OPERATING SYSTEM CONCEPTS

UNIT V
BCA (IV) SEMESTER

Unix is an Operating System that is truly the base of all Operating Systems like
Ubuntu, Solaris, POSIX, etc. It was developed in the 1970s by Ken Thompson,
Dennis Ritchie, and others in the AT&T Laboratories. It was originally meant
for programmers developing software rather than non-programmers. 
Unix and the C were found by AT&T and distributed to government and
academic institutions, which led to both being ported to a wider variety of
machine families than any other operating system. The main focus that was
brought by the developers in this operating system was the Kernel. Unix was
considered to be the heart of the operating System. System Structure of Unix
OS are as follows: 
 

Figure – system structure 

 
 Layer-1: Hardware – 
It consists of all hardware related information. 
 
 Layer-2: Kernel – 
It interacts with hardware and most of the tasks like memory management,
task scheduling, and management are done by the kernel. 
 
 Layer-3: Shell commands – 
Shell is the utility that processes your requests. When you type in a
command at the terminal, the shell interprets the command and calls the
program that you want. 
There are various commands like cp, mv, cat, grep, id, wc, nroff, a.out and
more. 
 
 Layer-4: Application Layer – 
It is the outermost layer that executes the given external applications. 
 
 
Figure – kernel and its block diagram 
This diagram shows three levels: user, kernel, and hardware. 
 
 The system call and library interface represent the border between user
programs and the kernel. System calls look like ordinary function calls in C
programs. Assembly language programs may invoke system calls directly
without a system call library. The libraries are linked with the programs at
compile time. 
 
 The set of system calls into those that interact with the file subsystem and
some system calls interact with the process control subsystem. The file
subsystem manages files, allocating file space, administering free space,
controlling access to files, and retrieving data for users. 
 
 Processes interact with the file subsystem via a specific set of system calls,
such as open (to open a file for reading or writing), close, read, write, stat
(query the attributes of a file), chown (change the record of who owns the
file), and chmod (change the access permissions of a file). 
 
 The file subsystem accesses file data using a buffering mechanism that
regulates data flow between the kernel and secondary storage devices. The
buffering mechanism interacts with block I/O device drivers to initiate data
transfer to and from the kernel. 
 
 Device drivers are the kernel modules that control the operator of peripheral
devices. The file subsystem also interacts directly with “raw” I/O device
drivers without the intervention of the buffering mechanism. Finally, the
hardware control is responsible for handling interrupts and for
communicating with the machine. Devices such as disks or terminals may
interrupt the CPU while a process is executing. If so, the kernel may resume
execution of the interrupted process after servicing the interrupt. 
 
 Interrupts are not serviced by special processes but by special functions in
the kernel, called in the context of the currently running process. 
Difference between Unix and Linux – 
Linux is essentially a clone of Unix. But, basic differences are shown below: 
 Linux Unix

The source code of Linux is freely available to The source code of Unix is not
its users freely available general public

It has graphical user interface along with It only has command line
command line interface interface

Linux OS is portable, flexible, and can be

executed in different hard drives Unix OS is not portable

Different versions of Linux OS are Ubuntu,

Linux Mint, RedHat Enterprise Linux, Solaris, Different version of Unix are
etc. AIS, HP-UX, BSD, Iris, etc.

The file systems supported by Linux are as The file systems supported by
follows: xfs, ramfs, vfat, cramfsm, ext3, ext4, Unix are as follows: zfs, js,
ext2, ext1, ufs, autofs, devpts, ntfs hfx, gps, xfs, vxfs

Unix file system is a logical method of organizing and storing large amounts

of information in a way that makes it easy to manage. A file is a smallest unit
in which the information is stored. Unix file system has several important
features. All data in Unix is organized into files. All files are organized into
directories. These directories are organized into a tree-like structure called the
file system.
Files in Unix System are organized into multi-level hierarchy structure known
as a directory tree. At the very top of the file system is a directory called
“root” which is represented by a “/”. All other files are “descendants” of root.

