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 International Journal of Genetics
ISSN: 0975-2862 & E-ISSN: 0975-9158, Volume 10, Issue 4, 2018, pp.-401-404.
Available online at https://www.bioinfopublication.org/jouarchive.php?opt=&jouid=BPJ0000226

Review Article
AN INTRODUCTION TO GROUND APPLE (Smallanthus sonchifolius): A REVIEW

GURUNG S., MAHATO S.K., THAPA B. AND CHETTRI BINOY*

Regional Research Station (Hill Zone), Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalimpong, 734301, West Bengal
*Corresponding Author: Email - binoykc2050@gmail.com

Received: April 13, 2018; Revised: April 24, 2018; Accepted: April 25, 2018; Published: April 30, 2018

Abstract- Ground apple commonly called yacon is the member of the sunflower family. It is an herbaceous perennial growing upto 1.5-2.5m in height. The plant
produces storage roots with a pleasant slightly sweet taste which is eaten raw like a fruit. The original habitat of plant is the Andean highlands ranging from Southern
Colombia to Northern Argentina. Cultivars are differentiated by the color of root skin and flesh and propagated vegetatively from its fleshy rhizome. High demand for
information on yacon indicates that there is considerable interest in this crop in various parts of the world. Moreover, ground apple can be grown in this Darjeeling hilly
region of India as the soil and climatic condition is favorable and it is already cultivated in homestead garden. Its fruits are highly perishable and processed products like
syrup, juice, marmalade and tea leaves from this can be exploited.
Key words- Ground Apple, Yacon, Darjeeling, Syrup, Juice, Marmalade
Citation: Gurung S., et al., (2018) An Introduction to Ground Apple (Smallanthus sonchifolius): A Review. International Journal of Genetics, ISSN: 0975- 2862 & E-ISSN:
0975-9158, Volume 10, Issue 4, pp.-401-404.
Copyright: Copyright©2018 Gurung S., et al., This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Introduction
Ground apple [Smallanthus sonchifolius (Poeppig and Endlicher) H. Robinson
syn.: Polymnia edulis, P. sonchifolia] is a perennial herbaceous plant belong to the
sunflower family (Asteraceae). There is a variety of common names for yacon
around the world like “Aricoma”and “Aricuma”in Bolivia, “Jicama”, “Chicama”and
“Shicama”in Ecuador and “Arboloco”in Colombia. It is also called as “Llagon” or
“Llacum” in its’ originated place Andean mountains of South America [1, 2]
whereas “Bhui Aifal” or “Ground apple” in Darjeeling hills because of their crunchy
texture very much resembles that of an apple. Another name for yacon is Peruvian
ground apple, possibly from the French name of potato called pomme de terre
mean ground apple. The first written record on yacon is by Felipe Guaman Poma
de Ayala [3] in a list of 55 native crops cultivated by the AndeansIn the 1980s and
1990s; Yacon was established in Japan, Brazil, South Korea, and the Czech
Republic [4]. It has since spread around the world and is grown on a small scale in
many countries in Europe, North America and Asia. The plant looks generally
similar to a sunflower and produce small, inconspicuous yellow flowers at the end
of the growing season (between 5th to 9th months). It may grow as tall as 4 to 10
feet in the ideal climate and a single plant produces more than 10 Kilograms of
storage roots [5, 6]. The edible part of the plant is its cluster of storage roots that
are crisp, very juicy and mildly sweet and are used more like a fruit than a
vegetable. Roots may be lemon shaped, pear shaped, reverse pear shaped,
spherical, or cylindrical [7]. Yacon plant can thrives in a range of climates and soils
from sea level to 3500 masl and this explain its expansion in Argentina, Bolivia,
Brazil (about 100 ha), the Czech Republic, Ecuador, Italy, Japan (about 100 ha),
Korea, New Zealand, Peru (600 ha), Russia, Taiwan and some places in the
United States [8, 6]. It can be grown best in soil high in organic matter and with
neutral to slightly acidic and its crop duration is 6 to 12 months depending on
altitude. Yacon cultivars are differentiated by the colours of the root skin and flesh.
Yacon is propagated vegetatively from its fleshy rhizome, a branched
subterraneous organ, which is partitioned into 6-14 propagules. Alternatively,
nodal or stem cuttings can be rooted for vegetative propagation.
