HARVARD

 UNIVERSITY  
 
DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  SCIENCE  
CONCENTRATION  IN  HISTORY  AND  SCIENCE  
 
Guide  for  Thesis  Writers  
  2016-­‐2017  
 
 
INTRODUCTION  
 
For  most  of  you,  producing  a  senior  thesis  represents  the  culmination  of  your  academic  efforts  at  
Harvard.    While  the  emotional  and  intellectual  turmoil  of  the  undertaking  is  legendary,  so  too  are  
the  great  satisfaction  and  sense  of  accomplishment  seniors  feel  when  the  thesis  is  finished.    It  is  
obviously  an  academic  hurdle,  but  keep  in  mind  that  it  is  also  an  opportunity  for  you  to  
demonstrate  to  yourself,  your  peers,  and  the  faculty  what  you  are  really  capable  of  doing  when  left  
to  develop  your  own  research  program.    Whatever  your  later  accomplishments,  your  thesis  will  
continue  to  exist  in  the  aid  of  future  scholars,  and  will  be  a  genuine  contribution  to  the  history  of  
science.  
 
What  does  the  department  expect  of  you  in  writing  a  thesis?  The  following  pages  were  prepared  as  
a  guide  to  the  technical  and  intellectual  requirements  of  the  thesis.  In  turn,  a  robust  system  of  
resources  and  structures  exists  to  support  your  scholarly  endeavor:  1)  you  have  an  individual  thesis  
adviser,  with  whom  you  should  plan  to  meet  and/or  exchange  work  and  feedback  on  a  weekly  
basis;  2)  you  will  attend  a  regularly  scheduled  senior  class  meeting  with  the  History  of  Science  99  
course  instructor  to  share  your  research  and  to  discuss  issues  of  interest  or  concern  relevant  to  the  
thesis-­‐writing  process;  and  3)  senior  thesis  writers  are  also  encouraged  to  consult  other  faculty  and  
graduate  students  within  and  outside  the  department.  To  get  a  good  sense  of  how  a  thesis  is  
organized,  you  should  review  some  theses  from  past  years,  which  are  available  in  the  
department.    You  should  also  consult  with  your  individual  thesis  adviser  to  identify  other  specific  
examples  of  work  in  the  history  of  science  which  may  be  particularly  relevant  to  your  research  
interests.  
 
Remember  that  you  alone  are  responsible  for  meeting  the  standards  described  in  this  handout.  
 
CHOOSING  A  TOPIC  
 
Your  topic  should  be  chosen  with  an  eye  to  originality  and  feasibility.    An  original  topic  is  one  that  
either  brings  to  light  a  new  problem  or  offers  a  critical  reinterpretation  of  an  existing  problem.    In  
either  case  you  should  demonstrate  a  familiarity  with  the  relevant  source  material.    Whether  your  
topic  focuses  primarily  on  intellectual  questions  or  social  and  political  questions,  you  are  urged  to  
consider  both  the  social  and  intellectual  context  whenever  possible.    Some  readers  will  criticize  a  
history  of  ideas  thesis  for  having  no  context,  while  some  will  criticize  a  politics  of  science  thesis  for  
having  no  science.    Discussing  your  ideas  with  other  students  and  advisers  might  help  you  spot  
conceptual  gaps  or  weaknesses  in  your  plan.  
 
 
  
LENGTH  &  FORMAT  
 
Length  
Your  thesis  should  be  at  least  10,000  words  and  no  longer  than  25,000  words.    These  limits  refer  to  
the  main  text  of  the  thesis,  but  do  not  include  footnotes,  bibliographies,  glossaries,  or  appendices.    
Theses  longer  than  25,000  words  will  be  penalized  unless  you  obtain  an  exemption  to  the  word  
limit:  excessively  long  theses  are  usually  the  result  of  poor  editing  and  planning.  
 
Format  
Two  paper  copies  of  the  thesis  must  be  submitted  by  the  date  specified;  both  printed  copies  must  
be  on  acid  free  or  acid  neutral  paper.    Please  note  that  the  thesis  should  be  printed  on  both  sides  
of  the  paper,  so  the  paper  you  choose  should  be  of  sufficient  thickness  to  prevent  bleed-­‐through.    
Your  margins  should  be  1-­‐1/2"  on  the  inside  of  the  page,  at  least  1"  on  the  top,  bottom,  and  
outside,  and  double-­‐spaced.    This  can  be  accomplished  by  using  “mirror-­‐margins.”    It  is  not  
necessary  to  justify  the  right-­‐hand  margin.    All  theses  must  be  put  in  binders  that  will  be  provided  
by  the  Undergraduate  Office  (Science  Center  355).    You  can  pick  these  up  during  the  week  before  
submitting  your  thesis.    If  a  thesis  receives  a  grade  of  Magna  or  higher,  a  copy  of  the  thesis  will  be  
sent  to  the  Harvard  University  Archives;  students  can  request  that  the  other  copy  be  returned.  
 
