ANSWERS

1. What technical devices malfunction can cause communication failure?

1. Transmitter/receiver/Failure
2. Defect of headsets or microphone
3. Broken wire
4. Power failure (engine shut down/APU failure)
2. Enumerate human mistakes in communication that can result in misunderstanding.
1. Multiple communication
2. Ambiguous wording
3. Code switching
4. Poor English
5. Cultural differences
6. Disbelief
7. Overanticipation
8. Personal friction/rank barrier
9.Jargon/ Garbled phraseology
3. Are there any weather phenomena deteriorating readability?
Marginal weather (flying close to CB clouds, lightning strike, noise static,aircraft
electrification, severe icing).Terrain effect
4. What types of communication failure are you familiar with?
There are two types of communication failure- one-way communication failure and two-
way communication failure. One-way communication failure is a situation when either a
pilot or a controller is unable to transmit or receive a message. Two-way communication
failure is a situation when both pilot and controller are unable to transmit and receive a
message.
5. How can a controller identify the type of failure?
Firstly, it is necessary to call the aircraft on definite frequencies (on current and previous
sector frequencies) and identify whether it is one-way communication failure or two-way
communication failure.
6. What procedures should be observed in case of one-way communication failure?
In the event of one-way communication failure (i.e. aircraft can receive only), the controller
may request the aircraft to make identifying turns, flash its navigational lights, transmit
codes or IDENT signals
on the transponder, rock its wings, etc, to acknowledge clearances or instructions.
7. What do pilots have to undertake in case of two-way communication failure when flying
in VMC?
Pilots shall
• set transponder to Code 7600
• continue to fly in visual meteorological conditions
• land at the nearest suitable aerodrome
• report the arrival by the most expeditious means to the appropriate air traffic control unit.
8. What do pilots have to undertake in case of two-way communication failure when flying
in IMC?
1) Crew has to set squawk 7600, maintain the last assigned speed and level, or minimum
flight altitude if higher, for a period of 7 minutes following the aircraft’s failure, to report its
position over a compulsory
reporting point and there after adjust level and speed in accordance with the filed flight plan;
2) In the event of radio communication failure directly after take-off, the pilot-in-command
shall carry out approach according to the established pattern and land at the departure
aerodrome.
3) If it is impossible to land at the departure aerodrome after take-off (due to meteorological
conditions or if the aircraft mass exceeds the landing mass and fuel jettison is impossible
etc.), the pilot-in-command
has the right:
a) to proceed to the destination aerodrome according to flight plan. Complete a normal
instrument approach procedure as specified for the designated navigation aid or fix; and
land, if possible, within 30
minutes after the estimated time of arrival
b) to proceed to the alternate aerodrome at the flight level assigned by the ATS unit or at
proximate lower flight level (in accordance with vertical separation rules), but not below
minimum safe flight level.
9. What is expected from ATC in this situation?
Controllers are to carry out the following standard radio failure procedures:
• Maintain separation between the radio failure aircraft and other known traffic;
• When operating in RVSM airspace, provide a minimum vertical separation of
2000 feet between the radio failure aircraft and any other aircraft;
• Give pertinent information about the movements of the radio failure aircraft to other
aircraft in the presumed vicinity;
• Ask aircraft in the presumed vicinity to establish communication with the radio
failure aircraft and relay messages;
• Use all means possible to monitor the aircraft’s progress;
• Transmit, on the appropriate frequencies:
• level, route and EAT (or ETA) to which the radio failure aircraft is assumed to be
adhering;
• the weather conditions at the destination aerodrome, a suitable alternate and, if
practicable,in areas suitable for a descent through cloud.
• When, in consultation with the operator, instructions to divert have been transmitted to the
radio failure aircraft, inform the alternate aerodrome and request that they attempt to
establish communication.
10. How is it possible to minimize misunderstanding between pilots and controllers?
In order to avoid miscommunication both pilots and controllers have to:
• Pronounce each word clearly and distinctly
• Maintain an even rate of speech (not exceeding — typically — 100 words per minute)
• Make a slight pause preceding and following numerals; it makes them easier to understand
• Maintain the speaking volume at a constant level
• Be familiar with microphone-operating techniques (particularly in maintaining a constant
distance from the microphone)
• Use standard phraseology (non-standard phraseology, garbled phraseology or the omission
of key words may change completely the meaning of the intended message, resulting in
potential conflicts)
11. What may engine failure be caused by?
Engine failure may be caused by:
Technical reasons (fuel system problems such as fuel contamination, fuel leak, fuel
exhaustion, fuel control system malfunction; hydraulic system failure; electrical system
malfunction; high or low oil pressure, metal fatigue-demolishing of pylon which attaches
engine to the wing).
