8-2 8-3 84 8-5 8-6 a7 Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Processes INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS 700 Historical Development of Activated Sludge Process 701 Basic Process Description 701 Evolution of the Conventional Activated Sludge Process 702 Nutrient Removal Processes 706 ‘WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION 707 Key Wastewater Constituents for Process Design 707 ‘Measurement Methods for Wastewater Characterization 712 Recycle Flows and loadings 716 FUNDAMENTALS OF PROCESS SELECTION, DESIGN, AND CONTROL 717 Overall Considerations in Treaiment Process Implementation 717 Important Factors in Process Selection and Design 717 Process Control 726 Operational Problems in Activated Sludge Systems with Secondary Clarifiers 732 Operational Problems with MBR Systems 738 SELECTOR TYPES AND DESIGN CONSIDERATION 738 Selector Types and Design Considerations 739 Poor Setling Even With Use of Selector 741 ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 742 SteadyState Design Approach 742 Use of Simulation Model 744 ‘Model Matrix Format, Components, and Reactions 747 Other Simulation Model Applications 751 PROCESSES FOR BOD REMOVAL AND NITRIFICATION 752 Overview of BOD Removal and Nitrification Processes 752 General Process Design Considerations 754 Complete Mix Activated Sludge Process Design 754 Sequencing Batch Reactor Process Design 771 Saged! Activated Sludge Process Design 782 Alternative Processes for BOD Removal and Nitrification 786 PROCESSES FOR BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN REMOVAL 795 Process Development 796 Overview of Types of Biological Nitrogen-Removal Processes 797 General Process Design Considerations 802 Preanoxic Denitrification Processes 804 Postanoxic Denitrification Processes 831 low DO and Cyclic Ninification/Denitification Processes 833 Alternative Process Configurations for Biological Nitrogen Removal 838 607698 | Chopter & Suspended Grow Biological Trectment Processes 8-8 8-9 8-10 8-11 8-12 Denitrification with External Carbon Addition 848 Process Control and Performance 860 PROCESSES FOR ENHANCED BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL 861 Process Development 861 ‘Overview of Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Processes 862 General Process Design Considerations 864 Operational Factors That Affect Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal 878 Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Process Design 880 Provision for Chemical Addition 883 Process Control and Performance Optimization 884 AERATION TANK DESIGN FOR ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES 885 Aeration System 885 Aeration Tanks and Appurtenances 886 ANALYSIS OF LIQUID-SOLIDS SEPARATION FOR ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES WITH CLARIFIERS 889 Solids Separation by Secondary Clarifiers 889 Assessing Sludge Thickening Characteristics 891 Clarifier Design Based on Solids Flux Analysis 893 Clarifier Design Based on State Point Analysis 900 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SECONDARY CLARIFIERS 906 Types of Sedimentation Tank 906 Sidewaler Depth 910 Flow Distribution 910 Tank Inlet Design 910 Weir Placement and loading 912 Scum Removal and Managment 912 SOLIDS SEPARATION FOR MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS 913, Design Parameter 913 Membrane Properties 914 Membrane Design and Operating Characteristics 917 Membrane Usage 917 Membrane Fouling Issues 917 PROBLEMS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS. 919 REFERENCES 934 WORKING TERMINOLOGY Term Adtivated sludge process Definition Biclogical reatment process that involves the conversion of organic matter and/or other consti Lert in the wastewater to gases and call tissue by a large mass of aerobic microorganisms "mcintained in suspension by mixing and oeration. The microorganisms form flocculent porticles that are seporated from the process effluent in a sedimentation tonk [clrifies) and ore returned subsequently 1o the aeration process or wasted.Term Acrobic (oxic) processes Anaarobie processes Anoxic process Biomoss Biological nutient cemoval (8NR) Denitrification Enhanced biological phos phorus removal (EBPR) Hindered setling Facultative processes Fermentation Membrane bioreacior (MER) ‘Membrane flux Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) Nitrification Necardioform foom Nonbiodegradable volatile suspended solids (nbVSS) Phosphorus occumulating organisms (PACs) Readily biodegradable ‘COD (rbCOD} Soquoncing batch reactor (SBR) Simulation models, Simultaneous ritfication ‘and denitiication (SNaN| Chapter ® Suspended Growih Biological Treatment Processes | 699 Definition Biological reotment processes that occur inthe presence of ree dissolved oxygen; oxygen is consumed by aerobic microorganisms in oxidation/reduction reactions to produce energy for cell growth and cell maintenance. Biological reotment processes thal occur in the absence of oxygen Biological reatment process that occurs in the absence of fee dissolved oxygen where nitrate and nite ere used 0s the moin electron acceptors in biological oxidation reduction reactions; denitification is an exemple of an anoxic process. The total moss of solids in @ reactor consisting mainly of organic mater and microorganisms. The tern applied fo the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus in biological trealment processes. ‘The biological process by which niirate or nite is reduced fo nitrogen and other gaseous end products Removal of phosphorus by extraordinary storage in bacteria selected in anaerobic/aerobic process configuration and subsequent solids separation. Seting which occurs when the activated sludge flocs interfere with each other as they sete Biological treatment processes in which the organisms ean function in the presence or absence cof molecular oxygen The convetsion of organic matter to volatile fatty acids in the absence of oxygen, nitrate, and rite. ‘A process that combines a suspended growth process wih « membrane seporation system ‘within the process aeration fonk; membrane separation is accomplished by either microfiration or ulrafillration, The rate of flow across o membrane per unit of surfoce area, L/h The biomass contzined in o Irealment reactor used to bring ebout treatment of the orgonic moteril in wastewater ‘The two-step biologiccl process by which nirogen (mostly in he form of ammonia) is converted to nite and then to mira, A thick layer of brown, biclegical foam caused by a filamentous bacteria that forms on the top cf aeration tanks and secondary clarifiers. These are suspended solids coniained in influent wastewater fo activated sludge processes that ore organic but not biodegradable. They impact sludge production. Heterotrophic bacteria selected in EBPR processes that have the abiity for high intracellular phosphorus storage. Dissolved biodegradable organic substrates which are removed by bacteria much faster than colloidal or pariculate degradable COD. The rbCOD impacts spatial oxygen dermand, EBPR removal eficiency, and denitrification rates. ‘An SBR is batch fill and draw activated sludge treaimen! process. It