REVIEW ARTICLE

Emerging and Existing Major Leaf Diseases of Hevea brasiliensis in Malaysia

Syed Sagaff Sharifah Aliya1, Nusaibah Syd Ali1*, Murnita Mohmad Mahyudin2, Wong Mui
Yun3 and Mohd Rafii Yusop4
1Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
2Integrated Pest and Disease Management Unit Experimental Station, Malaysian Rubber Board,

47000 Sg. Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia

3Institute of Plantation Research, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
4Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang,

Selangor, Malaysia

Edited by: ABSTRACT

Dr. M. S. Jeberson,
Central Agricultural University,
Imphal, Manipur, India.
Reviewed by:
Dr. Zaiton Sapak.
Universiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia
Article history:
Received: December 2, 2021
Accepted: March 9, 2022
Published: March 27, 2022
Citation:
Aliya, S. S. S., Nusaibah, S. A., Mahyudin, M.
M.,Yun, W. M., & Yusop, M. R. (2022).
Emerging and Existing Major Leaf Diseases of
Hevea brasiliensis in Malaysia. Journal of
Current Opinion in Crop Science, 3(1), 34-47.
*Corresponding author e-mail address:
nusaibah@upm.edu.my (Nusaibah Syd Ali).
Hevea brasiliensis, or rubber tree, is the primary source of
natural rubber, and second major commodity crop in
Malaysia after oil palm. It is known that rubber trees are
prone to a wide range of foliar diseases, resulting in
significant yield losses. To date, a new emerging severe leaf
disease epidemic tentatively termed as Pestalotiopsis
secondary leaf fall was identified affecting many rubber
plantations in rubber producing countries. In addition, five
major leaf diseases that have been conclusively identified
affecting rubber plantations nation-wide in Malaysia were
also reviewed in this paper. These leaf diseases include
secondary leaf falls of Oidium, Colletotrichum, and
Corynespora, as well as Fusicoccum leaf blight and
Phytophthora abnormal leaf fall. In general, this present
paper reviews the recent epidemic and the major leaf
diseases by focusing on causal pathogens, symptoms and its
effects on rubber plantations. Information presented in this
review would be useful in planning and initiating better
control measures for rubber growing regions in an attempt
to reduce or even prevent losses of latex yield.
Key words: Leaf diseases; Rubber tree; Malaysia

Copyright: © 2022 by authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original
work is properly cited.