Directories or Files and their description –

 / : The slash / character alone denotes the root of the filesystem tree.
 /bin : Stands for “binaries” and contains certain fundamental utilities, such
as ls or cp, which are generally needed by all users.
 /boot : Contains all the files that are required for successful booting
process.
 /dev : Stands for “devices”. Contains file representations of peripheral
devices and pseudo-devices.
 /etc : Contains system-wide configuration files and system databases.
Originally also contained “dangerous maintenance utilities” such as init,but
these have typically been moved to /sbin or elsewhere.
 /home : Contains the home directories for the users.
 /lib : Contains system libraries, and some critical files such as kernel
modules or device drivers.
 /media : Default mount point for removable devices, such as USB sticks,
media players, etc.
 /mnt : Stands for “mount”. Contains filesystem mount points. These are
used, for example, if the system uses multiple hard disks or hard disk
partitions. It is also often used for remote (network) filesystems, CD-
ROM/DVD drives, and so on.
 /proc : procfs virtual filesystem showing information about processes as
files.
 /root : The home directory for the superuser “root” – that is, the system
administrator. This account’s home directory is usually on the initial
filesystem, and hence not in /home (which may be a mount point for
another filesystem) in case specific maintenance needs to be performed,
during which other filesystems are not available. Such a case could occur,
for example, if a hard disk drive suffers physical failures and cannot be
properly mounted.
 /tmp : A place for temporary files. Many systems clear this directory upon
startup; it might have tmpfs mounted atop it, in which case its contents do
not survive a reboot, or it might be explicitly cleared by a startup script at
boot time.
 /usr : Originally the directory holding user home directories,its use has
changed. It now holds executables, libraries, and shared resources that are
not system critical, like the X Window System, KDE, Perl, etc. However,
on some Unix systems, some user accounts may still have a home directory
that is a direct subdirectory of /usr, such as the default as in Minix. (on
modern systems, these user accounts are often related to server or system
use, and not directly used by a person).
 /usr/bin : This directory stores all binary programs distributed with the
operating system not residing in /bin, /sbin or (rarely) /etc.
 /usr/include : Stores the development headers used throughout the system.
Header files are mostly used by the #include directive in C/C++
programming language.
 /usr/lib : Stores the required libraries and data files for programs stored
within /usr or elsewhere.
 /var : A short for “variable.” A place for files that may change often –
especially in size, for example e-mail sent to users on the system, or
process-ID lock files.
 /var/log : Contains system log files.
 /var/mail : The place where all the incoming mails are stored. Users (other
than root) can access their own mail only. Often, this directory is a
symbolic link to /var/spool/mail.
 /var/spool : Spool directory. Contains print jobs, mail spools and other
queued tasks.
 /var/tmp : A place for temporary files which should be preserved between
system reboots.
Types of Unix files – The UNIX files system contains several different types
of files :

