es are not ov er 4 0 0 f eet per seco nd and will ,

of ten chok e the steam p assa ges b etw een the bl ad es '

Until rec ently in Am eric a exh au st stea m tu rbi nes w ere u su ally
arrang ed to tak e stea m di rec tly f rom the exh au st pip e of the

engi nes wi thou t i nterv eni ng v alv es or gov erni ng mech ani sm s .

A g enera to r di rec t co nnec ted to the tu rbi ne will op era te v ery

sati sf a c to rily wi th g enerato rs ad ap ted for co nnec tio n in p arall el
“
to engi ne d riv en g enera to rs and the tu rbi ne set thu s
-

,
flo ats
”
on the sy stem A s it rec eiv es o nly steam exh au sted f rom the
.

engi ne its ou tpu t will th erefo re v ary as the lo ad on the engi ne .

Wh en the lo ad b ecom es ligh t the steam supply will be reduc ed

by the gov erno r on the recip roc a ti ng en gi ne In the c ase of direc t .

cu rrent u ni ts the g enerato rs may h av e shu nt wi ndi ng s and as the ,

vol tag e will v ary nearly as the sp eed the lo ad will be automati ,

c ally p ropo rtio ned b etw een the recip roc a ti ng and tu rbine

E xh a ust

Exh aust

F m Engi ne
ro

FI G
. 1 81 d . Si mpl est i i
Comb na t on of Low pressure Steam T urb ne and
-
i R ecip
rocat ing St eam En ne gi .

The mo stcommo n and p rob ably al so the simpl est applic ation
of the low p ressu re tu rbine is shown in Fig 1 8 1 d As sho wn the
-
. .
 Low P
-

R ESSUR E ST EA M TU RBI NES 2 5 oi

g enera to rs conn ec ted to bo th the recip roc a ting engine and the
t u rbine are co nnec ted to the sam e th ree ph a se al ternat ing cu rrent - -

ci rcui t and h ere al so no gov erno r is u sed on the tu

'
rbi ne By .

thi s arrang em en t the tu rbine will tak e au tom a tic ally its sh are
of the to tal el ec tric al lo ad in p ropo rtion to the a mou nt of steam
suppli ed to it I f it tend s to fo rg e ah ead of the recip roc a tin g
.

uni t it will tak e mo re of the lo ad l ea ving l ess for the engin e ,

who se sp eed will immedi ately inc rease until its gov erno r re
duc es the flow of stea m to bo th the recip roc ating engine and to
the tu rbine thu s co ntro lling wi th one gov erno r the a mou nt of
,

stea m suppli ed to the compl ete sy stem In c ase the g enera to rs .

d riv en by the engine and tu rbine are of the di rec t cu rrent type ,

a s the tu rb ine fo rg es a h ead and ta k es mo re lo a d

, the inc rease ,

in its sp eed rai ses the vol tag e sligh tly which pu ts mo re cu rrent ,

t h rough the field s of the g enera to rs and tend s to reduc e the .

sp eed Self regul a tio n is thu s admi rably a ccompli sh ed

.
-
Obvi .

ously for the sam e reaso n it is po ssibl e to v a ry the speed of the

tu rb ine sligh tly by adju sting the field rh eo sta t .

The qu anti t y of stea m u sed d eterm ines ob viou sly the rel a t iv e
a mou nt of lo a d c arri ed by the low p ressu re tu rbine; the grea ter -

t he amou nt of steam the grea ter the p ro po rtio n of lo ad ta k en

by the tu rbi ne which is due of cou rse to the v ari a tion of p res
, , ,

su re in the rec eiv er As thi s p ressu re inc reases the t o tal rang e
.

of p ressu re a v ail abl e for the tu rbi ne i nc reases the h eat a v ail able ,

er po un d of stea m i nc rea ses and co nsequ en tly mo re wo rk is

p ,

done assuming of cou rse a co nstant v a cuum in the tu rb ine

, , ,

exh au st .

In the m ethod of low p ressu re tu rb ine install a tio n d esc rib ed

-

in the p rec ed ing p arag raph s wh ere the tu rbine op erated wi th

,

out a gov erno r of its own the el ec tric al m a ch ines d riv en (gen
,

era tors) w ere of simil ar typ es ; th a t is all the cu rrent g enera ted ,

Was suppli ed to a si ngl e line It is not i nfrequ ent howev er for

.
, ,

low p ressu re steam tu rb ines to be install ed to op era te wi th re

-

ciproca ting engines in pow er hou ses W h ere the g enera to rs on the

engines are to supply di rec t cu rrent li nes and the g enera to rs on

the tu rbines are to supply al terna ti ng cu rren t for transmi ssio n

2 50 j T HE ST EA M TU RBI NE

to di stanc e Such an arrang em en t is shown in Fig 1 8 1 e

a .
. .

Obviou sly the engin e and the tu rbi ne mu st each h a v e its own
gov erno r I f the low p ressu re tu rbi ne w ere arrang ed to ta k e
.
-

o nly the lo a d f rom the al ternating cu rrent li ne th ere woul d be

much steam wasted wh en the di rec t cu rrent lo ad h app ened to be
h eav y and the o th er ligh t ; and conversely it migh t be mec es
'

sary to som eti m es supply the low p ressu re tu rbine wi th hi gh -

Separa ting

Rec eiver

Rota ry Convert er

D C Line
. .

FIG . 1 8 re . Appli cat i on of a R ot ary Conv erter in the Comb i nat i on of Low
i
pressure T urb ne wit h R eci proca t i ng Engi ne .

p ressu re steam wh en the lo a d on the engine was l igh t A mo st .

sa ti sf a c to ry m ethod to a void t h ese diffi cul ti es is to Install a

ro ta ry co n v erter or mo to r g enera to r set as s hown -

Any in .

equ ali t y of the two lo ad s will th en be tak en c are of and the lo a d

comi ng on the engi ne and on the tu rbi ne W ill be divid ed a u to

ma tically to giv e the b est resul ts Thi s so rt of arrang em ent .

migh t not be v ery sa ti sf a c to ry for taki ng c are of el ec tric ligh ting

lo ad s if th ere w ere lik ely to be exc ep tio na lly frequ ent rev ersal s
of the op era tio n of the con v erter f rom al terna tin g to di rec t
cu rren t and vi ce versa a s th ere m igh t be a vol tag e ch ange of
,

sev eral per c en t which would p erc ep tibly aff ec t illumination

.

unt il ag ain a dju sted a t the swi tchbo ard In mo st c ases how .
,
2 5 0 1 T H E ST EA M TU RBI N E

the en gine exh a u st into the condenser Wh en the lo ad on the .

t u rbine is ligh t thi s v alv e will be nearly W id e op en d efl ec ting ,

o nly a small amoun t of stea m into the tu rbine; but wh en the

t u rbin e lo a d g ets near its full c ap a ci t y the co nd enser by p ass ,
-

v alv e will be nearly clo sed It b ecom es thu s po ssibl e for the
.

en gi ne to ob tai n the a dv anta ges of nearly full v a cuum wh en

the tu rbi ne is ru nni ng l igh t I t is a good p rac tic e to put the

.

u su al t yp e of v alv e on the inlet pip e to the tu rbi ne which will

al so be co ntro ll ed by the gov erno r to p rev ent the tu rb ine run

ni ng a wa y on v ery l igh t lo a d .

A v ery i n teresti ng t yp e of i nstall atio n is shown in Fig 1 8 1 g . .

F ro m Turbine

FIG . 1 81 g
. Application of Synch ronous M oto r in Comb i nati on System .

The et m hod illu s tra te d h e re co n s i st s in t h e i n s t a ll a t io n of a n

eel c tric mo t o r of th e sy n ch r o n ou s t yp e suppli e d wi t h cu rr e n t

fr om g
the e n e ra t o r d riv en by t he t u rbi n e a n d h a vi n g t.h e pull ey
h
on i ts S a t f b l
e te d t o th e li n e sh a f t i n g d r iv e n by t h e e n gi n e I n .

c ase the el ec tric al lo ad on the tu rbi ne generato r set b ecom es too -

l arg e for it to h andl e it will slow down sligh tly wi th the resul t
h
t a t t he s ny ch o
r n ou s mo t o r will b e d riv e n f rom t h e li n e sh a f tin g
 LOW P —
RESSUR E ST EAM TU RBI N ES 2 5 1

as a generato r to supply mo re cu rrent to the el ec tric al supply

l i nes . The a ddi tion al lo a d comi ng on the en gi ne as the resul t
of d rivin g the mo to r will c au se the gov ern o r to op en the inl et

v a lv e wi d er on the en gine and a dmi t a l arg er a moun t of stea m

t o the sy stem Co n v ersely wh en the l i ne sh af ti ng is ov erlo ad ed

.
,

t he gov erno r on the en gine a dmi ts mo re stea m to the sy stem in ,

g r ea t er a mou n t how ev er th an the t u rbi ne requi res

, ,
T h i s re .

sul ts in a sp eedin g up of the tu rbi ne and a fo rgi ng a h ea d of the

s y n ch ro n ou s mo to r s o th a t it a c ts n ow pu rely a s a mo to r to

a ssi st in d rivi n g th e sh af tin g .

Provi s io ns for I ntermi ttent Supply of Steam An in g eniou s .

d ev elopm ent l arg ely due to P rof esso r R a teau has b een appli ed
, ,

t o c a ses wh ere th e supply of exh a u st stea m is intermi ttent a s ,

in the c ase of rolli ng m ill a nd windi ng engines R a teau s d evic e

’
.
,

c all ed an accumul ator is u sed to b ridge ov er the d ead p eriod s

,
”
,

a nd by p rovi din g su ffi ci ent c ap a ci t y it can b e m a d e to p rovid e a

p ra c tic ally constant supply for an exh au st tu rbi ne .

R ateau s Accumul ator

’
T hi s reg enera to r or accumul a to r is
.

shown in Fig 1 8 2 . illu stra tin g lo ngi tu di nal and transv erse sec
,

t io ns . T hi s reg enera to rco n si sts of a l arg e cylin d ric al sh ell p artly

fi ll ed wi th w a ter Wh en the en gine exh au stin g in to it is running
.

the steam is d eli v ered a s a sp ra y th rough the sm all hol es in a num

b er of pip es imm ersed in the w a ter B y thi s m ethod som e of the
.

steam is cond en sed and giv es up h ea t to the mo st of the w a ter .

As th ese a ccumul a to rs op era te u su al ly wi th steam a t a tmo s

p h er ic p ressu re th e e n t
,
eri n g ste a m will h a v e a temp e ra tu re of 2 1 2

d eg rees F and will tend to h ea t the w ater to th at temp era tu re I f

. .
,

n ow the engi ne stop s the supply of exh a u st stea m is di sco n ti nu ed

, , ,

a nd the flow of stea m to the tu rbin e wi ll tend to m a k e the p res

su re f a ll off sligh tl y so th a t 2 1 2 d egrees F will th en b e sligh tly .

a bov e the temp era tu re of boilin g w a ter a t thi s low er p ressu re In .

t hi s way the w a ter will b e ev a po ra ted to supply steam as a boil er

would I f now the engine starts a g ain steam will be d eliv ered
.
, , ,

t o the a ccumul ato r a t a temp era tu re sligh tly abov e th a t to which

t he w a ter has f all en due to the coolin g eff ec t of the ev a po ratio n
,

for supplyi ng the tu rbine and the m a ss of w ater will a g ai n ab so rb

,
2 52 T HE ST EA M TU RB IN E
2 54 THE STEA M TU RBI NE

t h ese ccumul ato rs in much too l arg e siz es for the requi re
a

ments In m any c ases the tim e in terv al has b een assum ed to

.

be six to sev en m inu tes du ring which the a ccumul ato r mu st

,

s upply the steam whil e mo re ca reful study show s th at five to

,

six seco nd s would h av e b een a much b etter estim a te The c ase .

of a steel mill is ci ted I f the exh au st is to be tak en f rom a

.

blooming mill the tim e el em ent should b ear som e rel a tio n to the
p eriod b etw een the p asses of an i ngo t a s w ell as to the m aximum ,

t im e f rom the l ast p ass of one i ngo t to the fi rst p ass of the nex t
”

ingo t The a ccumul a to r should not be d esigned th erefo re to

.
, ,

c ov er such d el a y s as would ari se f rom the cloggi ng of the mi ll s

or b ec au se a new ingo t migh t not be rea dy to be bloom ed F or .

t h ese c ases of unu su al d el a y s ano th er m ethod is recomm end ed .

W h en the d em and for steam a t the engi nes is interrup ted th ere
w ill be a sudd en ri se of p ressu re in the boil ers and the safety
v alv es will blow off _
T hi s steam should be pip ed to the a ccu
.

mul ator inl et i nstea d of b ei ng allow ed to esc ap e to the atmo s

.

p h ere T hi
. s stea m f rom the saf ety v alv es will assi st m a teri ally

in h elpi ng the low p ressu re tu rbin e in c arrying its lo a d

-
A v ery .

g ood a rrang em ent for the a ccompli shm ent of thi s id ea is to pl ace

a c ro ss co nnec tion of pipi ng b etween the stea m m ain sup

-

p lyi n g t he e n gi ne and the engi ne exh au st li ne and to

p ut in t o ,

t hi s l ine a glob e t yp e of sp ri ng lo a d ed v alv e set to permi t steam

t o p ass th rough the c ro ss co nnec tio n wh en the p ressu re is a few
-

p ou n d s low e r t h an th a t a t which the boil er saf ety v al ves will

blow .

F or engi ne pow er pl ants wh ere the supply of exh au st steam

,

i s of ten stopp ed for lo ng p eriod s the a cc um ul a to r install atio n

,

i s u su ally di sp ensed wi th and the low p ressu re tu rb ines are

,
-

p rovid e d wi t h pipi ng t o t ak e steam di rec tly f rom the boil ers ,

in a ddi tio n to the exh au st steam piping ( See p ages 2 8 a to

s .

2 5 d)
8
An exh au st steam tu rbi ne has,of cou rse rel ativ ely few rows of ,

b l ad es comp ared wi th o rdi nary high p ressu re tu rb ines -

.

F rom sev eral tests m ad e wi th 50 0 kilowatt exh au st tu rb ines -

in Engl and a steam co nsump tio n of 3 4 pou nd s per kilowatt hou r

,
-
 LO W — PR ESSUR E ST EA M TU RB I N ES

wa s ob tai ned wi th 1 5 pou nd s per squ are i nch admi ssio n p ressu re
and 2 8 i nch es v acuum .

T he cu rv e in Fig 1 8 3 show s the stea m co nsump tio n in pou nd s

.

per ho rs epow e r hou r at the swi tchbo ard

-
of a 500 kilow a tt -

exh au st steam tu rbi ne of the R ateau typ e .

HP
. . at Swi tchboa rd

FIG . 1 83 . ve of Steam Consumpti on of a Ra tea u Low

Cur -
Pressure T urb i ne .

Som e tests quo ted by F ranci s Hodgki nson on a Westi nghou se

low p ressu re tu rbi ne m ad e rec ently g av e the followi ng resul ts :
-

V a cuu m in Ex ha ust ,
‘

St ea m Co n
I nc es h Me rc ury Re Tota l Stea m su m pt ion
fe rred to 3 0 I nc h per Hour . B k e Ho
ra rs e

B arometer . pow er H ou r .
2 5 6 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

Fig . 1copy of a shop d rawi ng of a 1 0 0 0 kilow att W esting

8 4 is a -

h ouse do uble fl ow low pressu re tu rbi ne T h e exh aust stea m f rom

- -
.

the engi nes enters through the annul ar sp ac e H and is di stribu ted

F IG . 1 84 . 1 000 -
kil ow att Westi ngh ouse Low
- -
Pressure T u rb i ne .

to th eigh t
r l ef t sec tio ns of Parso ns bl adi ng The upp er h al f
and .

of the d rawi ng is a sec tio n of the ro to r and sho ws the m ethod of

co nstru ctio n T he exh au st is di sch arg ed th rough the b ase as
.

i ndic ated by arrow s The op eni ngs 1 I are p rovid ed for con
.
,

venient i nsp ec tio n of the bl adi ng T h ey are cov ered wi th sui tabl e
.

cov ers in which au tom atic reli ef v alv es are fitted .

Eco nomy cu rv es of thi s tu rbi ne are show n in Fig 1 8 5 T he . .

p ressu re of the steam d eliv ered to the tu rbi ne was app roxim ately
atmo sph eric T he v acuum as show n by the cu rv es w as 2 7 } 4
.
, ,

i nch es for one test and 2 8 i nch es for the o th er .

Ano th er Westi nghou se tu rbi ne buil t to op erate in co nnec tio n

wi th high p ressu re recip roc ati ng engi nes g av e the followi ng
-

resul ts in a shop test :

I ni ti al steam p ressu re 1 5 pou nd s per squ a re i nch ab solu te

,
.

Sup erh eat 4 0 d eg rees F ,

.

V a cuum ref erred to 3 0 inch b arom eter 2 3 i nch es ,

.

L o ad 1 50 0 b rak e ho rsepow er
,
.

Stea m per b rak e h o rsepow er hou r pou nd s ,

.
2 5 8 T HE ST EAM T U R B I NE

new pl ants h avi ng a compou nd engi ne wi th a sm aller low p ressu re

-

cyli nd er th an is u su ally p rovid ed which is to di sch arg e its

,

exh au st i nto a steam turbIne Is lik ely to b ecom e commo n as ,

givi ng b etter stea m eco nomy th an can be ob ta i ned f rom ei th er

recip roc ati n gi lo u rbi nes alo ne
g en nes a ne or t .

Low Pressure Steam Turbines Com bined wi th Gas Engines

-
.

T h ere is al so ano th er field op en to the low p ressu re stea m tu rbi ne

-
.

T he hot cooli ng w ater f rom the j ack ets of l arg e gas engi nes could
be h eated by the exh au st g ases a nd the low p ressu re steam thu s
,
-

fo rm ed wo uld d riv e a steam tu rbine .

 CHAPTER X .

M IXED P RESSUR E TURB INES

- .

IT om etim es h ap pens th a t th ere is an a v ail abl e sou rc e of low

s

p ressu re steam which it is d esi red to u tiliz e for the d ev elopm ent
of pow er but wh ere un fo rtuna tely th ere is not alw a y s a t h and
,

a su ffi ci ently l a rg e a mou nt of thi s low p ressu re steam to tak e

-

c are of the pow er requi rem ent To sui t this condi tion it is not
.

i nf requ ent to p rovid e in a steam tu rbi ne a high p ressu re sec ti on -

to tak e steam a t boil er p ressu re and thu s h elp out the low
p ressu re sec tio n wh en its no rm al supply of steam is low In t hi s .

t yp e of co nstruc tio n wh en how ev er the supply of low p ressu re

, ,
-

steam is suffi ci ent for the pow er requi rem ents the supply of ,

hi gh p ressu re steam is cut off enti rely by the gov erno r ; and on
-

the o th er h and wh en the supply of low p ressu re stea m b ecom es

-

a g a i n su ffici ent in q u anti t y no mo re high p ressu re steam is

,
-

u sed .

The g enerou s use of liv e stea m in low p ressu re steam tu rbines

-

is not by any m ea ns as poo r en gi neerin g p ra c tic e as a t first

though t it ap pears . T he obviou s reaso n for a dmi t t ing liv e stea m
to the tu rbine is th at the supply of low p ressu re steam from -

the engines is in su ffi ci ent for the tu rbin e requi rem en ts and th a t ,

consequ ently som e of the engines h av e b een reli ev ed of th ei r

lo ad mo re or l ess sudd enly The boiler pl ant co nti nu es howev er
.
, ,

to m a k e steam a t the fo rm er ra te and the saf ety v alv es will soo n

,

blow off unl ess the exc ess steam can be u sed in the pow er pl ant .

B y taki ng thi s exc ess of steam to the tu rbi ne to h elp in c arrying

its lo ad which w e sha ll assum e has not b een reduc ed will serv e
, ,

t o use thi s exc ess of steam to the b est po ssibl e a dv antag e It .

is not an u nu su al p ra c tic e ev en to pi pe the di sch arg e f rom the

saf et y v alv es on the boil ers in to the rec eiv er in the low p ressu re -

pip ing supplying the tu rb ine Th ese condi tio ns are met mo st
.

2 s8 a
2 58 b THE STEA M TU RBI NE

frequ ently in the sudd enly v ari abl e lo ad s in rolling m ill s and in
hoi stin g op era tio ns wh ere the recip roc a t ing engi ne d riv es the
roll s or hoi sts and the low p ressu re tu rbin e suppli es a mo re or
-

l ess constant el ec tric al lo ad for bo th ligh ting and comp ara tiv ely
ligh t pow er requi rem ents I f the in terv al s requi ring the use
.

of high p ressu re steam a re rel ativ ely long as for ex ampl e five
-

to ten hou rs on the a v erag e th en a so c all ed

“-
mix ed turb ine ”
,

t yp e should be u sed The a ccumul ato r m ethod is al so ad ap

.

t abl e for the lo ng er p eriod but is exp ensiv e a s reg ard s fi rst co st .

The so Call ed mix ed steam tu rbi ne has b een a d ev elopm ent

-
”

of the applic a tions of steam tu rbines to sui t two impo rtant con
ditions of op era tio n which are as follow s : ( 1 ) the c ase wh ere
a low p ressu re tu rbi ne is to be u sed to d ev elop an amo unt of
-

power for which th ere is not constantly a v a il abl e a sufli cient

a mou nt of low p ressu re steam to c a rr
-
y the a v erag e lo ad ; and
( )
2 wh e n th e re are l a rg e e n ough qu an t i t i es of low p ressu re stea m -

a t c ertai n t im es t o c arry the lo ad but a t mo re or l ess lo ng in ter

v al s th ere is no exh au st steam suppli ed a t all B o th of th ese .

c ases requi re the suppl yin g of l arg e qu an ti ti es of steam from

sou rc es ind ep end en t on the exh a u st lines and liv e steam di rec t

f rom the bo il ers is inv ari ably the sub sti tu te For thi s so rt of .

servi c e wi t h wid ely v a ryin g steam p ressu res the m ix ed p ressu re -

t u rbine has foun d a cc ep tabl e applic a tio n In speaking of a

.

mix ed p ressu re tu rbine in thi s ch ap ter we sh all think of one hav

-

ing sep ara te high and low p ressu re portions in a singl e c asing
-
.

A g ood exampl e is shown in Fig 1 8 sa wh ere the high p ressu re

.
,
-

po rtio n is p rovid ed wi th an impul se wh eel w hi ch is m ad e easily

remov abl e so th a t wh en for lo ng p eriod s high p ressu re stea m -

'

i s no t need ed it can be tak en off High p ressu re steam enters

.
-

“
a t the stea m ch est oppo si te the nozzl es in the impul se sec tion
”
.

L ow p ressu re steam enters o nly the rea c tion bl ading th rough the
-

“ ”
v ertic al pip e com ing up b ehin d the rea c tion sec tion Such a .

tu rbi ne di ff ers essenti ally from the o rdinary low p ressu re tur -

bine which is p rovid ed wi th its own gov erno r only in h a v ing

und er the co ntrol of the gov erno r a sp eci al set of v alv es arrang ed
.

to supply liv e steam to nozzl es direc tin g steam into a sec tion of
 T HE ST EA M TU RBI NE

as in Fig . 1 so th a t the
wi nd ag e lo ss due to its revolu tion
8 sa,
wh en not in use can be elimi nated A good estim ate is th at .

a bou t 2
pe r c ent of the pow er of the t u rbin e is lo st in the air
.

resi stan c e of such a high p ressu re sec tion -

.

FI G. 1 8 5b . Low pressure T urbi ne w i t h

-
L iv e Ste m V lve I n t
a a s a lled at Pea ce
D a l e, R I
. .

M ix ed p ressu re tu rb ines are not of ten u sed in siz es l arger

-

th an abou t 2 0 0 0 k ilow atts To m eet the requi rem ents of the

.

“
larg er c ap a ci ti es it is b est to use a regul ar or compl ete expan
”
sio n tu rbi ne in comb ination wi th a sm all er simpl e low p ressu re -

tu rbin e .
 CHAPTER X I .

L
B EED E R X
OR E TRA CT O N TU I RBI NES .

THE m e bl eed er or ex trac tion tu rbine is giv en to

na

one speci a lly d esi gned to ta k e steam a t boil er p ressu re an d to

exh au st p a rt of thi s steam a t a no rm ally low v a cuum whil e

”
ano th er p a rt is ex tra c ted or ta k en out f rom one of the
~

stag es a t a p ressu re of fiv e to ten pou nd s per squ are inch g ag e

o

p ressu re; th a t is ju st a li ttl e abov e atmo sph eri c In m any

,
.

c ases as for ex ampl e in co tton , wool en and p aper m ills thi s

, , ,

steam is ex tra c ted ” for m anuf a c tu ri ng pu rpo ses u su a lly h ea t ,

~

ing w ater in v a ts M o re commonly how ev er such tu rb ines

.
, ,

fin d th ei r a pplic a tio n for supplyin g the low p ressu re steam re -

qui red in a h eating sy stem for hou ses f a c to ri es offi c e buildings , , ,

etc . B ec au se thi s l atter supply is need ed only a p art of the y ear

and otherwise as v a ri a bl e wi th the seasons th ere will b e t im es ,

wh en the tu rbineoperates by compl ete exp an sion of all the steam

suppli ed to it by the boil ers Ob vi o u sly it is nec essary to p rovid e
.

in suc h tu rbines a m eans wh ereby the bl eed er steam can be

tak en out a t any time and wi th sufli cient b a ck p ressu re ev en a t
,

ligh t lo ad s to m a in ta in a p ressu re in the sec tion f rom whi ch the

steam is to be W i thd ra w n to ov ercom e the resi stanc es of pip es

and v alv es so th a t steam can flow f reely a s requi red

,
It is .

d esi rabl e al so th a t the p ressu re in thi s sec tio n of the tu rbi ne

should be f ai rly co nstant To a ccompli sh thi s ret
. in Wes
tinghouse P arso ns tu rbi nes a p arti tion di aph ragm has b een u sed
-

to sep ara te compl etely the high p ressu re f rom the low p ressu re - -

po rtion as Shown in Fig 1 8 5 c The steam f rom the high p res

,
. .
-

su re sec tio n p asses no rm ally out th rough the bl eed er p assa g e

and i nto the m a in s to be suppli ed wi th stea m Wh en how .

,

ev er the tu rbi ne u ses mo re steam th an is need ed for the servic e

,

su ppli ed by th ese m ains th en the p ressu re in th ese p assag es

2 58 e
2 5 8 f T HE ST EA M TU RBI N E

b ack s up and wh en a bov e th a t p ressu re for which the au to

,

”
m atic v alv e shown a t the top of the fi gu re has b een set thi s
<

stea m flow s ou t in to the low p ressu re sec tio ns of the tu rbine -

wh ere it do es wo rk and th enc e i nto the cond enser It is the

,
.

fu nc tion of thi s v alv e to m ai nta i n su ffici ent p ressu re in the

,

a ssa g es to c rea te the d esi red flow i nto the m a in s T h e re is

‘

p .

t h erefo re som e th ro ttli ng a c tio n in t hi s v a lv e which c a u ses a

sligh t lo ss in the a v a il abl e energy of the stea m suppli ed to the

low p ressu re sec tions

-
.

FI G . 1 8 5c . Westi ngh ouse P arsons -

B l eeder
”
Turb ne i .

To void as much as po ssibl e the th ro ttling a c tio n ref erred

a .

to abov e Cu rti s tu rbines are d esigned wi thoiI t an

, y a ddi t io n a l
p arti tions or di aph ragm s The m ethod a dop ted is to pl ac e a
.

ring sh ap ed v a lv e ov er the n ozzl es l ea ding f rom the stag e f rom

-

“
which the steam i s to be ex tra c ted ”
Thi s v alv e is op era ted .

a u t om a tic ally by a m ech ani sm res ponsiv e to the p ressu re in the

sta g e so t h a t the eff ec tiv e a rea of the nozzl es is ch ang ed as

requi red to m a in tai n a co n stan t p ressu re B y thi s m ethod the .

clo si ng of the n ozzl es occu rs only in group s so th a t any Sligh t ,

th ro ttl ing a c tio n th a t migh t occu r due to p arti al op eni ng would

c reate its lo ss only in a sm all g roup ra th er th an in all the n ozzl es
Si mil ar to a re li ef or safety v a l v e in its i
act on .
2 5 8 h THE STEA M TU RBI NE

which are bol ted in the u su al construc tio n to the sid e of the
diaph ragm (Fig 1 8 5 e) Thi s v alv eis op erated by the pi ston in
. .

an oil ( or steam ) cylind er w hi ch is in tu rn mov ed by b eing

subj ec ted to oil or ( steam ) u nd er p ressu re admi tted f rom a hi gh

p ressu re sup p ly by a sm a ll pilo t v alv e a c tu ated by l ev erag e con

nections to the di aph ra gm (3 0 ) in commu nic a t io n by sm a ll pipin g

wi th the sta g e in whi ch the constant p ressu re is to be m ai n

tain ed Fig 1 8 5f show s a c ro ss sec tional vi ew of the m ech an
. .
-

FIG . 1 8 si . V a lv e Ge
ar of Curt i s B leede
r Turbine
.

ism w hi ch a c tu a tes the v alv e B y m eans of a fl exibl e joint at

.

