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    Sequences, Infinite Series, and Polynomial Approximations (BC Only) Infinite series Ola) are used in calculus to approximate values of functions such as (fx) =e%, f(x) 2 sinx,and f(x) =Inx at a particular value of x by creating power series a. (x—c)") representations of these functions. The intervals in which these power series are close approximations to their respective functions can then be found by using some of the tests that will be used to determine the convergence or divergence of infinite series. Sequences A sequence {a,} is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers = The functional values a, a2, a»,..., asare called the terms of the sequence; the number ax is called the nth term of the sequence, = A sequence {a,} has the limit L if for each > 0, there exists a number N’> 0 such that |a,— |< € whenever n >; in this case we write lima.= L, (+*see note below**) a) If the sequence {a,}has a limit, we say that the sequence is convergent and a, con- verges to that limit. b) If the sequence {a.}does not approach a specific limit, we say that the sequence is divergent and that the sequence diverges. ** This definition of the limit of a sequence {a, } is similar to that of the limit of a function F(X) as x approaches co. In the statement “lim f(x) = L”, fis defined for all real numbers ‘greater than some number N, while the statétiient “lima=L” is restricted to just positive integers n> N. are = A key theorem in calculus regarding limits at infinity states: i) If {a-}is a sequence and fis a function such that f(n) =a, for all positive integers m, AND ii) if f(a) is defined for all real numbers x2 1, AND iii) if lim f(2) exists, then lima, exists and limay= lim f(x), ‘This theorem allows us to evaluate limits of sequences at infinity by using the results for evaluating limits of functions at infinity. In particular, L’Hépital’s Rule may be applied in these situations. 343 Part Il: Specific Topics Sample Find the limit of the sequence a} Let f(x) 3 3 then tim f= tim (35 )= tim (s2sr)= 0 so L'H6pital’s Rule can be applied) therefore the sequence converges to 0. Sample ‘Show that the sequence { +n } convenes ie then tim fC) = tim ( Let f(a) 1 2 L420 ) Jim) L2= im x : therefore the limit of the sequence is 2 and the sequence converges. OR tim) tim (12°) tim ($53) tim (2Q)= tim (1)=2 (form & so L’Hépital’s Rule can be repeatedly appl Using Current Technology A graphing calculator can be used to plot a sequence function in order to view its possible con- vergence or divergence. The calculator should be in parametric and dot mode. For the sequence above: wiNDoW +2" 1. Let x= tand let y= 2. Set the window as shown at the right 344 ‘Sequences, Infinite Series, and Polynomial Approximations (BC Only) tr x7. ¥=2,0020155 The coordinate of each point is represented by (x, )). In the case of our sequence function, the x-coordinate represents n, the term number, and the y-coordinate represents that term of the se~ quence. It appears that the nth term of the given sequence appears to approach 2. The 7th term of the sequence above is approximately equal to 2.0029155. Sample a) a formula for the nth term of the sequence b)_ whether the sequence converges or diverges ras FU) 1 HQ)-T AGB) F aay 3" therefore, the nth term is a, b) Let f= T tim £60 = im (G2 (form &, so can apply L’Hépital’s Rule) Since jim f(x) =0e, we can conclude that |im an= 0; so given sequence diverges. Series If {ay} is a sequence, then S,=a:+a2+as +... +a, is called the nth partial sum, {5,} is a sequence of partial sums. For example, Si= a, S25 ay +a; ,Ss= ay +a +as,Sy= ata; tart. tay 345 Part Il: Specific Topics For the infinite series which we denote by )}an=ai+az+as+...+a0+ ® If Jims exists and is equal to the number Z, then the series Yas converges and L is the sum of the series. = If limS, is nonexistent, then the series }} a, diverges and has no sum. Given a specific infinite series, our task is to determine: 1. Does it converge or diverge? 