Lecture No.

GE 135: FUNDAMENTALS OF
SURVEYING AND MAPPING

TOPIC 3:

Horizontal Distance Measurements

Department of Geodetic Engineering
College of Engineering and Geosciences
Caraga State University
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Outline
▪ Concepts of Distance
▪ Methods and Instruments Used to Determine Distances
▪ Distance by Pacing
▪ Distance by Photogrammetry
▪ Distance by Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
▪ Distance by Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)
▪ Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Methods
▪ Distance by Mechanical Devices
▪ Distance by Tacheometry
▪ Distance by Taping
▪ Taping and Taping Accessories
▪ Taping Operations
▪ Taping Errors and Correction
▪ Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance
 Lecture No. 1

Intended Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lecture, the students must be able to:
● Explain the concepts of distance
● Enumerate the different methods for determining distances
● Explain the concept of pacing
● Solve problems involving pacing
● Identify and discuss the field procedures for measuring distances by taping
● Identify the accessories used in taping
● Explain the different taping operations.
● Explain the rules for applying tape corrections
● Solve problems on correction of taping errors
● Explain the procedures in correcting taping errors
● Perform calculations involving correction of taping (temperature and pull correction)
● Perform calculations involving correction of taping (sag and slope correction)
● Perform calculations involving correction of taping (normal tension and combined correction)
● Explain the concept and application of tacheometry in measuring horizontal distance
● Discuss the concept of mechanical devices, mechanical and graphical method, and photogrammetry in distance measurement.
● Solve problems involving photogrammetry
● Define GNSS
● Explain the advantage and disadvantage of using EDM
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

CONCEPTS OF DISTANCE
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DISTANCES
▪ a measure of the interval between two locations.
▪ the answer to the question, "How far is it from this
to that or between this and that?"
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DISTANCES

▪ Spatial Distance
▪ Horizontal Distance
▪ Slope Distance
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Spatial Distance
▪ distance between any two random points in
3D space
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Horizontal Distance
In plane surveying,
▪ the distance between two points means the horizontal
distance.
▪ If the points are at different elevations, then the distance
is the horizontal length between plumb lines at the
points.
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Slope Distance
▪ Slope is a measure of steepness.
▪ Units can be in degrees, percent or as a ratio.
▪ Measures of slope in degrees are useful in converting
horizontal distance to slope distance and vice versa.
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS USED TO

DETERMINE DISTANCES
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Methods for Determining Distances

▪ Distance by Pacing
▪ Distance by Photogrammetry
▪ Distance by Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
▪ Distance by Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)
▪ Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Methods
▪ Distance by Mechanical Devices
▪ Distance by Tacheometry
▪ Distance by Taping
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Methods for Determining Distances

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Distance by Pacing
▪ Consists of counting the number of steps or paces in a
required distance
▪ Furnishes a rapid means of approximately checking more
precise measurements of distance
▪ Used on:
➢reconnaissance surveys
➢small-scale mapping
➢locating details
 Lecture No. 1

Distance by Pacing
▪ PACE
➢ defined as the length of a step in walking
➢ 2 paces is equivalent to a stride or a double step
➢ Relative Precision (RP): 1/200 – 1/100; some 1/300
 Lecture No. 1

Distance by Pacing
Pace Factor
- the ratio of the known distance to average number of paces
required to traverse it.
How to calibrate one’s pace?
1. Walk at a uniform step along a line of known
length on a level ground
2. Count the number of paces to cover the whole
stretch
3. Compute the pace factor (in m/pace)
 Lecture No. 1

Distance by Pacing
Pace Factor:

𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆 (𝑳)

𝑷𝑭 =
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝑴)
 Lecture No. 1

Distance by Pacing

Factors Affecting Length of Pace

▪ Speed of pacing
▪ Roughness of the ground
▪ Weight of clothing and shoes
▪ Fatigue on the part of the pacer
▪ Slope of the terrain
▪ Age and gender of the individual
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Distance by Pacing
Sample Problem:
A five trials of walking along a 90-m course on fairly level
ground, a pacer for a survey party counted 51, 52.5. 51.5, 52.5
and 51.5 strides, respectively. He then started walking an
unknown distance XY in four trials which were recorded as
follows: 88.5, 89, 88 and 87 strides. Determine the following:
a) Pace factor of the pacer.
b) Length of line XY.
c) Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped
length of XY is 150.5 meters.
 Lecture No. 1

Distance by Photogrammetry
▪ Photogrammetry refers to the
measurement of images on a
photograph.
▪ The type of photographs used
are those taken from an aircraft
with the axis of the camera
pointed vertically towards the
terrain photographed.
▪ It has a relative precision ranges
from 1/3000 to 1/5000.
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Distance by Photogrammetry
▪ This method used a scale to obtain ground distance
using Equation below:
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Distance by Electronic Distance Measurement

Measurement of distance is based on the invariant speed of
light or electromagnetic waves in a vacuum.

