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Hot extrusion 3D printing technologies based on starchy food: A

review

Jianyou Zhang, Yan Li, Yanping Cai, Ishtiaq Ahmad, Anqiang

Zhang, Yuting Ding, Yue Qiu, Gaopeng Zhang, Wei Tang, Fei Lyu

PII: S0144-8617(22)00668-3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119763
Reference: CARP 119763

To appear in: Carbohydrate Polymers

Received date: 13 April 2022

Revised date: 6 June 2022
Accepted date: 16 June 2022

Please cite this article as: J. Zhang, Y. Li, Y. Cai, et al., Hot extrusion 3D printing
technologies based on starchy food: A review, Carbohydrate Polymers (2022),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119763

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© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

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Hot extrusion 3D printing technologies based on starchy

food: A review
Jianyou Zhanga, Yan Lia, Yanping Caia, Ishtiaq Ahmada, Anqiang Zhanga, Yuting

Dinga, Yue Qiua, Gaopeng Zhanga, Wei Tanga, Fei Lyua*

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College of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, 310014

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Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

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Corresponding Author: Dr. Fei Lyu, Professor of College of Food Science and
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Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, P. R. China
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Tel.: + 86 571 88320237; Fax: + 86 571 88320237

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Email: foodsensory@126.com
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Abstract: Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a new technique used to construct

complex geometric forms for personalized nutrition and customization. With good

rheological and gelling properties, starch materials have great potential in the 3D

printed food industry. The successful printing of materials depends on various aspects,

and current researches have focused on discussing the influence of the rheological

properties of starch materials on printing, while the researches on the printing

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characteristics with other starch properties, material processing methods, printing

process parameters are still insufficient. This review mainly focuses on the

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relationship between the material properties of starch foods and hot extrusion 3D
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printing, discussing the influence of material properties (rheology, adhesiveness,
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thermal properties, microstructure and component interaction) on the feasibility of

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printing. In addition, the effects of additives (hydrocolloids, lipids, fiber, protein, salt
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and other), processing methods, and process parameters (nozzle diameter, print height,

print speed, and throughput) on printing are reviewed.

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Keywords: Hot extrusion; 3D food printing; Starchy foods; Printing characteristics;

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Processing techniques

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1. Introduction

The 3D printing technique is often known as additive manufacturing (AM). The

principle of this technique is based on computer-aided design print paths, and 3D

printers add material layer by layer to form solid additive manufacturing products

(Portanguen, Tournayre, Sicard, Astruc, & Mirade, 2019). 3D printing has been used

in a wide variety of applications due to its ability to meet specialized requirements for

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precision design and rapid prototyping in fields such as biomedicine (Singh &

Ramakrishna, 2017), aerospace (Syuhada et al., 2021), construction and

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manufacturing (Khajavi et al., 2021), mechanical engineering (Zhu, Pan, Zhou, & Cai,
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2021), and food processing (Jiang et al., 2019), among others (Hribar, Soman, Warner,
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Chung, & Chen, 2014). Four main types of 3D printing technologies are used in food
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processing (Sun et al., 2015): (1) selective sintering (laser sintering/hot air sintering),
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which is a technique that uses heat sources such as lasers or hot air to sinter

sugar-based or fat-based powder materials such that the powder absorbs energy and is
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then sintered; (2) extrusion printing (hot-melt extrusion/room temperature extrusion),

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in which hot-melt extrusion mainly heats phase-change materials, causing them to

melt into liquids that solidify and form on the platform, while room-temperature

extrusion lacks a heating source on the platform and is accomplished through bonding

and molding; (3) binder injection, in which powder injection bonds the powder

particles to the shape of the instrument; and (4) inkjet printing, a technique in which

ink is sprayed onto the medium in a specific path with an inkjet printer and cured on

its surface. The four printing technologies are shown in Fig. 1. Currently, hot

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extrusion 3D printing is the most widely used technique in printing and processing

food (Derossi, Caporizzi, Azzollini, & Severini, 2018).

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Fig. 1. Types and principles of 3D printing techniques for food.

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Hot extrusion 3D printing has substantially improved existing printing materials

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and technologies, enabling it to drive significant innovation in the food industry. This

technique mainly includes two steps: heating and extruding. The heating step is the

heat treatment of a printed material in a barrel, which transforms the phase of the food

material through the combined actions of heating and water exposure in the barrel,

resulting in the formation of certain rheological properties that aid in extrusion

(Bandari, Nyavanandi, Dumpa, & Repka, 2021). In the process of extrusion

deposition, the food material enters a very fine nozzle. First, it is successfully

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extruded under the action of high shear force, and it is then deposited under the action

of gravity. The entire extrusion process is completed after a series of decoupling and

rearrangement steps. Therefore, during hot extrusion, the material must have shear

thinning response characteristics and a rapid recovery modulus response after

extrusion to ensure that it is extruded smoothly and has good 3D printability (Zhang et

al., 2015).

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Currently, an increasing number of researchers are conducting 3D printing

research on food and developing 3D-printed food utilizing fruits, vegetables,

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chocolate, dairy products, meat, and aquatic items as raw materials. Starchy food is a
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staple in the traditional human diet and is a good dietary substrate rich in vitamin B
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and minerals, including potassium and magnesium (Liu, Chen, Zheng, Xie, & Chen,
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2020). Starchy foods are also rich in dietary fiber and can promote intestinal
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peristalsis. The incorporation of starchy foods into 3D-printed food not only expands

the varieties of printed food available but also enables starchy meals to be customized
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in terms of nutrition to meet the needs of various groups of people (Bouchon & Pyle,
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2004). As a typical gel system with good rheological characteristics, gelatinized

starchy food is a type of hot extrusion 3D-printed material with high printability.

Wheat, peas, rice, maize, oats, potatoes, yams, purple potatoes, and cassava are the

most common starchy materials utilized in 3D printing to date. For instance, Liu et al.

(2020) studied the structure and rheological properties of potato starch induced by

hot-extrusion 3D printing and found that concentration and temperature control the

3D printability of potato starch and that the structure and rheological properties of

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potato starch are related to printing. Chen, Xie, Chen, & Zheng (2019) studied the

effects of the rheological properties of potato starch, rice starch, and corn starch on

the characteristics of hot- extrusion 3D printing and established the relationship

between rheological properties and printability. The 3D printing process of mashed

potatoes (MPs) is shown in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the 3D printing process for starchy food.

