Republic of the Philippines

Department of Science and Technology

PHILIPPINE SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM

Subject Code MATH 6 (Integral Calculus)

Module Code 2.0 (Techniques of Integration)
Lesson Code 2.6.2 (Integration of Rational Functions Using Partial Fractions)
Time Limit 30 minutes

IGNITE TA: 25 minutes ATA:

The second case deals with repeated linear factors in the denominator. For instance, the term (x − 1)3
factors into three repeated linear factors (x − 1) · (x − 1) · (x − 1) and the term x4 factors into four repeated
linear factors x · x · x · x. In general, a repeated linear factor is of the form (ax + b)k , a 6= 0, for some
k = 2, 3, . . ..

Case 2: The denominator Q(x) contains repeated linear factors

For each linear factor of the form (ax+b)k , k = 2, 3, . . ., in the denominator Q(x), there corresponds
a partial fraction of the form
A1 A2 Ak
+ +···+
ax + b (ax + b)2 (ax + b)k

in the partial fraction decomposition of f (x). Here, A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak are the constants to be determined.

2x + 1
Example 3. Determine the partial fraction decomposition of f (x) = .
(x + 2)(x − 1)2
Solution. Observe that the factors in the denominator of f (x) are all linear. Based on Case 1, for the
distinct linear factor x + 2, there corresponds a partial fraction of the form
A
x+2
in the partial fraction decomposition of f (x). For the factor x − 1 which appears k = 2 times, there
corresponds a partial fraction of the form
B C
+ .
x − 1 (x − 1)2
Note that we used B and C to denote the constants to be determined instead of A1 and A2 . Consequently,
the partial fraction decomposition of f (x) is of the form
2x + 1 A B C
2
= + + . (4)
(x + 2)(x − 1) x + 2 x − 1 (x − 1)2

We multiply both sides of Equation 4 by (x + 2)(x − 1)2 to get rid of all the denominators and obtain the
polynomial equation
2x + 1 = A(x − 1)2 + B(x + 2)(x − 1) +C(x + 2). (5)
TA: Time allocation, in minutes, set by the teacher
ATA: Actual time allocation, in minutes, spent by the student (for information purposes only)

Mathematics 6 Page 1 of 4
If we let x = −2 in Equation 5, we get A = −1/3, and if we let x = 1, we get C = 1. To solve for B, we
let x = 0 (any other value of x, except −2 and 1, will also work) in Equation 5, and get

1 = A(1) + B(2)(−1) +C(2).

Using the fact that A = −1/3 and C = 1, we see that B = 1/3. Hence,

2x + 1 −1/3 1/3 1
= + + .
(x + 2)(x − 1)2 x + 2 x − 1 (x − 1)2

Example 4. Determine the form of the partial fraction decomposition of the given function. Remember
to factor the numerator and denominator completely.

f (x) Partial fraction decomposition form

1 A B C
+ +
(2x − 1)(x2 − 1) 2x − 1 x − 1 x + 1

x2 + 1 A B C
+ +
(x2 − 4)(x + 2) x − 2 x + 2 (x + 2)2

x2 + x + 1 A B C D E
+ + + +
x3 (x − 1)2 x x2 x3 x − 1 (x − 1)2

3x − 1 A B C D
+ + +
x(x + 1)2 (2x + 3) x x + 1 (x + 1)2 2x + 3

Note that the form of the partial fraction decomposition of f can be written in any order. For instance,
1
the partial fraction decomposition of f (x) = in the above example can also be written
(2x − 1)(x2 − 1)
in the form
A B C
+ + .
x − 1 2x − 1 x + 1
As you might have also noticed, factoring polynomials is an essential skill needed in this lesson.

The third case deals with irreducible quadratic factors in the denominator. Recall that a quadratic factor
of the form ax2 + bx + c is said to be irreducible if its discriminant is less than zero, that is, b2 − 4ac < 0.
Examples include 2x2 + 4, x2 + x + 1, and x2 + 4x + 7.

Case 3: The denominator Q(x) contains distinct irreducible quadratic factors

For each distinct irreducible quadratic factor of the form ax2 + bx + c in the denominator Q(x),
there corresponds a partial fraction of the form
Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c
in the partial fraction decomposition of f (x). Here, A and B are the constants to be determined.