Weather conditions (icing, hail storm that can impair the work of engine or lead to its
stall; volcanic ash-volcanic pieces of rock get into engine, melt, stick to the compressor and
cause flame out or failure, lightning strike).
Human factor (pilot’s error- e.g. wrong fuel calculation, shutting down running engine by
mistake due to stress or high work load; poor maintenance service on the ground).
Outside factor (bird strike on the engine - depending on the size of the bird it can cause
blades damage;overheating due to ingestion of a foreign object or debris on the RW).
12. What problems may happen to the engine?
There are various engine problems: engine cut off, engine fire, high vibration.
There are two types of engine failure:
- “contained” engine failure means failure when components might separate inside the
engine but either
remain within the engine or exit the engine through the tail pipe,
- “uncontained” engine failure can pose a greater risk as ejected debris from the engine exit
it at high
speeds in other directions, posing potential danger to pressurized aircraft structure.
13. Are there any restrictions for single-engine aircraft?
In case of engine failure during rolling, take-off should be aborted if it occurred before VI
speed, and after a complete stop the situation should be reported to ATC.
14. What is the most hazardous phase of flight when engine failure may occur?
The most hazardous phase it is takeoff.
15. What may be the consequences of one engine failure on multi-engine aircraft?
The loss of one engine on a multi-engine aircraft will reduce its power and the ability to fly
normally:
 High altitudes, above FL 200, may not be maintained.
 Turns to the side where the engine has failed need to be wider not to get into stall and are
expected to be slower.
 Heavy workload in the cockpit will restrict the pilot’s ability to communicate with ATC.
 Long and high speed approach and landing. Due to performance limitations attributed to
the engine failure the approach speed might be higher than prescribed, which could
consequently result in non- established approach, runway excursion and blocked runway.
16. What may be the consequences of engine failure on single-engine aircraft?
The engine failure of a single-engine aircraft will be followed by
• loss of electrical power
• loss of navigational systems
• loss of communication systems
• loss of cabin pressure
• manual gear extension
17. Can you define the term’’Aircraft hijacking’’?
Aircraft hijacking (also known as skyjacking) is the unlawful seizure of an aircraft either by
an individual or by a group.
18. What are hijackers’ demands in most cases and what are their aims?
Most aircraft hijackings are committed to use the passengers as hostages. Motives vary from
demanding the release of certain prisoners to political purposes. Hijacking may also be
carried out so as to use the aircraft as a weapon to target a particular location (September 11,
2001 attacks). Other hijackers may hold the hostages for ransom.
19. How can hijackers be identified and prevented from boarding?
Airport security plays a major role in preventing hijackers. Screening passengers with metal
detectors and luggage with x-ray machines prevents weapons from being taken on to an
aircraft. The Israelis alone implement decompression on all luggage to check for pressure
sensor detonators.
20. What weapons can be used by hijackers?
They can use pistols,knifes,guns,axes,grenades,explosive materials,bombs and e/c.
21. How can pilots be prepared for a real hijack situation?
Your opinion
22. Is it necessary to have armed air marshals aboard each aircraft? How can they prevent
hijacking?
Your opinion
23. What is the best way to protect an aircraft, its passengers and crew?
Your opinion
24. Why is a fire regarded to be one of the most hazardous situations in flight?
A fire on board an aircraft can lead to the catastrophic loss of that aircraft within a very short
space of time. Once a fire has become established, it is unlikely that the crew will be able to
extinguish it. Time is critical and the crew must land the aircraft as soon as possible.
25. What may cause a fire on board?
A fire on board an aircraft can lead to the catastrophic loss of that aircraft within a very short
space of time. Once a fire has become established, it is unlikely that the crew will be able to
extinguish it. Time is critical and the crew must land the aircraft as soon as possible.
26. What types of fires may occur in flight?
Engine Fire. An engine fire can normally be detected and contained by the aircraft fire
detection and suppression systems. However, in certain circumstances (e.g. an explosive
break up of the turbine), the nature of the fire is such that onboard systems may not be able
to contain the fire and it may spread to the wing or fuselage. Where an engine fire has been
successfully contained, there is still a risk that the fire may reignite and therefore it is still
advisable for the crew to land the aircraft as soon as possible and allow fire crews to carry
out a visual examination of the engine.