( )
1 t he pi s t o n ro d ( )
2 mov e s t he v a lv e pl a te b a ck an d fo r t h ov er

the f a c e of the n ozzl es Pressu re on the pi sto n ( 1 4 ) in the oil

.

( o r S te a m ) cyli n d er ( )
1 3 giv es the mov em en t t o th e pi sto n ro d .

M ov em ents of the pi st o n a re effec ted by m eans of the pilo t v alv e

( )
2 2 w hi ch is in t u rn a c t u a te d by th e di a ph ra gm ( )
3 0 by m ean s
”
of therod s (3 4 ) and T hi s di aph ragm wi th its co rrug a ted
”
or a cco rdi o n sid es fo rm s a cyli nd ri c al ch amb er which is in

commu nic ation by m eans of sm all pipi ng wi th thestage to becon

troll ed and from which the
,
bl eed er steam is to be tak en .
 BLEED ER OR E T X R A CT I ON TU RBI NES 2 58 1

M ov em ents of the di aph ra gm are oppo sed by the spi ral sp ring
( )
3 6 whi ch can be set to m a inta i n any d esi red steam p ressu re in
the stag e .

Careful insp ec tio n of Fig 1 8 5 d show s th a t the po rts in the

.

ri ng v alv e a re not all of the sa m e siz e but a re of p rog ressiv ely

i nc reasing wid th arou n d the Ci rcumf erenc e f rom the narrowest

to the l arg est The narrow p a rts b egin clo sin g up on the first
.

mov em ent of the v alv e T h ere are fou r group s The seco nd
. .

g roup b egi ns clo sing only af ter the fi rst or narrowest set is
full y clo sed .

A b al anc e pl a te (Fig 1 8 5g) is put on topof the ri ng v alv e

-
.

( g
F i .1 8 5 )
d for t h e pu rpo se of a ssi st i ng in equ a lizi ng th e p res

StI re on the tw o sid es of the v alv e and thu s reduci ng the fo rc e

,

requi red mov e it .

FIG . 1 8 5g . N ozz le pl ate for Curt i s

-
R i ng V l v e
a .

I t is
comp ara tiv ely a v ery easy m atter to remov e som e of the
stea m which has b een p artly exp an d ed in the tu rbi ne by the

use of sui ta bl e a u tom a tic or h an d co n troll ed v a lv es ev en wh en

-

the qu anti ty of steam requi red a t a co nstant p ressure in such a

bl eeder line is qui te v a ri abl e B y thi s m ethod it is po ssibl e to

.
2 5 j
8 THE ST EA M TU RBI N E

x c
e tra t the g reatest a mou nt no rm ally po ssibl e as requi red for
g enerati ng pow er and a t the sam e t im e supply ing at a reaso n
a bly co nstant p ressu re u su a lly abou t atmo sph eric or a bou t ,

5 pou n d s a bov e the requi

,
rem ents for h eating or indu stri a l .

pu rpo ses .

Fig 1 8 5h show s the sati sf a c to ry fi lli ng of the bl ad es of an

.

impul se tu rbi ne of the bl eed er typ e .

FI G
. 1 8 5h . F low L i nes in a B leeder I mpulse Turbi ne .
2 60 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

Wh en the hip
s b a ckw ard the steam is shu t off from
is to b e run
the
“ ah ead
”
tu rbi nes and is admi tted to the auxili ary rev ersi ng

tu rbi nes T h ere is of cou rse a di sadv anta g e f rom not h avi ng
.
, ,

at tim es the full n o rm al mo tiv e pow er of the Ship a v ai l abl e

for b a cki ng B esid es co ndi tio ns are not id eal wh en a l arg e
.
,

po rtio n of the pl ant is idl e for a g reater p art of the tim e T h ese .

rev ersi ng tu rbi nes will occupy a g rea t d eal of lo ngi tudi nal sp ac e ,

so th at the fl oo r spa ce requi red for an i nstall a tio n of m ari ne

stea m tu rbi nes is l a rg er t h an th at requi red for recip roc ati ng

engi nes for the sa m e co ndi tio ns of servic e .

The Whi te Sta r Comp any ( I nternatio nal M erc a ntil e M ari ne
Comp any ) ha s d ecid ed to op erate oc ea n stea m ers wi th a com
bined recip roc a tin g and tu rbine engine pl ant The two ou ter .

Sh af t s will b e d riv en by qu a d rupl e exp a nsion recip roc a t in g en

g ines a nd the c entral sh af t by a low p ressu re tu rb ine op era ted -

by the exh au st steam f rom the low p ressu re cyli nd er of the —

recip roc a ting engi nes F or goi ng b a ckw ard the recip roc a ting
.
,

engines will be u sed a s th ey a re readily rev ersed and in the

, ,

o rdi nary servic e the tu rbi ne and recip roc a ti ng engi nes wil l be
op era ted tog eth er B y thi s combi na tion the adv antag es of
.

recip roc a ti ng engi nes for rev ersi ng are secu red t og eth er wi th ,

the g rea t rang e of exp ansio n which is po ssibl e wi th the steam

tu rb ine .

I t is di ffi cul t to say wh a t d ev elopm en ts the fu tu re will bri ng

in the applic a tions of steam and gas tu rbi nes to the m ari ne
servic e Pra c tic ally all the n ew b a ttl eship s and c rui sers for the
.

B ri ti sh na v y are now tu rbi ne d riv en I f we consid er th at the .

stea m tu rbi ne in its p ra c tic a l fo rm comm en c ed its real d ev elop

m ent o nly in 1 8 8 5 the fu tu re c ertai nly may h a v e rich po ssibili ti es

,
.

Fig 1 8 si rep resents the resul ts of tests m ad e a t v ari abl e

.

sp eed s and pow ers on a stand ard combi ned impul se an d rea c tio n

t yp e of tu rbi ne In expl ai nin g the resul ts of th ese tests M r

. .

H T Herr sta tes th a t i n v estig a tio ns now u nd er w ay by the

. .

Westin ghou se in terests will i nsu re the elimin a tion in the n ea r

fu tu re of the recip roc a ting engi ne in the fi eld of m ari ne propul
J ou n l of the F nklin I n titute M
r a h 9 3 ra s ,
arc ,
1 1 .
 M ARI N E TU RB I N ES

io n as the tu rbine g enera to r has p rac ti c ally eliminated it for

'

el ec tric pow er pl an t servic e .

On a ccoun t of the di ffi cul ty of a dju sting the inh eren t re

q uirem en ts of th e stea m t u rbi n e for op era t io n a t rel a t iv ely hi gh
ro ta tiv e sp eed an d the co rrespon di ng d ifficul t y oppo si te how ,

ev er in eff ec t of the effi ci en t op era tion of the p rop ell ers of

, ,

stea m ship s a t an y thi ng bu t rel a tiv ely low sp eed the app lic a ,

t io ns of steam tu rb ines to the p ropul sio n of shi p s has b een v ery

much limi ted I f it w ere not for th ese di ffi cul ti es th ere is no
.

rea so n why the steam tu rbine should not di spl a c e the reci ro
p

20

2 4 00 3 2 00 4 000
v l ut i pe mi ute
Re o on s r n .

F IG. 1 8 si . Curv es Sh owi ng V ari a ti on of Stea m Consumpti on Horsepower , , a nd

Effi ci ency of L a test D esig ns of St eam T u bi nes w i th Speed r .

c a ting steam engine almo st enti rely for thi s servic e On thi s .

a ccou n t how ev er the a pplic a tion has b een confined alm o st

, ,

en ti rely to m erch ant and n a v a l v essel s d esig ned for hi g h sp eed -

serv ic e Exp eri en c e ha s shown th a t in the a ppli c a tions of stea m

.

t u rb ines to slow sp eed ship s th ere has b een n o app reci abl e
-

savmg i n w eigh t in sp a c e or in the co st of op era tio n ov er wh a t

, , ,

it would h a v e b een wi th recip roc a ting engines The nea rest .

a pp ro a ch to the solu tio n of thi s p robl em is to be secu red p rob

a bly by the a pplic a tio n of g earin g essen ti a lly simil ar to t h a t

d esigned by D e L a v al T hi s so rt of g ea ri ng c a nno t how ev er

.
, ,
 TH E ST EA M TU RBI N E

be ppli ed wi thou t modi fi c a tion to tu rbi nes d ev eloping mo re

a

th an po ssibly I OOO ho rsepow er A d esig n much b etter sui ted to

.

high sp eed condi tions and al so ad ap tabl e for l arg e pow er has
-

b een d ev elop ed by the Westinghou se M a chi ne Comp any wi th

the co op era tio n of M r Geo rg e Westinghou se A dmi ral Geo rg e
.
,

M ellvill e and M r John H M a c alpi ne The essenti al p rin cipl e

,
. . .

embodi ed in th ei r imp rov em en ts co nsi sts in the applic a tion of a

so c a ll ed
-
fl o ating frame ”
d esigned to c arry the pini on on the
mai n tu rbine sh af t The exp erim ental g ear d ev elop ed in the
.

early stag es ha d a flo a ti ng f ram e suppo rted on pivo ts p ermi tti n g ,

fl exibili ty as reg ard s ho rizon tal m o v em ent of the pi ni on but ,

was rigid as reg a rd s v ertic al mov em ents Very rec en tly M r . .

Westinghou se d ev elop ed a v ery impo rtant imp rov em ent con

si sti n g in the sub sti tu tio n of a fl exibl e suppo rt by m eans of

hyd raulic pi sto ns taki ng the pl a c e of the rigid v e rtic al suppo rts ,

and in thi s way imp rov ing v ery much the efl l cien c h
f
y a n d t e

w eari ng p rop erti es of the g ear T hi s imp rov em ent in w earin g

.

p rop erti es ha d al so the eff ec t of reducing to a mini mum all

n oi se an d vib ra t io n which in the o rigi nal d esig n w ere con sid

erabl e In thi s l a ter d esign (Fi gs 1 8 5 j and k ) the m ain f ram e

. .
,

suppo rtin g the pin ion is h eld up by the pi st o ns in the hyd rauli c _

cyli nd ers fill ed wi th oil u nd er p ressu re Thi s constru c tio n .

p ermi ts v ertic al mov em ents of the pi nion along wi th its fl exi

bility in its flo a ting f ram e and is th erefo re a g reat imp rov e
m ent in th at the earli er d esign p ermi tted o nly l ateral mov e
m ent The v ertical mov em en t is p ermi tted by the suppo rti ng
.

of the flo a ti ng f ram e on the pi sto n connec ted to the suppo rt

ing rod s Simil a rly the l a tera l mov em ent is p ermi tted by the
.

fl exibili ty of the ho rizo ntal pi stons on the two sid es of the

pi nion .

F or a mo re compl ete d esc rip tio n an d di scu ssio n of the fl oa t

ing fra m e t yp e of reduc tio n g ear see Engineering v ol 9 5 , .

p ages 1 6 9 and 6 0 9 and The Electric J ournal J anu ary 1 9 1 2

, , ,
.

Wa ter ra te cu rv es d ra wn f rom the d ata of a ccep tan c e tests

of the b attl eship s N orth D ak ota and D elaware are shown in
Fig 1 8 5 1
. Cu rv es A and B 1 show the steam con sump tio n per
.
2 60 d T HE STEAM T UR B INE

FI G . 1 8 5k . R ed u tion Ge
c ar, Sh owi ng F lexibl e Support of P i ni on.

2000 6000 1 0000 1 4000 1 8000 2 2000 2 6000 30000

Horsepow er .

FI G . 1 8 51
. Water R at e Curv es of U S. . B a tt l eshi ps a nd v if
Computed Cur es
Ge a re d Stea m T urb i ne s were used .
 M ARI N E TU RB IN ES

sh af t ho rsepow er per hou r of the engines in the two b a ttl eshi p s ,

whil e C an d C1 show the co rrespon di ng resul ts if g eared tu rbines

had b een u sed instead of reci p roc a t ing engines I t is estim a ted .

th a t wi th a g eared tu rbi ne combina tio n of the Westin ghou se

“ at n
flo i g f ram e t yp e the economy of the p rim e mov ers in
v essel s of the D elaware cl ass could be imp rov ed 3 0 per c ent .

at full speed and 2 5 per c ent a t c rui sing sp eed .

Fig 1 8 5 m . .

FIG . 1 8 5m
. Low pressure T urbi ne Casi ng for
-
G e mn Ste m hip
r a a s .

show s the eno rmou s siz e of the c asin g s for th e low p ressu re -

sec tio ns of the stea m tu rb ines install ed in mod ern b attl e

ship s.

El ectrical Transmi ssi on for Shi ps Ano ther m ethod differ

.

ent from the use of reduc tio n g ears has b een frequ ently sug

g ested for m ak i ng the steam tu rbi ne more ad ap tabl e for m ari ne

servic es Thi s m ethod co nsi sts in u si ng on the v essel steam
tu rbi nes di rec t co nn ec ted to high sp eed el ec tri c g enera to rs
-

which can op erate th en und er p rac tic ally id entic al co ndi tio ns
“ ”
a s in l and servic e Th ese tu rbi nes obviou sly can th en be
‘

, ,
.

d esig ned to op erate at a sp eed b est sui ted to ob tai n high eth
cienc
y T
. he el ec tric cu rren t f rom the g enera to rs is u sed to

d riv e slow sp eed el ec tri c mo to rs on the sh af ts of the p rop ell ers

-
,

the sp eed h ere b ei ng th at givi ng b est effi ci ency for the pro
p ell et s .

Thi s m ethod o ff ers g reat fl exibili t y in the h andling of a

v essel as the mo to rs can be v ery qui ckly rev ersed and ch ang es
, ,

of sp eed are readi ly ob tai nabl e .

g oof T HE ST EA M T URB IN E

A l though thi s m ethod form ari ne p ropul sio n has b een ad

v oca ted by engi neers for m a n y y ears it has not as yet re

ceived v ery f a vo ra bl e a cc ep tan c e; bu t doub tl ess it is con

, ,

s tan tly rec eivi ng mo re f avo rabl e a ttentio n f rom w ell k now n
-

d esigners .
2 62 T HE ST EA M TU RB I NE

4 Weigh t or m easu rem ent by volum e of the co nd ensed

.
, ,

stea m di sch arg ed f rom the co nd enser Unl ess a su rf ac e con .

~

d enser is u sed it is v ery di ffi cul t to ob tai n the a mou nt of steam

u sed by the tu rbi ne All l eak ag es from pip es pump s and
.
, ,

v alv es which is p art of the steam which has gone th rough the
,

tu rbi ne mu st be add ed to the w eigh t of the cond ensed stea m

, .

T he a ccu ra cy of a test often d ep end s a g reat d eal on how

a ccu rately l eak s h av e b een p rovid ed ag ai nst or m easu red wh en ,

th ey occu r .

5 T
. emp e ratu re of the steam a s it enters th e tu rbi ne I f the .

temp eratu re is high er th an th at d ue to the p ressu re of the satu rated

stea m giv en in stea m tabl es the stea m is sup erh eated ; if how , ,

ev er the temp eratu re is not high er the stea m may be wet and a
, ,

c alo rim eter mu st be attach ed as near the tu rbine steam ch est as

po ssibl e * .

All g aug es el ec tric al i nstrum ents and th ermom eters should be

, ,

c arefully c alib rated b efo re and a fter ea ch test so th at ob serv atio ns

can be co rrec ted for any erro rs T he z ero rea di ng s of Pro ny .

and w ater b ra k es for m ea su ri ng pow er should b e c arefully

ob serv ed and co rrec ted to elimi nate the fric ti o n of the app aratu s
wi th no lo ad Unl ess all th ese p rec au tio ns are tak en the dif
.

fi culties in g etti n g reli abl e tests of tu rbi nes are g rea tly i n c reased .

In all c ases tests should b e co nti nu ed for sev era l hou rs wi th

ab solu tely co nstant co ndi tio ns if the tests are to be of v a lu e .

T he mo st v alu abl e test of a steam tu rbi ne is m ad e wh en v aryi ng

o nly the lo ad ; th at is wi th p ressu res sup erh eat and sp eed con
, , ,

stant Wh en the steam consump tio n is th en plo tted a g ai nst

.

fra c tio ns of full lo ad a w ater rate cu rv e is ob tai ned F or such

,
-
.

a cu rv e a seri es of tests are n eed ed ea ch for som e f ra c tio n of full ,

lo ad ; and in ea ch sep arate test the pow er as w ell as all the o th er

co ndi tions mu st be h eld constant .

T he most if
sat s actory tests of turb nes i
made w i th steam sligh tl y super a re

h eated rath er th an w et Wh en steam is very wet ( more th a n a bout 4 per cent

. .

moi sture for ord i nary pressures) the d eterm i nati on of the q ua li ty is d i ffi cu l t T h ere .

is a l so a d a ng er th at stea m sh ow i ng onl y a few d eg rees of superh eat by the rea d i ng

of th e t h ermom eter is actua ll y w et T he high temperatureis d ue in such ca ses to
.

h eati ng f rom edd i es a round the th ermometer case or in steam pock ets near it .
 T EST S O F ST EA M TU RB I N ES

Ano th er impo rtant test of

p erfo rm an c e of stea m tu rbines is
the
m ad e by v aryi ng bo th the sp eed and the pow er and k eepi ng the
o th er co ndi tio ns co nstant T heob serv atio ns of sp eed and pow er
.

f rom such a test giv e a pow er p arabol a a s illu stra ted in Fig 8 0 . .

T hi s cu rv e show s at wh at s p eed the tu rbi ne giv es the g reatest

ou tpu t .

F or compl ete tests of a steam tu rbi ne the steam co nsum p tion

should b e d etermi n ed at full lo ad ( 1 ) wi th v a ryi ng i n i ti a l steam

p ressu re; ( 2 ) wi th v aryi ng v acuum ; and 3 ) wi th v aryi ng sup erh eat .

A compl ete set of tests as ou tli ned will give suffi ci ent d ata to
d etermi ne all the co rrec tio ns u su ally requi red .

Commerci al Testing T he m ethod s u sed by the N ew Y o rk

.

Edi so n Comp any in comm erci al tests of stea m tu rbi ne g enerato r -

u ni ts may w ell be expl a i ned b ri efly .

D u ri ng a test the lo ad on the tu rbi n e u ni t is m a i nta i ned as con

stant as po ssibl e by
“ remo te co ntrol
”
of the tu rbi ne gov erno r by
the swi tchbo ard op era to r T he m a xim um v ari atio n in lo ad is
.

to be h eld wi thi n 4 per c ent abov e and b elow the m ean . For .

som e tim e p reviou s to the test the t u rbi ne is run a li ttl e below the

lo ad requi red for the test but at l east ten mi nu tes b efo re the
,

sta rt i ng sig nal is giv en the test lo ad mu st be on the m a chi ne .

T h ree ph a se el ec tric al lo ad is m ea su red by the two w a ttm eter

- -

m ethod u si ng Westo n i ndic ati ng w attm eters of the stand ard

*
,

l aborato ry typ e T h ese i nstrum ents are c alib rated by a w ell

.

k nown testi ng l abo rato ry imm edi a tely b efo re and a fter the test .

Pow er f a c to r is m ai nta i ned su b sta nti ally at u n i ty and all el ec tric al

readi ng s are tak en at one mi nu te i nterv al s -
.

Wh en the tu rbi ne is p rovid ed wi th a su rf ac e co nd enser the ,

stea m co nsump tio n or w ater rate is d etermi ned by w eighi ng in

, ,

a l arg e tan k suppo rted on pl atfo rm s c al es the co nd ensed stea m

d eliv ered from the co nd enser hot w ell Abov e the w eighi ng .

tank a reservoi r is p rov id ed which is l arg e e nough to hold the

co nd ensatio n a ccumu l ati ng b etw een the w eighi ng s which are
m ad e at i nterv al s of five mi nu tes B y u si ng a loop connec tio n
.

Cf K ent M e h ni l Enginee P o k et B ook 7 th ed p ge 6 9 8 th d

’ ’
. s c a ca rs c -
,
.
,
a 10 ,
c .
,

pa ge 1 3 9 6 ,
or Foster s Electrical
’
Engi neer s P ock et B ook
’
-
.
2 64 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

for the gl and w ater supply ( of Westi nghou se tu rbi nes ) or th e

w a ter from t he step b eari ng (of C urti s tu rbi nes usi ng w ater for
thi s b eari n g ) the nec essi ty for co rrec ti ng the w eighi ng s for th ese

a mou nts is a void ed .

B ec au sethe ci rcul ati ng w ater at the stations of thi s comp any

is u su ally qui te sal t any co nd en ser l eak ag e is d etec ted by testi ng
,

the co nd en sed stea m by the silv er n i tratem ethod w i th a su i tabl e -

colo r i ndic ato r T hi s colo r m ethod is sa id to be a d ecid ed

.

a dv an ta g e ov er th e u su a l m ethod of w eighi n g the l ea k a g e a cc u

mul a tin g d uri n g a d efin i te p eriod w h en the con d en ser is idl e and
is tested for o nly one p art icul ar v a cuum B y t aki n g sampl es .

of ci rcul ati ng w ater and con d en sed stea m a t the sam e tim e ,

it is po ss ibl e to d etec t an y ch an g e in the rate of co nd en ser

l ea k a g e .

T he w a ter l e v el in the hot w ell is m ai nta i ned at p ra c tic ally a

co n stant poi n t by m eans of a fl o at v alv e in the w ell au tom atic ally
co n trolli ng the sp eed and t h erefo re the a mo unt of the d eliv ery
-

, ,

of the hot w el l? p ump T hi s d evic e a void s the n ec essi ty for the

-
.

di ffi cul t co rrectio n to be m ad e in a test wh en the l ev el s in the hot

w ell are not the sa m e at the b egi nn i n g and en d of a test T em
‘

t
.

e tu e nd p ressures of the admi ssio n stea m a re d etermi n ed

p r a r s a

by m erc ury th ermom eters and p ressu re g aug es loc ated near the
'

m ai n t hrottle v al ve of the tu rbi n e; the a mo un t of sup erh eat is

determi n ed by sub tra c ti n g from the a c tu a l stea m temp eratu re
.

a f ter m a ki n g th ermom eter co rrec tio n s the temp erature of

satura ted s tea m Co rresp on di n g to the p ressu re a t the poi nt wh ere
the temp era tu re is m ea su red All g aug es and th ermom eters are .

c alib rated b efo re and a f ter the test

m is m
.

V a cu u e a sured di rec tly a t the tu rbi n e exh a u st by m eans

of a mercurycolu m n w ith a b arom eter alo ng sid e for red u ci ng the

'
‘

v a cuum to stand ard b arom eter co ndi tio ns ( 3 0 i n ch es ) B y thi s . .

l atter a rrangem en t the nec essi ty for temperatu re co rrectio ns

)

w hich are nec essary wh en the tw om erc u ry colum n s are not a t

the same pl ace is avoid ed
'

Fi g 1 8 8 show s a 5 50 0 kilow att Westi n ghou se Parso ns turbi ne

.
- —

set u p for testi ng in the shop s b efo re shipm en t to th e cu sto mer

“ .
2 66 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

T he pow er is m easu red by m eans of a l arg e w ater b rak e show n in

the fi gu re at the l eft of the tu rbi ne .

Repo rts of Tests T he tabl es given b elow h av e b een p rep ared

.

to show the stea m co nsump tio n tog eth er wi th the mo st i mpo r ,

tant o th er d ata of wh at are b eli ev ed to be reli abl e tests of

,

stand a rd m a k es of stea m tu rbi nes T he v a cuu m g i v en i n the .

tabl es is the equiv al ent ref erred to 3 0 i n ch es b arom eter .

Curtis Tu rbi nes T he followi ng resul ts w ere ob ta i ned in

.

1 9 0 5 by M essrs Sa rg en t and L u ndy wi th a 2 0 0 0 kilow att Cu rt i s

.
-

tu rbi ne g enerato r
-
.

St ea m Press ure Pou n d s per

K i low a tt s
g e) V a cu u m Inch es
Kl
( Ga u
.
, .

. i ow a tt h ou r
-
.

Al so the
followi ng resul ts are repo rted in 1 9 0
7 wi th a 9 000

kilow att tu rbi ne g enerato r in Chic ago

—

St ea m Pressu re Pou nd s per

Kl i ow a tt s
K
( Ga uge)
.

. ilow a tt h ou r
-
.

Parso ns Tu rbi nes 5 kilow a tt

. P a rso n s
A 1 tu rbi ne
00 —
w as
teste d at Sh effield En gl and wi th the followi n g resul ts
, ,

St ea m P ress ure Pou n d s per

K l ow
i a tt s
g e) K
( Ga u . i low a tt h ou r
-
.
 T EST S O F ST EA M T UR B IN ES

The res ul ts of
of a 3 0 0 kilow att P arsons tu rbi ne
two tests -

i nstall ed at the Hul to n colli ery are al so given to show the ch ang e
‘

of eco nomy f rom ru nni ng co nd ensi ng i nch es v acuum and

non co nd ensi ng
-
.

S tea m P ress u re Pou n d s per

K lowi a t ts
g e) Kl h
( Ga u i ow a tt our
.

-
. .

T h ese l ast
how w ell the i nc reased stea m c onsump tio n
tests s

( abou t 5 p
0 er c ent ) wh en ru nn i n g n on co nd ensi ng .
-
.

Westingh ou se Parso ns Turbi nes T he tabl e b elow giv es the

-
.

resul ts of tests in 1 90 4 by F P Sh eldo n CO P r

ovid enc e . . .
, ,

R I of a 4 0 0 kilow att Westi nghou se P arso ns tu rbi ne wi th abou t

. .
,
- -

1 0 0 d eg rees F sup erh eat . .

St ea m Press u re Pou nd s per

( Ga ug e) . B H P Hour *
. . . .

O bser ve the stea m consumption is in pou nds per bra k e horsepow er hour,
'
i n te ds a of po u nd s per

k ilowatt hour -
as for some of the other resu ts i en here l gv .

cu rv es giv en in Fig 1 8 9 w ere plo tted to show gra phi

T he .

c ally the steam co nsump tio n of 3 0 0 50 0 and 1 0 0 0 kilow att , ,

Westi nghou se Parso ns tu rbi nes wi th v aryi ng lo ad s

- * D ata of .

the tests f rom which th ese cu rv es w ere d raw n as w ell as of a ,

test of a 3 0 0 0 kilow att tu rbi ne a re giv en in t he followi ng tabl es

-
.

T h ese tests w ere repo rted by J R B ibbi ns in 1 9 06 and 1 9 0 7 . . .

T he numbers ma rk ed on the cu r ves i nd i a te the v acuum epresent the

to c r

a ctua l read i ngs k

ta en in the test a nd are not referred to a sta ndard ( 3 0 i nch es)

ba rometer .
 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

30 0— KILO WAT T T UR BINE ( 3 6 00

St ea m Press u re Pou n d s per

( Ga ug e) . B H P H our
. . . .
2
7 0 THE ST EA M T UR B I N E

Z oelly Turbine kilow att Zoelly tu rb ine insta ll ed at

. A 550 0 -

the Ou est El ec trici ty Wo rk s Pa ri s is sa id to Op era te a t full lo a d

, ,

wi th a stea m co nsump tion of app roxim a tely pou nd s per

b rak e ho rsepower hou r a t 1 60 pou nd s per squ a re i nch g aug e
-

p ressu re 2 0 0 d eg rees F sup erh ea t and 2 7 i nch es v a cuum

,
.
, .

D e Laval Tu rb i ne The follow ing ta bl e giv es resul ts of tests

.

by D ean 81 M a i n of a 3 0 0 ho rsepow er D e L a v al tu rbi ne -

B kera St ea m Press ure Pounds

H orsepow er .
( Ga uge) . B H P
. . . our .

The resul ts hown in the abov e tests giv e the rel a tiv e stea m
s

econ omy of the p ri n cip a l t yp es of tu rbi nes f rom ligh t lo ad to

o v erlo a d T abl es I and II on the followin g p a g e giv e the com

.

ra tiv e resul ts of the l a test repo rted tests in A m eric a and in

p a

Eu rop e .

H EAT UN T I B ASIS O F E FF I C I EN C Y .

T he u su al m ethod s u sed for co rrec ti ng steam tu rbi ne tests to

e t a stand ard for comp ari so n expl a i ned in C h ap ter V I a re not
g
establi sh ed on a highly sci enti fic b asi s Engi neers app reci ate .

g enerally th at a mo re rational m ethod of comp ari so n of the

eco nomy of h eat engi nes on a h eat u ni t b asi s should be adop ted

in c ases wh ere it is p rac tic a bl e As reg ard s stea m tu rbi nes th ere .

a re how ev er so m an y u nc erta i n f ac to rs enteri n g i nto the d eter

, ,

m i natio n of a thermo dy nami c effi ci ency f rom the av a il abl e energy

th at for the p resent such m ethod s can be of li ttl e v alu e exc ep t ,

in som e sp eci a l c ases C omp arativ ely high sup erh eats are now
.

g enerally u sed and our k nowledge of the effec t of reh eati ng in a

,

m ul ti stag e tu rbi ne is v ery i nd efini te

-
.