Students  should  write  using  Microsoft  Word,  Open  Office,  or  WordPerfect.  You  may  use  any  clear,  
easily  legible  font.    As  a  general  rule,  the  main  text  should  be  in  12  pt.  font  size,  and  the  footnotes  
in  10  pt.      
 
Abstract  and  Keywords  
The  department  requires  that  you  submit  an  abstract  of  your  thesis,  comprising  no  more  than  150  
words.    The  abstract  should  describe  the  principal  points  of  your  thesis,  detailing  its  significance.  
The  abstract  is  included  with  the  copies  of  your  thesis,  at  the  front  of  the  binder,  after  the  title  
page.    Remember  to  include  both  your  own  name  and  the  title  of  your  thesis  on  the  abstract  page.    
In  addition,  we  require  a  list  of  five  or  six  keywords.    If  your  thesis  were  on  nineteenth-­‐century  
Boston  hospitals,  for  example,  appropriate  keywords  could  include  "history  of  medicine,"  "Boston,"  
"hospitals,"  "nineteenth-­‐century,"  and  so  forth.    Please  include  the  keywords  on  the  abstract  page.    
 
Footnotes  
You  must  provide  a  footnote  for  each  critical  statement  of  fact,  for  each  quotation,  and  for  every  
conclusion  or  inference  derived  from  another  writer.    Footnotes  should  be  single-­‐spaced  and  
should  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  on  which  they  occur.    Occasional  runovers  onto  the  
following  page  may  be  created  by  your  word  processor  and  are  nothing  to  worry  about.    DO  NOT  
USE  PARENTHETICAL  CITATIONS!!!  
 
For  information  on  the  "Mechanics  of  footnoting,"  i.e.  answers  to  the  question  "In  what  form  
should  I  cast  a  particular  footnote?"  use  Kate  L.  Turabian’s  A  Manual  for  Writers  of  Term  Papers,  
Theses  and  Dissertations  (Chicago,  1973  and  later).    It  is  inexpensive  and  you  should  purchase  a  
copy.    Turabian  is  a  condensation  of  the  Chicago  Manual  of  Style  (shelved  in  Widener  Reading  
Room)  and  for  unusual  problems  you  should  consult  the  latter.  Do  not  just  make  up  citation  
formatting  as  you  go.  
 
2  
For  information  on  the  "Philosophy  of  footnoting,"  i.e.  answers  to  the  questions  "when  and  how  
often  should  I  footnote?"  see  Jacques  Barzun  and  Henry  F.  Graff,  The  Modern  Researcher  (rev.  ed.,  
New  York,  1972).    The  Barzun  manual  is  an  excellent  guide  to  the  student  involved  in  historical  
scholarship.    It  covers  every  aspect  of  thesis  and  report  writing,  from  the  collection  and  verification  
of  facts  to  the  problems  of  organizing,  quoting,  and  translating  the  material  and  then  presenting  it  
in  a  clear,  readable  style.  
 
Bibliography  
Bibliographies  are  written  for  two  purposes:    (a)  to  list  sources  you've  used,  and  (b)  to  help  future  
scholars  to  find  and  evaluate  material.    This  determines  which  items  to  include.  
 
A  formal  annotated  bibliography  of  all  the  essential  material  you  use  must  be  placed  at  the  end  of  
the  thesis.    The  various  manuals  already  mentioned  are  helpful  regarding  the  general  form  of  the  
bibliography,  as  well  as  the  specific  bibliographic  entries.  In  most  cases,  a  simple  breakdown  into  
"Primary"  and  "Secondary"  sources  will  suffice;  in  others,  sub-­‐categories  might  be  introduced  for  
"Manuscript  Material,"  "Public  Documents,"  "Periodicals,"  etc.    Bibliographical  classification  
should  result  in  the  sensible  arrangement  of  the  author's  materials  into  a  scheme  easily  usable  
by  the  thesis  reader.  
 
In  every  case  the  bibliography  must  be  annotated.    Annotations  can  be  of  two  kinds:  (a)  a  
bibliographical  essay  which  precedes  a  block  of  sources  and  discusses  them,  or  (b)  short  comments  
accompanying  each  significant  bibliographical  entry.  
 