Classification:
1. Electro-optical
2. Electromagnetic
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Distance by Electronic Distance Measurement

Principles of EDM
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Distance by Electronic Distance Measurement

Total Station
▪ A combination of electronic transit
and electronic distance measuring
device.
▪ Angles and distances from the
instrument to points to be surveyed
are determined
▪ Using trigonometry, angles and
distances may be used to calculate
the actual positions (x, y and z or
northing, easting and elevation) of
surveyed points in absolute terms.
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Distance by Electronic Distance Measurement

Advantages of EDM
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Distance by Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)

▪ Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) is

used to describe the collection of satellite
positioning systems that are now operating or
planned.
▪ Fixing of satellites to determine the position of
the points. It has a minimum of 4 satellites.
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Distance by Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)

▪ The distance is determined from the position of points.

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Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Devices

▪ Unknown distances may be determined based on

their relationship with known distances geometrically.
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Distance by Mechanical Devices

▪ There are few mechanical devices which could also be
employed for the measurement of distance.
▪ These devices, however, are only applicable for low
precision surveys or where quick measurements are desired.
▪ Common devices:
(a) odometer
(b) measuring wheel
(c) optical rangefinder.
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Distance by Mechanical Devices

(a) Odometer – a device that can be attached to a wheel for
purpose of measuring surface distances.

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cqWClddJtHg
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Distance by Mechanical Devices

(b) Measuring wheel- similar operation with odometer, except that
it is a mire portable and self-contained measuring device. As the
wheel of the device is rolled along a line to be measured, a built-in
calibrated recorder automatically gives distance reading in meters
and decimal of a meter.

Source: https://www.engineersupply.com/measuring-wheels.aspx
 Lecture No. 1

Distance by Mechanical Devices

(c) optical rangefinder- usually hand-held or mounted on small
tripod, to determine distances approximately by focusing.

Source: https://www.nikon.com/news/2011/0909_foresty-pro_01.htm
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Distance by Tacheometry
▪ Or Tachymetry
▪ An indirect method of measuring horizontal distances
▪ It is based on the optical geometry of the instruments used
▪ Uses subtended intervals and angles observed with a transit or a
theodolite on a graduated rod or scale
▪ Relative accuracy: 1:300-1:400
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Distance by Tacheometry

Methods in Tacheometry

1. Stadia Method
2. Subtense Bar Method
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Distance by Tacheometry
Stadia Method

▪ Uses a telescope with 2

horizontal cross hairs
called stadia hairs, and
a graduated rod called
stadia rod.
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Distance by Tacheometry
Stadia Method

Upper Hair Reading

Middle Hair Reading
Lower Hair Reading
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Distance by Tacheometry
Stadia Method

Where:
K = stadia interval factor (100 usually)
s = stadia interval
C = distance from the center of
instrument to principal focus
(instrument constant; 0 if internal
focusing telescope)
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Distance by Tacheometry
Stadia Method

Sample Problem 1:

A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an

instrument set up at A. The upper and lower stadia hair
readings were observed as 1.300 m and 0.900 m, respectively.
If the stadia interval factor (K) is 100 and the instrument
constant (C) is zero, determine the length of line AB.
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Distance by Tacheometry
Stadia Method

Given:
K = 100; upper reading = 1.300; lower reading = 0.900
C=0
Solution:
D = Ks + C
D = 100 (1.300-0.900) +0.0
D = 40.0 m (length of line AB)
 Lecture No. 1

Distance by Tacheometry
Subtense Bar Method
▪ A subtense bar is set up at a distant
station while a theodolite at the end
of the line measures the horizontal
angle subtended by the distance
between the two targets.
▪ Substense Bar is precisely 2 meters
long.
▪ Relative precision of 1/3000 with
sights of about 150m or less using a
1” theodolite.
 Lecture No. 1