involves @ treaiment sequence of fll, reac, setling, sypernatent deconting, ond idle. Activated sludge aeration ond liquid solids seporation occurs in the seme tank ‘Mathematical models, based on a set of equations, used fo assess the effec of kinetics ond ‘changes in the wastewater characterizes on process performance. Nitrogen removal occurs in some activated sludge flac or in a biotin due to niification in ‘aerobic outer layer cnd denitrification in interior due to the lock of dissolved oxygen and presence of nittate or nitrite.700 | chapter 8. Suspended Growth Biological Treciment Processes Term Sludge production Sludge yield Solids fx analysis Solids retention time (SRT] Staged process Surface overflow rate Suspended growth processes Volumetric organic loading rate Definition ‘The amount of solids produced during the biological processing of wastewater including influent nonbiocegracable solids end the biomass resulting from the conversion of organic. ‘The amount of solids produced relative to the amount of BOD or COD removed during the biclogical processing of wastewater ‘A method used fo determine the area required for hindered setting based on an analysis of the solids (mass) flux. ‘The average period of time in which solids remain in a suspended growth process (also called sludge age} Processes which occur with more than one independent reacior or compartment in series. The hydraulic flowrate applied relative to the clarifier surface area (tn*/<) Biological rectment processes in which microorganisms responsible for the conversion of fergonic matter or other consituents in the wastewaler to gases and call tissue ore maintained in suspension within the liquid. ‘The amount of BOD or COD applied to the aeration tank volume per day [e.g., kg BOD or COD/m?d). ‘The theory of biological wastewater treatment is presented and discussed in detail. in Chap. 7. Biological treatment processes, a8 noted in Chap. 7, may be classified as werobic and anaerobic suspended growth, altached growth, and various combinations thereof. The focus of this chapter is on suspended growth treatment processes as exemplified by the activated sludge process for BOD and nitrification and for nitrogen and phosphorus removal. Attached growth and combined processes are discussed in Chap. 9. and suspended and attached growth anaerobic processes are considered in Chap. 10, Included in this chapter are (1) introduction to the activated sludge process. (2) wastewater characterization, (3) fun- ddamentals of process selection, design, and control, (4) selector types and design consider- ations, (5) use of simulation models for activated sludge process design considerations, (6) processes for BOD removal and nitrification, (7) processes for biological nitrogen removal, (8) processes for enhanced biological phosphorus removal, (9) aeration tank design for activated sludge processes, (10) analysis of liquid separation for activated sludge pro- ‘cesses with clarifiers, (11) design considerations for secondarily clarifiers, and (12) solids separation for membrane bioreactors. Aerated lagoons, non-aerated lagoons, and stabiliza- tion ponds are not covered in this text, as they are used mainly for smal rural communities here sufficient land is available and discharge requirements may not be as stringent as in urban arcas, Detailed design information on aerated lagoons and stabilization poncls may be found in the 4th edition of this textbook (Tchobanoglous et al., 2003), Additional sources of information may be found in Crites and ‘Tchobanoglous (1998) and Reed et a. (1995). INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS To provide a basis for the process designs presented in the subsequent sections of this chapter, it will be useful 10 consider (1) a brief summary of the historical development of the activated sludge process, (2) a description of the basic process, (3) a brief review of the evolution of the activated sludge process, and (4) an overview of recent process developments8-1 Introducion fo he Activated Sludge Process | 701 Historical Development of Activated Sludge Process ‘The activated sludge process is now used routinely for the biological treatment of ‘municipal and industrial wastewaters. The antecedents of the activated sludge process date back to the early 1880s in Enghand, (0 the work of Dr. Angus Smith, who inves- tigated the aeration of wastewater in tanks, which hastened the oxidation of the organic matter. The aeration of wastewater was studied subsequently by a number of investigators, and in 1910 Black and Phelps reported that a considerable reduction in putrescibility could be secured by forcing air into wastewater in basins, In experiments with aerated wastewater, conducted at the Lawrence Experiment Station during 1912 and 1913, Clark and Gage found that growths of organisms could be cultivated in bottles and in tanks partially filled with roofing slate spaced about 25 mm (I in.) apart and that these growths greatly increased the degree of purification obtained (Clark and ‘Adams, 1914) , ‘The results of the work at the Lawrence Experinent Station, with respect to the treat- ‘ment of wastewater, were so striking that knowledge of them led Dr. G. J. Fowler of the University of Manchester, England to suggest that experiments along similar lines be conducted at the Manchester Sewage Works where Ardern and Lockett carried out valu- able research on the subject. During the course of their experiments, Ardern and Lockett found that the sludge played an important part in the results obtained by aeration, as announced in their paper of May 3, 1914 (Ardem and Lockett, 1914). The process was named activated sludge by Ardern and Lockett because it involved the production of an activated mass of microorganisms capable of aerobic stabilization of organic material in wastewater (Metcalf & Eddy, 1935), Basic Process Description Tn most eases, the acti- vated sludge process is employed in conjunction with physical and chemical processes that are used for the preliminary and primary treatment of wastewater (discussed in Chap. 5), and post treatment, including disinfection (Chap. 12), and possibly filtration (Chap. 11). Historical s shown on Figs. 8-I(a) and (b) whereas the biological pro- ‘cesses are essential for removing soluble, colloidal, and particulate (suspended) organic substances; for nitrification and denitrification; and for biological phosphorus removal. For applications such as treating wastewater from smaller-sized communities, primary treat- ment is often not used as more emphasis is placed on simpler and less operator-intensive treatment methods, Primary treatment is omitted frequently in areas of the world that have hot climates, where odor problems from primary tanks and primary sludge ean be signifi- cant, For these applications, various modifications of conventional activated sludge pro cesses are used, including sequencing batch reactors, oxidation ditch systems, and mem- brane bioreactors.702 | Chopter 8 Susponded Growih Biological Trechment Processes — sa ase —_ we | a ile = fo an fie, ise Gar pee Sepa vot 4 erst ——— + Fi + React —> Sette Decant —= @ Figure 8-1 ‘seraton| Time