A th erma l effi ci ency can how ev er be c alcul ated readily and , ,

mo re sati sf ac to rily by d etermini ng wh at p erc entag e the h eat

“ ”
equiv a l ent of the w o rk is of the h eat u sed by the tu rbi ne ,

a ssum ed to b e the d i ff eren c e b etw een the to tal h eat in the stea m

Compil ed by H T He nd A G Ch i t i e . . rr a . . rs .
 RBI N ES
T ESTS OF STEA M T U

h J i-‘ b-i i -l i-i

-i
v h-i
2 7 2 THE ST EA M TU RB I NE

i ni tial co ndi tions and the h eat liquid in the

“of the
at the (
co nd ensed steam at the temp eratu re of the exh a u st .

B y thi s m ethod the full lo ad test of a Westi nghou se Parso ns -

tu rbi ne repo rted by F P Sh eldo n Co will be c alcul ated f rom . . .

the d ata giv en in an o ffi ci al repo rt .

In o rd er to m ak e the resul ts of such c alcul atio ns of stea m

t u rbi ne tests comp arabl e wi th the u su al h eat u ni t compu tatio ns
of recip roc ati ng steam engi ne tests the resul ts are g enerally
exp ressed in term s of i ndic ated or
“i nternal h o rsepow er .

F P Sh eldo n
. . C o assum ed the m ech anic al effi ci ency of a .

recip roc ati ng en gi ne of a bou t the sam e c a p aci ty at full lo ad to

be e r c ent
p .

T H ER M A L E F F ICI ENC Y O F A 4 00 K I LO WATT STEA M T UR B IN E -

.

B ake h o epowe
r rs r 6 60
C o espond i ng i nd i cated o i nte na l h orsepowe of a re i p ”
rr r r r c

66 0
o at ng engi ne
r c i
933 ~

T ota l te m used pe h ou pound

s a r r, s .

Steam u ed per s i nte na l horsepower pe h ou pounds r

”
r r,

Ste m pressure pound s per sq uare i nch absol ute

a ,

Supe h eat deg ees F

r , r .

V acuum eferred to 3 i nch es b romete i n h es

, r 0 a r, c .

T empe tu e of ond ensed steam d eg ree F ( t 9 6 pound pe

ra r c ,
s . a . r

sq u a e i nch a bso l ute p essu e)

r r r

T ota l h e t ontents of o ne pound of d y s tu ated steam t

a c r a r a

the i ni ti l p essure B T Ua r ,
. .

H eat eq uiv l ent of upe h eat in one pound of steam B T U

a s r ,
. . .

( Cp f om Fig 3 )
. r . 0

T ota l h e t ontent of o ne pound of upe h e ted ste m B T U

a c s s r a a ,
. . .

H eat of liq u i d i n conden ed te m B T U s s a ,

. .

He t used in tu b i ne pe pound te m B T U
a r r s a
“
. .
,

H ea t used i n turbine per i nterna l ”

h ors epow er per

minute, B TU. . .

H eat e uiq v a l ent of one h orsepower per mi nute ,

B T U . . .

Th ermal effi ci ency, per cent .

S tand ard fo rm s
d ata sh eets and for tabul a ti ng resul ts of
for
st ea m tu rbi ne tests are giv en in P ower P l a nt Testi ng b y the

a u tho r ( See p ag es 3 1 5
. Full expl anatio ns of m ethod s
and of n ec essary p rec au tio ns a re giv en ;
2 74 T HE ST EA M R B I NE
TU

tog eth er wi th p rob ably l arg er op erati ng exp enses A g reat d eal .

d ep end s on the loc al co ndi tio ns p articul arly on the a v era g e

,

temp eratu re of the co nd enser cooli ng w ater At pl a c es o nly .

sligh tly el ev ated a bov e the sea l ev el and wh ere the temp eratu re
-

of the w ater supply for the co nd ensers is v ery low — near the

Ch a ract er of

v
Ser ice .

to

to

B el ow
4

37 1 1 1 0 9 30 9

freezi ng poi nt for a l arg e p art of the y ear it is doub tl ess profit
a bl e to i nstall co nd ensi ng a pp aratu s of suffi ci ent siz e to op erate

stea m tu rbi n es at f rom 2 8 5 to 2 9 i n ch es v a cuum

. T he followi ng .

tabl e c alcul ated by J

,
R B ibbi ns giv es sid e by sid e the
. .
,

th eo retic al and the p rac tic al v acuum s at sea l ev el for v aryi ng -

temp eratu res of the cooli ng w ater .

 ST EA M TU RB I N E EC O N O MI CS

V A C UU M AT SEA LE EL FO R V V ARY IN G TEM PER AT UR ES O F CO O LIN G WAT ER

A c tu a l Co n A c t ua l Con
T em
° °
pera t u res of Coo l ing d enser, 1 5 F d enser,
. 1 5 F .

W a t er . D eg F . . D iff erence . D ifference .

Inc he s. Inc he s .

R a t io W a ter t o St ea m . I nfi n it e . 6 0 to I . 6 0 to I . 1 0 0 to 1 .

In mod ern su rf a c e co nd enser i nstall atio ns th ere IS u su ally a

di ff erenc e of a bou t 1 5 d eg rees F b etw een the temp eratu re of the
.

co nd ensed stea m and of the di sch arg ed w ater It will be seen .

th en in the a bov e ta bl e th at wi th the reaso nabl e ra tio of cooli ng

w ater to stea m of 6 0 to I the m aximu m v acuum ob ta i nabl e wh en ,

the cooli ng w ater is tak en in a t 6 0 d eg rees is i nch es and , ,

wh en tak en in a t 7 0 d eg rees is o nly i nch es * .

T he f a c t mu st not b e lo st sigh t of th at the el ev atio n has an

a pp reci a bl e eff ec t on the m a ximum po ssibl e v a cuum and con

sequ ently on the mo st p ro fita bl e v a cuum At an el ev atio n of .

1 0 0 0 f eet a bov e the sea l ev el the po ssibl e v a cuum ob ta i na bl e

-

wi th a giv en co nd ensi ng a pp aratu s will be a bou t an i nch l ess th an

at tid e w ater and the v a cuu m reduc tio n is of cou rse in pro
-

, , ,

po rtio n for o th er el ev atio ns .

B ibbi ns has al so c alcul ated the a c tu al p erc enta g e savi ng wh en

the co nd enser equipm ent is i nc reased so th at the pl ant can be
op erated at 2 8 i nch es i nstead of 2 6 i nch es It is estim ated th at .

the co st of the co nd enser equipm ent i n cludi ng pump s and pipi ng .

wi ll be 354 0 0 0 mo re for a 2 0 0 0 kilow att pl ant to op erate at 2 8

-

i nch es v acuu m th an at 2 6 i nch es v acuum T he resul ts are giv en .

in the tabl e on the followi ng p ag e:

gi nee s whi ch has been i nstalli ng steam turbi nes al most excl usivel y
A fi rm of en r

in the pow e pl ants it has d esig ned a nd const ucted has eq ui pped a powe pl ant at
r r ,
r

T ampa Fl ori da wi th D i esel oil engi nes because of the cost of cooli ng water in a
, ,

w a rm cli mate .
2 7 6 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

R ELAT I VE ECO N O M Y OF 28 IN CHES VAC UUM OV ER 2 6 I N C HES I N A

K
2 000— ILO WAT T P LANT .

Esti ma ted Increased Cost of Eq ui pment is

Wa ter
St ea m Saved pe r

v
A era ge Hours of Ac t u a l Co ns um p K il w t t
o a

Loa d Ser ice v Eva po

t ion , h ou r

in ra t io A ve ra g e by R a is
per n,
Pou nd s ing V a c
K il ow a t ts D ay . Poun d s .

K ilo uu m fro m
per
w a t t h ou r
-
. 2 6 Ins .

to 2 8 In s .

In the c a lcul a tio ns for the a bov e resul ts the ra te of i nterest w as

k at 5 per c ent and d ep reci atio n at
ta en .
p er c ent . on the ext ra

co st of equipm ent Co st of ex tra pow er co nsum ed w as at the

.

rate of I c ent per kilow a tt hou r and 1 0 c ents per 1 0 0 0 g allo ns of

-

f eed w ater sav ed

-
.

Al though it may be stated in g eneral th at it is p ro fitabl e to , ,

equip a statio n to op erate u nd er normal conditio ns at a v a cuum

of 2 8 i n ch es i nstead of 2 6 i nch es it will be ob serv ed from th e

'

a bov e tabl e th at th ere are c ases wh ere th ere is p ra c tic ally no

a dv a nta g e ei th er way In the thi rd c a se giv en wh ere the pl ant

.
,

ha s o nly a I o hou r lo ad and co al is ch ea p the g a i n is o nly 4 per

-
,

c ent .

Op eratio n at 2 9 i nch es v acuum comp ared wi th 2 8 i nch es is

not nea rly so f avo ra bl e to the high er v a cuum as the comp ari so n

of 2 8 i nch es wi th 2 6 i n ch es .

I t will be ob serv ed in the tabl e on the followi ng p ag e th at the

volum e of the stea m is i n c reased p ra c tic ally in the sa m e ra tio (the
volum e is p ra c tic ally doubl ed ) wh en the v a cuum is i nc reased f rom
2 8 i n ch es to 2 9 i n ch es a s w h en i n c reased f rom 2 6 i n ch es to 2 8

i n ch es Fig 1 8 1 show s g ra phic ally the v ery l arg e i n c rease in

. .

volum e of the stea m in its p assag e th rough the five sta ges of a
l arge C u rti s turbi ne op erati n g at 2 9 i n ch es v a c u u m .
2 7 8 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

full lo ad Ordi narily thi s f ac t is stated by sayi ng th at a ch ange

.

“ ”
in v acuum h as a g reater eff ec t at ligh t th an at full lo ad and ,

th at the eff ec t is mo re m ark ed at high th an at low v acuum s .

Eff ec t of v acuum on the steam co nsump tio n of any impul se

2 -

4 6 12 14 16 18 20
V a cu
um i n I nch es of M ercury

F IG . 1 90 . f theE ect
Percenta e C ur e O g v . ff of V acuum on the Steam Consumpti on
of a Si ngl e Stag e I mpul e T u b i ne
-
s r .

tu rbi nes of i l g y pe is p rob abl y show n v ery a ccu ra tely

the s ng e sta e t -

ie
by Fig 1 9 0 (rep roduc ed f rom Fig 8 8 ) ?
. .

I n th e t l og f th e G e e l E l e t i Comp y it i
ca a t ted t h t
s o u v e lik e n ra c r c an s s a a a c r

Fig 1 2 7 i typi l fo mo t C u ti s tu b i nes A tua ll y h ow eve a u ve lik e

. s ca r s r r . c , r, c r

Fig 7 8 is mo e ac u te Emmett ha s stated e entl y in a pub li h ed ommuni

. r c ra . r c s c

cat i on th a t
“a ound i h t h e h g e i e o nomy pe i n h i ent ;
7 n er a n 2 n c s pe c c r c s r c .

2 8 i nch e i h ”
pe e
s n t ; a n d 2 9 n
r c es p.e en t c r c .

P a son r t tes i n a pa pe
s s a ea d b efo e th e I n t i tut i on of E l e t i
r r l Engi nee s in r s c r ca r

h t i t b i e
“ th e b e e fi t d e iv ed f o m a g ood v a uu m i mu h mo e th an
1 0
9 4 t a n u n a n r r r c s c r

in a reci p o ati ng engi ne r c E v e y i n h of v uum b etween 3 a nd 8 i n h e

. r s a ff ects
c ac 2 2 c

the steam onsumpti on on a n a v e g e bout 3 pe

c ent in kil ow att ; 4 pe cent
ra a r c . a 1 0 0- r .

in a 5 0 kil ow a tt ; a nd 5 pe cent in a 1 5
0 ~ kil ow a tt tu b i ne the efl e t bei ng mo e at
r . 00 -
r ,
’
c r

high v acuum a nd l ess at l ow I t eem s v e y d oubtf u l to th e a uth o w h eth e in

.
”
s r r r,

g ene al v acuum o e ti on n be l si fi ed a o d i ng to the iz e of the tu b i ne

r ,
c rr c s ca c as cc r s r .

T h e e a e some v e y l a g e tu b i ne of the P so ns type O f w hi h the v

r r r r r a uum s ar c c

co ecti on is l ess th a n 4 pe
rr ent pe i n h of v uum r c . r c ac .
 ST EA M TU RB I N E ECO N O M I CS 2 79

T he v ari atio n of the steam co nsu mp tio n Of a 50 0 kilow att

-

Westi nghou se Pa rso ns tu rbi ne for v acuum s f rom

-
2 5 to 2 9 i nch es

F IG . 1 9 1 . C urves of Steam Consumpt ion of a 5 00 -

K il w
o att Westi nghouse Parsons-

T urb i ne for 2 5 ,
2 6 , 2 7, 2 8, a nd 2 9 I n he
c s V acuum .

f rom ligh t lo ad s to ov erlo ad s is illu strated by the cu rv es in Fig 1 9 1 . .

Wh at migh t b e c all ed a c urv e of no rm al v acuum co rrec tio n

2 80 T HE ST EA M TURBI N E

f ac to rs for comp ari ng tho se Of 2 6 2 7 and 2 9 inch es wi th 2 8 i nch es ,

in Westi nghou se tu rbi nes is giv en in Fig 1 9 2 . .

C hil to n * af ter stati ng th at the imp ressio n is no lo ng er so

,

common th at a high v acuum is necessarv to secu re good resul ts

w i th steam tu rbi nes say s th at the diff erenc e in eco nomy of Alli s
,

C h alm ers Parso ns turbi nes b etw een 2 4 and 2 7 i nch es v ac uum
—

is 5 per c ent per i nch B etw een 2 7 and 2 8 i nch es the savi ng is
. .

6 per c ent and b etw een 2 8 and 2 9 i nch es is 7 per c ent

.
,
.

F IG . 1 92 . V a cuum C orr ect io n F a cto rs for Westi ngh ou se Si ngl e Fl ow -

T urb i nes .

An id ea l iv e qu anti ty Of co nd ensi ng w ater requ i red

Of the re at

for di ff erent v a cuu m s may be g a i ned by comp ari ng th at requi red

for the u su a l op e ra t i n g v a cuum s F o r ex a mpl e wi th .i nj ec t ion ,

w ater of 7 0 d eg rees F the u su al temp eratu re upo n which con

.
,

d enser gu arantees are b ased it is cu stom ary to estim ate th at ,

to ob i
ta n a a u v c um of 2 7 i n ch e s a bou t 3 6 pou nd s of w a te r will b e

u sed for each pou nd of steam co nd ensed and abou t tim es thi s ,

qu anti ty is requi red for a v acuum of 2 8 i nch es Wi th i nj ec tio n .

w ater at 6 0 d eg rees F which may b e co nsid ered the wi nter tem

.
,

p erature th e qu an
,
t i t i e s r eq u i red for th e fo re goi n g v a cuum s a re

S treet R a ilw a y Journal ,

O ct . 19 ,
1
90 7 .
2 82 T HE ST EA M '
TU RB I N E

10 pec ent per 1 0 0 deg rees su perh eat for all sup erh eats f rom
r .

0 to 1 0 0 d eg rees F B etw een 1 0 0 and 1 50 d eg rees sup erh eat it

.

is a pp roxim ately 8 per c ent and b etween 1 50 and 2 50 d eg rees .

,

is abou t 6 per c ent It is the opi nio n O f the au tho r th at the

.

resul ts O f thi s i n v estig atio n ca n b e co nsid ered qui te a ccu rate as

,

a l arg e numb er of tests w ere comp ared A cu rv e Showi ng .

a pp roxim ately th e sa m e so rt of v a ri atio n in the sup erh eat co rree

tio n of D e L av al tu rbi nes is giv en in Fig 8 7 Chil to n states th at . .

tests of Alli s C h alm ers Parso ns tu rbi nes show th at the

-
“-
i n c re
m ent of savi ng b ecom es sm all er as the sup erh eat is i nc reased ; ”

a ddi n g th at for 50 d eg rees F sup erh eat the steam co nsump tio n .

is reduc ed 7 per c ent ( at the ra te of 1 4 per c ent per 1 0 0 d eg rees ) ;

. .

for 1 0 0 d eg rees 1 0 per c ent ; and for 1 50 d eg rees p er c e n t .

( a t th e ra te of a li ttl e mo re th an 8 per c ent per 1 0 0 d eg rees ) . .

A cco rdi ng to K ruesi of the General El ec tric C omp any 1 0 0

d eg rees F sup erh eat reduc es the steam co nsump tio n of Cu rti s
.

tu rbi nes 8 per c ent b ut

“ the first 50 d eg rees of sup erh eat is O f
.
,

g reater v alu e th an the seco nd 50 d eg rees .

Wh en steam at abo ut 1 50 pou nd s per squ are i nch g aug e

p ressu re is Su perh eated 1 0 0 d eg rees F the tOtal h eat of the .

stea m is i nc reased a bou t per c ent wi th a n addi tio nal fu el .

ex penditure of app roxim ately 6 per c ent if the boil er equipm ent .

is go o d N ow si nc e the stea m co nsump tio n is red uc ed f rom 8 to

.

1 0 per c ent for 1 0 0 d eg rees F . sup erh eat th ere is obviou sly a .

savi ng of f rom 2 to 4 per c ent in the co st of fu el . .

Exp eri enc e seem s to Show th at the b est eco nomic resul ts will
be ob ta i ned wi th from 1 0 0 to 1 50 d eg rees F sup erh eat for tur .

bi nes of the Parso ns ty pe and abou t 50 d egrees sup erh eat for ,

C u rti s tu rbi nes of mo re th an one sta g e In all ki nd s of tu rbi nes .

O f the si ngl e sta g e impul se typ e th ere is p rob ably a lw ay s a sa vi n g

-

B e u e u ve of te m on umpti on pe kilow tt hou f v yi ng upe

ca s c r s s a c s r a -
r or ar s r

h e ts ( lik e Fig 6 ) w ere a pp ently stra igh t li nes most tu bi ne engi nee s unti l
"

a . 1 2 ar ,
r r ,

ve y re ently beli eved th at a t high supe h eats the pe centag e co e ti on was

r c ,
r r rr c

i ncre sed i nstead of bei ng ed u ed as mo e e ent resul ts Sh ow Si nce it h s

a r c r r c . a

been f a i l y w ell e tab li h ed th t the pe ifi h ea t of supe h e ted ste m h s v e low

r s s a . s c c r a a a ry

a nd mi ni mu m v a l ues t f om bout 2 to 5 d eg ees F supe h eat th e l ater

a r a 00 2 0 r . r ,

e ul t
r s eem to b e the mo e easo nabl e
s s r r .
 ST EA M TU RB I N E ECO N O M I CS 2 83

of from 4 to 5 per c ent in fu el co st per 1 0 0 d egrees F sup erh eat

. .

wi thi n the p ra c tic abl e limi ts of sup erh eati ng .

Al though th ere is much yet to be d etermi ned co nc erni ng

sup erh eated stea m it h as b een Show n by exp eri en c e in tu rbi n e
,

pl ants th at a co nsid erabl e savi ng in fu el can be secu red by sup er

h eati ng the stea m at l east a mod erate a mou nt T he g reater .

savi ng in tu rbi nes of the Pa rso ns typ e ov er mul ti sta g e C u rti s -

tu rbi nes is d ue to the l arg er

“ ski n f ric tio n
”
or di sk and bl a d e
-

ro tatio n lo sses of the l arg e numb er of row s of bl ad es in Pa rso ns

tu rbi nes . T he cu rv es in Fig 69 Show the v ery l arg e p erc entag e

.

th at th ese lo sses are reduc ed wh en the bl ad es revolv e in d ry

stea m i nstead of w et stea m Wh en the admi ssio n steam to a

.

Parso ns tu rbi ne is d ry satu rated the steam in the low p ressu re -

sta g es will p rob ably h av e nea rly 2 0 per c ent of moi stu re whil e .
,

if it is sup erh eated 1 50 to 2 0 0 d eg rees F the stea m in th ese stag es

.

will be nearly d ry .

Fi nally the use of a highd eg ree of sup erh eat mu st d ep end not
,

o nly on the typ e of tu rbi ne the lo ad f a c to r and the siz e of the

, ,

u ni ts but al so upo n the natu re of the servic e as reg ard s sev ere
and f requ ent v ari atio n s in the lo ad h av i ng in mi nd the di ffi cul ti es
,

which h av e b een encou ntered in the p rac tic al op eratio n of sup er

h eaters stea m pipi ng v alv es pump s and auxili ary m a chi nery
, , , ,
.

R easo ns for th e Improv ed Eco nomy in Tu rbi nes and R ecipro

cati ng Engi nes D ue to Su perh eated Steam A g a i n in stea m a nd
.

fu el eco nomy resul ts f rom the use of sup erh eated stea m in ei th er
tu rbi nes or recip roc ati n g engi nes In the turbi ne the g a i n com es
.

p ri ncip ally from the reduc ed fluid f ric tio n of the stea m mov i ng
at a high v eloci ty th rough p a ssa g es a nd bl ad es som e of which ,

h av e al so a comp arativ ely high v eloci ty In a recip roc ati n g .

engi ne the g ai n f rom sup erh eated stea m is d ue to the reduc tio n of

cyli nd er co nd ensatio n resul ti ng in l ess lo ss due to the cooli ng of

,

the cyli nd er f rom th e reé vaporation of moi stu re at the low er

p ressu res near the end of the strok e On a ccou nt of thi s cooli ng
.

“
of the cyli nd er end s the lo ss d ue to the i ni ti al co nd ensatio n
,

of the steam admi tted on the retu rn strok e is of ten 4 0 to 50 per

c ent of the w eigh t of steam admi tted T hi s lo ss is p artly or
. .
2 84 T HE ST EA M TU RB I NE

i ly p rev ented wh en the stea m is sup erh eated d ep endi ng

ent re ,

upo n the d eg ree of su p erh eat In a steam tu rbi ne th ere IS a .

simil ar lo ss d ue to co nd ensa tio n but it is due a lmo st enti rely to

'

th e m ere ex pa nsio n Of th e steam T he w all s of the tu rbi ne .

c asi ng rem ai n how ev er at a p rac tic ally u nifo rm temp eratu re so

, , ,

th at th ere is no oppo rtu ni ty for lo ss th rough reé vaporation of

co nd ensed steam .

Steam Pressure B est Sui ted to Tu rbi nes It is the g eneral .

opi nio n of p rac tic al engi neers th at p rob ably the mo st eco nomic al
op erati ng p ressu re for the u su al pow er hou se servic es is a bou t —

1 50 pou nd s per squ are i n ch g au g e p ressu re ( 1 6 5 a b solu te) at the

th ro ttl e v alv e and th at a g reater savi ng can alw ay s be ob ta i ned

,

by the use of a mod erate a mou nt of sup erh eat th an by i nc reasi ng

the p ressu re b eyo nd thi s poi nt .

C hil to n states th at th ere is a g ai n of 2 per c ent in steam con .

sump tio n f rom i nc reasi n g the steam p ressu re f rom 1 50 to 1 7 5

pou nd s per squ are i nch and 1 per c ent for an i n c rease f rom .

1 7 5 to 2 0 0 pou nd s per squ are i n ch B ut ag ai nst the savi ng in .

fu el due to a reduc ed steam co nsump tio n mu st be ch arg ed the

i nc reased co st of pipi ng v alv es and boil ers and al so the lo ss due
, , ,

to i nc reased l eak ag e I nc reasi ng the steam p ressu re will al so

.

i nc rease co nsid erably the co st of the tu rbi ne A rough and “ .

”
rea dy co rrec tio n u sed a g reat d eal by tu rbi ne engi neers is One
tenth per c ent per pou nd
. .

Speed V ari atio n a s it Affects Eco nomy A steam tu rbi ne will .

giv e its b est eco nomy at som e p articul ar sp eed ju st as it has b een ,

fou nd to giv e its b est economy at som e d efini te lo ad F or thi s .

reaso n the d esig n of a tu rbi ne Should b e wo rk ed out v ery c arefully

.

wi th v eloci ty di ag ram s to d etermi ne wh eth er at the sp eed requi red

by the op erati ng co ndi tions it will g i v et he b est eco nomy Wh en .

ev er any ch ang es are m ad e in the d esign of a tu rbi ne th e ,

,

m anuf ac tu rers will alw a y s m ak e tests to d etermi ne the steam con

T he engi nee of th e We ti ngh ou e
rs nd G ene l El e t i
s omp ni e
s u e
a — ra c r c c a s s

p i ll y the ame co ecti on fo i ni ti a l p essu e It may be a dded th at the

ra ct ca s rr r r r .

correct i on for exh aust pressure ( b ack p essu e) of non ond ensi ng tu b i nes is a bout
r r -
c r

t en t i mes as l arg e as the o ecti on for i ni ti a l p essu e

c rr r r .
2 86 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

hou rs l c ic l ho pow hou rs In o rd er to m ak e com

or e e tr a rse er -
.

p ari so ns wi th the recip roc ati ng engi ne it w as nec essary to reduc e

al l to a co mmo n standard brak e h o rsepow er h o ur T o exp ress -
.

all the resul ts in thi s commo n stand ard v ariou s effi ci enci es mu st

be assu m ed In the c alcul atio ns the generato r efi ciencies giv en

.

on p ag e 3 6 2 w ere u sed to ob ta i n the followi ng co effici ents to

ch ang e the steam co nsu m p tio ns from the rate per kilow att hou r -

to th at per b rak e ho rsepow er hou r -

R a t in g of T u b ine
r
,
Coefli C Ient
K i low t ts
a .
.

0 0 a nd 4 00
3

to
to

M ech anic al ci ency Of recip roc ati ng engi nes of 3 0 0 0 to 50 0 0

effi

ho rsepow er is abou t 9 1 per c ent ; 1 0 0 0 ho rsepow er a bout 90 per.

,

c ent ; and 4 0 0 to 7 0 0 ho rsepow er abou t 8 9 per c ent

.
, .

In the followi ng tabl es are given t he stea m co nsump tio ns of a

l arg e numb er of steam tu rbi nes and som e p articul arly good
recip roc ati ng engi nes A g reat m any of the steam tu rbi ne tests
.

g iv en ar e a pp roxim ately the full lo ad d ata tak en f rom the tests

reco rd ed at the end of the p rec edi ng ch ap ter and som e o th ers are ,

tak en f rom C h a p ter V I .

T he rati ng s giv en in the tabl es are tho se for wh at is g eneral ly

“ ”
known by engi neers as full lo ad ; m eani ng that the tu rbine
can c arry eco n omic ally a lo ad at l east 50 per c ent l arg er th an .

thi s rati ng .T hi s statem ent is nec essary b ec a u se som e m anu

facturers use a rati ng b ased on maximum o utput .

Assumi ng av erag e v alu es of the co rrec tio ns giv en a bov e by

v ariou s au tho ri ti es an appro ximate equival ent steam consump tio n
,

h as b een c alcul ated for ea ch engi ne at 0 d eg rees F sup erh eat .

,

2 8 i n ch es v a cuum and 1 6 5 pou nd s per squ are i n ch ab solu te

,

steam p ressu re .
 ST EA M TU RB I N E ECO N O M I CS

ST EAIVI CO N SUM PT I O N O F T UR B IN ES .

A A meri can , E Eng ish l , F French , G = Germa n , S

°

Sw iss, an d WP Westi nghouse

Pa rsong .

C on d iti ons of T est .

T urbine

Inches . Lbs .
” m

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Zoell y

1 3 50

A ddi tiona l d a ta f rom rec ent . tests of stea m tu rbin es a re giv en

in ta bl es I and II p ag e 2 7 1 ,
.

Combined Steam Engine and Low pressure Steam Turb i ne -

.

The comb ina tion un i ts Of a l arg e A l li s engine wi th Cu rti s ex

(
hau st stea m tu rbi nes Fig I SI C p a g e 2 50 C) as i nsta ll ed in the see .
, ,

th St eet P ow e S t tio n O f th e I n te rbo rough M etropoli ta n

59 r r a -

Sy stem in N ew Y o rk h a v e a rated c ap a ci t y of ho rsepow er ,

Correction cur ve s in Fi g s . 87 a nd 8 8 were used to correct the D e La vl

a tests for s uperhea t an d
vacuum a nd t he usua l correction of . 1 per c ent . impro veme t n in economy per pound increase of .

pressure
\
.

F or Parsons and Pa rsons turbines the oll owin correct ons were used
V estinghouse -
f g i
Superheat ( 3 0 0 —1 0 0 0 k w ) 1 0 per cent ; ( 1 2 0 0 —7 5 0 0 k w ) 8 per cent per 1 0 0 d e rees F
. . . . g .