Wing Fire. Most modern aircraft carry the majority of their fuel in wing tanks. If those fuel
tanks or the associated pipes leak, or they are damaged, and fuel comes into contact with an
ignition source, then fire can break out within, on, or under the wing.
Cabin Fire. A fire within the cabin will usually be detected early and be contained by the
crew using onboard fire fighting equipment. As with an engine fire, it is still advisable to
land the aircraft as soon as possible and carry out a detailed examination of the cause of the
fire and any damage.
Hidden Fires. A hidden fire may be detected by onboard fire detection systems
or by the crew or passengers noticing smoke or fumes, a hot spot on a wall or floor, or by
unusual electrical malfunctions.
27. Why are hidden fires the most dangerous ones?
Because they are difficult to locate and access in order to fight them. The time delay may
allow the fire to spread and do considerable damage to the aircraft.
28. How can a fire be detected?
It depends of what type of fire on board(by the aircraft fire detection and
suppression systems,by the crew or passengers)
29. Why is time critical if a fire breaks out on board the aircraft?
Because the plane is made of materials that burn quickly and in a few minutes we can totally
lose the aircraft.
30. What are the effects of the fire? What can they lead to?
Smoke and Fumes. Smoke can reduce visibility within the aircraft. An electrical fire in an
aircraft typically generates a lot of thick white smoke which can render the flight crew blind;
unable to see the instruments or see out of the windows. In such circumstances, unless the
smoke can be cleared, the crew are unable to control the aircraft. Smoke and fumes from an
in-flight fire are likely to be highly toxic and irritating to the eyes and respiratory system.
Smoke and fumes may quickly incapacitate the crew unless they take protective action.
Heat. Heat from fires will affect aircraft systems and the structural integrity of
the aircraft, both of which will lead to loss of control.
31. What fire fighting equipment is there on board the aircraft?
Smoke Detectors.
Smoke detectors are installed in airplane lavatories and sometimes in cargo compartments as
well.
Portable Fire Extinguishers.
Portable fire extinguishers are to be found in the cockpit and in the cabin.They are designed
to fight small fires as their capacity is limited.
Automatic Fire Extinguishing Systems.
Some aircraft have automatic fire suppression systems in the lavatory waste bins. The cargo
holds of most airliners are equipped with "fire bottles" (essentially remote- controlled fire
extinguishers) to combat a fire that might occur below the passenger cabin.
Fire / Crash Axe.
Fire axes are provided to obtain emergency access to areas and parts of the airplane which
are not easily accessible (e.g. behind sidewall, electrical or ceiling panels). In the past, fire
axes could be found in the cockpit and in the passenger / cargo compartment but on most
carriers,to comply with anti-terrorist regulations and policy, the axe in the passenger/cargo
compartment has been removed.
32. What smoke protection devices are available?
Smoke Protection Devices. There are several different smoke protection devices for cabin
crews. The PBE (Protective Breathing Equipment), most commonly referred to as a Smoke
Hood, incorporating a small oxygen generator, which provides the wearer with oxygen for a
certain amount of time.
Portable oxygen bottles with full face masks may also be found on board some aircraft.
Smoke Goggles. Smoke goggles may be found in the cockpit for use with oxygen masks.
Many aircraft are equipped with oxygen masks with integral smoke goggles.
Fire Blankets. Some operators have fireproof blankets onboard which can be used to
suffocate a fire by cutting off the supply of oxygen.
33. Why is fuel system of paramount importance?
Fuel system is of vital significance for the safe completion of the flight. Without fuel supply
the engines will cease operating and without the power produced by the engines the aircraft
can not be in the air. Thus, fuel system is of paramount importance.
34. What adverse weather conditions can result in fuel problems?
Adverse weather conditions
- unexpected strong headwind (it reduces the speed and increases fuel consumption; so, the
fuel remaining may become critical and not enough for reaching the destination)
- encountering thunderstorm activity zones (so, circumnavigation of the areas with CB
clouds and diversion to an alternate aerodrome may result in fuel shortage)
35. What technical deficiencies on board the aircraft can lead to fuel flow problems?
Technical problems presuppose different system malfunctions
- deficiencies in pipe and pump systems (which can result in fuel leakage)
- fuel gauge/fuel measurement system failure
- fuel consumption system failure
- fuel contamination with ice, water or metal chips and as a result blocking of fuel filters