sequen Typical acivated sludge processor with diferent types of reactors: (6) schematic fow diogram of pug: flow process and view of alugflow reactor, (b) schematic flow diagram of completemix process and viow of completemix activated sludge reactor, and {c| schematic diagram of sequencing batch Teoclor process and view of sequencing batch reactor. Evolution of the Conventional Activated Sludge Process Prior to the 1980s, the principal objective of activated sludge process designs was aimed mainly at achieving a “secondary treatment” standard of 85 percent BOD and TSS removal. Since then, more emphasis has been placed on meeting more stringent discharge limits as well as the removal of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). Thus, a number of activated sludge processes and design configurations have evolved in response to (1) the need for higher-quality effluents from wastewater treatment plants; (2) the need to remove nutrients; (3) inereased discoveries and understanding of microbial processes and funda- mentals; (4) technological advances in equipment, materials, electronics, and process control; and (5) the continual need to reduce eapital and operating and energy costs for municipalities and industries. Many activated sludge processes used today and expected to be used in the future may incorporate nitrification, biological nitrogen removal, and/or biological phosphorus removal. Typically, reactors in series, operated under aerobic, ‘anoxic, and anaerobic conditions are used. The general types of activated sludge processes used (i:e., plug flow, complete mix, and sequencing batch reactor), ilustrated on Fig. 8-1, are considered in the following discussion,8-1. Inroduction o the Activated Shudge Process | 703, GREETS S920 the process came into common wse in the early 1920s and up until the late 1970s, the type of activated sludge process used most commonly was the one in which a plug-flow reactor with large length t0 width ratios (typically > 10:1) was used [see Fig. -I(a)]. In considering the evolution of the activated sludge process, itis important to note that the discharge of industrial wastes to domestic wastewater collection systems increased in the late 1960s, The use of a plug-flow process became problematic when industrial wastes were introduced because of the toxic effects of some of the discharges. ‘The complete-mix reactor was devel- ‘Oped, In part, Because the farger volume allowed for greater dilution and nus mitigated the effects of toxic discharges. The more common type of activated sludge process in the 1970s and early 1980s tended to be single-stage, complete-mix activated sludge (CMAS) Processes [see Fig. 8—I(b)], as advanced by McKinney (1962). For some nitification ‘applications, two-stage systems (cach stage consisting of an aeration tank and clarifier) were used with the first stage designed for BOD removal, followed by a second stage for nitrification. In comparing the plug-flow [see Fig. 8-1(a)] and complete-mix activated sludge (CMAS) Isce Fig. 8-1(b)] processes. the mixing regimes and tank geometry are quite different. In the CMAS process, the mixing of the tank contents is sufficient so that ideally the concen- trations of the mixed-liquor constituents, soluble substances (ie., COD, BOD, NH,-N), and colloidal and suspended solids do not vary with location in the aeration basin. The plug-flow process involves relatively long, narrow aeration basins, so that the concentration of soluble substances and colloidal and suspended solids varies along the reactor length, Although process configurations employing long, narrow tanks are commonly referred to as plug-flow processes, in reality, true plug flow does not exist. Depending on the type of aeration system, back mixing of the mixed liquor can occur and, depending on the layout of the reactor and the system reaction kinetics, nominal plug flow may be deseribed more appropriately by the series of complete-mix reactors as discussed in Chap. 4, GREED Whe devctopment of simple inexpensive program logic controllers (PLCs) and the availability of level sensors and auto- ‘matically operated valves, the sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process [see Fig. $-1(c)] became used more widely by the late 1970s, especially for smaller communities and indus- {vial installations with intermittent flows, In recent years, however, SBRs are being used for larger cities. The SBR is a fill-and-craw type of reactor system involving a single complete- ‘mix reactor in which all steps of the activated sludge process occur. Mixed liquor remains in the reactor during all cycles, thereby eliminating the need for separate sedimentation tanks. Other activated sludge processes that have found application, with their dates of major interest in parentheses, include the oxidation diteh (1950s), contact stabilization (1950s), Krause process (1960s), pure oxygen activated sludge (1970s), Orbal process (1970s), deep shaft aeration (1970s), and sequencing batch reactor process (1980). GD i: see process designs before and uni the late 1970s generally involved the configurations shown on Figs. 8I(a) and (b). These designs very often suffered from solids settling problems in the secondary clarifiers due to704 | Chapter 8 Suspended Growh Biclogica!Teatment Processes the proliferation of filamentous-type bacteria. In the early 1980s researchers and practicing ‘engineers advanced the concept of a “biological selector” in activated sludge design, which ‘was first introduced in a patent by Davidson (1957) to select for good settling “floc- forming” activated sludge over filamentous bacteria. Selectors are smaller single or multi- staged aerated reactors in front of the main activated sludge treatment aeration basin. ‘The selector concept is also inherent in designs with single or multi-taged anoxic or anaerobic reactors before the main aeration tank to select for conditions for denitrification of nitrate nitrite of for phosphorus-storing bacteria, The anoxic or anaerobic reactors also serve as selectors resulting in the development of good settling activated sludge. Selectors are con- sidered in detail in See, 8-4. A. membrane bioreactor (MBR) is an activated sludge system with membranes located at the end of the activated sludge basin(s) for liquid-solids separation in Tiew of using secondary clarifiers (see Fig. 8-2). In the integrated MBR system shown on Fig. 8-2 the key component is the microfiltcation of ultrafiltration membrane that is immersed directly into the activated sludge reactor. The membranes are mounted in modules (sometimes called cassettes) that can be lowered into the bioreactor. The modules are comprised of the membranes, suipport structure for the membranes, feed inlet and outlet connections, and an overall support structure. ‘The membranes are subjected to a vacuum (less than 50 kPa) that si sce . sen sexes | — a ‘Screened Pormeats to “| si cee i os — ee eran ‘Submerged Pecmeate “i Figure 8-2 ‘Membrane bioreactor (MBR]. A nulistoged activated Sudge system wih membranes for iqudsolids sepation: a} section through MER with separate comporiment forthe membranes, (b plan view oF -MBR, (view of membrane