Distance by Tacheometry
Subtense Bar Method
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Distance by Tacheometry
Subtense Bar Method

Sample Problem 2:
A subtense bar 2.000 meters long is set up near the
middle of a traverse line PQ. Using a theodolite set up at
P, the angle subtended reads 0°20’14”. When the
theodolite was transferred and set up at Q, the
corresponding subtended angle was observed as
0°23’47”. Determine the horizontal length of line PQ.
 Lecture No. 1

Distance by Tacheometry
Solution:
2-m Subtense bar
Theodolite Theodolite

D1 D2

D = D1 + D2

D1= (1/ tan(0° 20′ 14"/2) = 339.81 meters

D2= (1/ tan(0° 23′ 47"/2) = 289.09 meters

D= D1 + D2 = 339.81 + 289.09 = 𝟔𝟐𝟖. 𝟗𝟎 meters

 Lecture No. 1

Distance by Taping

▪ Involves direct measurement of distances with steel

stapes.
▪ Consists of stretching a calibrated tape between two
points and reading the distance indicated on the tape
most common method of measuring or laying-out
horizontal distances.
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Measuring Tapes
▪ Made in variety of lengths, materials, and
weights.
▪ Commonly used types of measuring tapes:
1. Steel Tape
2. Metallic Tape
3. Non-metallic Tape
4. Invar Tape
5. Lovar Tape
6. Fiberglass Tape
7. Wires
8. Builder’s Tape
9. Phosphor-Bronze Tape
10. Nylon-coated Steel Tape
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Accessories
1. Range Pole
2. Tape Clamping Handles
3. Chaining Pins
4. Tension Handle
5. Tape Thermometer
6. Plumb Bob
7. Wooden Stake or Hub
8. Leather Thongs
9. Hand Level and Clinometer
10.Tape Repair Kit
11.Crayons
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Taping Accessories
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Taping Accessories
1. Range Pole
▪ also known as flags or lining rods
▪ used as temporary signals to indicate the
location of points or the direction of lines,
and to mark alignment
▪ either circular, hexagonal, or octagonal in
cross section and with one end pointed
▪ usual length used is 2.0 or 3.0 meters and it
may be made of wood, metal or fiberglass
▪ marked or painted with alternate red and
white sections 30 or 50 cm long which can
be used for approximate measurements
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Accessories
2. Tape Clamping Handles
▪ with its scissor-type handle, tape
clamps are used to apply tension with
a quick grip on any part of a steel tape
without causing damage to the tape or
hands of the tapeman
▪ a slight bend or kink on the tape may
result if a tape is held and pulled
without a clamp
▪ once produced, these kinds on the
tape cannot be easily straightened out
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Accessories
3. Chaining Pins
▪ sometimes called as surveyor’s arrows or taping
pins
▪ stuck in the ground to mark the ends measured
tape lengths or partial tape lengths and may also
be used in place of wooden hubs or stakes.
▪ most pins are made of wire about 30 cm long, are
pointed at one end, have a round loop at the other
end, and painted with alternate red and white
bands
▪ sets of eleven pins carried on a steel ring or loop
are standard
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Accessories
4. Tension Handles
▪ also referred to as a spring scale
▪ used at one end of a tape for insuring
the application of the correct of pull on
the tape during measurement
▪ the spring balance is attached between
the handle and the tape, and a clip is
fitted to the end ring of the tape
▪ only used in precision taping
▪ usually dispensed with in measuring
distances requiring ordinary precision
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Accessories
5. Tape Thermometer
▪ in precision taping, thermometers are
used to determine the temperature of
the air and the approximate
temperature of the tape during
measurement
▪ about 10-15 cm long, and are usually
graduated from -30 degrees centigrade
to +50 degrees centigrade in 2-degree or
5-degree divisions
▪ fastened to the tape by means of clips
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Accessories
6. Plumb Bob
▪ used for projecting the tape ends to
the ground when the tape must be
suspended above the measured line
▪ should weigh at least 0.25 kg and must
be attached to a 1.5-m long string or
cord which is free of knots
▪ made of bronze with a pointed end on
which could be unscrewed for
replacement
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Accessories
7. Wooden Stake or Hub
▪ made of 5cm x 5cm by 30 cm wood to
mark points, corners, or stations on
the ground
▪ these temporary markers are required
in staking out a building or structure,
running the centerline of a proposed
road, and in staking out any line or
grade
▪ the top of the hub is usually marked by
driving a nail or tack into its center
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Accessories
8. Leather Thongs
▪ attached to a ring
located near the zero-
meter mark of the tape
to provide a comfortable
grip on the tape when
measuring
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Taping Accessories
9. Hand Level and Clinometer
▪ usually a 15-cm long device which consists of a metal sighting
tube with a level bubble
▪ at one end of the tube has a peep sight opening for viewing a
sighted object
▪ A horizontal line of sight is established if the bubble is centered
while sighting through the tube
▪ used to keep the tape ends at equal elevations when measuring
over rugged terrain, in approximately determining difference in
elevation of points and in other field operations where it is
required to produce a level sight
▪ a hand level adapted for measuring vertical angles
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Accessories
9. Hand Level and Clinometer
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Taping Accessories
10.Tape Repair Kit
▪ should be taken along when an extensive taping operation is to be
performed at remote areas
▪ will allow emergency repairs to be made on damaged or broken tapes