Moreover, tubers contain fructo-oligosaccharide (FOF), an indigestible
polysaccharide made up of fructose but pass through the human digestive tract
unmetabolised, hence have very little caloric value. Moreover, fructo-
oligosaccharides have a prebiotic effect, meaning they are used by beneficial
bacteria that enhance colon health and aid digestion. Since 2003, several
supermarkets in Peru have offered syrup, juice, marmalade and tea leaves made
of this crop. Although small-scale production predominate the exports of yacon
products to Japan, the European Union and the US, the high demand for
information on yacon indicates that there is considerable interest in this crop in
various parts of the world [8].
Diversity of Yacon
The largest germplasm diversity is found in south-eastern Peru, in the valleys
around Cusco and east of Puno. Another region of diversity and widespread
cultivation is located in northern Peru, particularly the province of Cajamarca and
the area close to the Ecuadorian border [4]. A strip stretching along the eastern
Andean slopes, from the Apurimac river basin (12ºS) in Peru to the La Paz river
basin (17ºS) in Bolivia encloses the area richest in yacon germplasm. This is also
an area where at least three wild Smallanthus species, taxonomically very close to
S. sonchifolius, occur spontaneously (S. macroscyphus, S. riparius and S.
siegesbeckius). Thus, this area seems to be the most likely ‘origin centre’ of the
species.
Yacon has several close relatives that may be suitable for hybridization. Cross
breeding with wild relatives may be particularly valuable because genetic analysis
of yacon accessions have shown a low degree of variability between varieties [9].
Hybrids of yacon with Smallanthus riparius have probably already been achieved
[10]. Smallanthus macroscyphus and S. connatus also seem promising for
hybridization [11]. S. connatus, also known as yacon gaucho, is a wild South
American relative of yacon that may be sufficiently compatible for hybridization. It
does not produce tubers but has somewhat thickened roots that are edible and An

International Journal of Genetics

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 Introduction to Ground Apple (Smallanthus sonchifolius): A Review
taste a bit like yacon. S. maculatus is a wild relative from mountainous areas of
southern Mexico and Central America. As with most of yacon’s wild relatives, it
doesn’t produce tubers, but is typically propagated from stem cuttings. S. riparius
is the only one of yacon’s wild relatives that has been confirmed to hybridize
successfully with yacon. However, wild Smallanthus species are still poorly known
and only a few potential useful traits that could be introduced into Yacon.
There are some other Smallanthus species like Smallanthus apus (Blake) H.
Robinson, a poorly known Mexican species. Smallanthus connatus (Spreng.) H.
Robinson is an annual herb up to 2 m tall, widely distributed, present in south
eastern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and eastern Argentina. It is the southernmost
species, closely related to S. macroscyphus. Smallanthus fruticosus (Benth.) H.
Robinson is a shrub or tree to 12 m tall, distributed in southern Colombia, Ecuador
and northern Peru. Smallanthus glabratus (DC.) H. Robinson is a shrub or tree up
to 8 m tall, closely related to S. fruticosus and placed by Wells together with S.
parviceps and S. microcephalus within the glabrata complex. Its main area of
distribution is the Peruvian mountains. It also has been reported in Ecuador and
Chile. Smallanthus jelksii (Hieron.) H. Robinson is a shrub or tree up to 8 m tall,
described only for Peru, related to S. pyramidalis, both with characteristic small
flower heads. Smallanthus latisquamus (Blake) H. Robinson is considered a
synonym of S. quichensis by Wells [12] and S. latisquamus is treated as a
separate species by Robinson [13]. Stem height reaches up to 3 m tall, present in
Costa Rica. Smallanthus lundellii H. Robinson is proposed by Robinson, (1978)
[13] is an herb up to 1 m tall, related to S. latisquamus and S. quichensis, found in
Guatemala. Smallanthus macroscyphus (Baker ex. Martius) A. Grau, comb. nov.
is another perennial herb up to 3 m tall, present in Bolivia and north-western
Argentina, where it is known as yacon del campo (wild yacon).
It has a well-developed root system with storage roots that can reach 2-5 cm
diameter. Smallanthus macroscyphus and S. connatus were treated as synonyms
[12, 13]. Smallanthus macvaughii (Wells) H. Robinson is an herbaceous species
up to 5 m tall, present in Mexico and related to S. oaxacanus. Smallanthus
meridensis (Steyerm.) H. Robinson is an herb with stems up to 3 m tall, distributed
in Venezuela and Colombia. Smallanthus microcephalus (Hieron.) H. Robinson is
a shrub or small tree up to 8 m tall, found in Ecuador. Smallanthus oaxacanus
(Sch.Bip. ex Klatt) H. Robinson is an herb up to 2 m tall, distributed in Mexico,
Guatemala and Honduras. Smallanthus parviceps (Blake) H. Robinson is another
shrub or tree up to 8 m tall with stems of 15 cm diameter. It occurs in southern
Peru and northern Bolivia. Smallanthus pyramidalis (Triana) H. Robinson is a tree
up to 12 m tall and 20 cm diameter at the base, distributed in Venezuela,
Colombia and Ecuador. Smallanthus quichensis (Coult.) H. Robinson is closely
related to S. latisquamus and present in the same region, Costa Rica and
Guatemala. Smallanthus riparius (H.B.K.) H. Robinson is an herb or shrub up to 4
m tall, with a very wide latitudinal range, from southern Mexico to northern Bolivia.