Mathematics 6 Page 2 of 4
Example 5. Determine the form of the partial fraction decomposition of the given function. Remember
to factor the numerator and denominator completely.

f (x) Partial fraction decomposition form

x3 + x Ax + B Cx + D
+
(x2 + x + 1)(x2 + 3) x2 + x + 1 x2 + 3

2x − 3 A B C D
+ + +
(x2 + 2x)(x2 − 2x + 1) x x + 2 x − 1 (x − 1)2

x2 + 3 A B Cx + D
+ + 2
x(x3 + 4x) x x2 x +4

Note that we treated the second rational expression above as a combination of Case 1 and Case 2 since
the quadratic terms in the denominator are both NOT irreducible. In fact, x2 + x = x(x + 1) factors into
two distinct linear factors, and x2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)2 is a repeated (k = 2) linear factor. 
2x − 2
Z
Example 6. Solve the integral: dx.
(x2 + 1)(x2 − 1)
Solution. Factor the numerator and denominator of the integrand completely to get
2(x − 1) 2
= .
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)(x + 1) (x2 + 1)(x + 1)
Thus, the integrand has a partial fraction decomposition of the form
2 Ax + B C
= + . (6)
(x2 + 1)(x + 1) 2
x +1 x+1
We multiply both sides of Equation 6 by (x2 + 1)(x + 1) to get rid of all the denominators and obtain the
polynomial equation
2 = (Ax + B)(x + 1) +C(x2 + 1). (7)
If we let x = −1 in the above equation, we get C = 1. To solve for A and B, we let x = 0 and x = 1 (any
other values of x, except −1, will also work) in Equation 7, and get, respectively, the following system
of equations:  
2 = (0 + B)(1) +C(1) 2 = B +C
⇐⇒
2 = (A + B)(2) +C(2) 2 = 2A + 2B + 2C
Using the fact that C = 1, the above system gives us B = 1 and consequently, A = −1. Thus,
2 −x + 1 1
= + .
(x2 + 1)(x + 1) 2
x +1 x+1
Hence,
Z  
2x − 2 −x + 1 1
Z
dx = + dx
(x + 1)(x2 − 1)
2 2
x +1 x+1
x 1 1
Z Z Z
= − 2
dx + 2
dx + dx
x +1 x +1 x+1
1
= − ln(x2 + 1) + tan−1 x + ln |x + 1| +C.
2
The first and last integrals on the second equality can be solved using the substitution technique introduced
in Module 2.1 with u = x2 + 1 and u = x + 1, respectively, while the second integral yields an inverse
tangent function as discussed in Module 2.5.2. 

Mathematics 6 Page 3 of 4
 NAVIGATE TA: 5 minutes ATA:

Practice Exercises: Non-graded

Determine the form of the partial fraction decomposition of the given function. DO NOT solve the value
of the constants.
f (x) Partial fraction decomposition form

2x3 + 1
x(x + 2)2 (x2 + 4)

2x
(x2 + x + 1)(x2 − 6x + 9)

2
x5 − 27x2

x2 + x − 1
x4 − 1

References

Leithold, L. (2013). The Calculus 7. Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd, Singapore.

Stewart, J. (2016). Calculus Early Transcendentals. Cengage Learning.

Prepared by: INDONG, Dexter Jane L. Reviewed by: TABADERO, Joseph S. Jr

Position: Special Science Teacher IV Position: Special Science Teacher IV
Campus: PSHS-CARC Campus: PSHS-CARC

Mathematics 6 Page 4 of 4
ANSWER KEY

Navigate: Practice Exercises

f (x) Partial fraction decomposition form

2x3 + 1 A B C Dx + E
+ + + 2
x(x + 2)2 (x2 + 4) x x + 2 (x + 2)2 x +4

2x Ax + B C D
+ +
(x2 + x + 1)(x2 − 6x + 9) x2 + x + 1 x − 3 (x − 3)2

2 A B C Dx + E
+ 2+ + 2
x5 − 27x2 x x x − 3 x + 3x + 9

x2 + x − 1 A B Cx + D
+ + 2
x4 − 1 x−1 x+1 x +1

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