Acknowledgements  
Good  scholarship  is  rarely  an  entirely  solitary  enterprise.    By  the  time  you  submit  your  thesis,  you  
will  have  received  help  from  many  people,  in  addition  to  your  senior  thesis  adviser.    It  is  
recommended  that  you  have  an  'Acknowledgments'  section  in  your  thesis.    It  is  customary  to  place  
this  on  a  separate  page  after  the  Table  of  Contents.  
 
 
ORGANIZATION,  STYLE,  USE  OF  SOURCES  
 
Organization  
Aristotle’s  Poetica  says  that  a  great  literary  work  always  contains  three  elements:  a  beginning,  a  
middle,  and  an  end.    You  should  ask  the  following  questions:  does  the  thesis  have  a  beginning,  a  
clear  introduction  where  problems  are  posed  or  areas  to  be  investigated  are  identified?    Does  it  
have  a  middle  part  containing  the  detailed  arguments  and  documentation  that  will  lead  to  the  final  
resolution  of  a  problem  or  the  clarification  of  some  event  or  development?    Does  it  come  to  an  
end;  will  the  reader  be  satisfied  that  the  exposition  begun  in  the  opening  chapters  has  been  
successfully  concluded?  
 
Style  
There  is  no  approved  scholarly  style  of  writing;  what  often  passes  for  one  is  merely  an  attempt  by  
the  author  to  appear  authoritative  by  using  convoluted  sentences  made  of  excessively  long  words  
and  the  jargon  of  the  profession.    Your  style  should  be  a  vehicle  for  your  ideas.    Your  choice  of  
words  and  the  structure  of  sentences,  paragraphs,  and  chapters  should  be  subordinate  to  the  clear  
presentation  of  ideas.    In  Barzun  &  Graff,  The  Modern  Researcher,  there  are  two  good  chapters  on  
3  
style:    "Plain  Words"  and  "Clear  Sentences."    You  might  also  consult  William  Strunk,  Jr.  and  E.  B.  
White's  The  Elements  of  Style  (4th  ed.,  New  York,  2000).    Some  of  the  more  common  style  
problems  include  paragraphs  that  are  excessively  long  or  short,  colloquialisms,  exclamation  points,  
and  incomplete  sentences.    Check  that  your  verb  tenses  are  in  agreement  throughout  the  thesis.    
And  when  you  find  yourself  writing  tortuous,  confused  prose,  remember  that  fine  old  saying,  
"When  in  doubt,  just  say  what  you  mean."    
 
Use  of  Sources  
Each  year  there  are  some  questions  about  the  proper  use  of  sources.    You  are  expected  to  be  
familiar  with  Harvard's  rules  on  this  and  are  held  responsible  for  any  infractions.    Even  if  you  
think  you  know  these  rules,  review  them  carefully  before  you  begin  writing.    To  avoid  some  of  the  
more  common  problems,  note  the  following:  
 
-­‐   When  taking  notes,  either  paraphrase  the  author's  point  in  your  own  words  or  indicate  
that  you  are  quoting  verbatim.    If  a  reader  could  recognize  a  particular  sentence  tone  or  
construction  and  find  it  in  the  original  source,  you  have  borrowed  too  much.    You  may  not  
use  the  author's  sentence  by  changing  a  few  words.  
 
-­‐   When  one  author  A  quotes  or  discusses  author  B,  you  must  cite  author  A;  you  may  not  cite  
only  what  author  A  cites  when  you  have  not  in  fact  used  it.    For  example,  let's  say  you  are  
writing  on  A.  J.  Balfour  and  read  L.  S.  Jacyna's  article  "Science  and  Social  Order  in  the  
Thought  of  A.  J.  Balfour,"  Isis  71  (1980):  11-­‐34.    You  want  to  use  Jacyna's  discussion  of  
Balfour's  naturalism,  as  when  Jacyna  says  "these  he  [Balfour]  regarded  as  ultimately  a  
conflict  between  'a  religious  view  of  the  universe  and  a  naturalistic  view'  that  claimed  to  
be  the  only  outlook  in  full  harmony  with  the  `uncorrupt  teaching  of  empirical  science.'"4  
 
    4
Arthur  J.  Balfour,  Chapters  of  Autobiography,  ed.  E.  Dugdale  (London:  Cassell,  1930),  p.  
18.  
 
You  may  use  Balfour's  words  by  adding  "As  quoted  in  Jacyna"  and  citing  the  Jacyna  source  in  
full,  but  it  is  always  better  to  check  the  primary  source  yourself,  in  this  case  by  consulting  
Balfour's  monograph  directly.  
 