Va cuum ( 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 k w ) 4 per cent ; ( 1 2 0 0 7 5 0 0 k w ) 3 per cent per inch

- — . . . . .

P1 essure 1 per cent per pound

. . .

and the f llo owin gf or Curtis, Rateau, and Zoell y turbines

Superheat, 8 per cent per 1 0 0 de rees F . g .

Vacuum ( 2 6—2 8 ins ) 7 per cent ; ( 2 8 . . ins ) 8 per cent per

. . i nch .

Pressure . 1 per cent per pound . .

1 R eferred to 3 0 inches barometer .

2 88 T HE STEA M TU RBI N E

a nd giv e a steam co nsump tio n of pound s per kilowa tt

h ou r ( abou t pound s per i h p hou r) wi th stea m suppli ed . . .
-

to the engi ne i ni ti ally dry sa tu ra ted (no sup erh ea t) 1 9 4 pou nd s ,

e r squ a re i nch a b solu te p ressu re and exh au st i ng f rom the

p
t u rb ine at i nch es v a cuum referred to 3 0 i nch es b arom eter , .

S T EA M CO N SU M PT IO N O F R EC IP R OCATI N G E N GI N ES SHO WI N G EX C E PT IO N
ALL Y H I GH ECO N O MY .

St ea m per
Hour .

E n ine g .
r .
pm
. . i h p
. . . b h1 )
R eferences .

k
R oc w ood -
Wheel oc k '

59 5 o F Dea n Tra nsW

M
. . .
.

A S E 1 89 5 . . . .

M cInt osh Seymour . 1 07 6 20 F W D ea n Tra ns

. .
, .

1 89 8
v M
.

Lea it t Pum pin g En 576 0 E F. ill er Tech .

l
,

gine . nol ogy Q uarter y ,

V ol IX
J
. .

R ice Sa rgent 42 0 2 9 7 1 57 1 02 D S . acob us . .

Tra ns .

1 904
West inghouse ( v ert i
.

5 4 00 0 En g . R ecord . May
ca l ) . 28 . 1 90 4 .

3 600 3 08 V on d er K erch ove .

M cInt osh Seymour 2 0 00 92

B
( ost on )
A l li C h l me
.

s -
a rs ( New 7 5 00 0
Yo k ) r
M b it ( B e l in )
.

oa r 2 5 00 2 2 3
l M
.

E rie Lent z ( si mp e eu
-
2 82 1 41 J. A oyer . in
gi ne) P ower 1 9 1 2
k
. , .

B uc eye ( com pound 1 42 2 56 P ow er 1 9 1 2

en gi ne)
.
,

Effect Of Superh eat, V acu um, and Admi ssi on Pressure on the
Economy of R eci pro cati ng Engi nes A ccordi ng t o P rof esso r .

Sch ro eter *
the steam co nsump tio n of recip roc a ti ng stea m
engi nes is reduc ed abou t 6 per c ent for 50 d eg rees F and a bou t . .

9 per c ent for 1 0 0 d eg rees F Of sup erh ea t . ParsonS Thas . .

show n th a t in a tripl e exp ansio n engi ne the steam co nsump t io n

“
-

can be reduc ed o nly 4 p er c en t per i nch wi t h a n i nc rea se Of . .

Storm B ull Jou .

, rnal o f Western Society of
°
Engineers , D ecember, 1 903 .

TP roc . I nst . o f N aval A rchitects ,

Apr il ,
1 90 8 ; M echa ni cal Engineer M ay 1 , , 1 90 8 ,
a nd J ul y 1 9 0 5
D i e Turbine, ,
.

I Probabl y Worl d s records for stea m eng i nes

’
.
2 9 0 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

w as resp ec tiv ely pou nd s He stated th at the eq uiva

2 2 and 2 0 .

l ent resul ts wi th d ry satu rated stea m and 2 8 i nch es v acuu m

would be abou t ten per c ent .

It h as b een show n by rep eated tests th at the stea m consump

tio n of th ese tu rbi nes is not m ateri ally i nc reased wh en op erated

co nti nuou sly for lo ng p eriod s Weithammer ] states th at he .

L

m ad e tests Of a D e L av al tu rbi ne g enerato r wh en new and after -

fi ve y ears of servic e and c alcul ated the d eterio ratio n in eco nomy
,

t o be not mo re th an two per c ent ; a nd thi s low er effi ci ency w as .

p rob ably l a rg ely d ue to w ea r of the reduc tio n g ears I t would .

a pp ear th at the d eterio ratio n O f C u rt i s tu rbi nes should be ev en

l ess b ec au se of l ess ero sio n f rom stea m at v ery high v eloci ti es

a nd the ab senc e of the reduc tio n g ears It is stated th at th ere .

a re c ases wh ere D e L av al bl ad es h av e b een so much wo rn as to

r equi re repl aci ng in a year I Such an exp eri enc e is how ev er

.
, ,

u nu su al .

PO W E R P L AN T EC O N O MI C S .

T he followi ng ta bl e p rep aredby M r H G Sto tt of N ew Y o rk . . .

is i nteresti ng in m any of its i tem s A c tu al d ata w ere u sed to .

“
d etermi ne the v alu es u nd er the h ead s of M ai ntenanc e and ”

Op eratio n ”
T he first colum n is for a pl ant wi th compou nd
.

co nd ensi ng recip roc ati ng engi nes op erati ng wi thou t sup erh eat ,

a nd in all c ases the v alu es h av e b een sui tably co rrec ted to m ak e

the o th er colum ns di rec tly comp arabl e wi th the first .

M r Sto tt advoc ates the use of an exh au st stea m tu rbi ne to be

.

op erated by the exh au st steam f rom recip roc ati ng engi nes B y .

i nc reasi ng the p ressu re of the steam suppli ed a mod erate amou nt

a s w ell as sup erh eat i ng it the ou tpu t of a pow er pl ant of the typ e

rep resented by the first c olum n in the tabl e can b e doubl ed at a

c omp arativ ely sm all co st for tu rbi nes and boil ers .

E ctrical Engi neers, M ay,

Tra ns I nst.
f l e
. o 1 9 4
0 .

T D i e D a mpf tur bi ne n , pa e 1 04 g .

I L ea a nd M eden ,
T ransactions A merica n Soc M echa nical Eng i neers, V ol. . 2 5 .
 ST EA M T UR B I NE ECO N O M I C S 2 9I

D IST R I B UTIO N OF M AI NT EN A N CE A ND O P E R AT IO N .

( Cha r g e pe Ki l w t t H
s r o a -
ou r .
)

R ec ipro
ca t i ng

Stea m Eng ines

T urb ines . a nd

Stea m
T urb ines .

M i nten
a a nce .

: En gi ne room mech anic l ,

a

m B oile oom o p od u e oo m
r r r r c r r
a
C Coa l a nd ash h nd li ng a ppa a

ra tus
:
4 El ectri ca l a p a ra tus
p .

O pera t ion .

" . Coa l h and li ng l abo

a nd ash r
. .

N
S R emova l of ashes
’

T D oc k renta l
°
9 B oil e room l abo
r , r

9 . B oil er room Oil w aste et

, , , c.

1 0 .

1 1 . Water
1 2 . Engi ne room, mech a ni ca l
l abor
1 3 . Lub ri cati on
1 4 . Waste , etc
“
1 5 . El ectri c
l abo ”
f r. .

R el ative cost of mai ntenance a nd

O perati on

R el ati ve i nve tment in pe ent

s rc . .

T h at the steam tu rbi ne

pl ant has an i nh erent eco nomy Of 2 0 '

p er c ent b etter t
.h an th e b est t yp e of re cip roc a ti ng e ngi ne ins tal l a

t io n is show n by a comp ari so n of the first and seco nd colu m ns .

Pri ces of Steam Turbines Fig 2 0 6 show s by m eans of cu rv es . .

the p ric e per k ilo watt of the no rmal full lo ad rating of tu rbi ne

g enerato rs op erati ng co nd ensi ng T he p ric es giv en are the .

a v era g es of tho se giv en by a numb er of m anuf a c tu rers at a tim e

wh en the co st of fou nd ry pig i ro n w as abou t $ 2 0 per ton It is .

estim ated th at the v alu es giv en by the cu rv es will be ch ang ed

roughly abou t 2 e c ent fo v i t io n f $ in th e p ric e of

p r r a ar a O 1 .

fou nd ry pig i ro n .

Unl ess som e such stand a rd of v alu es is giv en such resul ts ca n

be of li ttl e v alu e a v ery sho rt tim e af ter the cu rv es are p rep ared .
2 9 2 T HE ST EA M T URB I N E '

No co nd ensi ng tu rbi nes co st abou t 5 per c ent l ess th an con

n — .

d ensing m a chi nes Pric es of 2 5 cycl e and 6 0 cycl e g enerato rs

.
- -

a re u su ally a bou t the s a m e Pric es do n ot i n clud e ch arg es for .

f reigh t and erec tio n which in the eastern and middl e w estern
,

states are abou t $ 1 to $ 1 50 per kilow att . .

50 1 00 1 50 200 25 0 300

Ra ted F ul l Load Kw .

F IG . 2 06 . Cur es v of the A pprox mate Pr ce i i of Stea m T urb i ne -

G enerators per

K il ow att of the R a ted F ul l Load O utput of the G ene ra tor .

Mr W C Gottsh all who has v ery c arefully Inv estig ated pow er
. . .
,

pl ant eco nomic s has coll ec ted the d ata on the followi ng p ag e
, ,

publi sh ed in 1 9 0 3 reg ardi ng the p rob abl e m aximum and mini

,

mum co sts per rated kilow att i nstall ed of a pow er pl ant equip
m ent of abou t kilow a tts c ap ci y
a t * .

H igh grad e pow er statio ns of f rom 50 0 0 to

-
kilow atts
c ap aci ty wi th tho roughly mod ern equipm ents co st u su ally from
$ 1 0 0 to $ 1 2 5 per kilow a tt In a few very l arge stations wi th .

high grad e equipment the co st has b een abou t $ 60 per kilow a tt

-

i nstall ed ; but for statio ns und er kilow atts c ap a ci ty the ’

co st is rarely b elow $ 90 per kilow att .

A buildi ng of modern fa ctory t yp e of co nstru c tio n ( one sto ry

steel and gl ass) co sts abou t $ 1 per squ a re foo t of floo r sp a c e .

Gott h ll St eet R ilway E onomi s a ,

r a c cs .
2 94 TH E ST EA M TU RBI N E

miz d co sts of
I te ekilow a tt pow er pl ant Of the Fo rt the 8 50 0 -

Wa y ne and Wab a sh V all ey R a ilw a y Comp any a t Fo rt Wa y ne ,

Ind are giv en by B ibbi ns a s follow s

.
,

Sub statio n app aratu s and b uildi ng s are Of cou rse n ot , ,

i nclud ed D rawi ng s and a pho tog raph Of thi s stati o n are sho w n
.

In Fig s 1 9 9 and 2 0 0 . .

T he doubl e d eck a rrang em ent and the i nstall ation Of b a ro

-

m etric co nd ensers d esig ned for a mod erate v acuum m ak e the ,

fi rst co st of thi s statio n v ery low .

B uil d i ng I n l ud i g gene l : c n ra concrete a nd stee l w or k ,

coa l bu n
k er, smo ke fl ue , cond enser i
p t, coa l stora ge pit , etc

B il e pl
o r a nt : I n l ud i ng
c boil ers, super he a ters , sto ke rs , ppn i i g ,

pum h e te s etti ng b eechi ngs and t nk

ps, a r ,
s s, r ,
a

G ene ti ng pl nt I ncl ud i ng tu b i nes gene to ex i te

ra a : ble r ,
ra rs, c rs , ca s,

sw i t h bo d t nsf o me s a nd v entil a ti ng d u t
c ar s, ra r r ,
c s .
3 0 .
55
C ondense pl ant I n l ud i ng conden e s
r pumps pi pi ng
: f ee c s r , , ,
r

ex h u sts w ate tunnel s

a nd i nt k e sc een
,
r , a a r

C o l h nd li ng pl a nt I n l ud i ng g u ntree
a -
a ne u h e m oto : c a cra ,
cr s r rs,

a nd t k rac

Ere ti on upe i ntend en e nd engi nee i ng

c , s r c ,
a r

T ot a l , exc ud n l i g p ro
perty a nd S i d i ng

The co sts are b ased upo n the followi ng ass ump tio ns
Per Cent .

( ) a i Bo
n te e t a n d nd
t xes r s a

( )
b S i n ki n g f und e q u iv l ent to ,
a per cen t . d eprec i ti o n
a

( ) T
c o t l fi xed h a g e a on c pi ta l c r s a cost .

D ep reci atio n d etermi ned by summi ng the d ep reci atio n on the

sev eral p arts of the pl ant as follow s : buildi n g e r c ent ;
3 p ,
.

boil er pl ant and co al h andli ng a pp aratu s 1 0 per c ent ; cond ens -

,
.

ing pl ant 6 per c ent ; g enerati ng pl ant

, p er c en t ; g en eral .
,
.

av era g e p e r c ent ,
.

In ac lcul ati n g the co st of an el ec tric pow er p l ant it is n ec essa ry

to co nsid er the p rob abl e lif e of the pl ant so as to m ak e co rrec t ,

y early reduc tio ns for d ep reci atio n Of ten thi s is mo re or l ess .

of gu ess wo rk on the p art of the co nstruc to r or ow ner and for

-
,
 ST EA M TU RB I N E ECO N O M I CS 2 95

t hi s reas on the followi ng

c ent i ssu e of Z eitschrif t ta bl e f rom a re

l es V erei nes deutscher I ngeni eure is i nteresti ng

f
T he figu res .

giv en are tho se u sed by two Engli sh public co rpo ratio ns two ,

Engli sh engi neers and a seri es of figu res tak en f rom Germ an
,

tech nic al public at io ns C o nd i tio ns in Am eric a are som ewh at .

different f rom tho se Of Eu rop e and the d ep reci atio n is u su ally

som ewh at greater .

ESTI M A T ED Y E A R S OF LI F E .

h
A u t ori t y .

B uil d i g n s
B ileo rs

Steam en nes gi
Steam turb nes i
G as en nes gi
Wa ter t urb nes i
D ynamos
g
Stora e batter es i
f
T ra ns ormers
i h
Sw tc bo a rd s
l i
E ectr c ca b es ( cond uctors) l
E ectr c meters
l i
A rc ligh
ts .

h av e b een m ad e by L G F rench of the co st

C omp ari so ns . .

of two siz es of tu rbi ne g enerato rs wi th co rrespo ndi ng recipro -

c ati ng engi ne co sts He states th at the co st of a 7 50 kilow att

.
-

tu rbi ne g enerato r wi th a su rf ac e co nd enser ( op erati ng v a cuum

-

not g i v en ) and i ncludi ng fou nd atio ns a nd i nstall atio n ch arg es

w as $3 7 per kilow att A Simil a r recip roc ati ng engi ne pl ant co st

.

$4 0 per kilow att A 1 50 0 kilow att tu rbi ne g enerato r wi th a simil ar

.
- —

co nd enser equipm ent co st per kilow a tt i ncludi n g found a ,

tio ns and i nstall a tio n whil e a recip roc ati n g engi ne equipp ed
,

simil arly co st per kilow a tt .

O ok of the N Y Ed i on C
rt t te th t the omp ny h
. .h d 4 m ll
s O . s a s a c a as a 0 s a

stea m turb nes of the i i mpul se type in ser vi ce for five yea rs w t ih i ll
pract ca y no

expense for repa rs i .

2 9 6 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

I t isg enerally b eli ev ed by engi neers who h av e do ne rec ent

wo rk in the equipm ent of l arg e new steam pow er statio ns th at it
is n ot v ery p rob abl e th at l arg e recip roc ati ng en gi nes will ev er a g ai n
be i nstall ed to d ev elop pow er for el ec tric al di stribu tio n O ne .

reaso n is th at tu rbi ne d riv en al tern ato rs are p art icul arly ad a p t-

abl e for p arall el op eratio n T he low first co st and Op erati ng .

exp enses of tu rbi ne g en erato r u n i ts a s w ell as the savi ng in th e

—

co st of fou nd atio ns and floo r sp ac e are al so v ery impo rtant

co nsid eratio ns A m anuf ac tu rer of v ery l arge siz es of bo th
steam
.

tu rbi n es a nd recip roc ati n g en gi nes h as S t ated th at a l arg e

pow er statio n if equipp ed wi th recip roc ati ng engi nes i nstead of

stea m tu rbi nes would co st at l east f rom 3 5 to 6 0 per c ent mo re .

t h an a tu rbi ne statio n of the sam e c ap aci ty .

T h e followi ng i nteresti ng tests of the pow er required to o pera te

th e a uxi l i ary ma ch inery * need ed for a Curt i s tu rbi ne w ere
repo rted by the T u rbi ne Commi ttee of the N atio nal El ec tric

L igh t Associ atio n in 1 90 5 T he d ata apply to the auxili ari es of .

T he qua nti ty oi i cul ati ng w ate eq ui ed fo high v acuum ondensi ng

'
c r r r r r -
c

pl a nts mu s t b e i nc eased f om the old sta nda d of f rom 2 5 to 3 0 pound s to f om 4 0

r r r r

to 6 0 pound s of w a ter per pound of stea m cond ensed for modera te temperatures,
a nd f ro m 60 to 1 00 w a ter per pound of stea m w en used a t the h
pound s of er h igh
t empera tures commo n to coo n tow er pra ct ce li giv h
I n ca ses of ex cess e ea d or i .

q ua nti ty of ci cul ti ng w a ter the bulk of the powe eq ui ed by aux ili a i es is due to
r a r r r r

the i cu l a ti ng pump
c r T hera ng e of pow e fo thi s pu pose va i es so w i del y th at
. r r r r

the ol d e method of assumi ng a giv en type of pl a nt eq ui i ng 5 1 0 or 1 5 pe

r ent r r , , r c .

of th e tota l stea m consumpti on to d iv e a ux ili a i es is ent i el y in e or w i th out a n r r r rr

accompa nyi ng t tement d efi ni ng cond i ti ons und e w hi ch ci cul a ti ng w ater is

s a r r

u m ed T h e po w e r to d iv e the a ir pump is d epend ent somew h at u o n the

r
p p .
p
v acuum but parti ul a l y upon the ai l eak ag e i nto the condensi ng system It was
,
c r r .

for some t i me assumed th at the work of the a ir pump co espond ed to emovi ng rr r

t he a ir w hi h ente ed th e boil er in sol uti on in f eed w ate

c r As a matte of fa t -
r . r c ,

h and li ng the a ir in sol ution is the sma ll est porti on of wo k done by a n a ir pump the r ,

l eak ag e th ough pi pi ng ; pi pe j oi nts po es of casti ngs stuffing boxes etc i mposi ng

r ,
r ,
-

, .
,

the g eate t d uty the tota l q uant i ty of a ir to be h a nd l ed ra ngi ng f rom ten o fi f teen
r s ,
r

to thi rty o forty ti mes the ai d i ssolv ed in o d i nary w ate

r T he a ctua l power to
r r r .

d riv e the ai pump sh oul d in g ood p acti ce be l ess th a n 0 0 0 1 8 i nd i cated h orsepower

r r .

in th e a i pump cyli nde per pound of exh aust steam pe h our

r r A s the amount of r .

p ow e nrecessa ry to d iv e the a i pump is a compa a tiv el y sma ll porti on of the tota l

r r r

power fo a ux ili a i es a sligh t e ro in thi s q ua nti ty w ill not l a g el y a ff ect the fi nal
r r r r r

resul t . C C Moore Journal of El ectricity P ower and Gas M arch 1 9 0 5

. .
, , , , ,
.
2 9 8 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

gi
en nes s imil ar to th e C o rli ss t yp e h a v e a fi eld which fo r a nu m
b er of y ea rs p rob ably th e stea m t
,
u rbi n e c an n o t ente r succ ess

fully For i rregul ar lo ad s sudd enly appli ed lik e tho se of rolli ng

.
, ,

FI G . 1 95 . C om
pa rat i ve Fl oor Sp
a ce Rq i
e u red for C urt i s- T urb i nes
.

mill s and mi ne hoi sts the recip roc ati ng engi ne has adv antages
ov er the steam tu rbi ne exc ep t p erh ap s wh en the tu rbi ne is u sed
,

in co c io
nne t n wi th an el ec tric d riv e B ec a u se recip roc ati n
. g
 ST EA M TU RB I N E ECO N O M I CS 2 99

w ater pump s and a ir comp resso rs are mo re effi ci ent at l east up ,

to the p resent tim e th an c entrifug al pump s and comp resso rs

, ,

recip roc ati ng en gi nes are i nv ari ably i nstall ed in w aterwo rk s and

comp ressi ng pl ants In co tto n and wool en mill s and shop s

.
,

wh ere the pow er is transmi tted by b el ts sh af ti ng and rop es , ,

i nstead of by el ec tric al m ethod s the recip roc ati ng engi ne b ec au se

,

of its slow er sp eed is g enerally p referabl e .

Stated in a few wo rd s the stea m tu rbi ne is u nriv al ed by stea m

,

recip roc ati ng en gi nes for d rivi ng a pp aratu s which can b e op erated

effi ci ently at a high sp eed SO th at a di rec t co nnec ted u ni t can b e -

m ad e .

Para l l el o peratio n of al ternato rs is g reatly f a cili tated wh en th ey

are d riv en by tu rbi nes rath er th a n by recip roc ati ng engi nes T h ere .

are alw a y s di ffi cul ti es wh en recip roc a ti ng mo tio n is to b e con

v erted i nto sy nch ro nou s mo tio n B esid es the adv anta g es of a

.

u nifo rm tu rni ng mom ent which m ak es po ssibl e such clo se sp eed

regul atio n th at it is po ssibl e to op erate ra ilw a y pow er and , ,

ligh ti ng ci rcui ts f rom one tu rbi ne b ec au se of its high sp eed it

,

p roduc es a mo re pow erf ul regul ati ng fo rc e wi thou t the use of a

fl y wh eel th an th at of anyengi ne d riv en uni ts of the sa m e c ap aci ty
- -
.

Wh ere a stea m tu rbi ne is i nstall ed in a pl ant wi th pi sto n engi nes

or w ater wh eel s its inerti a or fl y w h eel eff ect h as a steadyi ng
- -

eff ec t on th e w hol e sy stem As a n ex a mpl e of thi s i nert i a eff ec t

.

it is sta ted th a t a 3 50 0 kilow a tt Cu rti s tu rbi ne and g enera to r

-

has a t the ra ted sp eed ( 7 50 a

“ sto ra g e energy
”
of
foo t pou nd s which is suffi ci ent to enabl e the m achi ne
-

to c arry a t a ny lo ad an addi tio nal lo ad equ al to the full rati n g

for abou t 7 5 of a seco nd w i th a d rop in sp eed of o nly 3

.

er c ent and wi thou t a ddi tio nal stea m T hi s m a chi ne could

p . .

c arry a mom entary i nc rease of lo ad of h alf the rati ng for

sepond s .

Floo r Space for Pow er Plants C omp a c tness exp resses w ell
.

the p rim ary requi si te for the eco nomic al d esig n of mod ern pow er

statio ns T he sm all sp ac e occupi ed by a C u rt i s stea m tu rbi ne

.

comp ared wi th th at req ui red for a recip roc ati ng ( Co rli ss ) engi ne
A H K ruesi, P roc A merica n S treet a nd I nterurba n R a il w ay A ssoci ation,
. . . 1 90 7 .
3 0 0 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

Of the m e c ap aci ty is w ell Shown by Fig 1 9 5 Floo r sp ac e

sa . .

occupi ed by Westi nghou se tu rbi ne g enerato rs is giv en by the

-

cu rv es in Fig 1 9 6 Showi ng the numb er of squ are f eet occupi ed

.
,

er kilow att or e b k e ho epow e C omp ri so ns of the

p p r ra rs r a .

sp ac e requi red for pow er u n i ts a re of li ttl e v alu e how ev er u nl ess , ,

the sp ac e for the co nd ensi ng app aratu s and auxili ary m achi nery
is al so consid ered It is p rob ably f ai r to assum e th at for the
.

FIG . 1 96 . Fl oor Space Req ui red for Westi ngh ouse T urb i nes .

o di tions wh ere a recip roc ati ng engi ne would be Op erated at 2 6

c n

i nch es v acuu m co nd ensers for a tu rbi ne pl ant would be d esig ned

for 2 8 i nch es v acuu m N ow the volum e of steam at 2 6 i nch es
.

v acuum is v ery nearly h alf th at at 2 8 i nch es Wh en su rfac e .

cond ensers are u sed th erefo re the v ery g reat i nc rease in the siz e
, ,

of the co nd enser equipm ent for tu rbi ne pl ants is v ery Obviou s .

F or thi s reaso n th ere has b een a tend en cy in rec ent y ears to

i nstall b arom etric or the op en typ e of jet co nd enser for steam
tu rbi nes .

A v ery rec ent i nstall ati o n of Westi n ghou se Parso ns tu rbi nes -

b arom etric co nd ensers and Sti rli ng boil ers is illu strated in
,
3 0 2 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

b arom etric co nd ensers and the low to tal co st of pow er hou se and
,

equipm ent It is p rob ably one O f the mo st comp ac t arrang e

.

m ents po ssibl e in a steam tu rbi ne pl ant co nsi stent wi th high

eco nomy in op eratio n .

In thi s
“ ”
doubl e d eck d esig n the ho rizo ntal tu rbi ne and
-

b arom etric cond ensers are at th ei r b est adv antage as reg ard s
comp ac tness and effi ciency * The co nnec tions b e tw een the .

tu rbi n es and the co nd ensers are sho rt and di rec t which obvi ates ,

the lo sses occurri ng wh ere th ere are b end s in th ese co nnec tio ns ,

and the co st of l arg e exh au st pipi n g is sav ed T he atmo sph eric .

reli ef v alv e of th e tu rbi ne is pl a c ed b etw een the floo r gi rd ers so ,

th at it w as po ssibl e to m ak e the di stanc e b etw een the floo r l ev el

and the co nd en ser h ead o nly f eet For statio ns not at tid e .

w ater tu rbi ne pl ants are u su al ly op erated at a mod erate v a cuu m

,

of b etw een 2 7 and 2 8 i nch es B arom etric cond ensers are now .

b ei ng mad e to m ai ntai n thi s v acuum wi thou t the use of auxili ary

d ry air pump s
-
.

Wi th su rf ac e co nd ensers by far the mo st comp ac t arrang em ent

is O b tai ned by i nstalli ng Cu rti s v ertic al tu rbi nes wi th a cond enser
b ase B y thi s arrang em ent a v ery di rec t connec tio n b etw een
.

the tu rbi ne and the co nd enser is secu red ; but in p la c es wh ere

th ere Is lik ely to be trou bl e wi th l ea ky tub es m o st eng i neers will
p refer a co nd enser sep arate from the tu rbi ne .

D rawi ng s showi ng the c ro ss sec tio n and pl an of a d esig n for .

-

ho rizontal tu rbi nes B abcock 81 Wilcox boil ers and b arom etric
, ,

co nd ensers are shown in Fig 1 9 9 An ex terio r vi ew of the . .

sam e statio n showi n t h e co al h andli ng equipm ent is illu strated

g
-

by Fig 2 0 0 . .

Pl an and el ev atio n of a pow er statio n wi th the tu rbi nes and

boil ers On app roxim ately the sam e floo r l ev el are rep resented by -

the d rawi n g s in Fig s 2 0 1 and 2 0 2 The first of th ese fi gu res is

. .

p articul arly i nteresti ng b ec au se it show s v ery cl early the arrang e

i mil a
A s r
“doubl e d eck-
a rra n gement
h as been proposed for pow er p ants l
ope ated by h orizonta l gi nes a nd prod u cers I n suc a d es n, w ere pro h ig h
r
gas en .

d ucers, scrubbers, a nd a l l a ux ili ari es are pl a ced on th e second fl oor it ,

has been
h
s ow n t h at the g round -
fl oor a rea w as on y l 5 s q ua re f eet per kil ow att .
 ST EA M T URB I N E ECO N O M I CS 3 3
0

h r» : C A L F LOO R S YR UC T U EC 5 7 1 !T I O N

m
15 0 0 a 15 0 0 xw

T
l ONGIT UDINAL FLOO R ELEV A ION

T N L
RA SV ERSE F OOR EL EVA IO T N
FIG
. 1 99 .
L ongi tud i n l a a nd v
T rans erse Sect ions of Power Station .
3 4
0 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

m ent of uxili ari es In stations equipp ed wi th su rf ac e con

the a

d ensers . Fig 2 0 3 is i ntend ed to Show p articul arly the pi pi ng

.

a rrang em ents for a typic al pow er statio n h avi n g the tu rbi nes

and auxili ary equipm ent in a room adj oi ni ng th e boil er room .