- metal fatigue (that can lead to fuel leak) - low pressure in the system
36. What human mistakes can cause fuel system malfunction?
Human factor contains
- wrong fuel calculation (due to various measuring systems which use different measuring
units, e.g.litters, pounds, gallons)
- fueling the aircraft with not appropriate quality of fuel poor maintenance service on the
ground (when the technical staff forgets to close the fuel filler and pilots fail to check it;
foreign objects appear in the fuel due to negligence of ground personnel)
- pilot's error in feeding the engines with fuel during the flight
- pilot’s mistake (e.g. going around due to missed approach)
- ATC’s mistake (e.g. keeping the aircraft in holding pattern for considerable time, for
example due to government flights etc.)
37. Enumerate possible fuel problems.
There are various fuel problems such as fuel leak, fuel starvation, fuel exhaustion, fuel
imbalance, fuel contamination.
38. What is called fuel exhaustion? What are the results?
Fuel exhaustion- is situation when the aircraft runs out of fuel completely and the tanks are
empty that leads to engine failure. It is considered to be an emergency situation. In this case
forced landing outside the aerodrome (or ditching) is possible. Radio vectoring to the nearest
aerodrome is recommended. Fuel exhaustion can result in engine failure as it can’t operate
without fuel.
39. What is fuel starvation? What are the consequences?
Fuel starvation- is situation when there is fuel in the tank but there is a supply problem
which either fully or partially prevents the fuel from reaching the engine. Causes may
include a blocked fuel filter or more commonly water-contaminated fuel. In this situation
pilot is not sure that remaining amount of fuel will be enough for safe completion of flight.
He can switch off the fuel pumps on affected tank and supply both engines from another
tank.
40. What do we call fuel imbalance? What should be done in this case?
Fuel imbalance - is the situation when the remaining of fuel in one fuel tank is bigger or
smaller than in another. In this case pilots have to assess the situation (as the engines may
consume different amount of fuel due to age or some other parameters). So, the crew checks
the reason of imbalance. If there is no fuel leak,cross-feed fuel procedure has to take place in
order to equalize fuel (the fuel from one tank is transferred to another). But if there is a
suspect of fuel leak, it is possible to supply both engines from one tank.
41. What types of fuel contamination do you know? Which ones are the most common?
Fuel contamination- is a situation when there is water, metal chips or some other foreign
objects in the fuel. It can lead to engine failure, not stable work of the engine, fuel system
failure, possibly forced landing out of aerodrome or ditching. There are different forms of
contamination that can exist. For example: bacterial, microbial, foreign object, water, dirt,
sand, ice. In cases when maximum landing weight of the aircraft is exceeded, fuel dumping
or fuel burning are required.
42. Are fuel problems considered to be urgency or emergency situation?
Depends on the situation.Firstly-urgency and can change to an emergency.
43. What is fuel dumping? Are there any restrictions?
Fuel dumping (or a fuel jettison) is a procedure used by aircraft in certain emergency
situations before a return to the airport shortly after take-off, or before landing short of its
intended destination to lighten aircraft's weight. Special dumping area should be requested
and entered.
44. What procedures should the pilots perform in case of fuel problems?
In case the crew faces with fuel exhaustion or fuel leak, pilots immediately have to identify
the source of the problem and eliminate it, if it’s impossible - notify ATC, declare an
emergency and request priority for landing at the nearest airport. If they can’t make it to the
airport, they have to perform landing ahead of the aircraft at any suitable surface (ditching
may be possible).
45. What are the actions of ATC?
If critical fuel status is reported to the ATC, his actions include the following
• Ask if the crew declares emergency
• Clear the air space below the affected aircraft
• Provide safe separation with the other airplanes in this sector
• Impose radio silence (if necessary)
• Keep ACFT high (in order to save fuel)
• Inform landing aerodrome and emergency services
• Ask if dangerous goods on board
• Ask for number of Persons On Board (POB)
• Offer out of wind landing if more expeditious
• Clear RWY when ACFT 50 track kilometres from touchdown
• Keep safety strip clear If
needed, inform pilot about:
• Next suitable aerodrome
• Aerodrome details as soon as possible
ATCs don’t have to press the crew with non-urgent questions at this time.
46. Can you define the term " Uncontrolled depressurization"?
Uncontrolled depressurization is an unexpected drop in the pressure of an aircraft cabin.