cassettes being placed in separate compariment, an (3 view of separate membrane compartment8-1. Inroduction to the Activated Sludge Process | 705) draws water (permeate) through the membrane while retaining solids in the reactor. To mize the accumulation of solids and fouling on the exterior of the membranes, com- i introduced through a distribution manifold at the base of the membrane ‘module. As the air bubbles rise to the surface, scouring of the membrane surface occurs: the air also provides oxygen to maintain aerobic conditions and solids suspension within the reactor, Implementation of MBR Process. In 1969, U.S. Patent 3,472,765 was issued to William E. Budd and Robert W. Okey of Dorr-Oliver for a process that integrated com- plete-mix activated sludge process with membrane technology. Membrane separation for activated sludge treatment was first demonstrated at Pikes Peak, CO, in 1974 by Dore Oliver, but it was not economically feasible for widespread use until membrane materials and manufacturing methods improved. In addition, the initial designs employed cross- flow membrane separation units located outside the activated sludge tanks, which had high energy requirements for pumping mixed liquor aeross the membrane to control foul- ing, Placement of the membrane separation unit in the activated sludge reactor and using coarse bubble aeration, in the late 1980s, was less energy intensive and led to future MBR applications (Yamamoto et al., 1989). The lower energy MBR system was first commer- cialized with flat plate membranes by Kubota for wastewater treatment in Japan in 1990, About three years later an MBR system using Zenon’s hollow fiber ZeeWeed® system ‘was installed at Stoney Creek, Ontario Canada, The first MBR installation for biological ‘wastewater treatment in the U.S. was in 1998 at the Arapohoe County Lone Tree Creek WWTP in Colorado. The use of ultrafiltration (UF) and microfiltration (MF) membranes in MBR systems for activated sludge treatment was well accepted in the late 1990s and carly 2000s. MBR Process Advantages and Disadvantages. The use of membrane liquid-solids separation provides many advantages compared to activated sludge processes with gravity clarifiers. These are (1) a much smaller area requirement (less than 50%) due to operation with a higher mixed liquor concentration (typically 8000 to 12,000) and the tediiced space for membrane separation compared to clarifiers, (2) simpler process operation with no concerns about the effect of filamentous activated sludge, (3) a reclaimed water quality effluent due to complete suspended solids capture across the membrane separation, and (4) a lower disinfection dose requirement due to the low turbidity effluent. Disadvantages are an increased energy cost, the need for future membrane replacement, and the cleaning and operational demands for membrane fouling control. MBR Process Applications. ‘The most frequent applications for MBRs have been for domestic wastewater treatment and water reuse, ranging in flows from small housing developments and apartments to large centralized wastewater treatment facilities. The larg- est facility, a5 of 2008, is the King County, Washington Brightwater wastewater treatment plant, at an average design flowrate of 117,000 m'/d (Judd, 2008a). MBR designs have also been used for industrial wastewater treatment applications, including food and beverage processing, chemical plants, automotive plants, dairy wastewater, oil refinery ‘wastewater, landfill Ieachate and pharmaceuticals, and also in anaerobie treatment processes (Yang et al., 2006). Process applications of MBRs are described along with similar applications using activated sludge and clarifiers for nitrification, nitrogen removal and enhanced biological phosphorus removal in Secs. 8-7 and 8-8. Design considerations associated with the use of gravity clarifiers or membranes for activated sludge liquid-solids separation are706 | Choplor8 Suspended Growth Biological Trealment Processes discussed in Sees. 8-10, 8-1, and 8-12. Membrane systems used in advanced wastewater applications including membrane materials, membrane designs, and operating conditions are discussed in Sec. 11-6 in Chap. 11. Nutrient Removal Processes Over the past 10 years, achieving higher nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) removals has szained importance in the implementation of the activated sludge treatment process. AS a result, a number of biological nutrient-removal configurations have been developed including those using activated sludge with secondary clarifiers oF membranes for liquid- solids separation, Nearly all ofthe various activated sludge process modifications, whether with secondary clarifiers or membranes, are based on the same fundamental principles of biological treatment as described previously in Chap. 7. Processes used in full-scale ‘operation are described in Secs, 8-6, 8-7, and 8-8; design examples forthe processes most commonly used are also included. A key elemeat in the new nutrient removal designs is the use of internal recycle from the aeration or anoxic tanks to upstream reactors (see Fig, 8-3), in contrast to recycle in the past being only from the secondary clarifier underflow to the head of the activated sludge aeration tank as shown on Figs, 8-1(a) and (b). The process efficiency benefits of using reactors in series as well as staged reactors has also been recognized and implemented in full-scale designs, However, because the design and operation of activated sludge nutrient removal processes has become more complex, computer mod- cling is an increasingly important tool to incorporate the large number of components and reactions necessary to evaluate activated sludge performance in nutrient removal application. The use of simulation models for suspended growth systems is discussed in Sec. 8-5, Interalreeyete ‘Anaerobic F———] ‘aie | aerobic | “Anoxie'} aerobic Intent tent own aoivatod stage Shuts « Figure 8-3 Modified Bardenpho process with stage reacios for biological nitogen removal and enhanced biological phosphorus remorcl: al schematic diogrom of staged process an [| view ofa Modified Bordenpho reciment plant in Palma, FL; the frst oft typo inthe United State builtin 1979. [From H. D. Siensel) |Coosdinoies 27.5256 N 82.5959 W, view ct allude 360 m, since then, dn oxidation dich hos been bul alongside)8-2 Westowator Characterization | 707 8-2 WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION Table 8-1 Example of typical domestic wastewater characterization parameters and typical values Activated sludge process design requires determining (1) the influent characteristics ofthe wastewater, (2) the aeration tank volume, (3) the sludge production rate, (4) the oxygen supply rate needed, and (5) the effluent concentration of important parameters. To design ‘an activated sludge treatment process properly, characterization of the wastewater is, perhaps the most critical step in the process. For biological nuttient-removal processes, wastewater characterization is essential for predicting performance. Wastewater character. ization is an important element in the evaluation of existing facilities