F IG . 2 00 . i
V ew Of the P ow er House Sh ow n in Fig . 1 99 .

O ILI N G SY ST EM S FO R ST EA M TU RBI N ES .

A p erf ec t oili ng sy stem is ObvIOusl y a nec essi ty for any

m achi nery op erati ng at a high sp eed T he effi ci ency of tu rbi nes.

of the Parso ns typ e d ep end s l arg ely on the sm all ness of the radi al
cl earanc es b etw een the ro to r and the c asi ng N ow if th ere is .

a ny di spl a c em ent of th e ro to r wi th resp ec t to th e c asi n g c aused , ,

for ex ampl e by the m el ti n g of the whi te m etal in one of the m a i n

,

“
b eari ngs the bl adi ng migh t be enti rely torn or stripp ed and ”
, ,

the tu rbi ne would p rob ably b e out of servic e for sev eral w eek s .

In Cu rti s tu rbi nes wi th v ertic al Sh af ts on th e o th er h and v ery , ,

seriou s resul ts migh t occu r if th e fl ow O f oil to the step b eari n g

should b e i nterrup ted .

3 0 6 T HE ST EAM T URB I NE
STEA M RB I NE
TU ECO N O MI CS 30 7
 T HE ST EA M RB I NE
TU

T h ere are two u su al m ethod s Of lub ric atio n for steam tu rbi nes
I ) the c entral sy stem a nd ( 2 ) the si ngl e u n i t sy stem
( .

In the c ase of the c entral sy stem an oil tank is pl a c ed at a high

p oi n t i n th e buildi n g an d t he oil fl O w s th rough pip es by g ra vi ty

”
t o the b eari ng s of the tu rbi ne B y m eans of a p arall el sy stem
.

o f pipi ng any numb er Of tu rbi nes can be suppli ed f rom one oil

t ank . T he oil l eavi ng the b eari ng s flow s i nto a sui tabl e fil teri ng
a pp aratu s p rovid ed wi th cool ing coil s f rom which it is pump ed

b ack to the m a i n supply tank T he chi ef Obj ec tio n to thi s system

.

i s the d ang er of a to tal shu t dow n of the oili ng sy stem c au sed by

-

a poo r joi nt or a b rok en pip e b etw een the supply tank and the

t u rbi ne b eari ng s .

The al tern ate sy stem in which each tu rbi ne has its own oil
,

s upply and pump h as th e a dv antag e in th at it assi sts in reduci n g

,

t he ri sk of a to tal shu t dow n of the pl ant to a mi nimum and if

-

t he oil is spoil ed in one tu rbi ne d ue to b ei ng mix ed wi th w ater ,

o r b ei ng ov erh eated the enti re supply of the statio n is not

,

rui ned .

Until rec ently nearly all m anuf a c tu rers of Parso ns tu rbi nes
s uppli ed th ei r m achi nes w i th plu ng er recip roc ati n g oil pump s .

I n thi s resp ec t an i nnov atio n h as b een i ntroduc ed in Westi ng

'

h ou se tu rbi nes by the use Oi a ro tary oil p ump show n in Fig 2 0 4 . .

I n the d rawi ng s Show n h ere th ere are tw o sec tio nal vi ew s of the
ump A wo rm g ear on the tu rbi ne Shaf t transmi ts pow er to
p .

t he pump by m eans of the g ear wh eel I O T he di rec tio n of ~

.

r o tatio n of th e Sh a f t a nd of the fl ow of oil is show n by a rrow s in

t he sec tio ns . T he pump cyli nd er and its ro to r are n ot con

c entric and m etal strip s b a ck ed by sp ri n g s a re i nserted i nto
, , ,

s l o ts in th e ro to r T h ese strip s are fo rc ed out by the sp ri ng s to

.

t ouch the i nsid e of th e pump cyli nd er in ev ery po si tio n SO as to ,

f o rm pock ets i nto which the oiL enterS on one Sid e and is d is
c h arg ed f ro in the O theriS id e Simil ar ro tary p ump s are v ery
‘

g e n er ally u sed for all ki nd s of en gi n eeri ng servic es .

A sui tabl e oili ng sy stem for a Cii rtis tu rbi ne ( i ncludi ng the
s tep b eari ng ) is w ell illu strated di ag ra mm atic ally by F ig 2 0 5 . .

A l arg e sto ra g e tank Show n a t the righ t h and sid e of the fi gu re

,
-

,
3 10 T HE ST EA M TU RB I NE

OF? A C C

F IG . 2 05 . O ili ng System for a C urti s T urb i ne

.
 ST EA M TU R B INE ECO N O M I CS 3 1 I

pip es from the upp er b eari ng s and from the hyd raulic mo to r dis
ch arg e i nto a common rec eiv er in which the stream s are vi sibl e ,

so th at the oil d i stribu tio n can b e alw a y s ob serv ed .

At som e poi nt in the high p ressu re sy stem adj ac ent to the pump
-

a d evic e is u su ally i nstall ed to equ aliz e th e di sch arg e of oil f rom

the pump . O rdi n arily Curti s tu rbi nes are p rovid ed wi th a sm all
sp ri ng a ccumul ato r for thi s pu rpo se exc ep t for c ases where,

w eigh ted sto rag e accumul ato rs are to be i nstall ed A sto rage .

a ccumul ato r is u su ally recomm end ed for l a rg e pow er statio ns .

It can b e arrang ed so th at it will no rm ally rem ai n full but will ,

di sch arg e if the p ressu re f ail s and start au tom atic ally auxili ary
,

pump s .

Pi pi ng for Su perh eated Steam M uch of the troubl e resul ti ng

.

f rom the use of sup erh eated steam is due not so much to w ant of
streng th as to the w ant of el astici ty in th e p arts a ff ec ted T h ese .

troubl es are d ue p art icul arly to the u nc ea si ng v ari atio ns in

temp eratu re resul ti ng f rom fl uc tu a ti ng lo ad s rath er th an f rom

high temp eratu res As it is po ssibl e for w ater to exi st in the

.

liquid state in sup erh eated steam the v ari atio ns in temp eratu re
,

may p roduc e a sp rayi ng of highly h eated su rf ac es which g reatly ,

i nc reases th ese di fficul ti es Ch ang es in the d esig n of pip e

.

fitti n g s v alv es boil ers and su p erh eaters should be m ad e to allow

, , ,

for thi s ab no rm al co ndi tio n It is d esi rabl e to use anneal ed steel

.

c asti ng s in pl ac e of c ast i ro n for fitti ng s and v alv e c asi ngs and

-

the use of copp er for internal p a rts of v alv es and g ask ets should
be avoid ed . L ow v eloci ti es in steam pipi ng which h av e b ecom e ,

cu stom ary on accou nt of the pul sati ng flow of recip roc ati ng
steam engi nes a re not sui tabl e for sup erh eated stea m
,
Si nc e .

fl exibili ty is so impo rtant a co nsid eratio n in pipi ng for sup er

h eated steam it is nec essary to use comp arativ ely sm all siz es of
,

pip es and fitti ngs .

In Cu rti s tu rbi nes K ruesi states a v eloci ty of at l east 1 4 0 f eet

, ,

p er seco nd
( abo u t 8 50 0 f eet per mi nu te) is d esi rabl e for d ry sat

urated stea m .N ow if the stea m is sup erh eated 1 0 0 d eg rees F .

the volum e is i nc reased 1 5 per c ent but

“ the v eloc i ty in the
.
,

pip es will be sub stanti ally the sam e on accou nt of the reduc tio n
3I2 T HE ST EAM T U RB I N E

in the stea m consump tion of the tu rbi ne . Al though thi s

statem ent is not qui te a ccu rate b ec a u se the stea m co nsump tio n of

Cu rti s tu rbi nes is u su ally reduc ed only 8 to I O per c ent per 1 0 0

.

d egrees F sup erh eat it is an impo rtant ob serv atio n th at the siz e
.
,

of pipi ng should not be i nc reased in p ropo rtio n to the i nc rease in

volum e of the steam due to sup erh eati ng .
3 I4 T HE ST EAM T U RB I N E

f reely ro tati ng ri ng of radiu s r i nch es v eloci ty , V f eet per seco nd ,

wi th an angl e 0 sub tend ed by the sec to r is ,

CF
r
g
12

wh ere g is the a cc el eratio n d ue to g ravi ty .

T hi s c entrifug al fo rc e tendi ng to exp and the ri ng by i nc reasi ng

its ci rcumf erenti al dim ensio n s
sets up stresses which for ,

the pu rpo ses of c alc ul atio n ,

may b e rep resented by tan

g en tia l fo rces a t th e en d s of
the sec to r T h ese fo rc es are
.

n ec essarily equ al for eq uil ib

ri um an d are Show n a s T and

T in Fig 2 0 8 . I f the b read th

.

of the sec to r is rep resented

by 111 i nch es and the radi al
thick ness by 11 i n ch es th en ,

the area of th e sec tion ov er

F G 8 Fo e in the B l de B nd I 20 rc s a a
which thi s stress is di stribu ted Sh ud R i g
. .

or ro n
is mn squ are i n ch es ; and if
.

S is th e u n i t tensil e stress in pou nd s per squ a re i nch eac h tan ,

g en ti al fo rc e is exp ressed by

T mnS .

T hi s fo rc e T on the section is tang enti al and Si nc e ,

c entrifug al fo rc e (CF ) mu st be equilib rated by an

radi al fo rc e T0 or for equilib rium

CF T0 T,

mnSfi
I
g
.

1 2

T hi s l i is ob vi ous f m th e g eomet y of the fi ure g I t is, of course,

‘

re at on ro r .

not q ui te accu ve y nea l y co ect fo sma ll v a l ues of 0

rate, but r r rr r .

T I t c a nnot be a ssu med t h a t a t th e mom ent of uptu e th e st es s w ill be d is r r r

t ri buted between the two se ti ons T he a ssumpt i on ma de in the eq uat i ons is

c .
,

h owever ve y much on the safe si de

,
r .
 ST R ESSES IN R ING S ,
D R UM S ,
I
AN D D SK S 3 5
1

Now if z is thew eigh t in pou nd s of a cubic i nch of the m ateri al

of the ri ng , the l eng th of the sec to r ( Fig 2 0 8 ) is t 0 i nch es ; th en
.

W mnrfiz ,

mnr zV
2

g
i mn8 0,

IZ

T hi s equ atio n how s th at the u ni t stress in a bl ad e ri ng or b and

S

d ep end s o nly on the w eigh t of the m ateri al and on the p eriph eral
v eloci ty T he l ast equ atio n can al so be exp ressed in ano th er
.

fo rm rem emb eri ng th at

,

W h ere d is thedi am eter in i nch es to the c entral li ne of the ri ng

and N is the numb er of revolu tio ns per mi nu te T h en if we .

m ak e the app roxim atio n of 10 we h av e ,

Equ atio ns ( 2 9) and g en( )

e3
rally
0 u se
ared for the d esig n of
Sh roudi ng s and ov erh angi ng rim s Wh en such ri ng s are per
.

forated wi th sm all hol es for the riv eti ng of bl ad es b endi ng and ,

sh ear are p roduc ed T he stresses d ue to thi s b endi ng and

.

Sh ear are how ev er sm all

, , and do not in p ra c tic al c ases of ten

exc eed 4 0 0 pou nd s per squ a re i nch .

“
Som etim es ri ng s c all ed segm ents Fig h
( 1 1 5) are put on t e .

edg e of wh eel di sk s and the bl a d es are attach ed to th em In a .

co nstruc tio n of thi s ki nd the ri ng mu st not o nly restrai n the cen

trifugal fo rc e d ue to its own w eigh t but al so p art of th at f rom ,

the w eigh t of the bl ad es if th ey are not ti gh tly fitted .

3 16
'

T HE ST EAM T U RB I NE

If the followi ng symbol s are a ss um ed

r0 ra diu s to c enter li ne of bl ad es in i nch es , ,

(10 di am eter to c enter li ne of bl ad es in i nch es , ,

W w eigh t of bl ad es in pou nd s per foo t of l eng th of the

ci rc umf eren c e m easured to the c enter li ne of the
bl ad e ri ng ,

r0 l eng th of a Sho rt segm ent of the bl ad e ri ng to be c al eu

l ated in i n ch es
, ,

V0 p eriph eral v eloci ty of bl ad es in f eet per seco nd , ,

W0 w eigh t of the bl ad es in pou nd s of a segm ent rod i nch es

, ,

9
1
V
lo ng or
3 pou nd s ,

h
t en th e centrifug al fo rce at the bl ad e ring due to the
. w eigh t of
the bl ad es alo ne is

T h en if T is the tang enti al fo rc e in the bl ad e ri ng due

O

w eigh t of the bl ad es and S0 is the co rrespo ndi ng u ni t

,

stress in pou nd s per squ are i n ch ,

C0 T ot) mnSofi and

W fiv"
2

mnSofi,
g
8. = m 2

gmn gmn run

h
t en the t tal o stress S, due to th e w eigh t of th e rin g an d of th e
bl ades is

mm
3 I 8 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

m etal for the d ru m is to be d etermi ned the bl ad es h av e b een ,

d esigned so th at th ei r w eigh t can be c alcul ated .

( )
2 A llow a bl e u n i t tensil e stress mu st be d etermi ned I n t hi s .

co nnec tio n the f ac to rs to be co nsid ered are the qu ali ti es of the

m ateri al to be u sed (see p ag es 33 7 and 33 8 ) and the g rad e of wo rk
m anship th at is av ail abl e In som e Shop s in Germ any wh ere .

v ery exp ert wo rkm en can be secu red and the m ateri al is c arefully
sel ec ted and u nu su ally good a f acto r of sa f ety as low a s th ree is
,

som etim es u sed M anuf ac tu rers of D e L a v al tu rbi ne wh eel s

.

m ak e the limi ti ng f a c to r from fou r to five; but for av erag e

Am eric an p rac tic e a f a c to r of saf ety of l ess th an five should not
be co nsid ered I f nick el steel is to be u sed of which the ul tim ate
.

streng th is say pou nd s per squ are i nch wi th a f ac to r of ,

sa f ety of fi ve the al low abl e to ta l stress in th e drum sh el l would be

,

pou nd s per squ are i nch N ow if the stress due to its .

own w eigh t of which the c alc ul atio n ha s al rea dy b een i ndic a ted
, ,

is st ill rep resented by the symbol S and the to tal stress allow a bl e ,

by S, th en th e p ermi ssibl e stress resul ti ng from the w eigh t of

,

the bl ad es S is 0

S0 St S S .

(3 ) T he thi ck ness m sh el lof

ca n now be ca l cul ated by
th e dru

equ at io n S i n c e S is now d etermi n ed a

0
nd d o N a n d W * a re , ,

giv en by the dim ensio ns requi red for the d esig n of the bl ad es ,

the thick ness 11 can b e easily c alcul ated .

Equ atio n ( 3 1 ) can be w ri tten In the fo rm

S0

Si nc e the w eigh t of the bl ad es has b een c alcul ated for o nly one
row the dim ensio n m is the di stan c e b etw een the c enter li nes of
,

succ essiv e bl ad e row s on the d rum .

B l de m de of b onz e zi n oppe o i mil lloy we gh bout 3 pound

a s a r ,
c, c r, r s ar a s i a . 0

per cub c nci i h ,

a nd stee l weigh s . 2 8 pound per cub i c i nch .
 ST R ESSES IN RI N G S ,
D R UM S ,
AN D D SK S I

Ex am pl e follo w i ng d ata reg ardi ng the sh ell of a sec tio n

. T he
of a tu rbi ne ro to r are giv en by the d rawi ng s accomp anyi ng the ,

bl ad e d esig n .

Di a mete at oot of bl ades (a pprox i m tel y

r r a d)
D i a mete a t cente li ne of b l a d e ( do)
r r s

Revol uti on pe mi nute s r

W eigh t of bl d e in one ow pe foot ( o) a s r ,

r t

Weigh t of a cub i c i nch of ma teri a l of sh ell

D i sta nce betw een cente li nes of succes iv e r s row s of b l ad es of

the d rum 3 i n he
c s

T he stress In t he s e h ll ( S) d ue to its ow n w eigh t by equ atio n ,

is

5 3
0 0 pou nd S per squ are Inch .

S0 5 3 0 0 pou nd s per s qu are i nch .

57 squ are Inch .

X
B ut m 3 i nch es ; th en
9 inch
‘

11 .
57 3 . 1 .

T he sec tio ns of the ro to r are u su ally suppo rted di sk s attach ed on

to the sh af t In ano th er p arag ra ph rel ati ng to the d esig n of

.

di sk s the streng th of such fo rm s will be di scu ssed It Should be

,
.

rem emb ered th at comp ared wi th impul se tu rbi nes the p eriph eral
, ,

sp eed s alw ay s k ep t low

i * D rum s are almo st alw ay s u sed for .

reac tio n tu rbi nes and sep arate di sk s or wh eel s for impul se
,

tu rbi nes .

Fig 2 0 9 is an ex ac t copy of the Shop d rawi ng of the ro to r of an

.

Alli s C h alm ers ( Parso ns typ e) tu rbi ne

-
It co nsi sts of a c entral .

cyli nd er upo n which ri ngs are fitted as Shown T h ese ri ngs are .

m ad e of steel and are fo rg ed as a soli d ri ng T he w eb s a re .

fo rm ed by cu tti ng aw ay the sup erfluou s m ateri al in the sid es

wi th a l ath e In thi s typ e of ro to r the c entral cyli nd er mu st be
.

m ad e of su ffi ci ent streng th to resi st the u su al torsio nal stresses

T he per p era i h l vl i
e oc ty of d rum types s ou d not exceed 4 0 0 eet per second h l f .

I mpu se w ee s, owe er, a re someti mes des ned to operate at 1 2 00 eet per
l h l h v ig f
second .
32 0 T HE ST EAM TU RB I N E
”
in a hollow sh af t T he co nstruc tio n of the d ru m s of typic al
.

Westi nghou se tu rbi nes is shown in Fig s 1 0 7 1 0 9 and 1 8 4 .

, .

In impul se tu rbi nes wh ere all the exp ansio n of the stea m tak es
pl a c e in nozzl es pl a c ed in di aph ragm s or p art i tio ns b etw een the ,

stag es th ere is a l arg e d rop in p ressu re b etw een a ny two sta g es

, ,

and th erefo re l eak ag e of stea m b etw een the stag es will be much

g reater th an wi th the sm all p ressu re d rop in the reac tio n typ e .

T he f ew er n umb er of stag es in the Impul se tu rbi ne nec essarily

FI G . 2 09 . Secti on of the R otor of a P a rso ns T vpe of R e tiac on T u rb i ne .

i nc reases v eloci ty of the steam p assi ng th rough the bl ad es

the

and at the sa m e tim e the mo st eco nomic al wh eel sp eed Wi thi n .

p rac tic al limi ts wh eel sp eed should alw ay s be i nc reased wi th

,

stea m v eloci ty in good d esig ni ng .

Stresses at R igh t Angl es to Each Oth er T o d etermi ne the .

stress in fl at di sk s a refinem ent in the c alcul atio ns is som etim es

nec essary in o rd er to ob ta i n mo re a ccu rate v alu es th an tho se

secu red in the p rec edi ng c alcul atio ns for the stresses in ri ng s a nd

d rum s I f for ex ampl e two fo rc es R and T act at righ t angl es

.
, ,

to ea ch o th er th eo retic al co ndi tio ns of el astici ty Show th at the

,

m aximu m stress or elo ng atio n is nev er qui te equ al to th at d ue

to ei th er of the two fo rc es if ac ti ng alo ne In o th er wo rd s an .
,

elo ng atio n in the di rec tio n of the li ne of a c tio n of the fo rc e R

p roduc es a contrac tio n in the di rec tio n of the fo rc e T3 T hu s

! <

T hi s ph enomenon is ea sil y obse v ed in a pi e e of i nd ir c a ru

-
bb er . A fo rce in
one d i e t i on p od uci ng a n el ong at i o n w ill p od u e
r c r lo r c a s a contra ct on i in th e
d i ecti on at igh t a ngl es to the g e te t el o ng ati on
r r r a s .
32 2 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

a cting a lo ne
follow s al so th at wh en the stresses are nearly
. It
equal the stresses which are of cou rse p ropo rt io nal to d efor , ,

m atio ns are al so o nly 7 of th at c alcul ated f rom o nly one of the

.

f orc es T hi s eff ec t of fo rc es at righ t angl es to each o th er will

.

be a ppli ed in the di scu ssio n of the stresses in di sk s .

M ath em ati ca l Treatm ent of Stresses in D i sk s F ig 2 1 0 show s . .

a sec tio n of a tu rbi n e wh eel cut out by di l pl

( )
I t w o ra a anes

m aki ng the angl e 0 wi th

R +d R e a ch o t h er a n d ( 2 ) by the ,

cyli nd ric al su rf a c es wi th
radi uses of r and r dr .

T he tw o o th er bou ndi ng
su rf a c es are the S id es of

the di sk T he thick nesses .

of the di sk are t at the

radi us r and t dt at the ,

radiu s r dr .

I f thi s sec to r is ro tated

a bou t the c en ter 0 it
d ev elop s the c entrifug al
F G I D i g m f D i k St e e
. 2 10 . a ra fo rc e ( CF ) Ac ti ng on the
o s r ss s .

su rf a c es of the sec to r are

al so the fo rc es R and R d R in the radi al di rec tio n and the fo rc es

T T in t ang enti a l di rec tio ns
,
T he tw o t ang enti al fo rc es T T
.
,

fo rm the angl e 1 8 0 0 d eg rees wi th each o th er and th ei r resul t ,

ant is a pp roxim ately T0 wh en (9 is a sm all an gl e We h av e th en .

, ,

Fo rc es a c ti ng ou tw ard R dR CF .

Fo rc es a c ti ng i nw ard R T0 .

If w e c all the u ni t stress in the radi al

di rec tio n 8 and in tan ,

radi u s r ( if al l th e dimen
'

ge n tial di rec t io n S t h en a t a sec t

t, io n a t

sio ns are in i nch es the followi n g rel atio ns resul t :

)
R rdtS

R dR ( r dr ) ( t dt) ( ,
5 esoe ,

T tdrSg,

T6 tdrfiSf ,
 ST R ESSES IN RI N G S ,
D R UM S ,
AN D D SK S I 32 3

I f V is the v eloci ty in inch es per co nd and W is the w eigh t

se

of a cubic i nch ( the sp eci fi c w eigh t) th en the volum e of the

,

sec to r is v ery nearly tfirdr , and

CF = tedr fl
g

For equilib rium , the sum of the fo rc es a c ti ng ou tw ard equ al s the

sum of tho se a c ti ng i nw ard or ,

( r dr) ( t dt ) ( ,
s (i s) e M rats. mes
g
.

D ividi ng th rough by 0 and negl ec ti ng infinitesimal s of the se co nd

ord er ,
we h av e
W td rv
z

f
ads. Srdt ) tdr ( ,
s s. ) 0 .
(3 4 )
g

T hi s
g eneral equ atio n is not sui tabl e for c alcul atio ns but by ,

assumi ng co ndi tio ns of u nifo rm streng th or u nifo rm thick ness

the fo rm can be co nsid erably Simpli fied .

D isk of Unifo rm Strength I f w e assume then uniform streng th .

, ,

in the di sk the stresses th roughou t are co nstant and if S is the

’
, ,

stress at any poi nt th en ,

S
’
S, = S; co nstant v alu e

0, and s ub sti tu ti ng th ese v alu es in qu atio n

e

‘'
rdtS
’ l tv dr
z
o ,
g
2
d
: 2?
1
+
8
z

j
dt w w r dr
;
_ _
0 , and by i nteg rati ng ,
t gs

i fc r
log t
é x ‘

i K
'
’ k
z

K is a consta nt of i nteg rat o n i .

3 2 4 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

N ow wh en r o ,
t t a nd K log to ,
so t h at
2

log t log to)

W
’
X
gS

wV

t = t 0e 2 gS

in which hick ness of the requi red sec tio n at the radiu s r
t is the t ,

t o is the thick ness at the c enter and e is the b ase of N a p eri an or ,

n atu ra l log a ri thm s which is equ al to a nd log e

10

Al l th e sym bol s in th ese eq u atio ns ( i ncludi ng 2 g 77 3 i nch es )

a re in i nch u ni ts .

I f t is the mi nimum thick ness of the di sk th en equ atio n ( 3 5 )

l ‘
,

can be w ri tten Wm v) 2 ?

'
t = t1 e 2 85
( )
3 6

wh ere V p eriph eral v eloci ty a t the radiu s co rrespo ndi ng

1
is the
to t and V is the v eloci ty co rrespo ndi ng to t a s b efo re
1
.

I f the di sk is not m ad e of u nifo rm streng th th roughou t th en ,

V is the v eloci ty wh ere the po rtio n d esig ned for u nifo rm streng th
I

b egi ns .

Equ atio ns ( 3 5 ) and ( 3 6 ) are g enerally u sed by the d esig ners

of impul se tu rbi nes and for ,

the co ndi tio ns of av era g e pra c

r

tic e th ey are su ffi ci ently a ccu

"

I ;
ra te .

of th e Rim An D esi gn .

F IG Se ti on of T u b i ne W h eel
. 2 1 1 .
enl arg ed sec tio n or rim is usu
c a r .
"

ally requi red at th e ci rcumf er

enc e of a di sk for the atta chm ent of the bl ad es Stresses in thi s .

s ec tio n requ i re c areful co nsid eratio n .

In Fig 2 1 1 t is the sm all est thick ness of the di sk wh ere it

.
, 1

joi ns the rim ( at the radiu s r, ) and t is the thick ness and b the 2 2

T he c h ang e f ro m li ne
ar g l
to a n u a r v el oci ty w as ma d e to ma k e i nteg rat i on
s i mpl er .
3 2 6 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

Si nc e the radi al and g

i al stresses in the di sk h av e b een
tan ent

m ad e equ al in the o rigi nal assump tio ns the u ni t elo ng atio ns in ,

ev ery di rec tio n mu st be equ al so th at the li near exp ansio n in he

, t
l eng th r is

wh ere k co effi ci ent of the co ntrac tio n of the c ro ss sec tio n

is the -

f or stresses at righ t angl es ( see p ag e

For co ndi tio ns of equilib rium obviou sly A ll ” and substi ,

t u ti ng equ a tio n ( 3 7 ) in ( 3 8 ) and equ ati ng to ( 3 9 w e h av e

)

z gfl SHr .

r2 g E

Usu ally thep erc entag e erro r from w ri ti ng r1 for r2 is v ery

s m all so th at w e h av e in simpl er fo rm
, ,

Srt ( 1 k ) Srr1 ,

f rom which ei th er b or t 2 2 can be olv ed In mo st c ases how

s .
,

ev er t is d etermi ned by bl ad e dim ensio ns so th at b2 is

'

, 2
the ,

exp ressed thu s

vg ( 1
E
In thi s equ atio n the stresses are in pou nd s
qu are i nch per s ,

V and g are in inch es per seco nd t t r and b are in i nch es

I , ,, ,, ,, .

M inimum Th i ck ness of th e D i sk T he thick ness of l arg e di sk s

.

a t the sm all est sec tio n is not d etermi ned by the allow abl e stress

b ut by the requ i rem ents for saf e transpo rtatio n and by the li abili ty
o f thi n di sk s to b ecom e di sto rted and u nstabl e in b al anc e D i sk s .

a bou t f eet in di m ete should h av e a mi nimum thick ness of

5 a r

f rom 4 to 6 i nch d ep endi ng on the qu ali ty of the m ateri al and the

. .
,
 ST R ESSES IN RI N G S ,
D R UM S ,
AN D D SK S I 3 2 7

s p eed for which th ey areto be u sed ; and for di sk s 1 0 f eet in di am

eter the mi nimum thick ness Sh ould be f rom 7 to i nch es * . .

T he b read th of the rim (b ) c a lcul ated by equ atio n ( 4 0 ) is ,

the m a ximum v alu e allow abl e but the b read th can b e m ad e of , ,

cou rse l ess th an th at c alcul ated T h ere will be a Sm all er radi al

,
.

fo rc e a t the rim of the di sk th an is nec essary to p roduc e the uni

fo rm radi al stress S and the di sk wi ll not be one of u nifo rm
r,

streng th T he stress at the c enter will be reduc ed v ery much

.

l ess th an th at at the sm all est sec tio n .

I f now equ atio n (4 0 ) is u sed to c alcul ate the mi nimum thick ness
t wi th an a ssu m ed v alu e for b sui t abl e for the d esig n neg ativ e
,, , ,

v alu es may be ob tai ned In thi s c ase a sm all er v alu e of 8

.
,

mu st be u sed in the c alcul atio n L imi ts for S can be easily .

,

d etermi ned by pu tti ng S 0 in th en ,

g ( 1 k )
which is the tang enti al stress in a f reely ro tati ng ri ng or is the
”
u su al fl y wh eel
fo rmul a wh en k 0
-
.

Pra cti cal Ex ampl e D esi gn of th e Rim of a D i sk W h eel

. .