11.Crayons
▪ used in surveying are usually lumber crayons
▪ about 10 cm long and are hexagonal in cross section
▪ blue, yellow and red are the predominantly used colors
▪ colored chalk may be used as substitute
▪ used for marking points, corners or stations by
indicating cross marks on paved roads, side-walks or
walls
 Lecture No. 1

Composition of Taping Party

Taping is the process of directly measuring
distances with use of a graduated tape. When the
measurement is undertaken in fairly level ground in
an open field, the taping party usually consists of the
following individuals:

1. Head Tapeman
2. Recorder
3. Flagman
4. Rear Tapeman
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Composition of Taping Party

1. Head Tapeman
▪ The person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements with the tape.
▪ He determines and directs the marking of points or stations,
orders the clearing out of obstructions along lines to be
measured, and is the person who carries the zero end of the
tape ahead.
2. Recorder
▪ Keeps a record of all measurements, sketches and observations
taken during the process of measurement.
▪ He also checks by pacing all measurements made by the
tapemen for possible errors, mistakes and blunders
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Composition of Taping Party

3. Flagman
▪ The person whose duty is to hold the range pole (or flagpole) at
selected points.
▪ He also helps the tapemen in making measurements and assists
in clearing out obstructions along the line to be measured.
4. Rear Tapeman
▪ The person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman during a
taping operation.
▪ He is the one who holds the 30-m end or any intermediate meter
mark of the tape during a measurement
 Lecture No. 1

The Procedure of Taping

The usual procedure in the taping of distances will
involve the process of

1. Aligning the tape;

2. Stretching it;
3. Plumbing selected tape marks;
4. Marking and;
5. Recording tape lengths.
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Operations
▪ Breaking Tape
➢ the standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above ground
and to plumb at one or both ends when taping on sloping or
uneven terrain surfaces.
➢ measurement of shorter distances which are accumulated to total
a full tape length.
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Taping Operations
▪ Slope Taping
➢ slope measurements are made directly along the slopes when the
ground is of uniform inclination and fairly smooth.
➢ generally preferred since measurements could be made quickly
and more accurately than horizontal measurements.
➢ the procedure of taping is the same as on the level ground
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Operations
▪ Slope Taping
➢ The measured slope distance is reduced to its corresponding
horizontal distance by simple computations.
➢ To perform the computations, either the difference in
elevation between the two ends of the tape (or terminal
points of the line) or the angle of inclination of the tape (or
terminal points of the line) or the angle of inclination of the
slope measurement must first be determined.
➢ The difference in elevation may be obtained by running a line
of levels between the terminal points.
➢ A clinometer, transit, or theodolite may be used to determine
the angle of inclination.
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Operations
▪ Slope Taping

➢ If the angle α is known, the horizontal distance between points A and B can be
computed from the relation
𝒅 = 𝒔 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜶
where: d = the horizontal distance between the two points
s = the measured slope length between the points,
α = the angle of inclination from the horizontal

➢ If the difference in elevation, h, between the ends of the line (or tape) is known,
the horizontal distance is computed using the following expression derived
from the Pythagorean theorem:
𝒅 = 𝒔𝟐 − 𝒉𝟐
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Operations

Sample Problem #1.