Currently, large number of studies have been published on starch as a base ink

for 3D printing. It can be used individually, or combined with hydrogels and other

materials (Bom, Ribeiro, Ribeiro, Santos, & Marto, 2022; Escalante-Aburto,

Trujillo-de Santiago, Alvarez, & Chuck-Hernandez, 2021; Li et al., 2022), and it also

can be used in the form of starch-based polymer, and so on (Liu et al., 2019;

Mahendiran et al., 2021). Although 3D printing of starch-based materials has been

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widely studied, most of the research has examined the rheological properties of

materials, and research on thermal properties, processing methods, process parameters,

and consumer sensory acceptance is insufficient. Therefore, research on method to

achieve accuracy and precision is limited, and thus more detailed studies on

starch-based materials are needed. This review aims to collect and analyze the

literatures on 3D printing and review the extrusion printing techniques for starchy

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food in 3D printing by examining the effects of the starch properties, additives and

processing techniques for starch food materials on the 3D printability. An additional

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purpose of this review is to summarize consumer acceptance of 3D printing and
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finally discuss the development prospects of processing starchy food using 3D
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printing.
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2. Relationship between the attributes of starchy materials and 3D printability

2.1 Rheological properties

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In 3D printing, the rheological characteristics of food materials are critical in

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determining printing performance and self-supporting capabilities and exert a

substantial effect on the printing process and product quality (Jiang et al., 2019). Most

materials used for 3D printing are pseudoplastic, with shear-thinning properties and

dynamic viscoelasticity that allow them to be extruded and recovered quickly under

the shear forces of the printer, which is critical for printing materials (Liu et al., 2019).

Starches are pseudoplastic fluid materials after gelation, and their flow behavior can

be described by advanced rheological measurement techniques that are currently

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widely used. The pseudoplastic fluid has shear-thinning behavior, and the viscosity

decreases with increasing shear rate, which is the key to the smooth extrusion of the

printing material from the nozzle (Zhang et al., 2015). According to the study of

Zheng, Liu, Liu, Xing, & Jiang (2021), gelatinized wheat starch, flour and whole

wheat flour materials exhibited a decrease in apparent viscosity with increasing shear

rate, demonstrating the pseudoplastic behavior of the material, which makes it easy to

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squeeze in the printer and has a positive effect on printing. Likewise, the printed gels

composed of potato, rice, and corn starch exhibited the same phenomenon that

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viscosity decreased with increasing shear rate, and starch samples exhibited
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shear-thinning behavior (Chen et al., 2019). On the other hand, in the linear
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viscoelastic region of a pseudoplastic fluid, the storage modulus (G') is higher than
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the loss modulus (G''), and tanδ is less than 1, demonstrating the dominant elastic
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characteristics of the system that support the deposition of the printed layer (Rahman

et al., 2020).
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Moreover, starch has time-dependent thixotropy, which is another aspect of

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rheological properties. Materials for extrusion 3D printing with good thixotropic

properties not only be able to extrude smoothly from the nozzle, but also maintain

sufficient mechanical integrity (Liu, Zhang, Bhandari, & Yang, 2018). When

extruding from and out of the nozzle, starch undergoes high and low shear processes

in sequence. According to the study of Chen et al. (2019), the potato, rice and corn

starch gel showed a good thixotropy, during printing it exhibited a significant

reduction in G' at high shear strain and a rapid recovery at low shear strain, and

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exhibits good printing characteristics. Similarly, Zeng, Li, Zhu, Chen, & Zheng (2021)

found rice starch with added catechins and proanthocyanidins showed significant

decrease in G' at high shear strain, and a rapid recovery at low shear strain during 3D

printing. This fully illustrates the thixotropy of starch is an important indicator

affecting the 3D printing, especially at the extruding processing from and out of the

nozzles.

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Many scholars have discussed the rheology and printability of starchy food

materials in hot-extrusion 3D printing. For example, Chen et al. (2019) studied the

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effect of the rheological properties of potato, rice and corn starch on hot extrusion 3D
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printing. Concentrated starches had shear-thinning and strain response characteristics,
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and the authors established the relationship between rheological properties and
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adaptability. Lille, Nurmela, Nordlund, Metsa-Kortelainen, & Sozer (2018) prepared a

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paste system of materials rich in protein, starch and fiber for 3D printing and showed

that the rheological properties of the materials exerted a substantial effect on

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printability, which required not only certain shear-thinning properties but also a
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certain anti-deformation ability to support the stability of the printed shape. Based on

the results described above, the rheological properties of food materials have a

significant effect on the 3D printing effect of hot extrusion, and obtaining good

rheological properties is the key to successful hot extrusion 3D printing. In addition,

gelatinized starch rapidly undergoes molecular rearrangement through interactions

during storage to form different gel structures and reduce the stability of 3D-printed

objects (Paolillo, Derossi, van Bommel, Noort, & Severini, 2021). This phenomenon

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can be attributed to the condensation and regeneration of starch during storage, and

the rigidity is enhanced by changing the rheological properties of starch (Abd Karim,

Norziah, & Seow, 2000).

2.2 Adhesive properties and 3D food printability

Adhesiveness is defined as "the work necessary to overcome the attraction

between the surface of the food and the surfaces of other materials in contact with the

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food" (Szczesniak, 2010). It is the force that pulls the samples together and shows a

correlation with viscosity (Hurler, Engesland, Kermany, & Skalko-Basnet, 2012). The

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strength of the adhesive force is related to the starch content and affects the printing
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adaptability. Yang, Zhang, Bhandari, & Liu (2018) studied the 3D printing properties
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of lemon juice gels supplemented with different levels of potato starch found that the
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adhesiveness of lemon juice gels improved differently as the starch content increased.
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The best adhesion is obtained when the starch content is 15 g/100 g, and the best 3D

printing adaptability is observed at this time. The same phenomenon also appeared in
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the rice flour printing system, when evaluating the potential of rice flour and sugar
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syrup to serve as 3D printing inks, according to the study of Thangalakshmi & Arora

(2021), as the rice flour content increased by 10 g, adhesiveness also increased by

70%. This material showed the best 3D printing performance, which fully illustrates

the effect of adhesiveness on 3D printing. In the 3D printing process, a reduction in

adhesiveness leads to the disintegration of 3D-printed samples, which is not

conducive to the progression of 3D printing techniques (Rosell, Yokoyama, &

Shoemaker, 2011). After 3D printing, the products undergo starch retrogradation

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during the resting process, and the adhesiveness of the products decreased due to the

reduced amylose content (Ye, Wang, Wang, Zhou, & Liu, 2016).