2. If it does converge, what is the series’ sum? To this point we have used the definition of convergence to determine whether a given series converges or diverges, i.e. if it has a sum, it converges; otherwise it diverges. But the task of finding that sum is often quite difficult, if not impossible. So we turn our attention instead to the task of just determining whether or not a given series converges. We now discuss several tests that can be used specifically for this purpose. Tests of Convergence or Divergence of an Infinite Series Listed below is a summary of the most frequently used tests to determine the convergence or divergence of a given infinite series. Following each test are examples of how each test may be used. 1, nth Term Test For the infinite series )\an i) if jimaa# 0, then the series diverges ii) BEWARE!! If Jima, converge or diveige. (See #2 part C below.) 0, the series does not necessarily converge. The series may ili) if the series does converge, then limax= 0. Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of }}2". lim2"= Since Jiman# 0, series diverges. 346 ‘Sequences, Infinite Series, and Polynomial Approximations (BC Only) Sample = _2nt Determine the convergence or divergence of 9) tim Fey 3 Since |ima.#0, series diverges. 2. Specific Series Type A) The geometric series S1a-r"~!(a¢ 0) 4) converges if[r|< Land has sump ii) diverges if|r|> 1 Sample Determine the convergence or divergeni of YS. This is a geometric series with a Us 2s ay (C1, series converges. Determine the convergence or divergence of 2) x95. ) This is a geometrie series with a= 4 and r= $. Since|r|> 1, series diverges Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of }}3""-2"~ Sr Sar SH Fe) BH This is a geometric series with a= 4 and r=. Since |r |< 1, series converges. Its sum is 347 Part Il: Specific Topics 1 B)The p-series >} i) converges if p > 1 ii) diverges if p <1 Sample shete de rn Determine the convergence or divergence of 1+ Lid lye Lege gtigte tarts Qin This is a p-series with p= 2. Since p > 1, series converges Sample nine the convergence or divergence of )}—} Ain Dete! This is a p-series with p= 5. Since p< 1, series diverges: ©The harmonic series D+ diverges (notice that this is just a p-series with p= 1) Sample S15 Determine the convergence or divergence of >. This series D}1 is a divergent p-series (p < 1), s05- )'Lalso diverges. D)The alternating series 31(-1)""'ay or 3C1)"ax converges if i) 0} ss SEE! E with a,= Z we must verify 2 conditions Danvi 1(Remember n is a positive integer.) 349 Part Il: Specific Topics 2)Does Jima.= 0? n lin form & so use L'Wépital’s Rule lim "GIy T 3" (in3) =0 ‘Therefore given series converges by the alternating series test. Sample (oI) 3n Determine the convergence or divergence of }) inGay ("3 ye _3n 3n tae indny “Dev incany “#8 > Tany 1. Is ay. 0. n+ nt 42n nt5 (ntl)+5 _nt5 +6 2n=12MF=1 2-1” 2nFT For example, using the series With a, show that (Qn Dnt $)= (n+ 6)2n Qn=DOQnFD, = 2n'+ Mint $= (n'+ Ln wat nit 1Sn+ 11 4n°—1 Since the numerator is positive, this fraction is greater than zero if 4n*-1>0 4n?>1 ay meg i nos Since n is a positive integer, this is true, Therefore a, — ay; > 080 de> dq OF Bn +i< dy 3. Ratio Test For the series }¥a,, find jim i) if L <1, then the series ii) if L > 1 (or Lis infinite), then the series diverges das ae 's converges absolutely (*see below) iii) if L= 1, the test is inconclusive — must try another test [try this test if a contains factors such as n! or 2") (The Ratio Test is used frequently on the AP Exam. It is particularly useful when we later discuss the interval of convergence of a power series.) 351 Part Il: Specific Topics (Note: A series for which )}|a.| converges is called an absolutely convergent series. In addition, if the series is absolutely convergent, then it is also just convergent. However, if s Yaris }— which is aseries de is convergent, but the series }}a,|is di called conditionally convergent. An example of this is the series convergent by the alternating series test but the series $}]=Y"}= $1. is a oD” isa conditionally convergent series.) divergent harmonic series. So the series Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of 15 Since L <1, given series diverges by the ratio test. Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of 1 Ain Since L > 1, given series diverges by the ratio test. Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of 3-1 An With Z = 1, Ratio Test is inconclusive. Note, however, that 4 {ris justa p-series with p= 4> 1 so given series converges absolutely. 352 ‘Sequences, Infinite Series, and Polynomial Approximations (BC Only) 4. Root Test For the series }}a» find jim ') i) if L <1 then the series converges absolutely ii) i£L > 1 (or L is infinite), then the series diverges iii) if L= 1, the test is inconclusive and another test may be used ‘The Root Test is used infrequently on the AP Exam. Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of 1 With an= Se n Drop absolute value since all terms positive. tim ($7) O=L Since L < 1, given series converges absolutely. Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of 3 a + tim ¥/lae|= 1 tim yf Gee t \" inves. Amy nay \ nny =lim aa Since L <1, given series converges absolutely. Sample ctermine the convergence or divergence of 12+)" Determine the convergence or diverger ee of nt IF Jor (wri (au Tim ane | mf On ey tim (eet) 25k Since L > 1, given series diverges by the Root Test. 353 Part Il: Specific Topics Integral Test For the series )}as, where a x2 = (n) and f(n) is positive, continuous, and decreasing for i) if the improper integral f F(x) dx exists, then the series 1a, converges; ii) if the improper integral f f(x) dx = 00, then the series 1a, diverges. Sample ot Determine the convergence or divergence of 2 aT Let f)= sp. Note that /(x) is positive, continuous, and decreasing for x> L J xeet4 him J xeriee tims f t= tim 5[InBx+ lf Fim [In|3x+ 1]]'= Fim[Im e+ 1] nd] co we Therefore, given series diverges by the integral test. Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of Sear Let flx)= +5; We note that /(2) is positive, continuous, and decreasing for x> 1. G+ 5x) 2x5 . fsx)” [Ge Sxy?] payee im f O84 58° xt S)de= tim] Ty Since the improper integral exists, given series converges by the integral test. 354 ‘Sequences, Infinite Series, and Polynomial Approximations (BC Only) Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of }}n-e7. Let f(x) =x-e7"= “4; f(x) is positive, continuous, and decreasing for x 1. If asked to prove lecreasing, we proceed as follows: SAME) + (EMD) x tet =e"(1-x) 1 Ifx> 1, f(x) <0, so f(x) is decreasing. Next, we evaluate f xe dx = lim [ we de Using integration by parts [xetde letw=x and dy=e "dy = [ udv dy=dx v=(- De wf vdu xe")~ fDe*de sone “=e be et Ite Since integral exists, given series converges by the integral test. 355 Part Il: Specific Topics Sample . : Sul Determine the convergence or divergence of 17. This is just a divergent harmonic series, or a divergent p-series with p <1 Let's try the Integral Test just to see what happens. Let f(x) positive, continuous, and decreasing. Then f 4dr= im f $4 = tim [In x]; We note that for x> 1, f(x) is = lim[In|e|-In 1] =20 Since the improper integral doesn’t exist, given series diverges. 6. Comparison Test Let Sasand 1b, be a series or positive terms: i) if D1, is.a known convergent series and a, b, for all positive n, then the series ii) if )}b. is a known divergent series and a» = b» for all positive n, then the series )} an is divergent. Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of } 525°. Remember, we must compare this series to either a known convergent or a known divergent series. +) this is a convergent geometric series with r= 3-< 1 Since ay < beand Db, converges, Ya, converges, 356 ‘Sequences, Infinite Series, and Polynomial Approximations (BC Only) Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of > i Aisle Consider the series 5? = SL, which is a divergent p-series with p< I. Since b,, and )%b, diverges, we know nothing about }7 a,. ltyn yn So, let’s try again: Consider the series "4, which is the divergent harmonic series. Then, ax= since D1b, diverges, Sa, diverges Sample = 3° Determine the convergence or divergence of 5} a7 Consider the series )}(3), which is a convergent geometric series r= 3> 1. Then an_ 3p si bs. Since )\bais convergent, >} is convergent. Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of }\e =Di(E)) which is a convergent b,; therefore }} a. converges by the comparison test. Limit Comparison Test Let }}a, and >} b, be series of positive terms, i) if L >, then the series })a,and =. either both converge or both diverge. ii) if L=O and if Do-converses, ten Sos comere iii) if L=coand if Shp. converses, then Sac converges 357 Part Il: Specific Topics Sample . : S 1 Determine the convergence or divergence of ) =~ Aan Choose the series 5? fc which is a convergent p-scries (p=2> 1) with Le a, So given series converges by the limit comparison test. Sample Determine the convergence or divergence of > Since tim (3: )> Oana Brea converges, De converges. "Note: Wen choosing the second series to compare with the given series, find the ratio of the highest power of the variable in the numerator to the highest power of the variable in the denominator. For the series S12 + 2 3yn 3 For the series 3 7 ~use series ub Ans For the series 3} ———S# use series 3). 3 7 For the series x Tt ___,_ 7 1. ~ use the series} 4, 3njws3 3a in an Sample one Determine the convergence or divergence of is ed cous 511. which is the divergent harmonic series; wi a, 3rF= Sy 80 use the series Yr, which is the divergent harmonic series; with ax= <7 and - ‘hs 4) 1 bo=4 we have tim (2) tim (S25 rat a) sim (585) §>0. Therefore, given series diverges by the limit comparison test. 358 ‘Sequences, Infinite Series, and Polynomial Approximations (BC Only) ia anand )} bs either converge or diverge together. If Note: If lim (# )> 0, then the series lim ( $)= ‘O.and one series converges, then the other series converges. But, if lim (#) =Oand one series diverges, we know nothing about the other series. Other Useful Information Regarding Infinite Series =A and Sb. B and Sv= Yan then: Ife, A, and B are real numbers such that i) ic -ax=c->}a,=c “A, which implies that a constant times a convergent series yields an- other convergent series, ii) }\(@, +b.) = Dla, + )}b,=A +B, which implies that the sum or difference of 2 conver- gent series yields another convergent series ii) ‘dropped, the convergence or divergence of the series will not be affected. Yan- Yan=A-Sx This implies that if the first N terms of a series are iv) if the series }a, is convergent and the series 1b, is divergent, then the series }\(a,+b,) is divergent. Summary of Tests for Convergence or Divergence of Infinite Series Test Series Necessary Conditions Conclusion nth term, Yas limax#0 diverges Geometric Series Sa Irl1 diverges lim| "951 inconclusive Root tim ¥lax[<1 converges Tim ¥lae|> 1 diverges lim¥ inconclusive ae=Fland Fis cont, Integral pos., and inc f seas exists Da-converges f peas does not exist Decaiverses Comparison 0 ba> 0 and She div Yar diverges Limit Comparison lim §2 = L> 0 and), conv lim L> Oand Sb, div ia, converges Sia. diverges Alternating Series Error Bound If the sum of a converge alternating series is approximated by using the sum of the first N terms of the series, an error is introduced. A theorem in calculus states that the absolute value of this er- ror is less than the value of the N + Ist term. In other words, if the sum of the series is $ and we approximate the series sum by Sy (sum of the first N terms), then the error Rv is given by: 360 |s-Sw|=|Rv| Sawer ‘Sequences, Infinite Series, and Polynomial Approximations (BC Only) Sample Approximate the sum of the following series by its first 5 terms Yay The given series is convergent by the Alternating Series Test since <4 7— accurate to3 decimal places. 1 ot yt a Dont ret ana Accuracy to 4 decimal places means we want ferror|<, 0005. In other words, we want to find which term of the series will be less than .0005. We want: 4 <.0005 n en 0005 <"" 2000

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