A horizontal distance of 325.75 m is to

be established along a line that slopes at a
vertical angle of 13° 06’. What slope
distance should be laid out?
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Operations
Solution Problem #1.

𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑠𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼 ⇒ 𝑠 =
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝑑 325.75
𝑠= = = 334.45 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝐶𝑜𝑠(13°06′ )
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Operations

Sample Problem #2.

A line XYZ is measured on the slope in two
segments. The first segment XY measures 824.45 m
and the second segment YZ measures 1244.38 m. If
the difference in elevation between points X and Y is
4.25 m and that between Y and Z is 6.47 m, determine
the horizontal length of the measured line.
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Taping Operations
Z
Solution Problem #2. h2=6.47 m
Y

X h1=4.25

d1 d2

D
Solution:

𝑑1 = (𝑠1)2 −(ℎ12 ) = (824.45)2 −(4.25)2 = 824.44 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

𝑑2 = (𝑠2)2 −(ℎ22 ) = (1244.38)2 −(6.47)2 = 1244.36 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

𝐷 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 824.44 + 1244.36 = 2068.80 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

 Lecture No. 1

Taping Operations
▪ Taping operations could either be of the following:

➢ Taping to determine an unknown length

➢ Taping for the purpose of laying out a
required or specified length.
▪ Regardless of which of these two categories is involved,
there are some corrections which are applied to the original
measurements to determine the correct and more accurate
length.
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

Rules applied in correction:
1. When a line is measured with a tape that is “too long”, the
corrections are applied to the observed length by adding.
2. When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a
tape that is “too long”, the corrections are subtracted from
the known length to determine the corrected length to be laid
out.
3. When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too
short”, the corrections are applied opposite to those stated in
the first two rules.
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

Rules applied in correction:

“When measuring with tape too long,

ADD; tape too short, SUBTRACT.
Do the reverse when laying out.”
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Taping Errors and Corrections

▪ The required degree of precision in taping will define the
procedure of measurement, equipment, and accessories to be
used, and the corrections to be considered. The common
conditions that exist during taping operation that require the
application of corrections are the following:
• The tape used is not of standard or nominal length.
• The ends of the tape are not held at the same level.
• Inaccuracy in keeping the tape along a straight line.
• The tape is not of nominal length due to the difference in temperature.
• Shortening or lengthening of the tape.
• Distance between the endpoints of an unsupported length of tape is
less than the specified nominal length.
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

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Taping Errors and Corrections

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Taping Errors and Corrections

Rules in Taping Corrections

- When a line is measured with a tape that is

“TOO LONG”, corrections are ADDED
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Taping Errors and Corrections

Rules in Taping Corrections

- When laying out a length with a tape that is

“TOO LONG”, corrections are SUBTRACTED
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

Rules in Taping Corrections

- When a line is measured or laid out with a

tape that is “TOO SHORT”, corrections
applied are opposite of 1st and 2nd rules
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

Correction Due to Incorrect Tape Length
The absolute value for the correction per tape length (Corr)
is determined from the difference between the true or actual
length of tape (TL) and the nominal length of tape (NL) or
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓 = 𝑻𝑳 – 𝑵𝑳
This discrepancy is normally assumed to be distributed
uniformly throughout the tape and is directly proportional to the
fractional segment of the tape used. When the resulting
difference is a positive value, the tape used is too long; and is too
short, if negative.
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

Correction Due to Incorrect Tape Length
Corrected distances which are measured or laid out with a tape
that is too long or too short can be determined from the following
equations
𝑴𝑳
𝑪𝟏 = 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓 ( )
𝑵𝑳

𝑪𝑳 = 𝑴𝑳 ± 𝑪𝟏
Where:
𝑪𝟏 = total correction to be applied to the measured length or length to be laid out
𝑪𝑳 = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out
𝑴𝑳 = measured length or length to be laid out
𝑵𝑳 = nominal length of tape
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

Sample Problem. Measurements with Tape
A rectangular lot was measured using a 50-m
steel tape which was found to be 0.025 m too short.
If the recorded length and width of the lot are
180.455 m and 127.062 m respectively, determine the
following:
a) Actual dimensions of the lot.
b) Error in area introduced due to the erroneous
length of tape.
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