2.3 Thermal performance

Different studies have shown that the thermal properties of food printing

materials are crucial to the success of extrusion 3D printing (Liu, 2019). Hot extrusion

3D printing at different temperatures significantly affects the internal structure of

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starch. The glass transition temperature (Tg) is a quantitative indicator of thermal

properties and refers to the temperature at which the "highly elastic state" and "glass

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state" of a substance are transformed into each other (Bhandari & Howes, 1999).
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Therefore, the crystallization curve must be combined with the melting curve to
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describe the thermal performance process. In the case of starch, the polymer interacts
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with water during the 3D printing process, and a glass transition occurs at a relatively
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low temperature (Wang et al., 2021). The vitrification transition effects support the

capacity of starch materials and affect the precision and accuracy of printing (Liu,
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Zhang, Bhandari, & Wang, 2017). Good thermal stability of a material refers to the
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magnitude of the effect of temperature during the printing process, guaranteeing the

quality of the 3D-printed product and maintaining the printed shape after steaming.

Achieving a suitable Tg requires an optimal enthalpy (ΔH) to ensure stable thermal

properties. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is mainly used to determine the

thermal transition properties of products (Tian et al., 2021). When Yang et al. (2021)

studied the effect of sodium alginate (SA) on the thermal properties of different rice

starches, and they analyzed the DSC curves to determine the thermal properties of

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different rice starches and found that each type of starch had an absorption peak.

Indica rice paste exhibited a higher Tg than glutinous and japonica rice paste due to

the presence of hydrocolloids in the mixture, which reduced the mobility between

starches. The thermal properties of rice paste increased as the SA concentration

increased, resulting in higher extrudability (Liu et al., 2020).

2.4 Gel performance and 3D printing moldability

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A gel is a substance that has both the elasticity of a solid and the viscoelasticity

of a liquid. For this reason, a printing material can be extruded smoothly in the nozzle

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while maintaining structural stability. The characteristics of a gel are closely related to
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printing when starch materials are heated to form gels in the presence of water during
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the 3D printing process (García-Segovia, García-Alcaraz, Balasch-Parisi, &

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Martínez-Monzó, 2020). Therefore, the properties of a gel can be applied to describe

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the properties of printed products. The viscoelasticity and strength of gels directly

affect the processing performance and quality of starchy printed products. Godoi,
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Prakash, & Bhandari (2016) reported that the polymer solution exhibits viscoelasticity
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and then transforms into a self-supporting gel before depositing the layer during 3D

printing, facilitating the successful extrusion of the hydrogel (Zheng et al., 2019).

The gel properties of different starch varieties are affected by different molecular

sizes and the presence of different starch contents (Feng, Wang, Li, Zhou, & Wang,

2018). The gels of wheat starch, whole wheat flour and wheat flour have significantly

different viscoelasticity and hardness values due to their different compositions (Yang,

Zhang, Prakash, & Liu, 2018). The appropriate pH of the gel material also plays a

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vital role in the printing process; for example, a high pH reduces the strength of the

gel, which is not conducive to the stability of printing (Godoi et al., 2016).

2.5 Microstructure

Microstructure is the factor with the most significant effect on the structural

characteristics of starch gels. The microstructural properties of food products must be

determined to customize texture characteristics in the 3D printing process. Pore size

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and the total number of pores are the most basic indicators of microstructure

properties (Derossi, Caporizzi, Oral, & Severini, 2020). Compared with ordinary

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products, 3D-printed products have larger pores due to the imbalance between
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printing and extrusion speeds. Large pores loosen the structure of a 3D-printed
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product, which reduces the accuracy of the product and is not conducive to its storage.
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The shape and distribution of pores generated during 3D printing are influenced by
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the printing process (Derossi et al., 2020). According to Liu, Bhandari, Prakash,

Mantihal, & Zhang (2019), high printing temperatures result in a high porosity of 3D
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printing inks consisting of xanthan gum, carrageenan and potato starch, reducing the
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accuracy of printed products. Zeng, Chen, Chen, & Zheng (2021) found that tight and

uneven structural networks help improve the mechanical strength of the starch gel and

that G' is related to the concentration of starch in the material.

The gel network structure of starch is formed by hydrogen bonding with water.

Some researchers have studied the 3D printing characteristics of yam starch gel and

observed a noticeable porous network structure of gels with increasing starch content

in 3D-printed samples, with an orderly pore size distribution and high density. This

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result occurs because the hydrogen bond strength between the water and starch

molecules increases as the starch content increases, resulting in a stronger gel network

and a denser structure (Huang, Tang, & Pu, 2017). Liu et al. (2020) found that when a

starch suspension was heated, the starch granules absorbed water, leading to swelling

and the formation of a larger and denser network structure, which altered the

rheological properties and generated a printed product with a denser microstructure

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(Derossi, Caporizzi, Paolillo, & Severini, 2021). Previous studies on carrageenan and

whey proteins have shown that changes in the microstructure are due to changes in

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polymer and salt concentrations, which mainly occur because of the interactions
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between internal molecules in the polymer and salt concentrations (Cakir &
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Foegeding, 2011). Oliveira, Fasolin, Vicente, Fucinos, & Pastrana (2020) also proved
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that as the polymer content increases, the structure of the printed food material
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increases. In addition, interactions between the components of the printing material

formulations change the 3D printing microstructure, resulting in different printing

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properties.
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2.6 Interactions among components

The 3D printing of starchy raw material is affected by the composition, type and

interaction of starch. Amylose and amylopectin are the polysaccharides that constitute

starch, and the content of these polysaccharides exert a significant effect on the matrix

composition of starch. A recent study revealed that the amylose content in starch

affects the two-dimensional structure, and it is expected to affect the 3D structure

(Bae, Cha, Whiteside, & Park, 2008). According to Jo, Lim, Kim, & Par (2021),

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different types of starch, such as waxy corn, cassava and potato, affect 3D printing;

among them, potato starch has the highest amylose content and exhibits the best 3D

shear properties, and an increase in the amylose content in starch was confirmed to

improve the 3D printing performance of food. In addition, starch printing materials

contain many other ingredients, such as fat, protein, and fiber (Ghazal, Zhang, & Liu,

2019). Yang et al. (2018) analyzed the physical properties of 3D printing dough

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affected by different components and found that fat improved the gel strength and

elasticity of the dough, increasing the stability of printing. This property may be due

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to the uniform distribution of fat and protein in the dough, which increases the
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strength of the network structure and facilitates successful 3D printing. The
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printability of food is closely related to the interaction between the components of

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starchy materials.
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3. Research on the effects of additives on 3D printability

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In food printing and processing, a single component of the food product does not
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produce the good printing characteristics of the printed product. Food additives have a

long history of application in the food industry and have been widely used to solve

similar problems in food production (Voon, An, Wong, Zhang, & Chua, 2019). As

mentioned above, the vast majority of 3D-printed materials are pseudoplastic

materials that can be successfully extruded, while natural starch gel printing results in

poor shape retention and does not produce products with complex 3D shapes, which

do not have excellent printing properties; thus, additives are needed to improve

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printing properties (Bouchon & Pyle, 2004; Chen et al., 2019; Rahman et al., 2020).