A di sk wh eel 50 i nch es in di am eter is to be d esig ned for an im

pul se tu rbi ne to op erate at 3 0 0 0 r p m T he mi nimum thick ness . . .

( )
f is
l 4 i.n ch a n d n ick el
,
s te e l is to b e u se d wi th a n a llow a bl e

stress of pou nd s per squ are i nch which w eigh s 2 8 pou nd ,

.

e r cubic i nch ( w ) A pp roxim ately the radiu s ( r ) a t the i nner

p .
,

edg e of the rim is 2 5 i nch es so th at V is 7 8 60 i nch es per seco nd ,

( a bou t 45 0 mil es
p er hou r) T he wh e el is to c a rr
. y t w o row s

of bl ad es so th at the thick ness of the rim mu st be m ad e a bou t

'

3 5 . i n ch es T h e w.e igh t of t h e se bl ad es is e quiv al en t to a solid

ri ng of steel arou nd therim 3 i nch thick 1 T he w eigh t of the
‘

. .

M i ni mum thi k ne f w h eel 3 feet in d i mete i

c ss or a bout 5 i n h A n a r s a . 2 c .

a pprox im a te ru l e fo r th e mi nImum t hi ck ness of d i k s is s

[ min . 00 8 d to . 0 1 d,
h
w ere d is the d i a mete in i nch es r .

T Cent if ug a l fo e of the bl a d es on a w h eel is p obab l y most si mpl y dete mi ned

r rc r r

by thi s meth od of ca l ul ati ng f om d w i ng how i ng the d i mensi ons of the b l ad es

c r a ra s

the thi ck ness of soli d ba nd or i ng of the sa me w eigh t

a r .
‘

32 8 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

bl ad es per squ are i nch of the rim su rf ac e is 3 X 2 8 0 84 . . .

pou nd and the stress S per squ are i nch due to thi s w eigh t is
, ,

( ta k e g 3 8 6 i n ch es per seco nd )

2
. 0 84 (7 8 6 0 ) 8 pou nd s per squ are i nch
53 .

3 86 2
5
Sub sti tu ti ng th ese v alu es in
4
8
°

X 53
X 2 5 1 .
S i nch es .

2 8 X
X 8 J0 0 0
.

7 2
3 8 6

T he thick ness c ion at the c enter (to) is c alcul ated by

of the se t

u si ng the sam e allow abl e stress as b efo re for S ’ °

2 8

t toe7 7 2 X
80
to te
'

2 . 2 t
3 ,
to .
4 X . 8 9 i nch .

T he exp ansio n of the radi us d ue to the allow abl e stresses in the

di sk can be c alcul ated by ta ki ng E pou nd s
e r squ are i nch and k 3
p .
,

11 r 1)
E

0 1 6 i nch ,

and x io n of the diameter is 0 3 2 i nch

the e pans . .

I f rea c tio n tu rbi nes are to be op erated at high er p eriph eral

sp eed s th an 3 50 f eet per seco nd the stresses d ue to the cen ,

trifugal fo rc es are too l arg e to use a f ree d ru m co nstruc tio n so ,

th at th e d rum mu st be streng th ened wi th spok es or fl at di sk s .

It is co nsid ered b etter p ra c tic e how ev er to divid e a d ru m i nto , ,

Sho rt sec tio ns and c alcul ate ea ch sec tio n by the m ethod expl a i n ed
,

h ere for di sk wh eel s by the use of equ atio ns (3 5 ) to T he .

Alli s C h alm ers Comp any u ses thi s m ethod for the low p ressu re
- -

sta g es of its l atest d esig ns a s show n in Fig 2 0 9 al though th e per .

,

ipheral sp eed of thi s sec tion of the d rum is u su ally l ess th an 2 50

f eet per second .
33 0 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

An c u al d esig n of
a t i nch pl ai n di sk of fo rg ed steel with out
a 50 -

a h o l e a t the c enter for a R i edl er Stumpf tu rbi ne is Show n in -

Fig 2 1 3 and the followi ng p arag raph s show how the c alcul atio ns
.
,

w ere m ad e D i a m eter of the di sk (d ) is 4 6 i nch es ( m easu red

.
l

i nsid e the rim which is 2 i nch es wid e) Sm all est sec tio n o f the
, .

di sk is tak en as 5 i nch ( see pag e Sp eed is 4 00 0 revolu tio ns

p er mi n u te T he allow a bl e.u n i t stress is pou nd s per squ a re

i nch and the di sk is designed for unif o rm strength Weigh t of the

,
.

bl ad es is 0 9 pou nd per i nch of the ci rcumferenc e p roduci ng a

.
,

c entrifug al fo rc e of 1 8 4 0 pou nd s per squ are i nch at the sm all est

sec tio n of the di sk N ow it has b een show n " th at in a fl at di sk
.
<

the stress at th e edge due to a n external centrifuga l lo ad ( lik e

bl ad es and sh roud s ) is superpo sabl e by simpl e additio n to th e
stresses ( bo th radi al and tang enti al ) in th e disk due to its ow n

rotatio n .

T he rim was c alcul ated as in the p reviou s ex ampl e and the ,

thick ness ( t in Fig 2 1 1 ) w as d etermi ned by the wid th requi red

, .

for the bl ad es F rom the i nner edg e of the rim the di sk was
.

giv en a co nstant thick ness of 5 i nch till the tangenti a l stress

a l one a s cal cul ated by eq uati on ( 3 0 ) ex ceeded th e all owabl e

l imitxl '

Jude T he Theory of the S team Turbi ne page 1 9 8

, , .

T It w ill be observ ed th at th ese approx i mati ons a re v ery much on the saf e si de
because of the effect of
“ forces at righ t a ngl es ( see page I t is proba b l e ,

however th at w h atev er the form of th e d i sk ( if not abnormall y i rreg ul a ) the

,
.
r ,

stresses at the center are sligh t l y high er th a n the peri ph era l st resses I n case of .

und ue ra ci ng due to the f a il ure of the g ov erni ng a ppa ratus or oth er ca use a d i sk ,

d esig ned for u nif orm s trength w ill fl y to pi eces f rom the center A D e L a va l .

w h eel w i th out the usua l

“ saf e ty g roov e nea r the rim w h en tested to destruct i on
”

b roke up enti rel y a nd p oj ected l arg e pi eces th rough a ca st steel casi ng two i nch es
r -

thi ck . Wh en how ev er the customary groove w as cut j ust i nsi de the rim onl y
, , ,

pi eces of the rim w ere b rok en off wh en a n excessiv e speed was reach ed a nd no ,

externa l d a mag e w as done .

It is stated b y J ud e th at the meta l l eft betw een the saf ety g roov es of a D e
“
L ava l w h eel is onl y suffici ent to carry the traction load of the va nes ”
F rom .

thi s f act the minimum thi ck ness of D e L a va l disk s can be easily cal culated ,

a s it is g enera ll y stated th a t the f actor of sa f ety at the g oov e is 5 a nd the secti on r ,

before theg roo ve is cut is two fifths l arg er A ll owab l e uni t stress is probabl y
-
.

tak en at about p o u n d s per sq ua re i nch . .

 ST R ESSES IN R N I GS ,
D R UM S ,
AN D D SK S I 33 1

For om e di stanc e f rom the rim tow ard the c enter we h av e the
s

c ase of a fl at di sk N ow in a di sk of co nstant thick ness wi thou t

.
‘

a hol e at the c enter bo th the radi al and tang enti a l stresses i nc rease

from the rim tow ard the c enter At the ou ter edg e of such a di sk .

the radi al stress is o nly th at d ue to the cen

trifugal fo rc e of the bl ad es and rim whil e the ,

tang enti al stress is of co nsid erabl e m ag ni

tud e and is alw ay s g reater th an the radi al

stress exc ep t at the c enter wh ere th ey a re
, ,

equ al * . B ec au se bo th radi al and tang enti al

stresses at ev ery sec tio n a re a pp roxim ately

i nc reased 1 8 4 0 pou nd s per sq uare i nch by the

c entrifug al fo rc e due to the bl ad es the net ,

a l l ow abl e stress is pou nd s per sq ua re

“
i nch T he poi nt wh ere the i nc reasi ng sec
.

ti o n b egi ns is d etermi ned th en by the followi ng

c alcul atio ns sub sti tu ti ng in equ atio n ( 3 0 )

X
d1 6
5 5)
28 X

(1 1 i nch es ,
or r1
I
I

i nch es .

B eyo nd thi s poi nt tow ard c enter of the the

di sk the sec tio n has b een m ad e of unif orm

strength as c alcul ated by equ atio n The
c alcul atio n of the thick ness wh ere the di am eter
is 1 0 i nch es ( r 5 i nch es ) is giv en by equ a

tion FIG . 21 3 . D esig n Of a

. 2 8 X Wh eel D i sk h
wit out
1: 723 X a Hole at the Center .

in which t1 .
5 i nch and e h
t en,

t t, e
“5

t t1 .
7 8 i nch .

In the sam e w ay the thickness can be c alcul ated for enough poi nts
to d etermi ne the p ro fil e . T he sec tio n s hown in Fig . 2 1 3 is a

J ude ,
T he Theory of the S tea m T urbi ne, pa e g 2 00 .
33 2 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E
“fl at
typic al di sk T o f acili tate the fo rgi ng of such di sk s the
.

p ro fil e is not m ad e ex a c tly as c alcul ated but is g radu ally tap eri ng

from the sm all est sec tio n to the c enter T he i nc rease in the .

thick ness from the rim to th e c enter is v ery sm all comp ared wi th
“
m any d esig ns app roxim ati ng a co nc avo co nv ex fo rm ( Fig
” -
.
,

It is argu ed by som e d esig ners th at the treatm ent of the .

“
co n ”
c avo co nv ex fo rm s is enti rely w ro ng and th at mo st p rob
-

a bly it is not po ssibl e for the stresses all alo ng the c entral pl an e

to be ei th er equ al to or l ess th an tho se at the rim by m erely sati s

fying equ atio n and th at the m etal in the bulgi n g p art of such

di sk s has li ttl e i nflu enc e in modifyi ng the stresses in the c entral

pl ane Som e of the b est au tho ri ti es agree th at it seem s reaso n
.

abl e th at wh ate
“
v er the fo rm of the p ro fil e of a di sk the stresses

FI G . 2 1 4 . i l
T yp ca So d Dli i k w i th out a Hol e at the C enter
s .

in and a bou t the c entral pl ane do not difl er g reatly from tho se
in a fl at di sk ru nni ng at the sa m e sp eed .

A typic al solid di sk w ith o ut a h o l e for bol ts or for the p assag e of

a Sh af t th rough it is show n in Fig 2 1 4 It w as d esig ned for a
. .

v ery much high ersp eed th an the one in Fig 2 1 3 so th at it has .

,

a bulgi ng f rom near the c enter T hi s d esig n Show s an i ng eniou s

.

m ethod for the attachm ent of the body of the di sk to the sh aft .

It will b e ob serv ed th at the di sk is m ad e wi th a v ery sm all sec

tio n near th e rim so th at the stress th ere far exc eed s th at any
,

wh ere el se I f the wh eel b reak s it will rup tu re first at thi s

.

sm a ll est sec tio n and the rim and bl ad es will b e to rn off Wh en .

th ese p arts a re go ne the c en trifug al fo rc e will b e so much reduc ed

on the p art of the wh eel rem a i n i ng th at th ere can b e still a v ery

J ud e ,
T he T heory of the S tea m T urbi ne, pa e 2 0 4 g .
3 34 T HE ST EA M R B INE
TU

f ac t rem ai ns how ev er th at di sk s for turbi nes are v ery

T he , ,

commo nly m ad e w i th hol es in the c enter for the sh aft and o th er ,

hol es b esid es are of ten m ad e for the atta chm ent of tool s for fo rci ng
the di sk from the sh aft wh en the wh eel is to b e remov ed Stress .

di stribu tio n near a c entral hol e of a nearly fl at di sk can be a pp rox

imately c alcul ated if a di sk of comp arativ ely sm all er di am eter is
im agi ned cut f rom its c enter and thi s sm all di sk is th en assu m ed ,

to be of co nstant thick n ess a nd sub j ec ted to a radi al stress a t its

rim eq u a l to th e un ifo rm

stress in th e l arg e di sk if it

h ad no hol e T he stresses .

in thi s sm all di sk wi th the

hol e can b e c alcul ated wi th
som e d eg ree of a ccu racy

f rom equ atio n ( 3 4 ) by put

ti ng dt 0 si n c e t h a s b een ,

a ssum ed co n sta nt in thi s

sm a l l Ta ngenti al
stresses c alcul a ted in thi s
w ay for a di sk 1 0 i nch es in

F G V i t i on of St e in D ik di a m eter W i th a 11 0 16 I inCh
5
I . 2 1 . ar a r ss a s

u ed by Hol e t theC ente

ca s in di am eter a re Show n in
a a r .

Fig 2 1 5 R adi al stress is . .

,

of cou rse z ero at the c enter so th at it is not impo rtant T he

,
.

l arg e di sk ( Fig 2 1 3 ) w as d esig ned to m ak e the combi ned u ni t

.

stress in the sec tio n pou nd s per sq uare i nch and it is ,

a ssum ed th erefo re th at the radi al stress on th e o utsid e of the

, ,

i
S mp fi ed li fo mul as for a d i sk of consta nt thi ck ness a re giv en by
r

Eyerma n, D i e D a mpf turbi ne pag es 8 8 9 0 Stodol a D i e D a mpf turbi nen pages

,
—
, ,

1 60 — 1 6 1 .

T he lg eb ai c w o k i nvolved in obta i ni ng eq uati ons sui t bl e fo a l cul ati o ns is

a r r a r c

l bo i ous a nd compli ated B ecause th ese eq uati ons a e not used d i e tl y fo oth e
a r c . r r c r r

ca l u l at i o n th ey a e not giv en h e e
c s T hi s h a pte on st e ses is not i ntend ed to b e
r r . c r r s

a n ex h u tiv e t eatment ma th ema ti ca ll y a nd th e p

a s r t i c l d esig ne w i shi ng to use
, ,
rac a r

th e mi ni mum f a to s of saf ety sh oul d a ef ull y stud th e g aphi a l sol uti on giv en
c r c r y r c s

by Stodol a but h e sh oul d emembe th t th e e meth od s efe ed to a e onl y

°
r r a s r rr r

a pp oxim t ons a nd in a g eat mea su e are j usti fi ed onl y because th ey h a v e stood

r a I r r

the test w h en appli ed in p a t i e r c c .

 ST R ESSES IN RI N G S ,
D R UM S ,
AN D D SK S I 335

sm all di sk has thi s v alu e

cu rv e show s th at the m aximum . T he
stress at the hol e is pou nd s per squ are i nch and th at the
stress is ra pidly reduc ed as the di stanc e f rom th e edg e of the hol e

i nc reases till it reach es the co nstant v alu e of pou nd s per

squ are i nch for which the wh eel di sk w as d esig n ed
,
It Should be .

ob serv ed th erefo re th at the stress at the edg e of a hol e at the

, ,

c enter of a di sk is twic e th at at som e di stanc e a w a y from the

It should be c arefully no ted how ev er th at thi s di scu ssio n appli es , ,

o nly to hol es at the c enter of a di sk Hol es near the rim such .

as are of ten m ad e for b al anci ng the di sk or as a saf ety d evic e

so th at the rim will b rea k fi rst in c ase of exc essiv e sp eed ,

would be allow ed for in p ra c tic e m erely by the reduc tion of the

sec tio n .

It is how ev er a good p rac tic e to m ak e the sec tio n at the hub

, ,

of a di sk wi th a hol e at the c enter of sufli cient siz e to wi th stand

the g reatest stress th at may com e to b ear at the no rm a l sp eed .

Fig 2 1 6 Show s how the di sk in Fig 2 1 4 should be modi fied th at

. .

it m ay b e put on a 4 i nch Sh aft T he thick ness ( 2 ) of the hub

-
.

will be d etermi ned in the u su al w ay as di scu ssed in book s on

m achi ne d esig n O nly its l ength (to) co nc erns thi s di scu ssion
. .

Eyerman T and Stodol a giv e el a bora te gra phic methods for thi s
d etermi natio n but th ey will not be tak en up h ere as th ey are of
, ,

no g eneral i nterest F or mo st p rac tic al pu rpo ses it is sati sf a c to ry

.

to m ak e use of the resul ts show n in Fig 2 1 5 a nd m ak e the l eng th .

of the bo ss (to) twic e the thick ness at the sa m e sec tio n for a
di sk wi thou t a hol e I nstead of redu ci ng the sec tion ab ru p tly
.

in p ropo rtio n to the reduc tio n in the stress the use of a fill et
see cu rv e a b in Fig of v ry g entl e cu rv atu re giv es by far
( 2 1 6 ) e .

the b est co nstruc tio n };

B ec au se the di stribu tio n of stress is ch ang ed wh en a hol e is

m ad e in the c enter of a fl at di sk the sec tio n wh ere the radi al ,

hi s has been show n by a math emati ca l demonst ation and the dev elopment
T r

of sui tab l e fo mul as by G ub le

r Z eit V e ein deut her I ngenieure 1 8 9 7 pa ge
r r, . r sc , ,

86 0 K i ch Z ei t V e ei n deut cher I ngenieu e 8 9 7 pa ge 7 98

rs , . r s r ,
1 ,
.

T W Eye man D ie D mp
. r
f tu bi ne pag es 8 6 9 8
,
a r ,
—
.

odol a D i e D a mp rbi nen 3 rd ed i ti on page 1 64

I S t f t
,u , , .
3 36 T HE ST EA M TU RB I NE

stress e qu al s the allow able limi t mu st be c alcul ated by a di fferent

m ethod f rom th at u sed for the di sk wi thou t a hol e at the c enter .

T 0 d etermi ne from the g eneral th eo retic al equ atio ns for the

stresses in di sk s the di am eter wh ere the radi al stress in a fl at

di sk wi th a hol e at the c enter has a d efini te

v alu e is v ery l abo riou s and almo st impracti
c abl e; but the fo llowi ng app roxim ate and mo re
or l ess empi ric al fo rmul a for the radi al stress

in a di sk of unifo rm th i ck ness w ith a h ol e in

th e center can be u sed co nv eni ently It is .

p rac tic ally the sam e as th at giv en by Cree and

Jud e exc ep t th at it has b een simpli fied by
*

g roupi ng co nstants and ch angi ng the u ni ts to

co rrespo nd wi th tho se u sed in the o th er equ a
tio ns in thi s ch ap ter .

I f S is the radi al stress in the d i sk in pou nds

,

p er s qu ar e in ch a t an y di a m ete r ( 1 i nch es V is 1 ,

the v eloci ty at the p eriph ery of the d i sk in f eet

p er se co nd D,
is th e di a m ete r of t he di sk in

inch es and d is the di am eter in i nch es of a hol e

,

a t the c enter th en ,

df ( )
2 z
,
D d 4 1
90 D

N ow if thi s equ atio n is to be s olv ed to d eter

mi ne d it can be w ri tten
l ,

( )
2 2 2 2 2
2
Sr D d d1 _

D d O, 4 2 F IG . 2 1ig n
6 . D es
4 V of a W h eel D i sk

w i th a H ol e at
2
and
2
and puttIng B Sr D d the C enter ,

C D d
2 2
,
h
t en

J ude
,
The Theory of the Stea m Turbine, pa e g 2 04 .
33 8 T HE ST EA M TU R B I NE

p any states th at stresses in th e sa m e d i rectio n may be allow ed

in tu rbi ne di sk s as high as one thi rd of the el astic limi t
-
.

Si nc e the c entrifug al fo rc e and th erefo re al so the u ni t stress is

p ropo rtio nal to the squ are of the v eloci ty if a f ac to r of safety ,

of 4 is allow ed the b reaki ng sp eed of the wh eel will be twic e the

,

no rm al sp eed and the el astic limi t of the m ateri al is o nly abou t

,

tim es the n o rm al sp eed .

. Exc essiv e stresses at a hol e are di ssip ated v ery m ateri ally
if a d ang erou s stress is rea ch ed at the edge of the hol e B efo re .

ru p tu re can occu r th ere will be an exc essiv e elo ng at io n of the

m ateri al as soo n as the el astic limi t is reach ed at the highly

stressed sec tio n .

C RI T I CA L SP EED S O F L O A D ED SHA F T S .

Wi th the high sp eed s at which steam tu rbi nes are op erated

the c entrifug al fo rc es d ue to ev en a sm all ecc entrici ty of the

ro tati n g m asses p roduc e vib ratio ns exc essiv e stresses and , ,

“s rm in ” of sh afts A s the resul t of the ecc entric fo rc es the

p g g .

Sh af t is b ent f arth er out of li ne so th at the c entrifug al fo rc es

,

and th e amou nt of the ecc entrici ty are i nc reased u ntil the stress

set u p in th e Sh af t by the bend i ng p roduc es a fo rc e equ al to the

“
c entrifug al fo rc e and the c enter of g ravi ty and c enter of wo rk ”
,

coi ncid e I f W is the w eigh t of the ro tati ng m ass in pou nd s e is

.
,

“
the o rigi nal
”
ecc entrici ty of the sh aft in i nch es x is the eccen ,

trici ty in Inch es at N revol u tio ns per mi nu te P is the fo rc e ,

a ppli ed to the sh af t at the poi nt of attachm ent of the di sk which

will b end the sh aft 1 i nch wi thi n the el astic limi t C F is the
,
'

,
. .

c entrifug al fo rc e of the ro tati ng m ass and k is a co nstant th en , ,

leWN 2

ex

T he b endi ng of th e s h af t at t hi s Sp eed is x e, so t at h
‘

k WN 2

( x e) P
gx

x wh ere u=
 ST R ESSES IN RI N G S ,
DR UM S A N D D I SK S
, 3 39

T he i nc rea sed ecc entrici ty due to ro tatio n is th erefo re p ropo r

tiona l to the o rigi nal eccentricitv of the Sh aft and i nc reases wi th

i nc reasi ng v alu es of u and h enc e al so of N Wh en .

k Wu 2

Pg

90 b ecom es 0 th at is the defl ec tio n b ecom es exc eedi ngly l arge

0
, , ,

u nl ess p revented a nd would b reak the sh aft

,
.

It has b een sho wn by C ree th at the c ri tic al sp eed N ,

of a Sh af t wi th some fl exibili ty in the b eari ngs c arryi ng a con

centrated lo ad of W po und s is

wh ere modulu s of el astici ty in pou nd s per squ are i nch

E is the ,

r is the radiu s of the sh a ft in i nch es 1 is its l eng th ( b etw een tw o ,

b eari ng s) in feet and a and b are the di stanc es fro m the lo ad to

,

the b eari ng s in feet ,

T hi s formul a T is to be u sed for o nly a
.

si ngl e co nc entrated lo ad lik e the si ngle wheel of a D e L av al

tu rbi ne Wh en th ere are a numb er of wheel s wi th po ssibly al so
.

a revolvi ng field of a g enerato r on the sam e sh a ft the p robl em ,

b ecomes v ery complic ated if the lo ad s are co nsid ered sep arately .

Exp eri enc e wi th such c alcul atio ns has Show n th at for the c ases
occu rri ng in p rac tic e 1 the c ri tic al sp eed can be d etermi ned by the
followmg SImple equ atio n d erived for the c ase of unifo rm lo adi ng :

N, r
2
\ /
W1
I
3
,

where W is the sum of the several lo ad s h f

on the s a t and the

o th er symbol s are u sed as b efo re .

P Phy i l S iety ( Lo nd n)
roc . s ca l XIX
oc o ,
vo . .

TInhi s formul a the weigh t of the Sh a ft is not tak en i nto account T he

t .

i nfl uen e of the weigh t of the sh aft o n the ri ti ca l Speed ca n be e sil y cal

c c a

cula ted but in pract i cal case it ma y be negl ected w i th out a ppreci ab l e e ro
, s r r
.

I T his appli es particula lv to the case of R atea u Pa rsons a nd Curtis

r s , ,

tu bi nes a nd turbi ne d ri v en g enera to s a nd pump

r -
r s.
 C HA PT ER XV I .

GA S TU R BI NES .

T HE d ev elopm ent of the gas tu rb i ne which s hould combi ne ,

'

the high th erm al effi ci en cy of an i nternal combu stio n engi ne wi th

the m ech an ic al S implici ty of the steam tu rbi ne h as occupi ed the ,

a ttentio n of a numb er of abl e engi neers from tim e to tim e but

wi thou t u nqu ali fied succ ess B ec au se of the sev ere co ndi tio ns
.

d ue to the v ery high temp eratu res of the g ases after combu stio n ,

th ere are m any d ifli cul ties in co nstru c tio n which in a l arg e

m easu re o ff set the o th erwi se Simpl e m ech anic al co nstru c tio n .

It may w ell be sa id th at the d esig ner of gas tu rbi nes is b etw een
”
the tw o ho rn s of a dil emm a I f he tri es to u tiliz e the g ases
.

at the temp eratu res resul t i n g f rom exp ansio n in a si ngl e no rm al

nozzl e the nozzl es and bl ad es will d eterio rate v ery ra pidly and
, ,

for the b est effi ci ency the sp eed of ro tatio n of the tu rbi ne mu st
b e m ad e too h igh for u tiliz atio n for g eneral pow er pu rpo ses wi th
out the a pplic a tio n oi reduci ng g ea rs ; and if on the o th er h and , ,

he cool s the g ases by the i nj ec tio n of w ater or exc ess air i nto the
combu stio n ch amb er to m ak e the temp eratu re of the g ases su i tabl e
for the m ateri al s av ail abl e for m a chi ne co nstruc tio n the high ,

th erm al efli ciency stated by the Simpl est l aw s of th ermody nam

ics* is of cou rse not attai ned
, ,
.

Si nc e the gas tu rbi ne is c ertai nly not yet out of the experi
m ental stag e al though th ere are comm erci al applic ations it is
, ,

not out of pl a c e to giv e som e sp ac e to its hi sto ry .

Prob ably the old est f o rm of gas tu rbi ne is the anci ent p rop ell er

T, T,
h
T he t ermodynam i c effi ci en
cy of a h eat engi ne is exp e r ssed by w he e
r
TI
T , is the i ni ti al a nd T ,
l
is the fi na tempera ture of the cyc e l . By l ow e i ng
r th e va l ue
of T1 , th e effi ci ency is red uced in muc hg reater ro
p port on t a nit h e h
red uct on i in the
t emperature .
 T HE ST EA M RB I N E
‘

34 2 TU

the tu rbi ne co -
o mp e
A tu rbi n e d esig ned to d ev elop 2 0 0
r ss r .

ho rsepow er has b een co nstru c ted on thi s pl an but it has not ,

b een comm erci ally d ev elop ed It is v ery doub tful if all o th er .

.
,

di fficul ti es w ere ov ercom e wh eth er thi s m ethod of air i nj ec tio n

,

could giv e nearly as good eco nomy as w ater Injec tio n ( See .

p ag e 3 4 4
Som e a ttentio n has b een giv en to the d ev elopm ent of the
ex plo sio n ga s tu rbi ne of which a v ery Simpl e fo rm is Show n in
,

Fig 2 1 9
. I t co nsi sts of a combu stio n ch a mb er E of which one
.
,

end is clo sed by a l a rg e v alv e A op en i n g i n w ard admi tti ng air ,

th rough the p arts B B and fu el th rough tub es F F op en i ng i nto

, ,

th e v alv e seat T he mix tu re of gas and air is ig ni ted by el ec tric

.

sp ark s at I and the p roduc ts of combu stio n are di sch arg ed f rom
,

F IG i
A S mp e Ex p osl l ion Gas T urb i ne
. 2 1 9 . .

the ch amb er th rough a sm all op eni ng J l eadi ng i nto the nozzl e N

wh ere a ir a s Shown by the arrow s is mix ed wi th the g ases to
, ,

reduc e th ei r temp eratu re b efo re th ey rea ch th e bl ad es of the

tu rbi ne wh eel W oppo si te the n ozzl e .

It Is a w ell establi sh ed f a c t th at wh ena mix tu re of gas and air

-

is explod ed th ere is fi rst a sudd en exp ansio n and th en b ec au se ,

of the combi natio n of the hyd rog en in the bu rned g ases wi th

the oxyg en in the exc ess a ir to fo rm w ater a v a cuu m is p roduc ed ,
.

T hi s phenomenon is appli ed in thi s app aratu s to op erate the

'

v alv e A which by the fo rm atio n of a v a cuum is d rawn i nw ard

,
'

to admi t ano th er ch arg e of ga s and air It is stated th a t in .

su ch a tu rbi ne the explo sio ns will occu r v ery rapidly f rom 3 50 0

to 50 0 0 per mi nu te —
so th at th ere is a p ra c tic ally co nti nuou s

di sch arg e u p o n the wh eel T he efli ciency of an explo sio n mo to r

.

of thi s ki nd is v ery low b ec au se of the l ack of comp ressio n ; but

“
 GAS T URB I N ES

its ci ent d ev elopm ent do es not seem to be impo ssibl e I f in

effi .

som e w ay effi cient combu st o n by explo sio n can b e secu red

i
wi thou t compress1 0 n th en a mo st eco nomic al pow er d ev elopm ent
,

could be attained wi th an explo sio n combu stio n ch a mb er wi th

“ ”
the fu el and air v alv es op erated au tom atic ally by v acuum and
the i nj ec tio n of p rob ably comp arativ e ly l arg e qu anti ti es of
w ater af ter combu stio n Such an app aratu s would be Simpl e
.