Solution:
NL = 50 m
Corr = 0.025 m
W = 127.062 m
L = 180.455 m

a) Determining Actual Dimensions of Lot

𝑊 127.0632
𝐶𝑊 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 0.025 = 0.064 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 W’ = W +/- Cw = 127.062 – 0.064
𝑁𝐿 50 W’ = 126.998 m (correct with of the lot)

𝐿 180.455 L’ = W +/- CL = 180.455 – 0.090

𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 0.025 = 0.090 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑁𝐿 50 L’ = 180.365 m (correct length of the lot)
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

Solution:
b) Determining Error of Area

Area = L * W = 180.455 * 127.062

= 22928.973 sqm.
Area’ = L’ * W’ = 180.365 * 126.998
= 22905.994 sqm

Error = Area – Area’

= 22928.973 – 22905.994
= 22.979 sqm
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

Sample Problem. Laying-out Dimensions with
Tape
A building 38 m x 45 m is to be laid out with a
50-m long metallic tape. If during standardization the
tape is found to be only 49.950 m, determine the
following:
a) Dimensions to be laid out, using this tape, in order that
the building shall have the desired dimensions
b) Using the same tape what should the diagonals read?
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

Solution:
NL = 50 m
W = 38 m
L = 45 m

a) Determining Desired Dimensions

Corr = 50-49.950 = 0.05 m (tape is too short)

𝑊 38 W’ = W +/- Cw = 38 + 0.038
𝐶𝑊 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 0.05 = 0.038 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑁𝐿 50 W’ = 38.038 m (correct with to be laid out)
𝐿 45
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 0.05 = 0.045 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 L’ = W +/- CL = 45 + 0.045
𝑁𝐿 50 L’ = 45.045 m (correct length to be laid out)
 Lecture No. 1

Taping Errors and Corrections

Solution:
b) Determining Length of Diagonal

𝐷= (𝑊′)2 +(𝐿′)2 = (38.038)2 +(45.045)2 = 58.957 𝑚

Note: In laying out dimensions, when the tape use is to short, the correction is added to the length or width
to be laid out to obtain the desired dimensions.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

▪ Correction due to Slope

▪ Correction due to Alignment
▪ Correction due to Temperature
▪ Correction due to Tension
▪ Correction due to Sag
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Correction due to Slope

▪ When distances are measured along a slope, the

equivalent horizontal distance may be
determined by applying an approximate or exact
slope correction.
▪ The following are the different slope correction
formulas used when reducing slope
measurements to equivalent horizontal
distance:
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Sample Problem. Correction Due to Slope

Slope distance AB and BC measures 330.49 m and

660.97 m, respectively. The differences in elevation are
12.22 m for points A and B, and 10.85 m for points B and
C. Using the approximate slope correction formula for
gentle slopes, determine the horizontal length of line ABC.
Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling
slope.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Solution:
s1 = 330.49 𝑚
h1 = 12.22 𝑚
s2 = 660.97 𝑚
h2 = 10.85 𝑚

ℎ1 2 (12.22)2
d1 = s1 − = 330.49 − =330.49-0.23=330.26 m
2s 1 2(330.49)

ℎ2 2 (10.85)2
d2 = s2 − = 660.97 − =660.97-0.09=660.88 m
2s 2 2(660.97)

D= d1 + d2 = 330.26 + 660.88 = 991.14 m

 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Correction due to Alignment

▪ The linear error due to inaccuracy in the alignment of tape

is similar to the effect of slope and can be computed in the
same manner. It is, however, easier to control and the
resulting error is much smaller in magnitude.
▪ Error due to alignment is generally the least important
among the different errors encountered in taping.
▪ However, the error cannot be eliminated, but it can be
reduced to a negligible amount by lining-in carefully, setting
pins properly, stretching the tape, and keeping the tape
straight.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Correction due to Temperature

▪ The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as

the temperature falls. Any change in the length of tape due
to temperature variations is important when taking precise
measurements.
▪ Tapes to be used are standardized at a specific temperature
to determine the tapes may be either too long or too short.
▪ If the temperature varies during the measurement of a line,
the error is cumulative so long as observed temperatures are
consistently below or above the value of the temperature
during standardization.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Correction due to Temperature

▪ The resulting sign of Ct will be either positive or negative and is

added to the length measured to obtain the correct length.
▪ A positive value will result if the temperature during the time of
measurement is greater than the temperature during
standardization. This means that the tape has lengthened or
expanded and is described as too long.
▪ As a general rule, to determine more accurate measured values,
taping should be undertaken when the temperature does not
vary significantly from the temperature used during
standardization.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Correction due to Temperature