Therefore, different additives are used in printed materials to improve the

performance and quality of printed products. The most commonly utilized additives in

3D food printing are hydrocolloids (xanthan gum, guar gum, κ-carrageenan, agar,

pectin, and alginate), fat (butter and olive oil), protein (yellow mealworm, whey

protein and pea protein), carbohydrate (sucrose), salt ions and others, as shown in

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Table 1.

Table 1. Application of additives in 3D starch food printing and their main effects on

printing characteristics.
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Concentration range
Classification Additive Main effect References
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of the additive

Hydrocolloid Xanthan gum (0.005~ Increase the adhesiveness, (García-Segovia et al.,

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0.0065 g) /1 g hardness, elasticity, G' 2020)

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and G'' of gels and

enhance the supporting

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ability of printed products

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Guar gum (0.2~0.6%) w/w Enhance shear stability (Huaisan,

and rheological properties Uriyapongson,

Rayas-Duarte, Alli, &

Srijesdaruk, 2009)

κ-carrageena 1% w/w Enhance rheological (Liu, Zhang, &

n properties, improve the Bhandari, 2018)

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Concentration range
Classification Additive Main effect References
of the additive

mechanical strength, and

accelerate gelation

Agar (0.5~1%) w/w Change the rheological (Dankar, Haddarah, El

properties, reduce the Omar, Sepulcre, &

viscosity of mashed Pujola, 2018)

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potatoes, and increase the

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storage modulus

Pectin (0.25~2.0%) w/w Enhance the water (Jimena Correa, Teresa

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absorption and rheology Perez, & Ferrero,
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of dough and achieve 2012)

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better mechanical
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properties

Alginate (0.5~1%) w/w Improve mechanical (Dankar, Haddarah, El

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properties, enhance Omar, et al., 2018)

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cohesion, and improve

printability

Fat Butter (0~9 g)/100 g Prevents cracks in the (Yang et al., 2018)

network structure and

improves the stability of

3D-printed objects

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Concentration range
Classification Additive Main effect References
of the additive

Olive oil 2% w/w Reduces the dough (Liu, Liang, Saeed,

viscosity, increases Lan, & Qin, 2019)

smoothness, reduces

adhesion, and improves

the ability to maintain

of
geometric shapes

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Protein Yellow (0~20%) w/w Changes the shape and (Severini, Azzollini,

mealworm microstructure, increases Albenzio, & Derossi,

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powder the hardness, and changes 2018)
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the printability
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Whey (5~30%) wt/wt Improves G' and viscosity, (Du, Zhang, & Chen,
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protein changes the gel structure, 2021)

forms a new structure,

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and improves printing

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performance

Pea protein (0~8%) w/w Significantly improves the (Feng et al., 2018)

degree of cross-linking,

adhesion, and thermal

properties; improves the

feasibility of potato starch

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Concentration range
Classification Additive Main effect References
of the additive

3D printing

Carbohydrate Sucrose (3.3~8.2 g)/100 g Increases the viscosity, (Yang et al., 2018)

affecting the structure and

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texture properties

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Others Citric acid 1% w/w Increases the apparent (He, Zhang, & Guo,

viscosity, storage 2020)

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modulus, viscosity, etc.,
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and enhances printing

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performance
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Sodium ion 2% w/w Increases the gel strength (Jimena Correa et al.,

and hardness to obtain a 2012)

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more stable network

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structure

3.1 Hydrocolloids

Hydrocolloids are commonly used as additives in the 3D printing of starch-based

foods. The addition of hydrocolloids to raw starch materials alters the rheological and

thermal properties, to improve the textural characteristics of printed processed foods

(Syuhada et al., 2021). Liu, Zhang, & Bhandari (2018) studied the effects of xanthan

gum (XG), guar gum (GG), κ-carrageenan (KG) and a KG-XG mixture on the 3D
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printing properties of MP and found that the addition of XG increased the viscosity of

MPs. The printed samples with KG-MP have good self-supporting properties on their

surfaces, while the printed samples with KG-XG-MP have a smooth surface structure

and good printing accuracy. This observation is mainly due to the joint effects of XG

and KG on stabilizing the structure of MPs (Liu et al., 2018). Moreover, the addition

of guar gum to a starch system was shown to increase the viscosity and shear stability

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of the gel system and reduce the restoration of the starch structure (Chen et al., 2019).

The addition of hydrocolloids enhances the bonding points between molecular chains,

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which positively affects the rheological properties and increases the apparent viscosity
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of the printed material. Huang, Zhang, & Guo (2020) added a different mixture of
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hydrocolloids, such as XG, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (NCMC), GG, agar (AG)
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and XG-GG, to brown rice and found that the addition of XG significantly increased
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the apparent viscosity and G' value of brown rice and improved the printing

performance. Liu, Zhang, Bhandari, & Yang (2018) studied the rheological properties
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and printing quality of MPs with added potato starch and concluded that the best
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printing performance was achieved when the content of added potato starch was 2%.

Therefore, the addition of specific hydrocolloids may improve the rheological and

printing properties of specific foods and form a stable structure.

Azam, Zhang, Mujumdar, & Yang (2018) studied the sensory properties of

products in 3D printing and found that adding GG, XG and KG to orange juice

starch-based printing materials significantly improved the viscosity of the gels and

enhanced the rheological and sensory properties of the printed products. Montoya et

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al. (2021) evaluated the suitability of different starches (mango and arabinoxylan) and

hydrocolloid mixtures for printing and found that mango starch and arabinoxylan

have good thixotropy and improved the printing performance by enhancing the

sensory properties. This phenomenon occurred through the formation of hydrogels

between pectin and the nonstarch polysaccharide arabinose in mangoes and starch.