FIG . 2 20 . Section of a e
Zo lly Ex p os l i on Gas T urb i ne
.

i nd eed comp ared on the one h and wi th the complic ated com
, ,

bi natio n of the steam boil er wi th ex ternal firi ng and th e steam

tu rbi ne or on the o th er h and wi th the compl ex recip roc a ti ng
, , ,

g as engi ne Fi g. 2 2 0 illu stra tes a.Z oell y explo s io n gas tu rbi n e .

It co nsi sts essenti ally of an explo sio n ch a mb er C a tu rbi ne ,

wh eel W w ater and oil pu mp s and an air comp resso r T he

, ,
.

pump s and comp resso r are of the recip roc ati ng typ e and are
d riv en by the m a i n Sh aft by m eans of the wo rm g ears A and I

B 1.
T he v alv es regul ati ng w ater oil and a ir a dmi ssio n and , ,

the ig ni tio n d evic e rl a re op erated by th e g ases and stea m s a re

, ,
 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

e xp and ed in the noz z l e N and impi ng e upon a tu rbi ne wh eel W

of the D e L av al typ e Som e of the h eat rem ai ni ng in the exh au st
, .

g ases is ab so rb ed by w ater coil s R which serv e to h eat the injec

tio n Water In the op eratio n of thi s app aratu s air is admi tted
.
,

first i nto the explo sio n ch a mb er and th en the oil a s the a ir is ,

suppo sed to a ct as a Shi eld ag ai nst b a ck firin A f ter th e ch g e

g ar -
.

has b een explod ed and the m aximum p ressu re h as b een rea ch ed ,

the cooli n g w ater is i nj ec ted .

T he mo re succ essful gas tu rbi nes how ev er are tho se op era ti ng ,

,

by combu stio n at constant p ressu re In thi s typ e the a ir and .

fu el ( oil or gas ) are d eliv ered u nd er p ressu re to a sui tabl e com

R Turbine W heel
P
BPBBDBBP

W ater

FI G
. 2 21 . D i ag ra mmati c I ll u t tion of the Combu tion Ch
s ra s amber and Steam
Coil of M od e n G
s a T u b i ne
r as r .

bustion ch a mb er A in Fig 2 2 1 which is m ai ntai ned at a red

.

h eat so th at the c ombu stio n is co nti nuou s T he p roduc ts of

,
.

combu stion are u su ally cool ed by w ater which is i nj ec ted i nto the
nozzl e as in the explo sio n typ e T he h ea t energy in the bu rned .

g ases is co nv erted i nto v eloci ty in an exp andi ng nozzl e N and are

di sch arg ed at a high v eloci ty upo n the bl ad es R of the turbi ne
wh eel D esigners of thi s typ e of gas tu rb i nes h av e g enerally
.
“

assum ed th at n ozzl es and wh eel s of th e D e L av al typ e are mo st

sui ta bl e and th ei r energi es a re d evo ted at p resent to the

, po
r

duc tio n of a sui tabl e combu stio n a pp aratu s and a high effi ci ency
ro tary comp resso r F ig 2 2 2 Show s a typic al sm all gas tu rbi n e '

. .

set up for a b ra k e test .

 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

In p rac tic e the combu stio n ch amb er is li ned wi th c arbo

ru nd u m, and to allow for exp ansio n the c arbo ru ndum is b a ck ed

wi th sh eets of asb esto s to p rovid e a soft and el astic p acki ng .

Exh au st g ases are u su ally di sch arg ed ov er a coil boil er L and ,

the stea m which is p roduc ed is al so d eliv ered upo n the tu rbi ne

and Lemale s Gas T urb i ne

’
F IG . 2 2 3 . Ari nengaud .

wh eel by a sep arate nozzl e M Wh en the tu rbi ne is in op eratio n

.

the li ni ng b ecom es su ffi ci ently hot to ign i te the fu el as it is

forc ed i ntothec h amb er .

A gas turbine of this l atter typ e d esig ned by Arinengaud and

‘

L em al e of Pari s is illu strated in Fig 2 2 3

~
It is a m a chi ne
. .

d ev elopi ng 3 0 0 net ho rsepow er at 4 0 0 0 revolu tions per minu te .

 GAS T U RB I N ES 34 7

A R ateau tu rbi ne comp resso r Shown di rec t connec ted

-
to the gas

t u rbi ne in Fig 2 2 4 has b een sp eci ally d esigned and buil t by

.

B rown B overi ,
Co of B ad e n Swi tz erl and for use wi th thi s
.
, ,

t u rbi ne T he comp resso r giv es a m ech an ic al effi ci ency as hi gh

.

as 6 5 to 7 0 per c en t and d eliv ers 1 cubic foo t of air per seco nd

.

FI G . 2 2 4 . A ri nenga ud a nd Lema le s G as T urb

’
i ne D i rect C onnected to a

R ateau T urb i ne C ompressor

-
.

at a p ressu re of from 6 to 7 atmo sph eres C omp ressed air is .

u sed for starti ng and a simpl e igni tion d evic e is u sed for firi ng
,

the ch arg e till the combu st io n ch a mb er b ecom es sufli ciently

h eated M B arbez at who has now ch arge of the d ev elopm ent

. .
,

of thi s tu rbi ne states th at th e to tal effi ci ency is not as high as

,

th at of recip roc ati ng gas engi nes ; but no d ata are g iv en .

34 8 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

Gas tu rbi nes h av e b een a ppli ed p rac tic ally for the p ropul sio n
of subm ari ne to rp edo es Fo rm erly som e typ es of to rp edo es
.

rec eiv ed th ei r mo tiv e po w er f rom a ro ta ry mo to r lik e a tu rbi ne

wh eel d riv en by comp ressed a ir R ec ently gas tu rbi nes h av e

,
.

b een i nstall ed wi th an obviou s g a i n in pow er and savi ng in w eigh t .

T h ese gas tu rbi nes d ev elop 1 2 0 ho rsepow er a t 1 0 0 0 revolu tio ns

p er mi n u te . T h e e xp a n s io n ra t io of th e n ozzl es is a nd t h e

w eigh t per ho rsepow er wi th o u t the comp resso r is

,
pou nd s ,
.

It is obviou s th en th at g reat p rog ress h a s b een m ad e rec entl y

, ,

in the d ev elopm ent of the ga s tu rbi ne; an d wh en the ratio of

p rog ress is comp ared wi th the tim e requ i red to b ri ng the recip
roca tin
g g a s en gi n e t o it s p resent state of d ev elopm ent th ere is ,

rea so n for hopi ng for g rea ter a ccompli shm ents in the n ear fu tu re .

T h e gas tu rb i n e qu estio n i n clud es how ev er a numb er of un , ,

solv ed p robl em s ; but on the o th er h and the sou rc es av a il a bl e

, ,

for th ei r solu tio n a re nu m erou s T he d ev elopm ent of th ese

.

m a chi nes will p ermi t the u tiliz atio n for pow er of mix tu res of a ir
wi th co al gas p etrol eum or alcohol ; and it will al so m ak e po ssibl e
, ,

a combi n atio n of the explo sio n mo to r a nd the stea m tu rbi ne for

m any pu rpo ses .

T he p robl em is l a id pl a i nly b efo re th e phy sici st the engi neer , ,

and the m a c h i ni st and to b ri n g a bou t a sat i sf a c to ry solu tio n will

,

doub tl ess requi re all th ei r combi ned reso urc es .

Q ues tio n s of T h eo ry T h.e succ e ss of th e stea m t u rbi n e

natu ra lly di rec ted the attent io n of en gi neers to the po ssibili ti es

of the gas tu rbi ne wi th the exp ec tatio n of combi ni ng the high

th erm al effi ci en cy of the gas engi ne wi th th e co nstru c tiv e ad van

ta g es of the stea m tu rbi ne .

As expl ai ned in the p rec edi ng p ag es a gas tu rbi ne c an b e

op erated by ei th er of two m ethod s
( )
I B y combu st io n of th e fu el in a ch a mb er at co nstant pressure .

( )
2 B y a n ex pl o sio n m e th o d .

C ombu st io n at co nstant p ressu re seem s to be the mo re pra cti

c abl e m ethod and is the one g enerally adop ted * In the op era .
:

h
T eoret i call y the me effi ci ency sh oul d be secured w i th ei th er of th ese two
sa

syste ms of comb usti o n . C ombusti on at constant pressure is a n a d aptati on of the

3 50 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E
”
combu stio n ch amb er i nternally so th at no cooli ng w ater will
be need ed .

T he greatest p ra c tic al di fficul ty in the w a of the succ essful

y
op eration of gas tu rbi nes resul ts f rom the high temp eratu re of the
g ases at end of exp ansio n N ozzl es can be cool ed by w ater
.

j ack eti ng but the wh eel bl ad es are li abl e to ra pid d eterio ratio n
, .

T he nec essi ty for low eri ng the temp eratu re of combu stio n is now
g enerally recog niz ed and the hot w ater f rom the w ater j a ck ets is
,

sp ray ed i nto th e comp ressed a ir suppli ed for combu stio n By .

thi s m eans the temp eratu re in th e combu stio n ch a mb er can b e

g re a tly reduc ed b ut at a co nsid erabl e lo ss how ev er in efli cienc

, y , .

I t is m aki ng in o th er wo rd s the effi ci ency of the gas turbi ne

, ,

a pp ro a ch the lo w er th erm al efli cienc of th e te m tu bi n e

y s a r .

It seem s p rob abl e th at the mo st p romi si ng fi eld for the gas

tu rbi ne will be fou nd to b e in the u tiliz atio n of bi tumi nou s co al s

fo rmi ng tar and asph al tum wh en used for m aki ng gas Such .

c o al s c anno t b e u sed in the m anuf a c tu re of fo r ecip roc ati ng

g as r

g a s e n gi nes a s th e a
,
ccumul at io n of ta rry m a tt er in th e cyli nd e rs

is p articul arly obj ec tio nabl e In a gas tu rbi ne how ev er the ga s

.
, ,

is bu rned u nd er p ressu re in an enclo sed ch a mb er wh ere a ccumu

,

l ations of fo reig n m atter c au se no seriou s d ifli cul ties .

It c anno t b e exp ec ted th at gas tu rbi nes ca n b e comm erci ally

succ essful for g eneral pow er pu rpo ses if a recip roc ati ng comp resso r

mu st be u sed in connec tio n wi th th em b ec au se a gas tu rbi ne wi th

‘

a comp resso r of thi s typ e is qui te as complic ated a s the recip

rocating gas en i ne C omp resso rs of the ro tary typ e on the o th er

g .
,

h and h av e u su ally a v ery low effici ency ; p rob ably in mo st c ases

,

n ot m o re th an 50 per c ent D ecid ed p rog ress is b ei ng m ad e in

.

the succ essful d esig ni ng of comp resso rs of the tu rbi ne typ e w hich
will giv e f rom 6 0 to 7 0 per c ent efli ciency It is not di ffi c ul t to
. .
~

u nd erstand how the net u seful wo rk of a gas tu rbi ne may be nil

und er co ndi tio n s th at are not u nu su ally poo r F or if the effi .

c iency of th e tu rbi ne is 6 0 per c ent and the th eo reti ca l wo rk of

.

c omp ressio n is 4 0 per c ent of the ou tpu t ( which is not an ab su rd

.

estim ate) th en wi th a comp resso r efli ciency of o nly 4 0 per c ent

,
.

the th eo retic al pow er ab so rb ed by the comp resso r is 6 0 X 4 0 or .

,
 GA S T URB I N ES 3 5 I

2 4 perc ent of the ou tpu t or the a ctu al pow er d eliv ered to the
.
,

comp resso r is 2 4 1 4 0 or 6 0 per c ent of the ou tpu t And the

—
.
,
. .

comp resso r tak es all the pow e r th e tu rbi ne can supply It is .

obviou s th en th at comp resso rs wi th the u su al low effi ci enci es of

the ro tary typ es are not wo rth co nsid eri ng .

B R A Y TO N C Y C LE CA LC U LA TIO N S FOR G AS TU R B I N ES .

P: Q

C ase I 0

652
. 2 2

87
43

A d i a b a ti c
0 43
m
‘

co ~

0 2, 2 7 54
press i on Per
.

8 3 ’ 74°
54 6
.

feet machi ne 0 ‘ O7 54
34 1 4 7 ’ 60 ° 64
w i th no l osses
0

8 64
.

0 4 34 3

Case II
I othe m l
s r a co m 90 0 08 93
pres s on i wi t h 90 2 50 0 915 .
39 72
re gene to ra r . 1 95 0 1 1 91
Perfect ma 1 95 2 50 0 448 61 62
chi ne wi th no 495 87
0 1
5
l osses .
495 2 50 0 1 2 6 . 0
3 49

C ase III
I othe m l
s r a co m 56 333 0 74 2 7
press i on w t ih 82 39 2 0 . 68 3 0

regene ator r . 61 445 0 .

50 31
A ctu l a ma 98 54 5 0 .
47 9 9 , 9 60 35
chi ne w i th as 445 40 2 8
33 0 .

sumed l osses . 61 5 69 0 .
36 9 6, 7 7 5 33
A ir excess .

C ase IV
I othe m l
s r a co m
i
press on w t ih 79 62 5 .
37 67
regenerator .
47 63 8 36 43
Assumed osses l .

li g
Coo n w ater .
 3 5 2 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

T HE RM O D YN AM I C T H EO RY O F T HE GAS T U RB I N E .

Thel m entary th ermodynamic s of the gas tu rbi ne i nvolv e

ee

a pp a rently no new i nv estig atio ns T he p robl em s a re p ri nci

.

p ally m ech anic al and m etallu rgic al In the abov e ta bl e the .

effici en ci es of v ariou s ga s tu rbi ne cycl es a re giv en as c alcul a ted

by Sanfo rd A M o ss In all c ases it is assum ed th at the h eat

. .

of combu stion is d ev elop ed at constant p ressu re and th a t the

exh a u st g ases are d i sch a rg ed a t co nstant p ressu re Cases I a nd .

II refer to th eo retic ally p erf ec t engi nes and c ases III and IV to ,

engi nes wi th p rob ably n o rm al lo sses It is a ssum ed for th ese .

l atter c ases th at the tu rbi ne effi ci ency is 7 0 per c ent and of the .

comp resso r is 8 3 per c enti l T he efli ciency of the reg enera tor
<

u sed for the c ases of i so th erm al comp ressio n is tak en to be 6 0

er c ent T h e e fi gu res are c e t i nly bov e the u pp e limi t of
p s . r a a r s

po ssibl e resul ts in p rac tic e .

Th ermo dy nam ic effi ci encies of gas tu rbi nes op erati ng w i th

combu stio n at co nstant pressure will now be di scu ssed T he .

equ atio ns giv en a re in mo st c ases tho se rel ati ng to a p erf ec t

, ,

ga s .

h eat H of a gas at co nstant pressure may be exp ressed

T he to tal
by the followi ng equ atio n
H c, T RT = ( c, R) T= cpT o
c nstant,

wh ere T b solu te temp eratu re c and c, a re resp ec tivel y

is the a , , ,

the mean sp eci fic h eats of the gas at co nstant volum e and con
s tant p ressu re b etw een z ero temp eratu re and T a nd R is a con ,

s tant v a ryi ng for its v alu e wi th the ki nd of ga s .

Fi g 2 2 5 rep resents the cycl e of op eratio ns wh en a pou nd of a

.

mixtu re of gas and air is comp ressed and l ater exp and ed in doi ng
wo rk Adi ab atic comp ression is assum ed One pou nd of the
. .

mix tu re is tak en i nto the comp resso r cyli nd er at the temp eratu re
T and volum e v and is comp ressed as rep resented by the adi a
1 0

b atic O 3 to the temp eratu re T and volum e v In the p assag e

3 3
.

t o the combu st io n ch a mb er it will b e a ssum ed for Simplici ty in

Effi ci enci es of 6 0 per cent. for the turb i ne a nd not mo e th an 7 0 r per cent . for
t he co mpressor w oul d probab l y be more r easonab l e .
3 54 T HE ST EA M TU R B INE

T he h eat lo st by the exh au st g ases in cooli ng f rom T to 5

T0 is
H5 H ; and si nc e thi s qu anti ty is c all ed Q w e can w ri te
0 ,,

W I
H
( 4 Ha l
) H
( 5 H0 ) Q1 Q2 )

and pl a ci ng H 0 for H 3 it is ’
a pp arent th at
W1 = H4 H5 =
Ql Q2 °

T he th eo retic al
di sch arg e v eloci ty V in f eet per seco nd at
the mou th of the exp ansio n nozzl e is c alc ul a ted f rom the u su al

equ atio n ,

v 2

=
Q‘ Q, = H4 H5 = c,, ( 4
T T5 ) .

2 g 778

U si ng the sa m e symbol s as b efo re for the i ndic ated wo rk of

comp ressio n ,
the th eo retic al eff ec tiv e pow er of the tu rbi ne is

W ,
= W, —
o ,
—
W , .

I f the m ech anic al effi ci ency of comp ressio n is x and the efli ciency
of the gas tu rbi ne y is d etermi ned in the sa m e waya s for a steam
, ,

tu rbi ne by co nstruc ti ng v eloci ty tri angl es and c alcul ati ng the

,

n ozzl e bl ad e and wh eel f ric tio n lo sses for a si n gl e sta g e tu rbi ne

, , ,

th en the th eo retic al net pow er of th e turbi ne is

W e
’
(Q 1 Q2 ) Y

Si nc e the h eat co nsum ed per pou nd of the mixtu re is Q ,, the

to ta l effi ci ency z of the gas tu rbi ne a pp a ratu s is

Z : _

Qz ly

Efi ciency of Gas Turbine w ith Water Inj ectio n I f m pou nd s .

of w ater are i nj ec ted i nto the combu stio n ch amb er ju st b efo re

the exp ansio n b egi ns an equ al w eigh t of stea m is fou nd which
, ,

it will b e a ssum ed is sup erh eated to the temp eratu re which

will now be al so at the temp eratu re of the mixtu re low er of , ,

cou rse th an T
, ,
.
 GA S T URB I N ES 3 55

T he temp eratu re of the mixture of bu rned gases and stea m

T, ’
is c alcul ated by solvi ng the followi ng equ atio n :
C?
Z
T
( 4 T1 ) :
m i q4 ,
qi CP
,
(4
t
,
ta ll ;

wh ere q h eat of the liqu id r is the h eat of v apo riz atio n

,
’
is the , ,
’
,

and t 1 5 the te mp ear tu re of sa tu ra ted s tea m — all at the ,

co rrespo ndi ng p ressu re T he o th er new symbol s are q i ,

which is the h eat of the liquid at the inj ectio n tem peratu re and ,

cp which is the sp eci fic h eat of sup erh eated stea m In thi s

’
,
.

equ atio n t a nd t a re o rdi n ary ( not a b solu te) temp eratu res
’
.

, ,4

T he temp eratu re T is c alcul a ted for assum ed adi ab atic expan

’
5

sio n by u si ng the expo nent k c alcul ated from the equ atio n ’

b elow :

c.
,

in which ub sc rip t 1 ref ers to the sp eci fic h eats of the mix tu re

the s

a nd the sub sc rip t 2 to sp eci fi c h eats of the stea m T he temp er .

a tu re T
5
is u sed to d etermi ne the v alu e of Q
’
which is the qu an ,,

ti ty of h eat ab stra c ted f rom the mix tu re to cool it f rom the

co ndi tio n at 5 to the co ndi tio n at o It is c alcul ated f rom the .

followi ng eq u atio n
l cp (ts q oj (5 to)
’ ’ ’ ’ ,
In — t r q, Cp t — .
s

”
In thi s equ atio n t, is the mp eratu re co rrespo ndi n g
’
o rdi nary te

to the ab solu te temp eratu re T t is the temp era tu re of sa tu s ,

’
s,

rated stea m r is the h eat of v a po riz atio n and q is the h ea t o f

’ ’
, 5 , ,
'
the liquid all a t the p ressu re P
, q is a t th e temp era tu re t o I t 5 0
.

will b e assum ed al so th at to is l ess th an t and th at the l atter is 85

T he pa rt a i l ”
pressu re of the stea m at the tempera ture T,
’
ca n be ca l cu l a ted
a pprox i matel y by the formul a
’ 47 m
P =
p3
2 9 3 + 47- m

if we assu me th e consta nts for the h a ust g a ses a e the same

ex r as for a ir . I n th e
sa me w a y t h e pa rt a i l ”
p ressu r e of th e stea m f te expa nsi on is a r l l
ca cu a ted h
t us :
3 56 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

l ess th an ts as is g enerally the c ase negl ec ti ng the sm all qu an

’
, ,

t i ty of h eat in the w ater v a po r rem a i ni ng in the mix tu re a t t he

temp eratu re t o a fter the bu rned g ases and steam h av e b een d is

ch arg ed f rom the nozzl e .

We can w ri te the followi ng equ atio ns a pplyi ng the sam e ,

method s as for the c ase wi thou t the use of i nj ec tio n w ater:

We ,
(Q t Q2 ) y

( Qt —
Q2) y

Q
T o tal effi ci ency , 2 i nc reases wi th the p ressu re of comp ressio n to
,

a c ert a i n limi ti ng v alu e and th en d ec reases B ut for the practi .

c abl e v alu es of comp resso r a nd tu rbi ne effi ci en ci es ( x a nd y ) the

v alu es of the th eo retic al to tal effi ci en cy are not p articul arly good .

T he equ atio ns giv en h ere for v eloci ty and effici ency can be
u sed to i nv estig ate the b est op erati ng co ndi tio ns by v aryi ng the
p ressu re of comp ressio ns and the qu anti ty of i nj ec tion w ater .

Ano th er m ethod for reduci ng the temp eratu re of the g ases is

t o use a l arg e exc ess of air a bov e the qu anti ty need ed to suppo rt

c ombu stio n . T he mo st economic al m ethod is p rob ably th at of

p artly v apo rizi ng the cooli ng w ater in the w ater j ack ets T he .

a dv antag e of u si ng w ater is th at lik ewi se it do es n ot need to be

comp ressed and th erefo re it can b e i nj ec ted i nto the combu stio n
,

ch amb er wi thou t the exp endi tu re of much energy .

M any of the troubl es in the combu stio n ch amb er of a gas

tu rbi ne are diffi cul t to expl a i n One of the mo st seriou s d ifli
.

cul ties is th e occ asio nal missfire of th e i ncomi ng ch arg e which is

s oo n follow ed by a viol ent explo sio n It is al so di fficul t to secu re

.

s mok el e ss combu stio n I mp rov em ents are b ei ng m ad e how

.
,

ev er wi th the obj ec t of m a i ntai n i ng high er temp eratu res in the

,

c ombu stio n ch a mb er and the resul ts are encou ra gi n g

,
F or thi s .

reaso n it is impo rtant th at cooli ng w ater Should b e i nj ec ted i nto

 CHAP TER X V I I .

L I R
E ECTR C GENE ATO S FOR STEAM TU B N ES R R I .

I N the ear ly y ears of the d ev elopm ent of steam tu rbi nes it was
t he p rim ary a im of the tu rbi ne engi neer to red uc e the sp eed of

t he tu rbi ne to op erate sati sf ac to rily wh en di rec t co nnec ted to

el ec tric g enerato rs T o a ccompli sh thi s pu rpo se D e L a v al

.

i ntroduc ed his f amou s h elic al g eari ng and Cu rti s appli ed the

p ri ncipl e of v eloci ty stag es T o d ay how ev er the trend of
.
, ,

d ev elopm ents is in the o th er di rec tio n T he el ec tric al engi neer .

is b ei ng u rg ed to use his b est Skill to d esig n g enerato rs to op erate

sati sf a c to rily at high er and high er sp eed s b ec au se in thi s w a
y ,

the efli ciency of the tu rbi ne can b est be i nc reased V ery g reat .

s trid es h av e b een m ad e in the p erfec tio n of al ternato rs for stea m

t u rbi nes ; but in the d esig n of d i rec t cu rrent g enerato rs to op erate
-

a t high sp eed s much is still to be d esi red In f a c t for high .

,

s p eed s
,
commu tatio n is i nd eed a v ery di fficul t p robl em T he .

po tenti al di ff erenc e b etw een adj ac ent commu tato r b ars of engi ne
d riv en di rec t cu rrent g enerato rs is usuall v abou t 1 0 vol ts ; whil e
-

for tu rbi ne generato rs the limi t is abou t 3 0 to 4 0 vol ts per bar

-
.

D IR ECT —
CU RR EN T G EN ERAT O R S .

Spark i ng L imi t In slow sp eed di rec t cu rrent g enerato rs the

.
- -

ou tpu t is limi ted ei th er by the sp arki ng or by the h eati ng On .

a ccou nt of th e nec essarily sm all dim en sio ns of th e a rm atu re and

the ex trem ely high perIod icity wi th the resul ti ng l arg e i ro n lo sses
, ,

it b ecom es nec essary on the o th er h and in a high sp eed g enerato r

, ,
—

t o employ arti fici al cooli ng d evic es Wi th the use of fo rc ed

.

v entil atio n h eati ng is no lo ng er a f ac to r limi ti ng the ou tpu t and ,

th e di ffi cul ty li es th en p ri ncip ally in the spa rk ing T he qu ali ty .

o f the commu tatio n in any el ec tric g enerato r d ep end s l arg ely on

3 58
 L
E ECT RI C G EN ERAT O R S F OR ST EA M TU RB I NES 3 59

the numb er of a mp ere tu rns which can be pl ac ed on the su rf a c e -

of the arm atu re; but th ere are al so a numb er of oth er el ec tric
and m ag netic co ndi tio ns to be co nsid ered p art icul arly the effec ,

tiven ess of the co mm uta ting pol es * loc ated b etw een th e m a i n ,

pol es Ano th er impo rtant f a c to r is the m ech anic al condi tio n

.

of the arm atu re commu tato r and b ru sh es which d etermi nes in

, , ,

a l arg e m easu re the spark i ng lim it .

O n the b asi s th at the m aximu m p ermi ssibl e amp ere tu m s per -

c entim eter of the ci rcumf erenc e of the arm atu re d etermi ne the
m aximum ou tpu t the followi ng tabl e has b een c alcul ated At .

an assum ed p ermi ssibl e p eriph eral v eloci ty of 7 5 meters ] per

L

seco nd I ( abou t 2 4 5 f eet per seco nd ) thi s tabl e Sho w s the m a xi ,

Re v l o u t ions O ut pu t

M inute . K il o w a t ts .

Wh en arti fici a l co mmuta ti on is secu red l by a ux ili a ry l

po es p a ced betw een the
ma i n pol es of a g enerator Sh ort c ,
-
i ui t u ent a nd p ki ng
rc c rr s S ar ca n occ u r o n l y w h en
the el ectromotiv e fo rce i nd uced by the o mmutati ng fiel d i c s i
d ff erent f ro m t he

reacta nce vol tag e

T T he C . G . S .
( metri c) syste m of i
u n ts is a pp li ed in thi h pte be a use it i
s c a r c s

the one co mmonl y used by d es ig ne s r of e ectr ca l i l m hi ne y in A me i a nd

ac r r c a

in En gl a nd .

I It is usua y ound t ll f
h at the end sh ell o hi el d p otecti ng the onnecti ons in s r s s r c

a revolvi ng a m tu e h a v e st esses most ne l y a pp oachi ng the ll ow b l e li mi t

r a r r ar r a a s .

St e
r sses in th ese end h ell s a e ca l cul ted a in a ri ng o ba nd by eq u tion
s r a s r ,
a

w hi ch becomes pp ox i matel y in C G S uni t

a r . . . s,

wh ere V is the peri ph era l v el o i ty of the i ng in mete s per se ond 2 i the weigh t
c r r c ,
s

of a ubi c enti mete of the m ate i l

c c rnd S o i th e ll ow b l e u ni t t er a in kil og a m
,
a s a a s r ss r s

pe rs q u a e ernt i met
ce S i nc e th e a ll ow b
r l e
.
pe m i s i b l e st es of b onz e a sti ng s is a r s r s r c

about 6 0 kil og a ms pe sq ua e centi mete the max i m um a ll ow ab l e v el o i ty is onl y

2 r r r r, c
3 60 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

mum ou tpu ts and sp eed s which at the p resent tim e are ob tai n ~

a bl e in th e v ery b est d esig ns of di rec t cu rrent g en erato rs * -

.