for optimizing performance and available treatment capacity. Flowrnte characterization is also important including diurnal, seasonal, and wet-weather flowrate variations (see Chap. 3). Without comprehensive wastewater characterization, facilities may either be under- of overde- signed, resulting in inadequate or inefficient treatment. Key Wastewater Constituents for Process Design Wastewater characteristics of importance in the design of the activated sludge process can be grouped into the following categories: (1) carbonaceous constituents, (2) nitrogenous compounds, (3) phosphorus compounds, (4) total and volatile suspended solids (TSS and VSS), and (5) alkalinity. Typical wastewater constituents quantified for use in desktop designs of wastewater treatment processes are reported in Table 8-1. Desktop designs, based on assuming steady- state operating conditions, are useful to determine reasonable values for the key activated sludge design parameters listed above. However for biological nutrient removal (BNR) processes with multiple reactors in series (including anaerobic, anoxic, and aerobic zones) and internal recycle streams, and/or for process analyses under Yariuble flowrate and load conditions, simulation models with differential equations that can be used to account for all forms of the constituents of concern in the wastewater and biological reactors are most useful. When simulation models are used, the number of wastewater constituents evaluated must be increased. The constituents that must be con- sidered are summarized in Table 8-2 along with the nomenclature used in this textbook and common to the International Water Association (IWA) activated sludge process sin- lation models (Henze et al., 1995). The following letters represent the state of the waste- water constituent: 5 is soluble, C is colloidal, X is particulate, and T is total of the indi- vidual constituents (S + C + X). ‘Component Concentration, mg/L coo 508 scop 7 Pop 200 155 195 vss 150 TKN 35 Nien » NOsN 0 Total phosphorus 56 Alkclinity 200 {as CaCO) ‘Typical medium strangth wastewater, from Table 3-18.708 | Chapter 8 Suspended Grow Biological Treatment Procosses Table 8-2 cnr Definition of terms 80D used to characterize BoD important wastewater 3800 constituents used for soo the analysis and cop design of biological wastewater treatment processes coo bcop pcoD scoD nbCOD rbCOD bscoD baxCOD sbcoo bpcoD nbpCOD nbsCOD Nitrogen TKN BIKN sTKN ON NHN bON nbON pON bpON snbpON sON bsON ibsON re por bbpP ribpP bsp bP Suspended solids 155 vss nbVSS, ‘Iss Symbol cop, Definition Total 5-d biochemical exygen demand Soluble 5-d biochemical oxygen demand Ulimote biochemical oxygen demand Total chemical oxygen demanel Biodegradable chemical oxygen demand Portculate chemical oxygen demand Soluble chemical oxygen demond Nonbiedagradable chemical oxygen demond Readily biodegradable chemical oxygen demand Biodegradable soluble chemical oxygen demand Biadegradlabe colloidal chemicel oxygan demand Slowly biodegradable chemical oxygen demand Biodegradable partculote chemical oxygen demand Nonbiedegradable particulate chemical sxygon demand Nonbiodegradable soluble chemical oxygen demand Toll Kjeldahl nitrogen Biodegradable fool Kjeldahl nitrogen Soluble (fered toto Kjeldahl nitrogen Organic nitogen ‘Ammonia nitrogen Biodegradable organic nitrogen Nonbiodegradable orgonic nitrogen Particulate organic nirogen Biodegradable particulate organic nitrogen Nonbiodegradable particulate erganic nitrogen Soluble organic nitrogen Biodegradable soluble organic nitrogen Nonbiodegradable soluble orgonie ritrogon Total phosphorus Crthophosphate Biodegradable particulate phosphorus Nonbiedegradable pariculate phosphorus Biodegradable soluble phosphorus Nonbiodegredable soluble phosphorus Total suspended solids Volaile suspended solids Nonbiodegradable volatile suspended solids Inert total suspended solids ‘Note: b= biodegradable; = inert; n = non; p ~ particulate; s~ solble “Measured consivent volves, bosed on the terminology given inthis fable, will ery depending on the technique used to fractionate a patcular cnstivent «Commonly used symbol for consents in BWA activated sludge models,Figure 8-4 Froctionation of COD ond ‘wastewater. Information on the COD actions ie used in ‘computer simulation models for coctivated sludge processes, 8-2 Wastowaior Cheroctrization | 709 ‘The subscripts S and I are used to indicate whether the constituent component is bio degradable (S) or nonbiodegradablefinert (I). Other subscripts are used to indicate the specific constituent under $ and X. For the simulation models the carbonaceous material is quantified in terms of COD. The terms presented in Table 8-2 are introduced, discussed, and applied in the following paragraphs. In the text of this chapter, the units of expression for constituent concentrations are given in mg/L. In the examples, however, constituent concentrations are expressed as g/m’ (which is equivalent to mg/L) For ease of use in pro- ‘cess computations, thus eliminating one unit conversion step. Carbonaceous Constituents. Carbonaceous constituents measured by BOD or COD analyses are critical to the activated sludge process design. Higher concentrations of degradable COD or BOD result in (1) a larger aeration tank volume, (2) greater required oxygen transfer rates, and (3) greater rates of sludge production. While BOD is the common parameter used to characterize carbonaceous constituents in wastewater, COD is the biodegradable carbonaceous parameter used in most comprehensive com puter simulation design models. In these models, a COD mass balance is used to account for the fate of carbonaceous COD material between the amount oxidized, the amount in the effluent, and the amount in waste solids 2s biomass or nondegraded influent VSS. The various forms of the COD in wastewater are shown on Fig. &-4 and defined in Table 8-2. ‘The measurement methods and the relative amounts of different forms of COD are trated on Fig. 8-5, COD Fractions. Unlike BOD, some portion of the COD is not biodegradable, so the COD is divided into biodegradable and nonbiodegradable concentrations. The next level of interest is how much of the COD in each of these categories is dissolved (soluble), and how much is particulate, comprised of colloidal and suspended solids. The nonbiodegrad- able soluble COD (nbsCOD) will be found in the activated sludge effluent, and nonbiode- zgradable particulates will contribute to the total sludge production. Using the nomenclature in Table 8-2, the total COD ean be presented as the sum of the wastewater characterization constituents. TCOD = rbCOD + sbCOD + nbsCOD + nbpCoD (8-1) COD, = $,+ Xs +5, +X, (8-2) Xs = Xeo. + Xow (8-3) Total CoD oo oH | Boodogradabie Norbiodearadable coo — p -S —_—_, Rady Sioniy aria lonbiodeqracabe INontiedogsxa biodegradable blocegradabie fs 2 (soluble) (warteate) fen sptetee) I I [ 1 [eorom] [a] [esa] [rerun]710 | Choptor 8 Suspordlad Growh Biological Treatment Processes igure 8-5 Schematic of COD components ‘end separation methods used to cbiain components Table 8-3 Biological processes affected by readily biodegradable COD (rbCOD) concentration in influent