3.2 Lipids

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Lipids are triacylglycerols composed of glycerol and fatty acids. The lipid

content, melting point and crystal structure influence the functional properties of the

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printing materials. Lipids widely exist in food and exert significant effects on the
-p
texture, taste and flavor of food. Lipids are the main components that determine
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printing and have been shown to improve the hardness and smoothness of printed
lP

products (Feng, Zhang, & Bhandari, 2019). The content, structure and distribution of
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lipids play important roles in determining the properties of printing deposition and

extrusion materials and flow (Godoi et al., 2016). Lipids affect the rheological
ur

properties of starch and interact with starch molecules to form starch-lipid complexes.
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Lipid addition to 3D-printed materials mainly affects the rheology and microstructure

resulting from printing. Liu, Yang, Shi, Chen, & Zheng (2021) studied the effect of

stearic acid on the 3D printing properties of rice starch and found that a V-shaped

structure formed between stearic acid and rice starch, which improved the rigidity and

stability of printing, but the addition of excess stearic acid would break the hydrogen

bonds between starch molecules and reduce the printing accuracy. Lipids also play a

key role in 3D-printed baked products and fulfill the nutritional needs of consumers

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by improving the rheological properties of dough. The content and distribution of fat

in different doughs mainly affect the strength and uniformity of printed food products.

According to Yang et al. (2018), dough containing butter exhibits higher extrudability,

increased gel strength and elasticity, and decreased ductility and has a good printing

advantage. The addition of olive oil to 3D-printed dough enhances its fluidity and

printability while also improving the sensory characteristics of the printed product

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(Liu et al., 2019). In addition, the amount of fat in the mixture exerts an overall effect

on the water-holding capacity, which improves the integrity and preservation of the

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3D-printed form, as well as particle deposition. Lille et al. (2018) used milk powder
-p
as a protein source and studied a mixture of skim milk powder (SMP) and semiskim
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milk powder (SSMP) to evaluate the effect of fat on the properties of materials used
lP

in 3D printing. A mixture with an SSMP concentration of 60% has excellent

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printability, but the mixture with SMP cannot be printed due to its poor flowability

because the fat functioned as a plasticizer and lubricant in the system, allowing the
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substance to flow more freely.

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3.3 Fiber

Fiber, such as plant fiber (cellulose and hemicellulose), is an essential ingredient

in food and is a good biomaterial that plays a very important role in 3D printing (Yang

et al., 2020). Krishnaraj, Anukiruthika, Choudhary, Moses, & Anandharamakrishnan

(2019) studied the 3D printing of potato starch rich in plant fibers, evaluated the

extrusion printability of materials with high fiber and high protein contents and found

that the structure of 3D-printed materials rich in plant fibers was more stable than that

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of 3D-printed materials with a low plant fiber content. Carbohydrates play a very

important role in the printing process, contributing to the stability of printed structures

(Nachal, Moses, Karthik, & Anandharamakrishnan, 2019). Some carbohydrates

cannot be printed with a single material, and thus preprocessing or the addition of

appropriate additives is required during the printing process to improve printability.

3.4 Protein

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Protein is an essential dietary macronutrient that is present in large amounts in

starchy foods, affecting the structure of printed products. The isoelectric point and pH

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value of proteins are the main factors affecting printed products (Godoi et al., 2016).
-p
A gel formed by the aggregation of protein at the isoelectric point contributes to the
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stability of the printed product. Proteins form a gel network structure with good
lP

spatial properties during the printing process (Pan, Li, Chen, Zhang, & Zhang, 2021).
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Feng et al. (2018) studied the effect of pea protein on the properties of potato

starch-based 3D-printed materials and found that the structure and physicochemical
ur

properties of the printing materials changed regularly with increasing pea protein
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content, with the best printing quality obtained at a pea protein content of 1%. This

result occurred because the starch was dispersed throughout the molecular structure of

the protein, producing a better gel structure. Carla Severini & Derossi (2016) studied

the addition of protein-rich insect powder to wheat-based starch materials to increase

the protein content. By incorporating specific additives, the fluidity and printability of

the printing material changed, which increased the printability of the printing material

and yielded the best printability (Mantihal, Kobun, & Lee, 2020). Liu, Bhandari, &

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Zhang (2020) developed a new 3D-printed functional product by adding probiotics to

3D-printed MPs. In this study, 3D-printed MPs had a good printing structure, and

adding probiotics to the printing material provided a novel material for 3D printing

and improved the quality of food.

3.5 Salt and other additives

In addition to the aforementioned additives, salt and salt ions are commonly used

of
in 3D printing. According to a recent study, salt significantly increases the strength

and hardness of dough (Jimena Correa et al., 2012). This phenomenon occurs because

ro
sodium chloride is cross-linked with the protein in the dough, which improves the
-p
stability of the wheat bran protein in the dough and provides it a more stable network
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structure. Wang, Zhou, Yang, & Cui (2016) evaluated the effects of different salts
lP

(NaF, NaCl, NaBr, NaI, K2SO4, KCl, KNO3, KSCN, and LiCl) on the gel strength of
na

MPs and found that the addition of salt ions increased the formation of the gel

structure; for example, F- and SO42- increased the strength (G' and G'') of starch gel,
ur

which may have been due to the promotion of starch retrogradation and inhibition of
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gelatinization that produced a more stable 3D network structure. Shi, Zhang, &

Bhandari (2021) evaluated the 3D printing performance of a mixture of potato starch,

whey protein and beeswax gel. The printing accuracy of the system was significantly

improved by adding beeswax and whey protein to the system during the rheological

study. In addition, Yang et al. (2018) studied the effects of lemon juice and different

ratios of potato starch (10.0%, 13.0%, 15.0%, 18.0%, and 20.0%) on printing

suitability and mechanical properties and found that the printed samples had a smooth

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surface when the potato starch content was 15.0%, providing the best printing

performance, structure, and geometric properties.

4. Research on 3D printability of starch processing technology

Although starch materials possess certain rheological properties, natural starch

materials have poor adaptability effects. Starch modification is needed to improve the

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adaptability of materials for printing. Therefore, modified starch produced by

emerging technologies potentially achieves a variety of functions and improves 3D

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printing performance. Fig. 3 shows samples printed using materials generated with
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several different processing technologies. The internal structure of starch is changed
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by a heat treatment that improves its thermal properties (Wang et al., 2021). Mathobo,
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Silungwe, Ramashia, & Anyasi (2020) studied the effects of wet-heat treatment on the
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thermal and functional properties of starch and found that wet-heat treatment changed

the crystalline and noncrystalline parts of starch particles and enhanced the
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gelatinization and gel properties of starch. Dry heating treatment (DHT) is a simple
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physical technique that changes the structure and physical and chemical properties of

starch. Maniglia et al. (2020) used DHT techniques to improve the properties of

3D-printed wheat starch and found that the relative crystallinity of DHT-4 h was low,

and the DHT-4 h hydrogel exhibited the best printing performance. Additionally,

Maniglia, Castanha, Le-Bail, Le-Bail, & Augusto (2021) showed that DHT treatment

of tapioca starch produces a stronger gel and a material with better 3D printability

than natural starch. In another study, Maniglia et al. (2020) modified starch by DHT,

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resulting in reduced dehydration and the formation of stronger gels with gelatinization

properties, gel texture and printability, making it more suitable for 3D printing.