▪ The correction applied to the length of the tape due to

change in temperature Ct is given by Equation 15. Its
correction is usually small and negligible and proportional to
the number of tape lengths.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Sample Problem 1. Correction Due to Temperature

A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of

0.0000116/ºC is known to be 50 m long at 20 ºC. The tape
was used to measure a line that was found to be 532.28
m. long when the temperature was 35 ºC. Determine the:
a) temperature correction per tape length;
b) the temperature correction for the measured line;
and
c) the correct length of the line.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Solution: Note: When MEASURING, the correction is ADDED when tape is too long,
and SUBTRACTED when tape is TOO SHORT.
𝐶 = 0.0000116/ºC
T= 35 ºc
Ts= 20 ºC

𝑎) 𝐶𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆 = 0.0000116 50 35° − 20° = +0.0087 𝑚

𝑏) 𝐶𝑡′ = 𝐶𝐿 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆 = 0.0000116 532.28 35° − 20° = +0.0926 𝑚

c) L’=L± 𝐶𝑡′ =532.28+0.0926=532.37 m

 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Correction due to Tension

▪ The tape is subjected to a certain amount of

standard pull or tension on its ends during
standardization. If the pull is greater than that for
which it was calibrated, the tape elongates and
becomes too long.
▪ Correspondingly, it will stretch less than its standard
length when an insufficient pull is applied, making it
too short.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Correction due to Tension

▪ The correction for the pull is a function of the

difference between the applied pull and the standard
pull, the measured length, the cross-sectional area of
the tape, and the modulus of elasticity of the tape
material can be expressed as the ratio of unit stress to
unit elongation as shown in equation:
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Correction due to Tension
▪ By substituting the quantity, (Pm – Ps), and computing for the
value of the elongation, e or Cp is obtained using Equation (1) and
the cross-sectional area of the tape using Equation (2):

(1)

(2)
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Sample Problem. Correction Due to Tension

A 30-m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length

under a pull of 5 kg supported for the full length. The tape was
used in measuring a line is 938.55 m. long on the smooth level
ground under a steady pull of 10 kg. Assuming E = 2.0 x 106
kg/cm2 and the unit weight of steel to be 7.9 x 10-3 kg/cm3,
determine the following:
a) the cross-sectional area of the tape;
b) correction for an increase in tension; and
c) correct length of the line measured.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Solution:
𝑊 1.45𝑘𝑔
a) 𝐴 = 𝐿(𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) = = 0.06 𝑐𝑚 2
Given: 100 𝑐𝑚 7.9 x 10 −3 kg/cm3
30( )( )
1𝑚 cm3
𝑊=1.45 kg
L(tape)= 30
𝑃𝑚−𝑃𝑠 𝐿 10−5 30
unit weight of steel = 7.9 x 10−3 kg/cm3 b) Cp= = = +0.00125 m (correction pe
𝐴𝐸 (0.06)(2.0 x 106)
E = 2.0 x 10 6 kg/𝑐𝑚2
L= 938.55 m 𝐶𝑃 0.00125
Pm=10 kg =
938.55 30
Ps= 5kg
0.00125
C𝑃 = (938.55) = +0.04 m
30

c) L’ = L ± CP = 938.55 +0.04 = 938.59 m

 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Correction due to Sag

▪ A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported

and subjected to the pull for which it was standardized.
The tape will sag if the support is only at its end and even
if the standard pull is maintained because of its weight.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Correction due to Sag
▪ The correction due to sag is the difference in length between the arc
formed by the tape and the subtending chord. This correction will be
determined using Equations:
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Sample Problem. Correction Due to Sag

A 50-m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is

supported at its endpoints and the 8 m and 25 m marks.
If a pull of 6 kg is applied, determine the (a) correction
due to sag between the 0 m and 8 m marks, 8 m and 25
m marks, and the 25 m and 50 m marks, (b) correction
due to sag for one tape length, and (c) correct distance
between the ends of the tape.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Solution: (a) correction due to sag for each span (0-8 , 8-25, 25-50 marks)
𝜔𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝟑 (𝟎.𝟎𝟒)𝟐 (𝟖)𝟑
Cs1 = 𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟐
= 𝟐𝟒(𝟔)𝟐 = 0.0009 m
Given:
L=30 m
𝜔𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟑 (𝟎.𝟎𝟒)𝟐 (𝟏𝟕)𝟑
L1= 8 m Cs2 = = 𝟐𝟒(𝟔)𝟐 = 0.0091 m
𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟐
L2=17 m
W = 0.04 kg/m
𝜔𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟑 (𝟎.𝟎𝟒)𝟐 (𝟐𝟓)𝟑
P = 6 kg Cs3 = = 𝟐𝟒(𝟔)𝟐 = 0.0289 m
𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟐

(b) correction due to sag for one tape length

Cs = Cs1 + Cs2 + Cs3 = 0.0009+0.0091+0.0289 = 0.0389 m

(c) correct distance between the ends of the tape.
L’ = 𝐿 − 𝐶𝑠 = 50 − 0.0389 = 49.9611 𝑚
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Normal Tension

▪ By exerting a sufficiently greater amount of pull on

the tape when it is suspended and sagged, the
tape will be stretched and a considerable decrease
in the number of sag results.
▪ Normal tension is the applied pull which will the
tape to equal the shortening caused by sag.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Normal Tension

▪ It is the amount of pull required to make the endpoints

coincide with the marked points on the pavement. For normal-
tension computation:
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Sample Problem. Normal Tension

A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross-

sectional area of 0.05 cm2. The tape measures exactly
30.00 m when supported throughout its length under a
standard pull of 5.5 kg. If the modulus of elasticity is
2.10 x 10^6 kg/cm2, determine the tension required to
make the tape equal to its nominal length when
supported only at the points.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Solution: Try Pn = 16.50 kg

𝟓𝟔. 𝟏𝟖𝟖
16.50 =
Given: 16.50 − 5.5
L = 30 m
A= 0.05 𝑐𝑚2 16.50 ≠ 16.94
Ps = 5.5 kg
W = 0.85 kg/m
E = 2.0 x 10 6 kg/𝑐𝑚2 Try Pn = 16.75 kg

𝟓𝟔. 𝟏𝟖𝟖
16.75 =
16.75 − 5.5
Therefore, P(N)= 16.75 kg. This is the tension
16.75 = 16.75 required to make the tape exactly equal to
30.00 m when stretched and supported only
at its end points.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Combined Corrections
▪ The corrections for the effects of incorrect length of tape, temperature,
tension, slope, and sag may be combined as a single net correction per
tape length. Each correction is computed separately and it is important
to identify which correction tends to make the tape too long or too
short.
▪ The variation in condition may be due to changes in temperature
during the day, non-uniformity of the pull exerted on the ends of the
tape, the ground may be such that it becomes necessary to support the
tape at various intervals, and some other factors may affect the taping
operation.
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Sample Problem. Combined Corrections

A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when

measured with a 30 m steel tape supported throughout its
length under a pull of 4 kg and at a mean temperature of
35 ºC. Determine the correct length of the line if the tape
used is of standard length at 20 ºC under a pull of 5 kg. The
cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.03 cm2, it’s coefficient
of linear expansion is 0.0000116/ ºC and the E = 2.0 x 106
kg/ 𝑐𝑚2 .
 Lecture No. 1

Correction Applied for Measurement of Distance

Solution:
Given: 𝑎) 𝐶𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆 = 0.0000116 2395.25 35° − 20° = +0.42 𝑚
L = 2395.25 m
NL = 30 m
A= 0.03 𝑐𝑚2 b) Cp=
𝑃𝑚−𝑃𝑠 𝐿
=
4−5 2395.25
= -0.04 m
Pm = 4 kg 𝐴𝐸 (0.03)(2.0 x 106)
Ps = 5 kg
T = 35 °C
Ts = 20 °C
c) L’ = 𝐿 ± 𝐶𝑡 ± 𝐶𝑝 = 2395.25 + 0.42 − 0.04 = 2395.63 𝑚
C = 0.0000116/ ºC
E = 2.0 x 10 6 kg/𝑐𝑚2
 Lecture No. 1

References
▪ La Putt, J. P., 2007. Elementary Surveying, 3rd Edition, Baguio Research & Publishing Center, Baguio City, Philippines.
 Lecture No. 1

Thank You!
Department of Geodetic Engineering
College of Engineering and Geosciences
Caraga State University, Ampayon, Butuan City