Smallanthus siegesbeckius (DC.) H. Robinson is described as an annual herb by
Wells [12]. However, observations by Lizarraga and Grau (unpublished) on
material responding to the description of S. siegesbeckius indicate that this
species is perennial, up to 5 m tall, possessing a well-developed underground
system, with many tuberous roots very similar to yacon, 20 cm long and 6 cm
diameter or more. This species has been described for Peru, Bolivia, Brazil and
Paraguay. It is possible, however, that the Brazilian and Paraguayan material
actually belongs to a different species. Smallanthus suffruticosus (Baker) H.
Robinson is a shrub or herb up to 2 m tall adapted to the lowlands of Venezuelan
Amazonia. Smallanthus uvedalius (L.) Mackenzie is a perennial herb up to 3 m
tall, distributed in the eastern United States of America from New York to Florida
and Texas.
The number of cultivars of yacon is unknown but it is estimated that it could be
between 20 and 30 [8]. Japan has introduced at least four new varieties,
beginning with ‘Sarada otome’ in 2000, then ‘Andesu no yuki’ and ‘Salad okame’
in 2003, and ‘Andesu no otome’ in 2012. It is a tan-skinned, white flesh variety
with large tubers that resist cracking [14]. ‘Salad okame’ resulted from a cross
between the CIP variety CA5074 and a Peruvian variety. It has purple skin on
exposure [15], orange flesh, and high fructo-oligosaccharide content [14].
‘Andesu no otome’ is a red skinned variety [15].
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ISSN: 0975-2862 & E-ISSN: 0975-9158, Volume 10, Issue 4, 2018
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Health Benefits of Yacon Consumption
It is found that decaploid varieties have higher fructo-oligosaccharide content
(Fernandez, 2013) and therefore may taste sweeter than octaploid varieties.
Freshly harvested, yacon has very little caloric value (15 calories per 100 g) and
its energy is largely in the form of fructo-oligosacchiarides but the calorie count will
go up (22 calories per 100 g) as some of the indigestible sugars are converted to
fructose (22% fructose and 5% glucose) [16] because FOS molecules have lower
degree of polymerization [4] as compared to indigestible Jerusalem artichokes and
this can be decline by exposing them to sunlight within a week from 10 to 40%
[17]. Though this watery fruit (85-90%) are not considered particularly rich in
vitamins, minerals and fat (0.1 - 0.3 %) but it is a good source of fiber (0.3 - 1.7 %)
and its fresh root can supply FOS (6-12 g per 100 g), simple sugars (1.5-4 g per
100 g), proteins (0.1-0.5 g per 100 g), potassium (185-295 mg per 100 g), calcium
(6-13 mg), phosphorus (21mg/g). iron (0.3mg/g), retinol (10mg/g), carotene
(0.08mg/g), thiamin (0.01mg/g), riboflavin (0.1mg/g), niacin (0.33 mg/g) and
ascorbic acid (13mg/g) [18]. Moreover, in yacon roots, the antioxidant capacity
varies between 23 and 136 mol/g trolox equivalent of the dry matter and total
phenolic compounds represent 0.79% to 3.08% of the dry matter [19-21].
Yacon an inulin-containing plant, is a potential source of functional foods and it
has long been used in folk medicine for treating diabetes, constipation and various
other human diseases. Properties to treat kidney problems and skin-rejuvenating
activity also have been mentioned. Medicinal (antidiabetic) properties have been
attributed to yacon leaves [22] in Brazil, where the dried leaves are used to
prepare a medicinal tea. Additionally, yacon roots and leaves contain polyphenols
with anti-oxidant activity associated with the prevention of cancer and
arteriosclerosis.