T hi s tabl e Show s th at the arm atu re of di rec t cu rrent g enerato rs -

c anno t be co nstruc ted to giv e the requi red ou tp ut at the u su al

sp eed s adop ted in A m eric a for P arso ns tu rbi nes and th at wi th ,

Cu rti s tu rbi nes which op erate at Slow er sp eed s the limi t is

, ,

rea ch ed at 1 0 0 kilow atts full lo ad c ap aci ty

5 .

T h ere are tw o w ay s of ov ercomi ng the limi tations of di rec t

cu rrent g enerato rs for turbi ne servic e O ne w ay is to d esign the .

tu rbi nes for low er Sp eed s which enta il s how ev er i nc reased co st , , ,

and a sa c ri fic e of eco n omy T he o th er w ay is to adop t the t an .

d em arrang em ent of co nnec ti ng tw o g enerato rs to one tu rbi ne

a s in the u su al D e L av al d esig ns for th e l arg er siz es .

T h ere is a co nstant d em and for di rec t c urrent g enerato rs of -

l arg er c ap aci ti es th an are now employ ed and the p robl em of ,

i nc reasi ng the c ap aci ty of the g enerato r is b ecomi ng v ery impo r

tant . The su cc essful p roduc tio n of such m achi nes sui tabl e for _

mu ch high er sp eed s th an are now attai nabl e would be an imp rov e

m ent eff ec tiv e in two w ay s : ( I ) by low eri ng the steam consump
t io n and ( 2 ) by reduci ng the fi rst co st ; and as a resul t the fi eld

of the high sp eed recip roc ati ng engi ne would be still mo re

-

restric ted .

Flash ov er Lim it In o rdi nary Slow sp eed di rec t cu rrent

-
.
- -

g enerators the only el ec tric al limi t to the c ap aci ty is sp arki ng .

In high sp eed m achi n es how ev er a new di ffi cul ty k now n as the

-

, ,

fl ash ov er limi t is met

— Its e ff ec ts are of ten as seriou s and as
.

d i ffi cul t to rem edy as any of the commu tatio n troubl es A g reat .

m any d esigns of high sp eed di rec t cu rrent g enerato rs wi th - -

sati sf a c to ry commu tati n g qu ali ti es h av e b een f a ilu res b ec au se

of th ei r tend ency to are arou nd the whol e commu tato r T hi s .

troubl e mu st b e attribu ted p rim arily to the v ery high po tenti a l

i
5 5 meters per second ; a nd cons der n the a dd t ona oa d d ue to th e end connec i g ii ll
i i i l v l i l
t ons th e perm ss b e e oc ty b ecomes on y a bout 5 0 meters per second ,
If
how .

v h h z g z i g ih
e er, p osp or b ron e or ma n a nese b ron e cast n s w t
-
ll l
a n a ow ab e stress of -

60 0 ki l og a ms pe sq ua e enti mete a e used a peri ph eral v el oci ty of 7 5 mete s

r r r c r r , r

pe se ond is not ex e iv e
r c c ss .

R Pohl P o of I n t of El e Engr 9 0 7
.
,
r c . s . c
. s .
,
1 .
3 6 2 T HE ST EA M TU RB I N E

is om etim es co ated wi th a thi n l ay er of enam el for i nsul atio n

s ,

i nstead of the u su al co tto n cov eri ng T he nec essi ty of m aki ng

.

the ex terio r sur f a c es of revolvi ng field s as smoo th as po ssibl e is

g enerally app reci ated by d esigners .

G EN ERAT O R I I
EFF C EN C ES I .

Av erag e effi ci enci es

of the b est d esigns of al ternati ng cu rrent -

g enerato rs i ntend ed for op eration wi th steam tu rbi nes are giv en

in the followi ng tabl e

ll Lo d
R a t ed F u a Ca pa c ity,
K il w tt
o a s .

The effi ci ency of di rec t cu rrent high sp eed g enerato rs is abou t

— -

one per c ent. l ess th an th at of al ternato rs of the sam e c ap aci ty .

 APP EN D I X .

X
E ER C SES O N STEAM I TURB NES I .

Exercise 1 . What is the v elocity of steam discharging at the rate of 2 00

cubi c feet per second through a noz z le havi ng a cross sectional are
-
a of

sq uare foot ? A ns . 1 00 0 feet per second .

Exercise 2 . If the steam d mentioned in the i schargi ng from the or fice i

preceding exercise w eighs 0 3 2 2 pound per cubic foot how much energy
.
,

in foot pounds per second can thi s jet develop?

-
How much horsepower ?
foot pounds per second
A ns horsepower -

Suggestion: Fromelementary mechanics we hav e t he i nformation that

. . .

t he k i neti c energy K ( sometimes called capaci ty to do work) of any movi ng

fl uid such as steam gas or water is

, , , ,

WV ?

2 g

where W is the we g t i h of the fl u id dischargi ng per second V is the velocity ,

of f
fl ow in eet per second ,
-
and g is the accel era ti on of grav ity or feet
per second .

B y defini t ion ( in English uni ts) one horsepower is eq uivalent to 5 50

foot pounds per second
-
.

Exercise 3 . v shown in F ig 3 3 discharges 4 0 pounds of wa ter

If the essel .

per second at a v eloci ty of 1 6 feet per second wha t is the force ( impulse)
1 ,

pushing t he wooden block aw ay from the v essel ? A ns 2 0 0 pounds . .

Also what is the force ( reacti on) pushing the v essel i tself toward the
left ? A ns 0 0 lbs . 2 .

Exercise 4 If water is di scharged agai nst fl at blades of a water wheel

.

made up of vanes similar to the block shown in Fi g 3 3 ( page 5 8 ) at the .

rat e of pounds per second at a v elocity of feet per second and is 2 000

spa ttered from the w ooden block s w ith a

“
resid ual v elocity ( leavi ng the ”

v anes) of 3 0 0 feet per second what horsepower is this water wheel capable
,

of d ev eloping ? A ns foot pounds per second or 3 555 horsepower

.
-
.

Exercise 5 Steam of the same density a s in the exerci se on page 2 8

.

discha ges a t the rate of 7 3 9 pounds per hour and produces a reacti on
r 1

a ga i nst the plate i nto which t he same noz z l e is i nsert ed of 4 5 pounds What .

is the v eloci ty of di scharge? A ns 3 0 0 0 feet per second . .

 6
3 4 APPEN D IX

Exercise 6 .
_
The area l
of a noz z e a t it s smallest section is 7 2 square nch . i
a nd discharges steam a t the ra te of . 2 pound per second , of wh ch the spec fic i i
v olume is cubic
feet per pound .

( a) What is the e ocity of fl ow ?

vl A ns 8 0 feet per second
’

. .

( b) What is the magni tude of the force dev eloped by the reacti on of
thi s jet ? A ns 3 pound ( nearly) . .

(c) What is the maxi mum v al ue of the i mpul se produced by this jet if
fri cti on a nd eddy losses reduce the v eloci ty effectiv e for givi ng the impulse
by 2 5 per cent ? A ns . .
3 7 pound .

l
( d) If on y part v elocity avail able in (c) is absorbed in d ivi ng a
of the r
“
Steam turbine so tha t the steam leav es the blades wi th a residual veloc ”
,

ity of 1 0 feet per second how many foot pounds of work per minute are
,
-

d ev eloped by the turbi ne? A ns 6 5 . 2 .

(e) What is the horsepower equiv alent of thi s number of foot pounds -

p er m i nu te ? A ns 9 8 horsepow er . . 0 1 .

f
() I f t hi s t urb i ne driv es a sm all el ect ri c generator having an effi ciency
of 8 0 per cent what power in k il ow at ts wi ll this generator dev elop ?
.
,

A ns . . 01 33 kilowatt .

Suggesti on: A kil owatt is a thousand wat ts, and 7 4 6 wa t ts a re eq uiva

lent to a horsepower .

( g) How much horsepower would be de eloped by th v i s turbine if all the

v eloci ty as calcul at ed in ( a) is t ransformed into work ?

(it) What is the effic enc i y of the turb ne? i

Suggestion: Compare ( e) v eloci ty as calculated in (a)
and ( g) . If the
represents the total v el oci ty equiv al ent of the a v a il able ene gy due to r

a di ab atic expansion ( constant entropy) then the answer to secti on ( h) is

called the R ank ine e filciency of the turbi ne .

Exercise 7 Cal cul ate the horsepower dev el oped by a steam turbine
.

havi ng two rows of movi ng bl ades Upon the first row steam is directed
.

a t a v el ocity of 3 0 0 0 feet per second a nd a t the rate of pounds per

second . The steam is di scharged from this row a t a v eloci ty of 00 0 feet 1

p er se co nd and i s th en d i re ct ed up on a se con d r ow o f bl a d es fro m w h i ch it

is discharged a t a v elocity of 2 00 feet per second .

( a) N eglecting fri ctional and other losses how much horsepower wil l ,

thi s turbi ne dev el op ? A ns 4 4 8 horsepower . .

( b) How much power would be dev eloped if there is a loss of v eloci ty of

,

1 0 per cent in each row of bl ades ?

.

Suggestion: Actual v eloci ty eff ectiv e in first row of blades is 2 7 0 0 feet

p er s ec on d w hi ch i s di sc h ar g ed a t 0 0 0 fe et p er sec ond W o
1rk d ev el op ed .

in this row is ( 7 00 000 )

2
2
x 5 50 ) in horsepower
1
2
Simi .

larly work done in the second row is ( 90 0 2

2 00
2
) X 550 )
in horsepower .
3 6 6 AP END P IX

v i
a a lab e l energy for i
ad a bat c i expansion 1 1 3 1 08 7 or B TU. . .

per pound The rehea ting is 3 0 per cent of th s or about

. . i wh ch i
when added to 1 0 8 7 g es iv
B T U as the tota heat . . . l contents of the
stea m when i i
pass ng nto the noz z es of the ne t l x succeed ng stage i . At this
cond i ti on the q uali ty of the steam is about 94 9 . .

In actual d esigni ng the reh eating in the l ast turbine is not consi dered
av ail abl e as will be observ ed in the desi gn work ed out on page 8 7
, The .

reason for thi s is that a v ery large part of the rehea ting in the stages other

than the last is due to the changi ng of the resi dual v eloci ty of the st eam
as it l eaves the bl ades i nto potent i al ( heat) energy Thi s has been dem .

onstrated by a ctual experi ments whi ch Show th at the steam enters the

noz z l e of an impul se wheel in ev ery stage wi th practi cally negli gi ble v eloci ty .

In the l ast stage the condi ti ons howev er are d i ff erent The steam here
, ,
.

leaves the blade wi th its residual veloci ty uncheck ed and passes off into
the l arge exhaust passages provi ded for its uni mpeded fl ow . .

Exercise 1 1 A turbi ne blade li k e the one shown in Fig 4 3 mov es wi th

. .

a v eloci ty of 500 feet per second due to a steam jet passi ng ov er it whi ch

has a v el oci ty of 32 2 0 feet per second I f fri cti on losses in the bl ade are .

not consi dered and the wei ght of steam fl owing per second is
, p oun ds ,

a is 2 0 degrees and B 7 4 5 degrees what is the total i mpulse force ,

to whi ch the blade is subj ected in the di rection of its moti on ( see page
Suggestion: Since losses in the blades are negl ected V V and V , 3 , 2 , 2

x/ V b 2
V} 2 V b V cos (Law of Cosi nes)
2 a .

All the terms in thi s equati on are k nown so that V or V can be caleu , 2 , 3

lated .

Exercise 1 ing the necessary data from the preceding exercise

2 . Ta k ,

state the proper a ngl e for the ba ck s of the bl ades ( see Figs 4 9 and .

for the steam to enter wi thout loss due to impact and eddying ( See page .

Expl ai n the essenti al principle of operation of Hero s

’
Exercise 1 3 .

engi ne Indi cate cl early in a figure the di recti on of rota ti on of thi s engine
.

wi th respect to the di recti on of steam di scharge from the noz z l es What .

is the difference in pri nci pl e between Hero s engi ne and B ranca s ?

’ ’

Exercise 1 4 Explai n the actual diff erence between the commerci al types
.

k nown as impulse and reacti on turbines .

Exercise 1 5 Why have the stationary blades or buck ets Shown in

.

figures li k e 3 9 , page 6 3 b, a curv ature in the opposi te direction to that of all

the movi ng bla des ?

Exercise 1 6 . Why is the rota t on i

loss when sta ted in per cent of . rated

less for a large siz e turbine than for a re ati e y sma l one? l vl l
'

output

Exercise 1 7 . D esign a l
noz z e, showing all the i mportant dimens ons, i
for expandi ng stea m from the ini tial cond i tion of 1 6 5 pounds per q
s uare
 APPEN D IX 6
3 7

inch absolute, and 1 00 degrees F . superhea t l

to a fina cond t on of 4 poundsii
per s ua re iq
nch abso ute l . Assume tha t the noz z e l loss is 3 per cent of the .

velocity and that the rate of fl ow is to be 1 5 '

2
pound per second .
( See pages
93 9 5)
—

Exercise 1 8 . Steam x
e pands in the noz zl es of a si mple impulse turbine
from 1 6 5 pounds per square inch absol ute to 1 pound per square inch
a bsolute ( about 2 8 inches v acuum) D raw v el ocity diagrams allowing for .
,

no l osses and determine the proper blade a ngl es when E equals 7

, The .

noz l e angle is to be as usual 2 0 degrees and the peripheral speed of the

z , ,

blades or buck ets is 1 2 0 0 feet per second .

Cal cula te the energy absorbed or giv en up to the blades or buck ets per
o un d o f s team as w ell as the steam consumpti on of the i deal turbine
p
( th eore ti ca l w a ter ra te) and the steam consum p ti on of thi s turbine as de

termined from the energy absorbed by the bl ades or buck ets .

Sk etch wi th a reasonable degree of accuracy the outlines of the bl ades or

buck ets .

Exercise 1 9 . R ecal cul ate and redes ign the b lades for the i
condi t ons

giv en in Ex ercise8 when the noz z e oss is 3 per cent of

1 l l . the theoreti cal
vl i vl
e oc ty de e oped a nd the b a de osses are ob ta ined rom Fig 5 1 , page 8 5 l l f . .

v i
Obser e and d scuss the change in blade ang es caused by nc uding the l i l
losses in the desi gn .

Cal cul ate ( 1 ) the work done in foot pounds

-

per second per poun d of

st ea m; ( ) 2 the steam consu mpti on per horsepower hour and the effi ci ency
-

of the turb ne i .

If the speed of the turbine is v l i

re o ut ons per minute find the ,

diameter of the mean b ade c rc e l i l .

If five l
noz z es are used for a maximum load of 5 horsepower find the
0 ,

d iameter at the throa t of each of these noz z les assuming they are all of the
,

sa me Siz e .

Exercise2 0 M a k e the necessary calcula tions and draw veloci ty diagrams

.

and nea t Sk et ches of the blades for an impulse turbi ne havi ng two pressure

stages and two rows of movi ng bl ades tha t is two v eloci ty sta ges in each , ,

ress u re sta g e fo r the followi ng req ui rements

p ,

The i niti al pressure of the steam suppli ed to the turbine is 1 6 5 pounds

p er sq u ar e i nc h a b so l ute a nd is expa nd ed in t he fir st se t of n o l es to 2 0 zz

p ou n d s p er s qu ar e In ch ab s ol u te I n th e sec o nd se t of no z l es th e p re s
. z

sure fall s from 2 0 pounds per square inch absol ut e t o 2 pound s per square

inch absol ute ( about 2 6 Inches v acuum) The no z le angles are 0 degrees . z 2

a nd the perIpheral speed of the blades or buck etsiis 50 0 feet per second the ,

noz z le loss is 2 per cent of the theoreti cal v eloci ty and the blade losses are
.
,

to be ta k en from Fig 5 1 Assume tha t the windage l eak age and bearing
. .
, ,

losses amount to 3 0 per cent of the energy dev eloped by the action of the .

steam in the bl ades .

 APPEN D IX
The ra t ng of i i
the turb ne is to be for 1 00 horsepower at 1 8 00 r.
pm . .

Cal cula te the number of buck ets and the height of the buck ets for the
first in the first stage and for the last row in the second stage
row .

Observe tha t the height of the blades for the first row in each stage is
determined by the heigh t of the noz z les whi ch discharge into th e blades .

Exercise 2 1 i
D esign the bla d ng of a reaction turb ne for the same con
. i
ditions v x
gi en in the second e erc se on page 1 0 8 , except t at the in tia i h i l
stea m pressure is to be 1 6 5 pounds per s quare i nch abso lute ,
and the final

pressure 1 pound per s uaq

r i
e nch abso ute l .

Exercise 2 2 . i
D es gn a co mbined impulse and react on i i
turb ne, tak ing
the general da ta the sa me a s for the precedi ng exercise and the expansi on
in the impu se sect l ion to be from 1 6 5 pounds per sq ua re i nch absolute to

4 0 pound s per square inch abso ute The expans on in the react on b ad ng l . i i l i
f
is to be rom 4 0 pounds per square nch abso ute to 1 pound per square nc i l i h
absol ute .

Sk etch the blades for the i mpulse section, ming there are two veloci ty
assu

stages, a nd a so l the b lades for the first and last stages in the
“ reaction

sect oni .
”

Exercise 2 3 . D etermine the e ocity vl loss in feet

per second in a noz z le
hav ing 9 8 per cent effi ci ency a t its .
p p
ro er expa nsion ,
wh ch is from 2 5 i 1

pounds per square i nch absol ute pressure to 2 8 i nches vacuum (referred to
30 i nches barometer) when used for
( )
I 16 5 pounds per square inch abso ute and 2 9 nc es acuum l i h v .

(2 ) 9 p ound s per sq uare nc absol ute a nd 2 6 nches a cuum

i h i v .

State a lso the corresponding energy loss in B T U per pound of steam . . .

in each case and by what percentage the effi ci ency of the R ank i ne cycl e
,

will be affected B y wha t percentage woul d the steam consumpti on of a

.

commerci al type of turbine be affected In all cases menti oned the steam ?

is i ni ti ally d ry satura ted .

3 7 ° IND EX

Composi ti on of

Condensi ng w ater, q uanti ty of .

C ondensers a nd a ux ili a ri es ost of ,

c .

power for .

i
Correct ons for economy cur es v Q O Q O O O O Q O O Q C Q Q O O Q Q C Q O O O

for losses
rotat o n i
for stea m turb i ne
Cost of engi nes turb i nes a nd a ux ili a i es
, ,
r

ma i ntena n e a nd ope ati on c r

C ri ti cal speed of rota ti ng sh af ts .

Curti s tu bi nes r

b l a des
d i ph ag ms
a r .

emergency stop v lve

a 1 9 0 -
1 91
go e v
rnor 1 91 ,
2 2 6— 2 2 9 , 2 43
—
2 45
1 82

s mall Siz es . . O O O Q O O O O O O O O O D O O O O O O Q O O O O Q O Q O Q Q O O O O O O O O Q Q O Q

stea m consu mpti on 1 33

—
1 3 6, 1 9 3, 2 66
step beari ng .

super eat h
tests on
va cuu m ions correct

va lv e g ea el ect i c type
r, r .

hyd auli r c .

mech a ni ca ll y opera ted

w h eel s .

D ak e tu b i ne r

D e L a va l tu b i ne r s

a nal ysi s of l o se s s

speed s of

stea m consu mpt ion

h
super ea t correct ons i
tests on
v a uum o e tion
c c rr c s

w h eel s
D ep e i ati on of pow er pl ants
r c .
 I N D EX S7 I

D esig n ofpow er stat ons i .

D es ig n of turb nes , exa mp es in i l

ent ropy ea t, -
h d i ag ra m a ppli ed to t

of b l ades
of stea m no zzl e s .

D eteri ora ti on of turb nes a nd a ux i ili a i e

r s

D i sk rota t on i lo sses

stresses in
D rums, stresses in
Economy of gi nes be t en ,
s

comp ed w i th tu b i ne
ar r

w i th v a yi ng supe h e t va uum a nd
r r a ,
c , press u re
Economy of sm ll engi nes nd tu b i ne a a r s

Economy of sta nda d tu b i nes r r

Effi i e n y of b l a d es
c c .

stea m engi ne me h a ni l s, c ca

ste m nozzl e
a s .

th e m l u ni t b
r i of a as s

tu b i ne r s

tu b i ne g ene a to
r -
r r

E l e t i g ene a to
c r c fo te m t u b i ne
r rs r s a r s

Entro py
of sa tura ted stea m

of super ea ted st h
of

tempera ture d i ag ra ms 1
7
—
2 5
l h e t h a rt
tota a c 3 4 , 37 , A ppend x i
E o ion of b l d es
r s a .

Expe i ment w i th nozzl e

r s s

o n fl ow of supe h ea ted te m r s a

w i th g ov e no s r r .

Fl h o v er li mi t of tu b i ne gene to
as -
r -
ra rs

Floo a ea fo engi nes nd tu b i ne

r r r a r s

Fl ow of tea m s

expe i ment on r s

G rashof ’
s la w fo r .

N api er s fo mu l a fo r
’
r

satura ted

h eated
su per .

w eigh t O f ste m a

F u l laga s b l d i ng
’
r a .

G as tu b i nes
r

o mpa ed W i th
c
gas engi nesr

G ugi ng of Pa sons bl ade

a r s

G ene to s effi i en y of
ra r ,
c c .

G l nd s w te
a ,
a r
3 7 2 I N D EX

G ove ni ng of tu bi ne
r r s, meth ods
by—pass
cuttin
g out no zzl es
i ment l dat
ex per a a

th ottli ng r .

v a yi ng ti me of d mi ion
r a ss

G ove no tu bi ne
r rs, r

A lli C h a l me s -
rs

B row n- B overi
C u rt i s

De L v l a a .

Westi nghouse Pa rsons -

Wilki nson
G rashof la w fo r fl ow of stea m
’
s

H a mil ton Holz wa rth turb i ne -

H eat d i ag ram, entropy

a pp li ed to d es ig n
H eat h
t eory . 1 0—2 8
H eat u n ts i .

Heat, mech a ni ca l e u q iva l ent of

spec ifi c

H ero ’
s turb ne i
Horse power, -
i nterna l o i nd i cated r

onv ersi o n tab l e fo kil ow atts to b ak e

c r r .

I mpul e tu bi nes s r .

a nd ea ti on comb i ned
r c ,
1 73
—
1 81
b l de d esig na .

b l a de effi ci en y c .

b l de l osses a .

ompa i son w i th
c eactio n r r

d i sti ng ui sh ed f om reacti on r .

sh ape of b l d es a .

I ni ti l velo i ty of steam
a c

I nj e tion water (see C ondensi ng wate )

c r .

I nte med i ate ( stationa y) b l ades

r r .

J ets i mpu l se a nd eacti on of

,
r

K e r tu bi ne
r r .

gove no r r .

nozzl es .

K il ow tts onve ion of to b ake ho se powe

a ,
c rs ,
r r -
r 2 86
K nob l u h a nd jakob spe i fic h eat of supe h eated
a c
’
s c r stea m 5 4 56
—

L aby i nth packi ng

r

L as h e method fo ot tion l osses

c
’
s r r a 1 2 1 —
1 2 4
L eak ag e of tea m th ough b l des s r a . s 1 2 5
th ough d i a ph ag ms
r r

L osses in a tu b i ne r

in a D e L av a l tu b i ne r ,
1
52
3 74 IN D EX

P arsons turb i nes Conti nued P A GI

stea m consu mpti on of 1 33

—
2 69
super h eat correct ons i
v i
a cuu m correct ons 1 33
—1
34, I
72 . 2
78
Pelton types of tu b i nes r 2 0 7— 2 1 7
Perfo ma n e therm a l u ni t
r c ,
ba s i s of 2 7 0—2
71
2 8 5— 2 8 8

i i g
P p n of turb ne sta t ons i i s

for superh eat ed s tea m

Pow er p a nt economi csl
i ii l
P ressure ( n t a stea m) effe t o n e o nomy c c

c o e ti ons fo e onomy u v e
rr c r c c r s

in th o t of nozzl e
r a s

st g esa

Pr essu e vol ume d i g

r — m a ra s

Pr i ces of tu bi nes nd aux ili i e

r a ar s 2 91
-
2 94
Q uality of steam 34 39
-

R ank ine cycle effi ciency . .

R ateau a ccu mul a tor 2 S 2

I —
54
R atea u mul ti cell ul ar tu rb nes i 1
95
—
20 2

d i aph rag ms 96 I

gove no r r tests 2 4 — 2 46
5
low pressure 202

ma nuf a cturers 202

tests on . . 2
55
—
2 69 '

R e ti
ac j ets
on of 58 6 0
—

R e ti
ac o n tu b i ne r

b l a de desig n
b l a de effi ci ency
b l a de l osses .

d i sti ng ui sh ed f rom i mpu l se

R el ative v eloci ty .

R i ed l er Stumpf tu b i ne
-
r s

R i ng s st esses in
,
r

R osenh ain
’
s tests on fl ow of stea m
R ota t oni lo sses

f acto rs to correct for s u per h eat a nd mo i stu re

R otors, stresses in
Screw turb i ne .

Sh rou d i ngs
r .

stresses in
Space occup ed b y en nes a nd turb i gi i ne
s

ki g li i
Spa r n g
m t of enera tors
Spe i fi h eat
c c .

of supe h ea ted stea m r

Spe i fi vol ume of supe h eated stea m

c c r .

Speed of tu b i nes eff e t o n e onomv a n d

r ,
c c output

St g e of tu b i ne
a s r s
 IN D EX 375
PA GE

ges of tu bi nes Continued

S ta r

l eak ag e betw een 8 5, 1 1 5 ,

1 2 5 ,
2 04

Ste m tu b i ne econom i s
a r c 2 73 3 1
— 2

Ste m tu bi nes
a r

ompa ed w i th stea m engi nes

c r .

cost of

Step bea r
-
i ng
i s tu b i nes of C urt r

Stod ola s expe i ments w i th no zl es

’
r z .

St e es in rotati ng i ng s d rums a nd d i sk s
r ss r , ,

t igh t a ngl es
a r

Stu tevant tu b i ne
r r

bea ri ng s .

bu k ets c .

nozzl e s .

h l w ee s .

Supe h eatedr stea m co rrect o ns i fo r eco no my c ur ves

eff ect o n eco no my

speci fic h eat of 5 5 56
—

speci fi c vol u me of

2 71
T a per of De L v l
zzl e a a no s 46
T emperatu r e ent opy d i g a ms
-
r a r I
7 S7
‘

T empera ture 1 0—1 1

a bso ute l 1 1

T erry turb i ne 2 1 4
—2 1 6
T e t o n tu b i ne
s s r s 3
—2
71
T h e m l u n i t d efi ni ti on of
r a s, 1 2

b i of perfo ma n e
as s r c 2
7 0— 2
71
T h e mod yn mi effi i en y
r a c c c 2 7 1—2
72
T h e mometer co e ti on
r rr c 1 1

T h u t end in P
r s ,
o ns tu b i ne ,
a rs r 1 56
T o q ue li ne
r .

T ot l h eat of supe h ea ted te m

a r s a 71 2

T yp es of stea m tu b i nes r .
58 6 2
—

V a uum ondens i ng w te eq ui ed fo
c ,
c a r r r r 27 5, 2 8 0
co ecti ons fo e onom
rr u v es r c y c r . 1 2 6— 1 3 6 , 2 7 8 ,
2 80

effect o n engi ne a nd tu b i ne econom v r 2 73

—2
81, 2 88
2 73
V anes ( s ee Bl a des ) .

l i
V e oc ty, a bso l ute
i g
d a ra ms
el a tiv e
r

V elo i ty of te m
c s a

l u l tion of
ca c a

st g e a s
37 6 IN D EX

V ol ume, i fic
spec

t high v acuums ( ta bl e)
a .

of supe h eated steam r

\
V a te pa k ed
r -
c

W te ate u ves
a r r-
c r

Westi ngh ouse oil pump

Westi nghouse i mpul se a nd ea t ion tu b i nes r c r

a dj u tment be
s i ng ar

a d v a nt ge s of
a .

b l ades of i mpu l se se ti on c

eme g en y speed li mi t
r c

nozzl e nd nozzl e b l oc k
s a

Westi ngh ouse Parsons -

turb nesi
a ux ili a y a dmi ssi on
r v a lve (ove l o r ad )
bea i ng s
r

b l ades a nd l ashi ng .

g o v e rn o a n d v
r a lve g e ar 2 33
i ndi cator diag am r 235

tests on 1 33
-
2 69 , 2 7I
k gl
w ater pac ed
-
a nd s . 1 57
—
1 58
Wilki nson tu b i nes r

gove no a nd v lv e g ea
r r a r 202

Willans a nd Rob i nson turb ne i

Willans li nes
Z oelly tu rb i ne s 2 0 5, 2 0 6

bl ades of
gov e no r r 2 45
-
2 46

tests on
AN I
W I LL
T H IS
W IL L IN C R EA S E T O 5 0 C EN T S O N T H E F O U R T H
DAY AND TO ON TH E SE V EN TH D AY
O V ER D U E
.
 2 91 520

I R I I R I R RY
UN V E S TY OF CAL F O N IA L B A