You  may  not  use  Balfour's  words  exactly  as  Jacyna  did  citing  only  Balfour.  
 
These  are  examples  of  the  kinds  of  problems  you  should  avoid  and  the  sort  of  judgment  scholarship  
of  this  sort  demands.    If  you  are  ever  in  doubt  about  proper  use  of  sources,  check  with  the  
reference  books  mentioned  earlier  and  your  adviser.  
 
Interviews  
Some  students  choose  to  conduct  interviews  as  part  of  their  research.  Before  doing  so,  they  are  
required  to  obtain  approval,  if  necessary,  from  Harvard’s  Committee  on  the  Use  of  Human  
Subjects,  as  well  as  any  consent  necessary  to  record,  transcribe,  and/or  use  the  subject’s  words  
within  a  senior  thesis.  Students  are  highly  encouraged  to  consult  with  advisers,  faculty,  and  others  
to  ensure  they  follow  appropriate  scholarly  standards  concerning  interview  techniques,  including  
transcription.  In  particular,  all  theses  that  rely  centrally  or  heavily  on  evidence  gleaned  from  
interviews  must  cite  those  interviews  properly,  and  must  translate  the  quoted  sections  into  English  
4  
if  necessary.  We  do  not  require  full  transcriptions  of  interviews  to  be  included  as  appendices  in  the  
senior  thesis.  But  we  do  ask  that  audio  recordings  of  interviews  or  full  transcriptions  be  made  
available  on  a  password-­‐protected  google  docs  website  for  12  months  after  the  submission  date  of  
the  thesis,  in  the  unlikely  event  that  a  thesis  reader  wishes  to  check  on  an  interview  source.  
Students  also  have  the  option  of  transcribing  certain  key  sections  of  their  interviews,  from  which  
quotes  were  drawn,  and  including  these  in  an  appendix  to  the  thesis-­‐-­‐  in  case  the  student  feels  it  
necessary  to  make  clear  a  fuller  context  from  which  s/he  is  drawing  quotes  from  the  interview.      
 
As  with  any  source,  oral  histories  require  careful  attention  to  issues  of  bias,  memory,  and  
interpretation.  For  more  information  on  the  art  of  qualitative  interview  studies,  students  may  want  
to  consult  Donald  A.  Ritchie,  Doing  Oral  History:  A  Practical  Guide,  2d  ed.  (Oxford:  Oxford  
University  Press,  2003);  Herbert  J.  Rubin  and  Irene  S.  Rubin,  Qualitative  Interviewing:  The  Art  of  
Hearing  Data,  2d  ed.  (Thousand  Oaks,  Calif.:  Sage,  2005);  and  Robert  S.  Weiss,  Learning  from  
Strangers:  The  Art  and  Method  of  Qualitative  Interview  Studies  (New  York:  Free  Press,  1994).  
 
Proof  Reading  
The  job  is  not  finished  when  the  last  page  of  the  thesis  is  typed:  at  this  point  you  are  expected  to  
re-­‐read  your  draft,  noting  and  correcting  any  typographical  errors,  misspellings,  etc.    Spell-­‐check  
and  grammar-­‐check  programs  simplify  these  tasks,  but  they  do  not  catch  everything.    Consistent  
misspellings  and  an  excessive  number  of  typing  errors  will  lower  the  thesis  grade;  be  especially  
careful  that  dates  and  titles  are  correct.  
 
Translations  
We  require  that  passages  in  foreign  languages  be  in  English  translation  when  used  in  the  text  of  the  
thesis.    If  it  is  necessary  to  do  so,  the  original  wording  of  the  whole  passage  can  be  reproduced  in  a  
footnote;  alternatively,  it  may  be  sufficient  merely  to  include  several  words  or  phrases  of  the  
original  in  parentheses  within  the  translation  itself.  
 
Illustrations  
We  prefer  that  illustrations  be  scanned  in  and  printed  on  numbered  pages.    Sometimes  this  is  not  
feasible  and  students  have  had  to  cut  &  paste  or  photocopy  illustrations.    In  that  case,  it  is  often  
easier  to  manually  number  the  pages  as  (for  example)  12a  and  insert  them  manually  into  the  text.    
Illustrations  do  not  have  to  be  printed  back-­‐to-­‐back  if  this  causes  problems.  
 