1. Ordinary files – An ordinary file is a file on the system that contains data,
text, or program instructions.
 Used to store your information, such as some text you have written or an
image you have drawn. This is the type of file that you usually work with.
 Always located within/under a directory file.
 Do not contain other files.
 In long-format output of ls -l, this type of file is specified by the “-”
symbol.
2. Directories – Directories store both special and ordinary files. For users
familiar with Windows or Mac OS, UNIX directories are equivalent to folders.
A directory file contains an entry for every file and subdirectory that it houses.
If you have 10 files in a directory, there will be 10 entries in the directory.
Each entry has two components.
(1) The Filename
(2) A unique identification number for the file or directory (called the inode
number)
 Branching points in the hierarchical tree.
 Used to organize groups of files.
 May contain ordinary files, special files or other directories.
 Never contain “real” information which you would work with (such as text).
Basically, just used for organizing files.
 All files are descendants of the root directory, ( named / ) located at the top
of the tree.
In long-format output of ls –l , this type of file is specified by the “d” symbol.
3. Special Files – Used to represent a real physical device such as a printer,
tape drive or terminal, used for Input/Output (I/O) operations. Device or
special files are used for device Input/Output(I/O) on UNIX and Linux
systems. They appear in a file system just like an ordinary file or a directory.
On UNIX systems there are two flavors of special files for each device,
character special files and block special files :
 When a character special file is used for device Input/Output(I/O), data is
transferred one character at a time. This type of access is called raw device
access.
 When a block special file is used for device Input/Output(I/O), data is
transferred in large fixed-size blocks. This type of access is called block
device access.
For terminal devices, it’s one character at a time. For disk devices though, raw
access means reading or writing in whole chunks of data – blocks, which are
native to your disk.
 In long-format output of ls -l, character special files are marked by the “c”
symbol.
 In long-format output of ls -l, block special files are marked by the “b”
symbol.
4. Pipes – UNIX allows you to link commands together using a pipe. The pipe
acts a temporary file which only exists to hold data from one command until it
is read by another.A Unix pipe provides a one-way flow of data.The output or
result of the first command sequence is used as the input to the second
command sequence. To make a pipe, put a vertical bar (|) on the command line
between two commands.For example: who | wc -l
In long-format output of ls –l , named pipes are marked by the “p” symbol.
5. Sockets – A Unix socket (or Inter-process communication socket) is a
special file which allows for advanced inter-process communication. A Unix
Socket is used in a client-server application framework. In essence, it is a
stream of data, very similar to network stream (and network sockets), but all
the transactions are local to the filesystem.
In long-format output of ls -l, Unix sockets are marked by “s” symbol.
6. Symbolic Link – Symbolic link is used for referencing some other file of
the file system.Symbolic link is also known as Soft link. It contains a text form
of the path to the file it references. To an end user, symbolic link will appear
to have its own name, but when you try reading or writing data to this file, it
will instead reference these operations to the file it points to. If we delete the
soft link itself , the data file would still be there.If we delete the source file or
move it to a different location, symbolic file will not function properly.
In long-format output of ls –l , Symbolic link are marked by the “l” symbol
(that’s a lower case L).

Process states and Transitions in a UNIX Process

 Process

A process is an instance of a program in execution. A set of processes combined

together make a complete program.
There are two categories of processes in Unix, namely
 User processes: They are operated in user mode.
 Kernel processes: They are operated in kernel mode.

Process States

The states that a Process enters in working from start till end are known as
Process states. These are listed below as:
 Created-Process is newly created by system call, is not ready to run
 User running-Process is running in user mode which means it is a user
process.
 Kernel Running-Indicates process is a kernel process running in kernel
mode.
 Zombie- Process does not exist/ is terminated.
 Preempted- When process runs from kernel to user mode, it is said to be
preempted.
 Ready to run in memory- It indicated that process has reached a state
where it is ready to run in memory and is waiting for kernel to schedule it.
 Ready to run, swapped– Process is ready to run but no empty main
memory is present
 Sleep, swapped- Process has been swapped to secondary storage and is at a
blocked state.
 Asleep in memory- Process is in memory(not swapped to secondary
storage) but is in blocked state.
A process is an instance of a program in execution. A set of processes combined
together make a complete program.
There are two categories of processes in Unix, namely
 User processes: They are operated in user mode.
 Kernel processes: They are operated in kernel mode.

Process States

The states that a Process enters in working from start till end are known as
Process states. These are listed below as:
 Created-Process is newly created by system call, is not ready to run
 User running-Process is running in user mode which means it is a user
process.
 Kernel Running-Indicates process is a kernel process running in kernel
mode.
 Zombie- Process does not exist/ is terminated.
 Preempted- When process runs from kernel to user mode, it is said to be
preempted.
 Ready to run in memory- It indicated that process has reached a state
where it is ready to run in memory and is waiting for kernel to schedule it.
 Ready to run, swapped– Process is ready to run but no empty main
memory is present
 Sleep, swapped- Process has been swapped to secondary storage and is at a
blocked state.
 Asleep in memory- Process is in memory(not swapped to secondary
storage) but is in blocked state.