wastewater Soluble VER bodegredable fered Sokibionon.vEA —__ foceulatad ‘Slosegrecable cop ‘ite ‘cop Soluble ron bodooracble Goto bindogradablo Coheidat nen edepradae ‘co Particulate biodosredabio Parte row biedegradable Understanding the fractions of biodegradable COD that are measured as soluble readily biodegradable COD (rbCOD), and slowly biodegradable particulate is extremely impor tant for activated sludge process design. The rhCOD portion is assimilated quickly by the biomass, while the particulate and colloidal COD must first be dissolved by extracellular enzymes and are thus assimilated at much slower rates. The rhCOD fraction of the COD has a direct effect on the activated sludge biological kinetics and process performance. Process applications where the r>COD concentration affects the process design and performance are summarized in Table 8-3, For conventional plug-flow or staged aerobic activated sludge reactors, a greater ‘oxygen transfer rate will be required toward the front of the aeration tank where there is a xgreater influent rbCOD concentration. The rbCOD concentration has a significant effect oon the denitrification rate in preanoxie zones in biological nitrogen-removal processes, Process Effect of rbCOD Activated sludge aeration For plug flow or staged aeration zones, there will be: higher oxygen demand toward the front ofthe tank with higher Fraction of rsCOD in the influent COD. Biological nitrogen removal For proanoxic lank, there wil be « higher denitifica- gen fion rate with « higher fraction of rbCOD in the infu cent COD, Can result in smaller anoxie tank volume. Enhonced biological phosphorus Grecter influent #bCOD concentration results in a removal rear mount of enhanced biological phosphorus removal Aciveted sludge selector Higher fraction of rhCOD in influent COD provides more COD for floc forming bacteria in seledor. Can have a greater impact on improving sludge volume index (SVI.8-2 Wastewater Choraderization | 711 where it will be consumed before the aeration zone. The greater the amount of rbCOD, the faster will be the nitrate reduction rate, For enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR), the rCOD can be converted rapidly to acetate via fermentation in the anaerobic zone for uptake by the phosphorus-storing bacteria, The rbCOD concentration in the influ- cent wastewater must be known to predict more accurately the performance of enhanced biological phosphorus removal. ‘A further step in the characterization of the influent COD is illustrated on Fig, 8-4. ‘The thCOD consists of volatile faty acids and complex soluble COD in the influent waste- water that can be fermented to volatile fatty acids (VFAs), Wastewaters that are more septic, for example, from collection systems in warm climates with minimal slopes, will contain higher concentrations of VFAS. The performance of EBPR processes is improved for wastewaters with higher influent VFA. concentrations. bCOD/BOD Ratio. BOD test data are necessary to obtain the total biodegradable COD (BCOD). Grady et al. (199) noted that the COD/BOD ratio is greater than the ultimate BOD to BOD ratio (UBOD/BOD), because not all of the bCOD is oxidized in the BOD test. Some of the COD is converted into biomass, which can still remain as cell debris and active cells at the end of the long incubation time for the UBOD determination. For domestic wastewater with a measured UBODIBOD ratio of 1.5, the bCOD/BOD ratio may he 1.6 to 1.7, depending on the biomass yield and cell debris fraction. The bCOD/BOD can be estimated using the following equation, which is based on the fact that the bCOD ‘consumed in the BOD test equals the oxygen consumed (UBOD) plus the oxygen equiva lent of the remaining cell debris [bCOD = UBOD + 1.42(f,)(¥)DCOD] after long-term incubation: SOD _ _UBK COD _ _UBOD/BOD 4 BOD 1.0 — 143,04) where f, = fraction of cell mass remaining as cell debris, e/g Ya, = symthesis yield coefficient for heterotrophic bacteria, VSSig COD used For example, using values typical of domestic wastewater (UBOD/BOD 0.15, ¥ = 0.40), the bCOD/BOD ratio is 1.64. Because the nonbiodegradable particulate COD (nbpCOD) is organic material, it will also contribute to the VSS concentration of the wastewater and mixed liquor in the activated sludge process, and is referred to here as the nonbiodegradable volatile suspended solids (nbVSS). The influent wastewater will also contain nonvolatile influent suspended solids that add to the MLSS concentration in the activated sludge process. ‘These solids are influent inert TSS (iTSS) and can be quantified by the difference in influent wastewater TSS and VSS concentrations. Nitrogenous Constituents. The composition of nitrogen in wastewater is illustrated on Fig. 8-6, The total Kjeldsbl nitrogen (TKN) isa measure of the sum of the ammonia and organic nitrogen. About 60 to 70 percent of the influent TKN concentration will be as NHN, which is readily available for bacterial synthesis and nitrification, Organic nitrogen is pres- ent in both soluble and particulate forms, and some portion af each of these is nonbiode- ‘gradable. The particulate degradable organie nitrogen will be removed more slowly than the soluble degradable organic nitrogen because a hydrolysis reaction is necessary first, The nonbiodegradable organic nitrogen is assumed to be 6 to 7 percent of the nonbiodegradable VSS as COD in the influent wastewater (Meleer et al., 2003). The particulate nonbiodegrad- able nitrogen will be captured in the activated sludge floc and exit in the waste sludge, but712 | Chopler 8 Suspended Growth Biological Treatmont Processes Figure 8-6 Fractionation of niragen in wastewater, Information on the nirogen factions is used in the detailed design of nitification ‘ond denitrification processes, [ieee [one Blodeyradabia [_sontie | [Pace the soluble nonbiodegradable nitrogen will be found in the secondary clarifier effluent. The soluble nonbiodegradable organic nitrogen contributes tothe effluent total nitrogen concen ‘tation and typically ranges from | to 2 mg/L. as N (Parkin and MeCarty, 1981; Ungun- Demirtus et al., 2008). Some soluble nonbiodegradable organic nitrogen (0.1 10 0.3 mg/l. at SRTs from 8 to 15 d) can be produced from endogenous respiration (Czerwionka et al., 2012), Alkalinity. ‘The concentration of alkalinity is an important wastewater characteristic that affects the performance of biological nitrification processes. Adequate alkalinity is needed to achieve complete nitrification. In some cases where a wastewater sample is not available, the total alkalinity of the wastewater may be estimated from information on the alkalinity of the potable water plus the alkalinity contributed through domestic nse (see Table 3-16). Measurement Methods for Wastewater Characterization Special procedures are used to quantify the rCOD, nbVSS, and soluble organic nitrogen (SON) and nonbiodegradable organic nitrogen (nbON) concentrations in wastewaters, Some of the methods and techniques used to quantify these constituents are discussed below. Readily Biodegradable COD. The rsCOD concentration can be determined by a batch oxygen uptake rate test as described by Ekama et al. (1986) of