Presently various study aimed at reviewing the mechanisms underlying yacon
FOS health benefits in colon cancer, diabetes, and obesity [23] as it can reduce
glycemic index, body weight and the risk of colon cancer [24]. Moreover, the end
products of FOS fermentation by the intestinal micro biota, short chain fatty acids,
act as substrates or signalling molecules in the regulation of the immune
response, glucose homeostasis and lipid metabolism. As a result, glycemic levels,
body weight and colon cancer risk can be reduced [23]. Many recent animal
studies also indicate that oligosaccharide promotes calcium absorption, reduces
cholesterol levels, strengthens the immune system and reduces carcinogen
lesions in the colon.
Agro Techniques for Production
It grows best in soils high in organic matter and with neutral to slightly acidic (6.0
to 6.5 pH). Plant spacing should be 0.8 x 1.0 m (plant x row). Water requirements
are comparatively high (>800 mm) and water deficiencies can have significant
adverse effects on yield. Crop duration varies between 6 and 12 months
depending chiefly on altitude [8].
Yacon is a plant of the middle elevations of the Andes, where it is grown typically
between 6500 and 11,000 feet (2000 to 3300 m) above sea level [11]. The
optimum temperature for growth is about 65 to 77° F (18 to 25°C), but yacon
tolerates temperatures as high as 104° F (40°C) as long as sufficient water is
available [7].
Yacon is a heavy user of potassium and so benefits from fertilizers that are
potassium rich. Organic sources of potassium include seaweed, wood ash and
greensand. It has only moderate nitrogen and low phosphorus requirements,
which are best served by making sure that your soil is rich in organic matter such
as finished compost. The number of cultivars is unknown but it is estimated that it
could be between 20 and 30 [8]. There are some Japanese varieties like ‘Sarada
otome’, ‘Andesu no yuki’, ‘Andesu no otome’ and ‘Salad okame’ can be used for
commercial production.
Yacon is propagated vegetatively with 8-12 cm long offsets taken from the
underground and aboveground rootstock, with a few or no roots attached. The
rootstock can be divided into pieces easily, and these offsets are normally
obtained during the harvesting of the roots. Storage roots with no stem attached
are not able to produce shoots. Aerial stem cuttings can be easily rooted if
protected from desiccation. Rooting is best under mist, and it can be significantly
accelerated using auxins (Indole butyric acid).
402
 Gurung S., Mahato S.K., Thapa B. and Chettri Binoy
The best planting depth for yacon rhizome is four inches (10 cm) [25]. In a study of
yacon spacing in Korea, it was found that the tallest plants and largest tubers were
produced on a spacing of 32 x 24 inches (80 x 60 cm) [26] and 32 x 24 inches was
the largest spacing that they studied, so it is possible that even wider spacing
could be better.
Agoutis, rodents of the genus Dasiprocta, have been mentioned attacking Yacon
tuberous roots in the La Paz region of Bolivia. We often see a major infestation of
wooly bear caterpillars in early fall. Here are few examples of pest from different
places like leaf-mining Liriomyza sp (Agromyzidae, Diptera) from Cusco, Peru
[18], leaf-sucking Stink bugs (Pentatomidae, Coridae, Hemiptera) from Cusco,
Peru [18], flower-chewing Diabrotica sp. (Chrysomediae, Coleoptera) from Cusco,
Peru [18], tuberous root-boring unknown larvae (Scarabeidae, Coleoptera) from
Cusco, Peru [18], leaf-sucking White fly from New Zealand [27], leaf-chewing
Looper caterpillar from New Zealand [27], leaf-chewing Papilio sp. (Lepidoptera)
from Sao Paulo, Brazil [22] and root damaging Nematodes from Sao Paulo, Brazil
[22].
Moreover, yacon is subject to some fungal diseases like mildews. Rhizoctonia
causes lesions, followed by a black rot under the skin of the tubers [28]. Here are
few bacteria and fungi have been cited from different places affecting the
underground organs and stems of yacon. Fusarium in Peru [18] and Erwinia
chrysanthemi in Japan [29] have been identified as causal factors of wilting, while
an unidentified rot affects the xylem of stems in Bolivia. Sclerotinia causes soft rot
of the tuberous roots in Peru [18]. Alternaria has been found producing marginal
necrosis of the leaves in Ayacucho, Peru [30]. Usually, the bacterial and fungal
diseases don’t amount to much of a problem, but cucumber mosaic can become a
serious yield problem and infected plants are best removed and destroyed
immediately [31]. Further clonal decline (cansancio-fatigue) and the need to
‘rejuvenate the seed’ have been reported as phenomenon that strongly suggests
viral infection. It is probably wise to keep yacon separate from closely related
sunflowers and Jerusalem artichokes as Jerusalem artichokes particularly could
serve as a reservoir for common diseases since they are replanted from tubers.