The numbers indicate the steps that are followed.

Process Transitions

The working of Process is explained in following steps:

1. User-running: Process is in user-running.
2. Kernel-running: Process is allocated to kernel and hence, is in kernel mode.
3. Ready to run in memory: Further, after processing in main memory
process is rescheduled to the Kernel.i.e.The process is not executing but is
ready to run as soon as the kernel schedules it.
4. Asleep in memory: Process is sleeping but resides in main memory. It is
waiting for the task to begin.
5. Ready to run, swapped: Process is ready to run and be swapped by the
processor into main memory, thereby allowing kernel to schedule it for
execution.
6. Sleep, Swapped: Process is in sleep state in secondary memory, making
space for execution of other processes in main memory. It may resume once
the task is fulfilled.
7. Pre-empted: Kernel preempts an on-going process for allocation of another
process, while the first process is moving from kernel to user mode.
8. Created: Process is newly created but not running. This is the start state for
all processes.
9. Zombie: Process has been executed thoroughly and exit call has been
enabled.
The process, thereby, no longer exists. But, it stores a statistical record for
the process.
This is the final state of all processes.

Unix data structures for process

Kernel data structures are maintained using three important structures. These
are process table, file table and v node/ i-node information. Process state:
(When a process forks a child, its entry in the process table is duplicated
including the file information and file pointers.

The kernel data structures play a vital role because they store data about the
current state of the system. When a new process is created in the system, a
kernel data structure is created as well that stores the details about that process.
Most of the kernel data structures can be access by the kernel and its
subsystems. They hold the data as well as pointers to other data structures.
Consider a user logging into the system, at that time, a new process arises and
kernel stores the details about that process into the physical memory.
Kernel Components
The kernel stores and creates a lot of information. So it has data about which
processes are running in the system, their memory requirements, files in use,
etc. Kernel data structures are maintained using three important structures.
These are process table, file table and v node/ i-node information.

Fig: Kernel Data structure

Details about these are given below:
Process Table
The process table holds information about all the processes running in the
system. It is required by the kernel. These include storage information,
execution status, file information, etc. Process table also stores the other entries
like -
 Process state: (When a process forks a child, its
entry in the process table is duplicated including
the file information and file pointers. So the parent
and the child process share a file.)
 Process ID: It is created when a new process
generated and identifies the process.
 User ID: It determines the privileges to the users
for the particular process.
  Pointer: It is a pointer to a page table for managing
the memory and also a pointer to the process Uarea.
 Timer: It is used for knowing which resource uses
how much time.
File Table
A process table has a pointer which points to the file table. File table holds the
entries about all the files in the computer. If multiple processes use the same
file, then they contain the same file information and the file descriptor number.
Each file table entry contains information about the file such as file status (file
read or file write), file offset, etc. The file offset specifies the position for next
read or write into the file.
The file table also contains v-node and i-node pointers which point to the virtual
node and index node respectively. These nodes contain information on how to
read a file.
V-Node and i-Node Tables
Both the v-node (virtual node) and i-node (index node) are related to the storage
system of the file and the storage mechanisms.
The v-node is an abstract concept (in the form of the object) that describes the
interaction with file data. All file manipulation like closing a file, opening a file
is done by V-node object. V-node information stored in main memory.
The i-node data structure gives information about files or directory (i.e. actual
representation of files or directory). The information like the location of disk
block where the file is stored, time at which file changes last, owner of the file,
access permissions (read/write), etc. i-node information is stored in secondary
storage.
A directory is names given to the i-nodes. A directory is in the form of parent
and each of its children. List of file names and corresponding i-node number are
stored in a directory entry.

UNIX Memory Management

The goal for memory management is to keep track of which parts of memory
are in use and which parts are not in use, to allocate memory to processes
 when they need it and de-allocate it when they are done. UNIX memory
management scheme includes swapping and demand paging.