47. Why is depressurization regarded as a very dangerous situation?
Below 10,000 ft, the reduced levels of oxygen have little effect on most crew and passengers
but the higher the aircraft is, the greater the impact of lack of oxygen. Above 20,000 ft, lack
of oxygen leads to loss of intellectual ability followed by unconsciousness and eventually
respiratory and heart failure. Importantly, the time of useful consciousness reduces with
altitude - at 35,000 feet it is less than one minute.
48. What may cause it?
> human error;
> material fatigue;
> engineering fault;
> impact;
> or failure of the aircraft pressurization system.
49. What types of depressurization do you know?
There are three distinct types of decompression events in aircraft:
> explosive decompression;
> rapid decompression;
> slow or gradual decompression.
50. Do you know how long explosive depressurization takes?
Explosive depressurization takes less than 0.5 seconds.
51. What happens in the cabin in case of explosive depressurization?
The cabin air may fill with dust and debris, and fog caused by drop in temperature and
change in relative humidity. Crew may be momentarily dazed or shocked, especially if the
event was unexpected, and may therefore be slow to fit oxygen masks. The risk of lung
trauma is very high, as is the danger from any unsecured objects which can fly around the
aircraft.
52. What risks does gradual depressurization pose to humans?
Slow, or gradual, depressurization can only be detected by instruments. It occurs so slowly
that it may go unnoticed before hypoxia sets in. The great danger of such depressurization is
crew incapacitation.
53. What can the lack of oxygen result in?
Lack of oxygen leads to loss of intellectual ability followed by unconsciousness and
eventually respiratory and heart failure.
54. What else may people suffer from if they have gone through in-flight depressurization?
Decompression injuries:
> hypoxia (headaches, fatigue, shortness of breath, a feeling of euphoria and nausea);
> barotraumas (pains in the ears, eyes, dental pains);
> decompression sickness (confusion or memory loss (amnesia), headache, unexplained
fatigue, dizziness, vomiting and unconsciousness);
> physical trauma caused by debris and loose objects flying around the cabin;
> frostbite or hypothermia from exposure to freezing cold air at high altitude.
55. What are the crew’s actions in case of depressurization?
In the event of loss of pressurization, it is essential that the crew don oxygen equipment as
soon as possible and descend immediately to an altitude at which they and the passengers
can breathe without supplementary oxygen - conventionally 10,000 ft.
56. What is the highest breathable altitude?
10km-35000ft
57. Why is there a saying within the aviation community: "There are two types of pilots:
those that have landed gear up and those that will"?
Because malfunctions or human errors related to retractable landing gear have been the
cause of numerous accidents and incidents throughout aviation history.
58. Why do you think gear-up incidents occur fairly often? What are the main reasons?
• Pilots may fail to lower the undercarriage on final approach, in which case a go- around is
likely and a visual inspection may be required (a low pass over the runway or sighting from
another aircraft can be used).
• Pilots may be unable to retract the landing gear after take-off.
• The aircraft may have reduced braking capability.
• There could be a tire deflation or tire burst.
• The undercarriage may collapse during rough landing, which usually results in the loss of
directional control of the aircraft.
• The nose wheel steering may be jammed and inoperative.
• Overheated brakes may cause a wheel well fire.
• Unauthorized passengers may stowaway within the landing gear compartment.
59. Is there any difference between the terms "gear-up landing" and "belly landing"?
Normally the term gear-up landing refers to incidents in which the pilot simply forgets to
extend the landing gear, while belly landing refers to incidents where a mechanical
malfunction prevents the pilot from extending the landing gear.
60. What may their consequences be?
During a belly landing, there is typically extensive damage to the airplane. Belly landings
carry the risk that the aircraft may flip over, disintegrate, or catch fire if it lands too fast or
too hard. Still, belly landings are one of the most common types of aircraft accidents, and are
normally not fatal if executed carefully.
61. What aerodrome emergency services are provided in case of belly landing?
fire-fighting vehicles,ambulance.
62. How does a pilot get to know about his landing gear status?
The status of the landing gear is indicated in a set of lights that change colours from red to
amber to green depending on whether the gear are up, in transit, or down. In larger aircraft
most airliners incorporate a voice message system which gives the pilot a clear verbal
indication: "GEAR NOT DOWN".
63. What does it mean ’’to stowaway on larger aircraft’’?
Idiom
An approach to a stall is the condition of an aircraft when the point of separation is moving
forward on the wings, and a stall becomes imminent.
To attain a safe airspeed is to successfully reach a safe airspeed.
A stall is a condition of reduced lift in an aircraft when air cannot properly flow over the
wings, caused by an excessive angle of attack.