Yacon has few problems like flowers fail to open are sometimes due to
malformation and leaves in sets of three rather than two might be due to mutation
but it doesn’t appear to have any effect on yield.
Roots reach maturity in 6-7 months in the medium-altitude sites and up to a year
in high sites. It needs about five months in the ground to produce a reasonable
yield, but the tubers continue to grow until the plant enters senescence, so you
can be cutting yourself short by as much as two or three months if you harvest at
the beginning of flowering. Yacon productivity varies from 28 to 100 tons fresh
weight per hectare [18, 32, 33 & 22]. Storage roots are very brittle when turgid and
the plant must be dug carefully to prevent breaking them. Tuberous roots are
usually dug and separated manually from the crown. Mechanical potato
harvesters have been successfully employed in Brazil [22].
Post-Harvest Handling and Value Addition
Yacon tubers store really well as long as they are unbroken. They have a
respiratory rate similar to potatoes [4] and last about as long in storage. At 50° F
(10°C), these tubers will easily last three or four months and they can last up to a
year storage conditions are humid along with temperature 35°F (2°C). The
rhizome is edible, but it doesn’t sweeten as much as the storage roots do and is
sometimes fibrous. The bitter skin is difficult to remove due to the convolutions. It
can be used as animal feed. All yacon carbohydrates including oligofructans can
be rapidly metabolized by ruminants, so tuberous roots can be used to feed cattle
or sheep. The foliage, with a protein content of 11-17% (dry weight basis) has
been suggested as forage [11].
In ambient temperatures the harvested roots rapidly convert oligofructans into
simple sugars. One week after harvest the oligofructans content of the roots can
be reduced by 30-40%. Thus, if products with the highest possible oligofructans
content are required, the roots need to be either processed immediately after
harvest or refrigerated to minimize oligofructans degradation. On the other hand,
the custom of putting the roots out in the sun for a few days to make them sweeter
accelerates the conversion process of oligofructans into simple sugars. To avoid
degradation of oligofructans in processing, it is preferable to not exceed 120°C [8].
International Journal of Genetics
ISSN: 0975-2862 & E-ISSN: 0975-9158, Volume 10, Issue 4, 2018
||Bioinfo Publications||
Because of the high perishability of the roots, processed yacon products provide
an alternative to the traditional marketing of fresh roots. Since 2003, several
supermarkets in Peru have offered syrup, juice, marmalade and tea leaves made
of yacon and both products are popular among diabetics and dieters. The juice
obtained from pressing the tuberous roots can be boiled and concentrated to
produce solid dark-brown blocks called chancaca [11], similar to the product
obtained from concentrating sugarcane juice. The juice also can be concentrated
at low pressure, with the addition of sodium bisulphate to inhibit enzymatic
darkening. The final product is dense syrup with significantly lower energy value
for humans [34]. Another promising processing technique is the production of dry
chips. In this case yacon tuberous roots are peeled and cut in thin slices. The
slices are first dried in a plastic tunnel, then oven dried at 60°C [22]. Dried yacon
chips can be stored indefinitely. Yacon pulp can be preserved after heating at
89°C for 10 minutes and washing with sodium bisulphate (0.5%) for 5 minutes, by
adding potassium sulphate (0.1%), ascorbic acid (0.3%) and adjusting the pH to
4.5. The heated and washed material can also be added to sugar syrup and made
into ‘glace’ fruit. Yacon pickles are produced and marketed in Japan [35].
Conclusion
High demand for information on yacon indicates that there is considerable interest
in this crop in various parts of the world. Moreover, ground apple can be grown in
Darjeeling hilly region of India as the soil and climatic condition is favorable. It is
already cultivated in homestead garden and used as medicinal value for diabetic
and leaves used as fodder for milch cow to increase the milk production. As the
fruits are highly perishable processed yacon like syrup, juice, marmalade and tea
leaves from yacon can be exploited.
Application of review: Study useful for information on yacon
Review Category: Vegetable Cultivation
Abbreviations: FOF: fructo-oligosaccharide
Acknowledgement / Funding: Author thankful to Uttar Banga Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, Kalimpong, 734301, West Bengal, India
*Research Guide or Chairperson of research: Dr Binoy Chettri
University: Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalimpong, 734301, West Bengal,
India
Research project name or number: Nil
Author Contributions: All author equally contributed
Author statement: All authors read, reviewed, agree and approved the final
manuscript
Conflict of Interest: None declared
Ethical approval: This article does not contain any studies with human
participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
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International Journal of Genetics

ISSN: 0975-2862 & E-ISSN: 0975-9158, Volume 10, Issue 4, 2018
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