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Fig. 3. Different 3D printing products and processing technologies for starchy food.

(A) 3D printing of control wheat starch and modified wheat starch after DHT
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(Maniglia, Lima, Matta Junior, et al., 2020); (B) 3D printed samples based on
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hydrogels produced using control and PEF-modified starch (Bianca C. Maniglia et al.,

2021); (C) Cassava starch that was ozonated for 30 min to form a gel and then

extruded by 3D printing (Bianca C. Maniglia et al., 2021).

The modified starch obtained using a good physical modification technique can

improve the functional properties and increase the particle size of starch. Modified

starch hydrogels have a higher apparent viscosity and hardness, making them more

suitable for 3D printing (Maniglia, Lima, da Matta Junior, et al., 2020). Pulsed electric

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field (PEF) treatment is the most recently developed physical starch modification

method. Maniglia et al. (2021) modified cassava and wheat starch by applying the

PEF method and found a smoother surface and more uniform texture of wheat starch

for 3D printing; however, different results were obtained for cassava starch. Therefore,

modification with PEFs exerts a positive effect and facilitates 3D printing applications.

Compared with conventional methods, starch modification provides identifiable

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benefits, such as improved elasticity and hardness of the gel, producing better printing

properties in modified 3D printing (Bianca C. Maniglia et al., 2021). Maniglia et al.

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(2019) modified tapioca starch by ozone oxidation and found that increasing the
-p
ozonation time produced starches with higher carbonyl and carboxyl contents, and
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starch gels prepared with 30 min of ozonation displayed good printability. Castanha,
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Nascimento e Santos, Cunha, & Duarte Augusto (2019) studied potato starch treated
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with ozone and achieved a gel with lower apparent viscosity and better strength than

natural starch, rendering it more suitable for 3D printing. Based on these results,
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modification of starch may produce starch gels with enhanced gel texture and
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printability, expanding the potential of starch applications.

5. Research on 3D printability of printing process techniques

The mechanical properties of the printer, processing parameters and printing

techniques are the main factors affecting the quality of printed products and include

printing temperature, nozzle movement speed, speed, and height and diameter of the

nozzle. Table 2 lists the effects of several main process parameters on printing.

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Table 2. The main effects of printing process parameters on starch food 3D printing.

Classification Factors Materials Main effects Reference

Process Printing temperature Mashed Temperature affects the (Martinez-Monzo,

parameters potato rheological and texture Cardenas, &

properties of mashed Garcia-Segovia, 2019)

potatoes

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Nozzle movement Sodium Nozzle displacement (Khalil & Sun, 2007)

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speed alginate speed exerts a direct effect

on the diameter of the

-p
alginate chain, and higher
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speeds produce smaller

lP

diameters
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Extrusion speed Lemon Provides good printing (Yang et al., 2018)

juice gel lines for lemon juice gel

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and yields exquisite

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products

Layer height Wheat The diameter of the (Severini, Derossi, &

flour sample increases as the Azzollini, 2016)

layer height increases, and

as the layer height

increases, the sample

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Classification Factors Materials Main effects Reference

looks rougher

Nozzle height Lemon When printing, the nozzle (Yang et al., 2018)

juice gel diameter is the same as the

nozzle height, which

affects the quality of

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3D-printed lemon juice gel

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-p products

Nozzle diameter Mashed Directly affects the surface (Dankar, Pujola, El

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potatoes roughness and accuracy of Omar, Sepulcre, &
lP

the printed object and Haddarah, 2018)

affects the stability of the

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final product
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Others Resolution Mashed High-resolution prints can (Liu, Zhang, Bhandari,

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potatoes maintain shapes for longer et al., 2018)

periods of time

Speed Rice The speed is related to the (Theagarajan, Moses,

starch volume of extruded &

material at a particular Anandharamakrishnan,

time, and the speed 2020)

depends mainly on the

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Classification Factors Materials Main effects Reference

motor rate

Throughput Lemon The velocity and shear (Yang, Guo, Zhang,

juice gel velocity fields are Bhandari, & Liu,

determined by the feed 2019)

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inlet volume flow rate and

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increase with increasing
-p volume flow rate
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Among the factors described above, temperature is the most important factor for
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the 3D printing of food and significantly affects the rheological properties, texture,

printability and viscoelastic properties of food. Martinez-Monzo et al. (2019) studied

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the effects of temperatures of 10°C, 20°C and 30°C on the 3D printing of MPs and
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found that 30°C was the optimal temperature for MP printing. The MPs were most
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stable at 30°C, and the effect of temperature on the product was closely related to its

composition. Shi et al. (2021) studied the 3D printing performance of potato, whey

protein, and oil gel systems following the addition of beeswax and found that

temperature played a key role in the printing mixture and that increasing the

temperature within a certain range improved printing accuracy and significantly

affected the thermal performance of the system. Printing speed is a process of

combining extrusion speed with filling speed; similarly, temperature and printing

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speed also play vital roles in the printing process and help to evaluate the dynamic

behavior of the material in 3D printing (Liu et al., 2019). Moreover, the unit extrusion

speed of a printing press is also an important factor in food printing, and a high

extrusion speed results in the extrusion of excess material in the printing process,

increasing the difficulty of accurately print the shape of the product and affecting the

quality of printing (Dankar, Haddarah, Omar, Sepulcre, & Pujolà, 2018).

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Optimization of the printing speed is important to obtain smooth structures from

extrusion. The nozzle height is the distance between the printed deposition layer and

ro
the nozzle, and an inseparable relationship between the height and diameter of the
-p
nozzle has been noted. Krishnaraj et al. (2019) proved that for a nozzle height setting
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with 75% of the nozzle diameter, the shape and structure of the printed product
lP

remain unchanged. Yang et al. (2018) also explained the relationship between the
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height and diameter of the nozzle by maintaining an equal height and diameter of the

nozzle and found that the printing and extrusion speeds were not consistent and were
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unable to obtain the desired shape. Layer height exerts a significant effect on the
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diameter of a hollow cylinder printed with a cereal formula (Derossi et al., 2020).

Severini et al. (2016) studied the relationship between the material filling density and

printing layer height to evaluate the final printing quality and found that with

increasing layer height, the appearance of the sample was rougher. Dankar, Haddarah,

Omar, et al. (2018) discussed the effect of printing parameters of the printing system

and found that an appropriate printing parameter resulted in a more stable structural

support and a more regular shape of the printed product. Krishnaraj et al. (2019)

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proved that nozzle diameter also affected the structure and appearance of printed

products while influencing the effect of nozzle diameter on visual appearance in a

fruit-tasting process using three different nozzle diameters. Therefore, printing

parameters that match the material in printing improve the efficiency of 3D printing,

which is necessary for printing.