A point of separation is the place on an aircraft`s wing where air is no longer able to follow
the curvature of the wing and separates itself from the wing.
A full stall is a type of stall that occurs when an aircraft's angle of attack is maintained at too
high a level and the movement of air around the wings is diminished.
An accelerated stall is a type of stall that occurs when an aircraft's angle of attack is
suddenly increased to an excessive degree.
Buffeting is the strong vibrating or jerking that occurs in an aircraft when it is stalling.
Recovery is the process of correcting a stall and restoring the aircraft to normal lift.
Stall speed is the speed at which a stall occurs, based on an aircraft's structure, size, altitude,
and most importantly, its angle of attack.
Pitch over is to drop the nose of an aircraft suddenly from an upward angle to a downward
angle.
Stall warning is an alarm activated by the flight system when the aircraft is approaching
stall speed.
Stick shaker is a device that causes an aircraft`s control yoke or stick to shake, warning the
pilot that a stall is about to occur.
The minimum runway length is the shortest length at which an aircraft can take off.
The takeoff distance with an engine failure is the distance needed to reach the decision
speed with all engines running, experience engine failure and - with the remaining engines -
reach rotation speed.
The all-engine takeoff length is the distance needed to reach the takeoff speed from a
standstill position.
The accelerate/stop distance is the distance needed to reach the decision speed with all
engines running, identify an engine failure, and bring the plane to a complete stop.
A balanced field length is a takeoff length that allows room for an aircraft to reach decision
speed,experience an engine failure, and either complete takeoff or bring the plane to a full
stop.
The decision speed is the critical engine failure recognition speed and it is at this point that
pilots must choose whether to execute a takeoff or not.
If something is mandatory, it is necessary or required.
An aborted takeoff /a rejected takeoff is a flight that is stopped while preparing to lift off
the ground.
Malfunction is an electrical or mechanical problem that causes something not to
work properly.
An aborted landing/a rejected landing is a flight procedure in which the pilot decides to
discontinue a planned landing.
Decision height is the point at which an aircraft's crew must decide whether to continue or
abort a landing procedure.
A go around is a flight procedure in which the pilot misses an approach and circles around
the airport before attempting to land again.
A missed approach is a flight procedure in which the pilot discontinues an approach to a
landing based on the absence of safe landing conditions.
An instrument approach is a flight procedure in which an aircraft follows a predetermined
sequence of maneuvers to complete a landing.
The TO/GA (takeoff/go around) switch is a switch that a pilot can activate on the thrust
lever to prepare the aircraft for takeoff (from the ground) or go around (in case of an aborted
landing).
Takeoff power is the energy or thrust required for an aircraft to take off from the ground.
To retract an aircraft's landing gear is to reverse the gear from a landing position to a
non-landing position.
An unsafe gear warning is an indicator that is activated by an aircraft's flight system when
any piece of aircraft gear is not functioning properly.
A check ride is a test flight required to become a certified pilot.
A steep turn is a turn performed at a bank angle of 30 degrees and more.
A bank is the process of rolling to one side during an aircraft maneuver.
VA is the maximum speed at which a steep turn can be safely performed.
To vary something is to change something or cause something to fluctuate.
Rate of roll is how quickly a pilot rolls an aircraft to one side during a bank.
A bank angle is the angle between an aircraft wing and a horizontal plane.
Level flight is the act of flying straight ahead with a bank angle of zero degrees.
A tolerance parameter is a specification of ideal altitude or heading at which an aircraft
can perform certain turns.
Altitude control is the act of maintaining a constant or desired altitude during an aircraft
maneuver.
An unusual attitude is a situation in which an aircraft's attitude is outside the parameters of
normal flight,usually defined as a pitch of more than 15 degrees or a bank of more than 30
degrees.
An aircraft upset is a dangerous situation in which a pilot loses control of an aircraft.
An inverted position is an aircraft upset in which an aircraft is flying upside-down.
A split S is a method for recovering from an inverted position in which a pilot curves the
nose of the aircraft downwards until the aircraft reaches level flight in the upright position.
A spin is an aircraft upset in which an aircraft stalls and rapidly spirals downwards, nose
first.
A vertical dive is an aircraft upset in which the aircraft moves rapidly downwards nose first.
A graveyard spiral is an aircraft upset in which the aircraft enters an extended bank and
loses altitude, causing it to move downwards in a spiral movement.