a relatively simple chemical-physical test procedure. The latter is the most commonly used method and involves determining what is referred to as a locculation-filtration COD ({TCOD) concen- tration in an influent wastewater sample. Separation techniques for characterization oF wastewater COD are illustrated on Fig, 8-: ‘The TCO method is based on a procedure presented by Mamais et al. (1993) in an attempt to separate the colloidal and particulate COD from the true soluble COD in the ‘wastewater sample. The fFCOD testis applied to both the wastewater sample and a second- ary effluent sample or a settled supernatant sample after sufficient contact and aeration of the wastewater sample with activated sludge. ‘The soluble COD measured in the secondary effluent sample is the nonbiodegradable soluble COD (nbsCOD) as the COD would be removed by the activated sludge process. The floedfiltration method is used widely at ‘wastewater-treatment facilities because of its simplicity, As long as the selected procedure is compatible with the design models used to evaluate the activated sludge process, a use- ful design approach is possible,8-2 Wastewater Charaderization | 713 ‘The procedure is based on the assumption that suspended solids and colloidal material can be captured and removed effectively by flocculation with a zine hydroxide precipitate to leave only truly dissolved organic material after filtration. The steps in the method for each sample are as follows: (1) 1 mL of a 100 g/L. ZnSO, solution is added to 100 mL. of sample with vigorous mixing for | min, 2) the pH is raised to about 10.5 using 6M (molar) NaOH, with 5 to 10 min of gentle mixing for floc formation, (3) the sample is settled for 10 to 20 min and the supernatant is withdrawn and filtered using a 0.45-jam membrane filter, and (4) the filtrate is analyzed for COD concentration. The difference in COD con- centration between the wastewater and activated sludge treated sample is the reCOD. Nonbiodegradable Volatile Suspended Solids. ‘The concentration of nonbiodegradable volatile suspended solids (nbVSS) in wastewater can be estimated trom analyses for COD, sCOD, BOD, sBOD, and VSS concentration, and by assuming @ constant COD/VSS ratio for both biodegradable and nonbiodegradable wco0) ss = |1 = vss 5 nbVSS [! cS ss (65) bpCOD _ (bCOD/ROD\(BOD D) na pcoD — cop — scOD where bpCOD = concentration of biodegradable particulate COD, mg/L COD = concentration of particulate COD, mg. sCOD = concentration of soluble COD, mg/L. Care must be taken in sample handling and analyses to obtain reliable nbVSS concen- tration data. A sufficient number of composite samples must be obiained to assure that the results are representative of the wastewater characteristies, Samples must be well mixed ‘when taken for analyses, and for small sample volumes, the pipettes must have wide open- ings at the tip to better capture solids. When small sample volumes are used, for example, with the HACH COD analysis, treating the sample first in a high-speed blender is often done. The filtration pore size to obtain soluble samples for COD and BOD analyses is the ‘same as that used for the TSS/VSS filtration, ‘A simplified approach that is used! more often in lieu of the above procedure is based oon the assumption that the g COD per g VSS is the same for the biodegradable and non- biodegradable VSS. ‘The nbVSS is then determined using the following equations. nbpCOD = TCOD ~ bCOD — nbsCODe (7) Top — scoD Reon —aGop 8 VS8:o9 = OO (8) bpCoD oD 0-9 DVS = VSScop a filtered COD in activated sludge effluent, mg/L. = ¢ COD/g VSS Nitrogen Compounds. For the nitrogen compounds, the soluble organic nitrogen concentration is of interest from the standpoint of its effect on the effluent total nitrogen concentration, The fractionation of nitrogen in wastewater is illustrated on Fig. 8-6. 4 filtered sample from the plant effluent or from a bench-scale treatability reactor can be used to determine the total effluent soluble organic nitrogen concentration by the differencena Chopler 8 Suspended Growih Biological Teament Processes Example 8-1 between the TKN concentration of the filtered sample and the effluent NH,-N concentra- ion. The nonbiodegradable soluble organic nitrogen (nbsON) cannot be determined directly, but from a practical standpoint and considering the low concentration of effluent soluble organic nitrogen, the total effluent soluble organic nitrogen concentration from activated sludge weatment with SRTs between 5 and 10 d usually provides a sufficient estimate, ‘The nonbiodegradable particulate organic nitrogen (nbpON) can be estimated by an analysis of the influent VSS for organic nitrogen and the estimated amount of nbVSS. The fraction of nitrogen in the VSS is as follows. _ (TKN ~ SON ~ NHN) Iv (8-10) Jy VSS (6-10| NbpON = fy (abYSS) (8-11) where fy = fraction of organic nitrogen in VSS, g N/g VS. TKN = total TKN concentration, mg/L. SON = soluble (i.e. filtered) organic nitrogen concentration, mg/L. nbpON = nonbiodegradable particulate organic nitrogen concentration, mg/L. Other terms as defined previously. Summary Tabulation. In summary, the wastewater COD and nitrogen components can be tabulated as follows; TCOD = bCOD + nbCOD (6-12) bCOD = 1.6(BOD) (8-13) nbCOD = nbsCOD + npbCOD (14) bCOD = sbCOD + shCOD (e-15) ‘TKN = NH, ~ N + ON (8-16) ON = bON + nbON (8-17) nbON = nbsON + nbpON (e-18) where the terms are as defined in Table 8-2, The application of the above equations in determining the characteristics of a wastewater is illustrated in Example 8-1, Wastewater Characterization Evaluation Given the following wastewater characterization results, determine concentrations for the following: bCOD (biodegradable COD) bpCOD (nonbiodegradable particulate COD) sbCOD (slowly biodegradable COD) ‘abVSS (nonbiodegradable VSS) iTSS (inert TSS) nbpON (nonbiodegradable particulate organic nitrogen) Total degradable TKN Roe wEeSolution 8-2 Wostewater Choractrization | 715 Influent wastewater characteristics; Consttvent Concentration, mg/l GOD! (ha 200 ToD 420 170 80 220 200 40 % Alkalinity 200 (os CaCO.) Activated sludge effluent Goncentration, Constituent mg/l scODe 30.0 SON 12. Determine biodegradable (bCOD) using Bq. (8-13). bCOD = 1.6(BOD) = 1,6(200 mg/L) = 320 mes Determine the nbpCOD. a, Determine the nbCOD using Eq, (8-12). nbCOD = TCOD — bCOD nbCOD = (420 — 320) mg/l. = 100 mes b. Determine the nbpCOD using Fg. 8-14). nbpCOD = nbCOD ~ sCOD, = (100 ~ 30) mg/L. = 70 me/L. Determine the sbCOD using Eq. (8-15). sbCOD = bCOD — COD = (320 — 80) mp/L = 240 mg/L Determine the nbVSS. ‘a, Determine the VSScop ratio using Eq. (8-8). COD — scoD Sos yg VSSeop = 201% = 1.25 gconvevss 200716 | Chapter & Suspended Grow Biological Trectmant Processes b. Determine the nbVSS using Eq. (8-9), nbpCOD MBYBS = es 0 nbvss = = 56 mgs 125 5. Determine the inert TSS, iTSS = TSS — VSS = (220 — 200) mg/L. = 20 mg/L. 6. Determine the nbpON. 