Other  Resources  for  Writing  and  Researching  
Howard  S.  Becker,  Tricks  of  the  Trade:  How  to  Think  About  Your  Research  While  You’re  Doing  It  
(Chicago:  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1998).  
 
 
GRADING  
 
History  of  Science  99ab  Course  Grade  
You  will  receive  a  SAT/UNSAT  grade  for  each  semester  of  the  course.    The  grade  will  be  decided  by  
the  course  instructor  in  consultation  with  individual  advisers  on  the  basis  of  the  effort  you  put  into  
writing  the  senior  thesis,  on  class  participation,  and  on  your  preparation  for  meetings  with  your  
individual  thesis  adviser.  After  the  first  semester,  you  will  receive  a  grade  based  on  your  work  

5  
leading  up  to  the  completion  of  the  first  chapter.    Normally  a  “SAT”  grade  for  the  first  semester  is  
required  in  order  to  enroll  in  the  following  semester  and  complete  the  senior  tutorial.  
 
Thesis  Grade  
The  thesis  grade  is  based  solely  on  the  final  thesis  that  you  produce.    Your  thesis  will  be  assigned  to  
two  readers  chosen  from  among  faculty,  graduate  students,  and  affiliates  of  the  department,  and  
will  be  graded  on  a  Latin  grade  scale  (in  descending  order:  summa,  summa  minus,  magna  plus,  
magna,  magna  minus,  cum  plus,  cum,  cum  minus,  pass).    The  readers  will  evaluate  your  thesis  and  
submit  a  one  or  two  page  written  report  with  the  Latin  grade  to  the  Undergraduate  Office.    When  
all  of  the  reports  have  been  submitted,  we  will  provide  you  with  copies  of  the  reports,  including  the  
names  of  your  readers.    This  process  often  takes  up  to  six  weeks  from  the  date  of  the  thesis  
submission.  
 
There  is  no  one  final  thesis  grade;  you  will  receive  two  separate  thesis  grades,  which  will  not  be  
averaged.  If  the  course  instructor  decides  it  is  warranted,  a  third  reader  will  be  assigned,  in  which  
case  the  thesis  will  receive  three  independent  grades.    
 
HONORS  
 
All  students  who  complete  an  honors  thesis  in  History  and  Science  will  be  eligible  for  the  
recommendation  to  receive  the  A.B.  degree  with  honors,  high  honors,  or  highest  honors  in  History  
and  Science.    A  recommendation  for  Departmental,  or  English,  honors  does  not,  however,  
guarantee  College,  or  Latin,  honors.    (E.g.,  while  “high  honors”  would  seemingly  translate  directly  
into  Magna  cum  Laude,  that  is  not  necessarily  the  case  because  Latin  honors  take  into  account  a  
student’s  overall  grade  point  average  and  are  restricted  to  the  top  50%  of  the  graduating  class.)  
Departmental  honors  are  noted  on  the  transcript,  although  they  are  not  normally  noted  on  the  
commencement  program  or  diploma.  Recommendations  for  departmental  honors  are  based  on  the  
concentration  grade  point  average  and  thesis  evaluations.    
 
For  a  more  detailed  explanation  of  the  honors  system  at  Harvard,  please  see  the  Harvard  College  
Handbook  for  Students:  http://handbook.fas.harvard.edu/book/requirements-­‐honors-­‐degrees.  
 
FINAL  CHECK  LIST:  
 
• Two  copies  of  the  thesis,  printed  on  acid-­‐free  paper,  and  printed  double-­‐sided  with  correct  
margins  (except  for  the  front  matter  which  should  be  single-­‐sided),  in  the  following  order:  
 
o Title  Page    
o Abstract  &  Keywords  
o Table  of  Contents  
o Acknowledgements    
o List  of  Illustrations/Abbreviations  (if  any)  
o Text  of  Thesis  (double-­‐sided)  
o Appendices  (double-­‐sided,  if  any)  
o Annotated  Bibliography  (double-­‐sided)  
 
 
6  
  
• Thesis  binders  and  CDs  will  be  provided  by  the  department  during  the  week  that  the  theses  
are  due.  

7  
  
 
[Template  for  Title  Page]  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
(TITLE)  
 
 
 
 
 
 
A  thesis  presented  
 
 
by  
 
 
(Full  name,  including  middle  name,  of  author)  
 
 
 
to  
 
 
the  Department  of  the  History  of  Science  
in  partial  fulfillment  of  the  requirements  for  an  honors  degree  in    
History  and  Science      
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Harvard  University  
Cambridge,  Massachusetts  
(Month  and  year  of  submission  of  the  completed  thesis)