A vertical climb is an aircraft upset in which an aircraft`s pitch is too great to support its
forward movement.
A tail slide is an aircraft upset in which an aircraft stalls during a vertical climb and falls
downwards, tail first.
A whipstall is an aircraft upset in which an aircraft stalls during a vertical climb and falls
downwards, nose first.
A rolling wingover is a method for recovering from a vertical stall in which the aircraft
enters a steep turn to return to level flight.
A thunderstorm is a severe weather storm involving thunder, lightning, and generally
heavy rain or hail.
Lightning is electrical discharge between storm clouds and the ground, causing a
visual flashing phenomenon.
Wind shear is a major difference in wind speed and direction within a short distance,
causing turbulence.
To ride the waves is to follow or passively go along with the air currents in a storm.
A roll cloud is the turbulent air current at the head of a storm, creating a visual rolling
phenomenon.
Stress on an aircraft is pressure that could lead to damage.
A squall line is a string of active storms located close together.
A downdraft is the vertical movement of air in a downward direction.
An updraft is the vertical movement of air in an upward direction.
A tornadic tube is a vortex or rotating air within the clouds of a storm, possibly but not
necessarily extending to the ground.
A tornado is a vortex of strong, rotating winds within a storm, extending from cloud cover
to the ground.
Endurance is the longest time an aircraft is able to fly without stopping.
Chart is a map used for planning and marking a route.
En route is on the way; on the line that your journey follows.
Compass is a piece of equipment that shows your direction.
Track is the line on a map that an aircraft follows.
Destination is the place you are travelling to.
Fix is a position in space, usually on a flight plan.
Calculate is to use mathematics to find out something.
Airways are he tubes in the body that we breathe through.
Episode is a sudden attack of an illness.
First-aid kit is a box containing emergency medical supplies.
Limbs are the arms and legs.
Cardiac monitor is a machine for checking how well the heart is working.
Anaphylactic shock is a sudden and extremely dangerous allergic reaction.
Cardiac arrest is the sudden stopping of the heart.
Injection is a small measure of medicine for putting into the body through a needle.
 DECOMPRESSION

This is a picture of a 737 on the ground, obviously, and it has suffered a serious
problem. The top half of the fuselage has blown away. It probably happened in the
air. It looks more like a pressurization failure than a result of sabotage. The pilot
seems to have got the aircraft on the ground safe and sound and I'd imagine the
passengers, other than those in the damaged area, were evacuated OK.We don't
know anything about the weather conditions or geographical surroundings other
than there are a few hills in the background. It looks very much as if it's suffered a
major structural failure and been safely landed. I guess it is now being investigated
to see what recommendations can be made to the authorities and manufacturer.
The unfortunate thing is that anybody sitting in that area would have probably
suffered major injuries if not fatalities. There is a vehicle in the foreground near
the aircraft just in front of the right engine. It has some sort of emblem on the
side but it is difficult to make out. The aircraft has two stripes running along the
fuselage which have been interrupted by the missing section.
 LOW ON FUEL 

In this picture we're looking at an aircraft being refuelled. It's at what looks to be
quite a large airfield. It's difficult to say where exactly the airfield is although in
the background we have a wooded hillside and it's a cloudy greyish day. So I
would think we're probably in Europe, perhaps in spring or early summer.The
aircraft is probably a Boeing and it's being refuelled from underground fuel tanks
via a vehicle. The vehicle is taking the fuel from the underground tanks and the
fuel is being pumped by a refuelling attendant. I think the attendant is about to
connect or disconnect the refuelling pipe to the underwing of the aircraft.The
ground handler is wearing high-visibility clothing, so he's got day-glow clothing
on. The vehicle is white, the usual colour of the refuelling vehicles at airports. I
think the aircraft is probably a modern 737 with a nice wing tip.
 ON-BOARD FIRE

This is a picture of an airport fire-service training exercise. There is a mock-up

aircraft which is made to look like a DC-10. The starboard engine is engulfed in
flames and there appear to be some flames over the right wing, lose to the main
fuselage. The fire is producing quite ot of black smoke which is dispersing
towards the aircraft structure. There are two large six-wheel fire appliances
attending to the situation, both on the right- hand side of the aircraft. Each of the
appliances has various firemen around it, and fire fighters on top of the appliances.
The appliance on the right-hand side is starting to spray water or foam onto the
aircraft structure using the roof-mounted fire hoses. Both trucks have 'BAA
Firefighting service' written on the side which makes me think that the picture was
taken in the United Kingdom.