4. Determine the organic N content of VSS using Eq. (8-10). (TKN ~ sON ~ NH,-N) : ‘VSS (40 ~ 1.2 ~ 26)mg/ iN 200 mg/L. ee b. Determine the nbpON using Eq. (8-11) nbpON = , (nbVSS) nbpON = 0.064(90 mg/L) = 5.8 mg/L. 7. Determine total degradable TKN. BIKN = TKN ~ nbpON ~ nbsON = (40 ~ 5.8 — 1.2) mg/L = 33.0 mg/l. Recycle Flows and Loadings ‘The impact of recycle lows must also be quantified and included in defining the influent Wastewater characteristics to the activated sludge process, The possible sources of recycle Flows include cligester supernatant flows (if settling and decanting are practiced in the digestion operation), recycle of centrate or filtrate from solids dewatering equipment, backwash water Irom effluent filtration processes, and water from odor-contral scrubbers, Depending on the source, a significant BOD, TSS, and NH,-N load may be added to the influent wastewater. The levels of BOD and TSS concentrations possible for various solids Processing unit operations are given in Table 151 in Chap. 15. Compared to untreated wastewater or primary clarifier effluent, the BOD/VSS ratio is often much lower for recycle streams, In addition, a significant NH,-N load can be Feturned to the influent wastewater from anaerobic digestion-related processes. Concentra- tions of NH,-N in the range of 1000 to 2000 mg/L are possible in centrate or filtrate from the dewatering of anaerobically digested solids. Thus, the ammonia load from a return How of about one-half percent of the influent flow can increase the influent ‘TKN load to the activated sludge process by 10 t0 20 percent. In all cases, a mass balance for flow and8-3. Fundamentals of Process Selection, Design, and Control | 717 nportant constituents, such as BOD, TSS/VSS, nitrogen compounds, and. phosphorus should be done to account for all contributing flows and loads to the activated sludge process, The separate treatment of return flows is considered im Chap. 15, FUNDAMENTALS OF PROCESS SELECTION, DESIGN, AND CONTROL The purpose of this section is to introduce (1) overall considerations in treatment process implementation, (2) important factors in process selection and design, (3) process control issues, (4) operational problems associated with the activated sludge secondary clarifier process, and (5) operational problems associated with the MBR process. The information presented in this section is applied to the analysis and design of alternative activated sludge processes in the remainder of this chapter. Many of the equations presented in this chapter were derived previously in Chap. 7 and are summarized in this section for convenient reference Overall Considerations in Treatment Process Implementation ‘The selection of an activated sludge treatment process is always based on a review a num- ber of local factors that will govern the final choice. The principal factors that must be considered are summarized in Table 84, The relative importance of the factors presented in Table 8-4 is site specific, Current and future treatment necds are typically driven by regulatory requirements with regard to the impact of the point discharge to surface or ‘groundwater or reclaimed water quallty, Wastewater characteristics were considered previ- ously in See. 8-2. Flowrates and their variation are discussed in Chap. 3. Local environ mental conditions, space constraints, and costs are site-specific. Energy considerations are discussed in Chap. 17. Important factors in the selection of a specific activated sludge process are discussed in this section. Important Factors in Process Selection and Design Inthe selection and design of the activated shdge process, consideration must be given to Cy) the type of activated sludge process and reactor configuration, (2) applicable kinetic relationships, (3) solids retention time and loading, (4) sludge production rate, (5) oxygen demand rate and transfer, (6) nutrient requirements, (7) other chemical requirements, (8) activated sludge settling characteristics, (9) liquid-solids separation of mixed liquor, and (10) effluent characteristies. Selection of Activated Sludge Process and Reactor Configuration. The many different types of activated sludge processes that can be selected are dependent on treat- ‘ment needs required to meet effluent discharge limits. In general, the reactor types employed are plug flow, complete-mix, and batch (e.g., sequencing batch reactor). Regardless of the type of reactor or reactor combination used, a critical element in the performance of the various activated sludge processes that employ secondary clarification for liquids-solids separation is the seitleability of the mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS), In turn, the settleability of the MLSS depends on the nature of the microorganisms that comprise the MLSS, Occasionally, 4 proliferation of filamentous bacteria can occur. When a proliferation of filamentous bacteria ‘occurs, the MLSS biological flocs do not settle well, which can result in a high solids levels inthe secondary clarifiers and the loss of solids inthe final clarifier overflow. The term bulk- ing sludge is used to describe the poor settling sludge. Bulking sludge is considered further in Sec. 8-4 along with another type of bulking. known as viscous duking.ns Table 8-4 Factor ‘Treatment needs Future treciment needs Sludge seta Effect of reaction kinetics Wastewater characteristics Local environmental conditions Toxic or inhibitory substances Space Chapter 8 Suspended Growh Biological Treatment Processes General considerations for the selection of the type of suspended growth reactor Description Treatment requirements ond process selection can be categorized according 0 effluent discharge water quclity needs, which may range from secondary reakment for BOD removal, ntification to achieve low effet ammonia concentrction, 18,000 mg/L) exist under operation at normal design flux values, the membranes can become what is termed “sludged up” and special cleaning methods may be needed to regain the expected operating flux. Certain wastewater substances must be prevented from entering the treatment facility or MBR system to maintain proper membrane operation. Cooking oils and grease can col- lect on membrane surfaces and lead to excessive fouling that can only be removed by special membrane cleaning methods. SELECTOR TYPES AND DESIGN CONSIDERATION A selector is a small tank (30 {0 60 min contact time) or a series of tanks located before the process aeration tank in which the incoming wastewater is mixed with return sludge under aerobic, anoxic, or anaerobic conditions. The purpose of including a selector as part of the activated sludge process is to create a condition that favors the growth of floc-forming bacteria and suppress the growth of filamentous bacteria that cause sludge bulking as described in the previous section. The use of selector designs in activated sludge is, as noted previously, more common because of the many other advantages, such as nitrogen and phosphorus removal, in addition to improved sludge settling. By improving sludge settling, the activated sludge treatment capacity may be increased, as higher MLSS concentrations are usually possible. The hydraulic capacity of the second- ary clarifiers is also increased. The cause of sludge bulking and the types and design considerations for the selectors used for the control of filamentous bacteria are described in this section.