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6. Consumer acceptance survey of starchy food based on 3D printing

The market for 3D-printed products is rapidly expanding, and the success of

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these products depends on consumer acceptance and preferences. Depending on
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individual consumer acceptance and food personalization, 3D printing may enable
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customization of consumers' own products and promote consumption. Researchers

lP

have conducted extensive studies on the technical challenges of 3D-printed food but
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have not conducted in-depth investigations on the acceptance and preference of

printed food (Brunner, Delley, & Denkel, 2018). Nachal et al. (2019) studied the
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market value of 3D-printed food products and assessed attitudes toward 3D printing,
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and they found that consumer recognition of printed food products is generally low

and consumers have no strong desire for printed products in terms of sensory appeal

and demand. Brunner et al. (2018) conducted a market survey on consumer

perceptions of 3D-printed food products, but unfortunately, the results were not

optimistic. Consumers are not very enthusiastic about some starchy 3D-printed foods;

they usually show negative attitudes toward printed products and are skeptical of new

technologies and products. A research team conducted a questionnaire survey on

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3D-printed food to assess participants’ attitudes and generally concluded that

consumers have negative attitude toward printed food. The reasons for the negative

attitude of consumers are that consumers have very little understanding of 3D printing

and have no knowledge of the application of this technique to food products.

Researchers Deborah Lupton and Bethaney Turner from the University of Canberra

surveyed the prospects of 3D-printed food and found that people were more willing to

try traditional food than 3D-printed food and that people’s acceptance of 3D-printed

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food was related to their food standards and preferences (Lupton & Turner, 2016).

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Starchy foods are consumed daily by humans, and consumer acceptance of
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printed foods is mainly reflected in their subjective awareness. Food products
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containing starch commonly consumed by humans are more acceptable to consumers

lP

than uncommon 3D-printed food products. For example, pizza and pasta have higher
na

consumer acceptance than uncommon 3D-printed foods. Nonspecialist consumers are

less receptive to foods that are unfamiliar and created with 3D printing (Lupton &
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Turner, 2016). Acceptance of 3D-printed foods is also lower among nontechnical

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people who do not have in-depth knowledge of the development of 3D printing and

research on the techniques. Three-dimensional printed food has not yet become a part

of the daily life of consumers, and studies have shown that repeated use of 3D-printed

food may increase consumer acceptance (Caulier, Doets, & Noort, 2020). The

principal factor that determines food quality is sensory evaluation, and new products

are assessed by performing a sensory evaluation for consumer acceptance (Derossi et

al., 2018); for example, fruit snacks for children are visually pleasing and are very

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popular among young consumers. The abovementioned research results showed that

3D printing affects the texture, color and sensory properties of food. Therefore, in

future market research, consumer attitude is also an important parameter to consider.

7. Developmental advantages and existing problems of 3D printing with

starchy foods

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7.1 Developmental advantages of 3D printing with starchy foods

Although 3D printing techniques are at the initial stage for food processing and a

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mass production process has not yet been developed, they have potential
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developmental advantages over traditional processing methods (Godoi et al., 2016).
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Compared with traditionally processed food, 3D-printed customized food can provide
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consumers with a better consumption experience. Customized 3D-printed food can

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meet the daily nutritional requirements of humans, and products produced using 3D

printing techniques have obvious advantages over traditional food (Dick, Bhandari,
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Dong, & Prakash, 2020). Table 3 provides a list of specific applications of 3D printing
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in starchy food.

Table 3. Specific 3D printing applications for different starchy foods.

Research
Classification Starch Research purposes References
variables

Cereal starch Wheat Material Explore the effect of (Zheng et al.,

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Research
Classification Starch Research purposes References
variables

composition macromolecule interactions in 2019)

the food matrix on the quality

of 3D-printed products to

illustrate the quality

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differences between products

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Corn Starch Clarify the relationship (Chen et al.,

concentration between starch rheological 2019)

-p
properties and printability
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Rice Stearic acid Study the effects of stearic (Liu et al.,

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Rice starch acid on the microstructure, 2021)

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rheology and printing

properties of rice starch paste

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Buckwheat Calcium Investigate the rheological (Guo, Zhang,

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chloride properties and printing &

Microwave adaptability of the synergetic Devahastin,

treatment Ca 2+ microwave pretreatment 2021)

applied to buckwheat starch

and high-methoxy pectin gel

systems

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Research
Classification Starch Research purposes References
variables

Potato starch Potato Concentration Explore the structure and (Cui et al.,

and rheological properties of 2022; Liu et

temperature materials with different starch al., 2020)

concentrations and printing

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temperatures

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Yam pH Use electrolysis to explore the (Wang et al.,

Electrolysis color-changing characteristics 2021)

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techniques of natural pH-sensitive
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pigments and provide a new

lP

method for the 3D printing of

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colored food

Cassava DHT Study the effect of DHT and (Maniglia, et

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Gelatinization tapioca starch gelatinization al., 2020)

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conditions conditions on the physical

properties, focusing on

applications in 3D printing

Purple Near-infrared Determine the appropriate (Chen,

sweet spectroscopy spectral parameters through Zhang,

potato principal component analysis Devahastin,

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Research
Classification Starch Research purposes References
variables

and establish the relationship & Yu, 2021)

between the rheological

properties of the slurry and the

3D printability through these

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parameters.

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Legume Okara Ultrasound Use ultrasonic and high-speed (Liu et al.,

starch high-speed shearing to modify bean dreg 2021)

-p
shear fibers and develop 3D-printed
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modified okara snacks containing dietary fiber

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fiber
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7.1.1 Personalized nutrition

Personalized nutrition refers to the creation of food that is tailored to the

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preferences and needs of customers and may be tailored to satisfy the demands of
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various sectors, demographic groups, and ages (Derossi et al., 2018). With increasing

societal development, people are paying closer attention to nutritional balance and

matching. Three-dimensional printing can change the content and type of nutrients

according to the needs of different consumers. Starchy food is the main component of

the human diet, and modified starch fulfills the nutritional needs of several

populations (Pallottino et al., 2016). The presence of a high sugar content in starchy

foods is not beneficial to people with diabetes. Therefore, 3D-printed starch-based

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foods can provide modified meals for patients with diabetes by altering the

composition of the food to reduce the amount of carbon sugars in the product and

reduce excessive sugar intake (Portanguen et al., 2019). Keynote speakers at the 2019

Global Forum on Nutrition Research and Policy highlighted that diabetes is a disease

that can be treated through dietary changes (Herrera Cuenca et al., 2020). In addition,

changes in the physiological functions of elderly individuals lead to difficulties in

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swallowing and digesting food, which will lead to not only a decrease in the quality of

life but also malnutrition and other phenomena (Alagiakrishnan, Bhanji, & Kurian,

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2013). In the future, the use of starchy foods in 3D-printed food processing should be
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considered for older people to personalize food with starch as the main component.
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For obese or overweight consumers, the inclusion of high-calorie food substitutes in

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3D-printed foods might be considered to enable consumers to reduce excessive intake

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of high-calorie foods. For consumers with nutritional deficiencies, balanced

nutritional intake is the best choice, and they should consider nutritional fortification
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of the 3D-printed material with a balanced mix of nutrients, such as dietary fiber,
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fruits, and vegetables, to ensure that nutritional requirements are met.