 BOMB SCARE

In the first picture, there is a man who is walking down the aisle of an aircraft
cabin between the seats with an aggressive look on his face. He has black hair and
is wearing a shirt. There are two other passengers in the picture, one man who is
standing behind, and an older man in front, on the left side of the picture, who
is sitting in his seat. There is a woman too, who appears to be dressed in uniform.
She is perhaps a flight attendant. All three people look concerned as if they are
afraid of the man or as if he might do something malicious.
In the second picture, the man has entered the cockpit and has attacked the captain
who is seated at the controls. There is a struggle. The attacker has his right arm
around the captain's neck and has the captain's head in a headlock. The captain is
trying to stop the attacker strangling him, using his hands to pull away the at
acker's arm. Behind the attacker is what looks like a member of the crew. He has
his right arm around the attacker, and, is holding the attacker's left arm, trying to
pull him away from the captain. In the final picture, things appear to be under
control. Clearly, the male flight attendant wrestled the attacker to the floor and
now the attacker is lying face down in the aisle of the cabin. The male flight
attendant is restraining the attacker by kneeling across the attacker's back and
pulling his right arm behind his back. There are two female flight attendants, one
kneeling in the aisle behind the attacker and the other is stood behind her. I can
also see a passenger in her seat on the right-hand side who looks a bit worried.
 NEAR-MISS

This is a very simple picture of two aircraft both heading in the same direction but
very close to each other.
One is carrying straight on from left to right. The second one is veering away to
the left at an angle of maybe 20 degrees. and is getting very close to the starboard
side of the first one. Perhaps they were flying in formation and one's got a little
too close, or maybe it's a near collision. The aircraft are both twin-engine. They
look similar, although the lower of the two is smaller than the aircraft that is
above. It's difficult to identify the airline. The first one looks like JAL, and the
second one, possibly OHL. The numbers and letters are very indistinct, and its tail
is obscured. The only thing that differentiates the two on markings is that the
second one has a long stripe down the fuselage. It's a very simple picture of two
aircraft flying close together against a background of fairly dense cloud.
 SPECIAL FLIGHTS

This is part of an air-show routine involving two aircraft, two Boeing Stearman, I
believe. They are two vintage bi-planes, and they are crossing each other in
formation at an angle of approximately 40 degrees, relatively close to each other.
The aircraft in the foreground is slightly lower than the aircraft behind. Both
aircraft are giving off display smoke trails which are set up by putting oil into the
exhaust. The aircraft are in display colours, and they have got sunburst-type
aircraft markings on the top wing. Because they are performing this aerobatic
manoeuvre and have the same colours and markings, I think they are part of a
display team. The weather is looking quite nice, in the background there is light
cloud with blue patches, so it looks like quite a pleasant day.
 VIP FLIGHTS

This is a picture of a Gulf airliner, which looks like an Airbus in dispersal, waiting
probably for some VIP passengers. The reason that I say that is the air-stair door is
open, there is a long red carpet going right to the foreground of the picture. There
is a cleaner with a brush, it looks like a straw brush, making sure the carpet is as
clean as possible before the arrival of the VIP. There is a man standing by the air-
stair doorway waiting for the VIPs. The APU is attached to the aircraft, obviously
the aircrew are in the cabin, the air conditioning is on waiting for the VIP, and
right in the foreground of the picture on the right-hand side there is fan-type palm
tree, which is used for decoration in the Gulf. At the tail of the aircraft it looks as
if some baggage has just arrived and halfway along the aircraft, by the engine,
there is a group of people who are possibly departure officials waiting to say
goodbye to the VIP.So there is an air of expectation about it. It's almost certain to
be the Gulf because the visibility is poor with high humidity and a fog like
background.
 DELAYS

This is a picture of three commercial aircraft in a tight sequence on an instrument

approach to an airport at sunset. The first aircraft looks to me like a 757, followed
by a 737, followed by a 747. The leading aircraft is at the lowest of the three, and
has its gear deployed and its landing lights on, and so does the second aircraft.
The third aircraft, at the back, is at the highest altitude, and hasn't adopted the
landing leading yet. I think the aircraft are on final and the controller is using two
segregated runways and radar because the separation is small and the aircraft are
quite close together. I'd say they are about half a mile apart. It must be a very busy
international airport. It's a nice sunlit situation; the sky is very clear. We've got a
little bit of low cloud to the right which is rather attractively lit by the setting sun.