7.1.2 Multijet printing for industrial-scale operations

Starchy foods are mainly printed from a single or double sprinkler in

hot-extrusion 3D printing, and at the same time, only one material can be printed

(Dick, Bhandari, & Prakash, 2019). Multinozzle printing achieves complex and

precisely printed products. Therefore, multiple nozzles can be added to 3D printing to

enable 3D printing of starch-based materials and other materials (Liu et al., 2017). Liu,

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Zhang, & Yang (2018) printed strawberry juice and mashed potatoes with dual

nozzles to create 3D-printed products with more geometric complexity. Additionally,

food containing multiple components and structures (combining starchy foods with

meat, fruits and vegetables) has been printed by applying multiple sprinklers that

improve the nutritional composition and produce a balanced food (Dick et al., 2020).

7.2 Problems in 3D printing of starchy foods

of
Compared with traditional food processing methods, 3D printing techniques have

many more challenges, and further development of this process is necessary to

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overcome these challenges. In current 3D printing processes, the raw materials used
-p
for printing should be in the form of a paste or powder, which is currently the most
re

suitable form for food printing (Dankar, Haddarah, Omar, et al., 2018; Liu et al.,
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2017). The promotion, understanding and development of 3D printing for edible

na

materials are still limited in terms of printing techniques. For starch-based materials,

starch is prepared as a paste and aged during the process, and some materials undergo
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phase changes during the heating process, preventing the achievement of higher
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productivity during the extrusion process (Piyush, Kumar, & Kumar, 2020).

Furthermore, challenges persist in the pre-processing and post-processing steps of 3D

printing, and pre-processing affects the rheology of foods, especially gels, while

post-processing (the common post-processing methods are mainly traditional cooking,

new cooking and drying and dehydration. Traditional cooking techniques mainly

include steaming, baking and frying, while new cooking techniques mainly include

laser cooking and infrared cooking) exerts a significant effect on the texture of the

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product (Guenard-Lampron, Masson, Leichtnam, & Blumenthal, 2021). However, the

printability of the material and the range of print technologies used in the printing

process have a significant effect on the texture of the printed product. Raw materials

used for food printing must produce a good texture during the printing process using

methods with appropriate physical, chemical, rheological and mechanical properties

to make them more acceptable to consumers (Caulier et al., 2020). Finally, the

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printing components of natural starch materials are still very singular and lack specific

nutrients. Further studies of nutritional and sensory-rich starch materials, such as

probiotics and enzymes, are necessary.

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8. Status and challenges

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In recent years, as research on 3D printing techniques has become more

na

sophisticated, more starch-based materials suitable for printing have been developed.

This increase in available starch-based materials very convenient for personalized

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nutrition, the production of custom product shapes, supply chain simplification, and
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available material expansion (Sun, Zhou, Yan, Huang, & Lin, 2018). However,

numerous challenges in the 3D printing of starchy foods remain because many natural

starchy foods cannot be printed directly. Continuous innovation and in-depth research

are needed to further accelerate the development of starch-based food 3D printing

techniques (Le-Bail, Maniglia, & Le-Bail, 2020). First, 3D printing is a technique

used to reorganize food components into food, and different materials have different

characteristics, especially starch. With the development of starch materials, the

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fluidity and gel properties of materials must be improved. For example, the

rheological properties of materials can be changed by supplementation with different

additives. Second, in terms of precise nutrition, starchy foods, the most common

foods in a traditional diet, can be precisely designed using favorable printing methods,

such as the latest 4D printing techniques, to meet the nutritional needs of different

populations (Shi, Zhang, & Phuhongsung, 2022). Third, the sensory quality of

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3D-printed starchy food products must be continuously improved to maintain the

original taste, flavor and nutritional value of the product and to meet the needs of

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consumers and the market (Yang, Zhang, & Bhandari, 2017). Fourth, regarding
-p
printing equipment, current 3D printing products do not achieve very accurate
re

printing; thus, 3D printing equipment with high precision and strong printing
lP

performance must be developed to meet various printing needs.

na

Three-dimensional printing is a powerful technique that facilitates product

innovation and improve common product challenges. However, the structure of

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3D-printed food products is not perfect, despite the maintenance of nutritional value.
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Studies aiming to further address the correlation between various factors are needed to

improve the relationship between material nutritional value and 3D printing

performance. Such as material properties (rheological properties, particle size, thermal

properties, and microstructure) and process parameters (nozzle diameter, printing

speed, and printing distance). In addition, the development of additives that improve

the gel properties might lead to more applications of 3D printing techniques for food

(Chen, Zhang, Sun, & Phuhongsung, 2022). Patent applications for 3D food printing

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techniques are needed to support food product development and starch-based food

products in the food industry and to promote the application of 3D printing techniques.

Overall, in future studies of 3D-printed starchy food products, researchers should

consider the physical properties of the material itself, additives and the impact of the

printing process on the final product to achieve printed products with highly

customizable characteristics.

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9. Conclusion

3D printing has attracted much attention from food experts, and starchy foods
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have become one of the most suitable materials for 3D printing because of their good
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printing properties. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the 3D printing

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properties of starch-based materials and reveals that the rheology, thermal properties,
na

microstructure, and adhesiveness properties of materials have important effects on

their printing properties during the printing process of starch-based foods. Therefore,
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good printing performance requires full consideration of the relationship between the
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properties of the material and the 3D printing parameters. In addition, additives,

material processing, and process parameters can also change the physical properties of

the printed material, thus affecting the printing characteristics. Therefore, more

research on additives and processing methods is needed in the future. Consumer

demand for highly nutritional products should also be reflected in future research to

enhance consumer understanding and acceptance.

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Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by Key R&D Projects (2019C02081) of Zhejiang

Province, China.

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