J. Current Opinion Crop Sci., 2022; Volume 3(1): 34-47 34

INTRODUCTION
Hevea brasiliensis (family Euphorbiaceae) is a
tropical tree native to the Amazon Forest of South
America (Noordin et al., 2012). In the 1960s,
Malaysia was one of the world’s leading natural
rubber producers in the world. However, Malaysia
was in the third ranking by only producing 8% of the
total natural rubber globally, (Fox and Castella,
2013). Currently, natural rubber production is facing
many challenges including fluctuations in price, lack
of competent tappers and the risks of destructive
epidemics (Heng and Joo, 2017).
Recently, a severe epidemic of new leaf disease on
rubber plantations was reported. The disease bears
a symptom of brown circular spots, that was never
been reported before. Presently, the causal agent
was identified as Pestalotiopsis sp., but it is yet to be
confirmed by various on-going research
Figure 1. Symptoms of Major Rubber Leaf Diseases in Malaysia
EMERGING PESTALOTIOPSIS SECONDARY LEAF
FALL
The Pathogen
A new emerging epidemic of rubber leaf disease, first
reported to infect rubber plantations in Indonesia,
was originally thought to be caused by Fusicoccum
sp. Later, the causal agent was pinpointed to
Pestalotiopsis spp. However, the factual causal
pathogen is yet to be confirmed. At present, on-going
research collaborations among the members of
International Rubber Research Development Board
(IRRDB) have been undertaken to affirm the causal
agent of the outbreak.
Distribution of the Disease
J. Current Opinion Crop Sci., 2022; Volume 3(1): 34-47
collaborations. As for now, the disease is known as
Pestalotiopsis secondary leaf fall.
In Malaysia, five major types of leaf diseases affecting
rubber plantation nation-wide were documented.
These diseases are secondary leaf falls of Oidium,
Colletotrichum, and Corynespora, as well as
Fusicoccum leaf blight, and Phytophthora abnormal
leaf fall. Figure 1 displays the foliar symptoms of
these diseases.
The diseases mentioned above have been considered
important as they affect physiological processes and
production of latex, ultimately affecting the economy
of the producing country. The aim of the present
review is to introduce a new emerging epidemic and
gather comprehensive information on major leaf
diseases of rubber in Malaysia.
The disease was initially reported by Dr. Febbiyanti
from Indonesian Rubber Research Institute (IRRI) in
2016. At the end of 2017, the disease spread
throughout South Sumatera (personal
communication, November 5, 2019). To date, the
new leaf disease has spread to four other rubber
producing countries, namely India, Malaysia,
Thailand and Sri Lanka. In 2017, the disease was
reported by Dr. Shaji Phillip from Rubber Research
Institute of India in "Meeting of Technical Committee
on Plant Protection" organized by Association of
Natural Rubber Producing Countries (ANRPC) on 5
November 2019 at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. In the
same year, Dr. Murnita Mohmad Mahyudin and her
team from Malaysian Rubber Board (MRB) also
detected the occurrence of this disease in Johor state
35
of Malaysia (personal communication, November 5
2019). In 2019, Dr. Arom Rodesuchit from Surat
Thani Rubber Research Centre of Thailand reported
the first occurrence of the disease at a rubber
plantation in Narathiwat, Thailand at a “Meeting of
Expert on Pestalotiopsis Leaf Disease" organized by
Rubber Authority of Thailand (RAOT) from 13 - 15
January 2020 at Surat Thani, Thailand. Last but not
least, in 2019, Sri Lanka stated the occurrence of the
disease as confirmed by Dr. Chandra Kumara
Jayasinghe from International Rubber Research and
Development Board (personal communication,
February 11, 2020).
According to Dr. Murnita (personal communication,
November 5, 2019), in Malaysia, the disease began to
infect rubber plantations in November 2017 in Johor
at Labis district (2 hectare), Kulai district (1 hectare)
and Setindan area (30 hectare). The affected rubber
clones were RRIM 2001, RRIM 2002, RRIM 2025,
RRIM 2023, RRIM 3001, RRIM 600, PB 260, PB 235,
PB 347 and PB 350. In 2018, the disease has spread
to other states which included Negeri Sembilan,
Selangor, Perak, Pahang, Kelantan and Terengganu.
In 2019, the disease was recorded in all states in
Peninsular Malaysia except for Perlis and Penang.
However, till to date, Sarawak and Sabah states are
free from the new outbreak.
Symptoms
The symptoms of Pestalotiopsis secondary leaf fall
were observed as circular spots with brown necrotic
lesions on matured rubber leaves (Figure 2). The
fungus infects matured rubber trees aged around 10
to 15 years. Most of the infected rubber plantation
had low or no application of fertilizers. The disease
causes defoliation up to 90% of the canopy (personal
communication, November 5, 2019).
Disease Cycle
At present, no information was available on the
disease cycle.
Figure 2. Circular spots with brown necrotic ring on green matured rubber leaf (A); dark green circular spots
on orangey rubber leaf (B)
OIDIUM SECONDARY LEAF FALL
The Pathogen
Oidium secondary leaf fall, commonly known as
powdery mildew is caused by Oidium heveae which
is an obligate parasite requiring a living host to
J. Current Opinion Crop Sci., 2022; Volume 3(1): 34-47
Epidemiology
Pestalotiopsis secondary leaf fall favours wet
environment with high humidity. In Malaysia,
wintering season begins in January to March. Young
rubber leaves appear in March and April. Soon after,
the leaves mature around May and June. At this stage,
disease symptoms began to appear as the pathogen
attack matured rubber leaves. Generally, July until
October is the time for harvest (tapping) latex when
yield is at its peak. Unfortunately, rainy season
together with production of matured rubber leaves
make it more susceptible for the outbreak to occur.
The pathogen spread or transmits through rain
splash and air. Favourable temperature and
susceptible rubber clones transmit the disease more
rapidly. In Malaysia, the epidemic began around
October and November, and subsequently the yield
of latex drops significantly.
Disease Management
According to Dr. Murnita, in Malaysia, the disease is
currently being controlled by spraying fungicides
such as chlorothalonil, mancozeb, propineb,
propiconazole and hexaconazole. Spraying of
fungicides are usually done on the ground and the
canopy for three to six rounds. Prevention and
control of the outbreak can also be done by
improving good agricultural practices such as use of
fertilizers, good weed control and use of resistance
clones. Data from observations and surveys during
advisories by MRB revealed that rubber clone RRIM
600 and PB 350 have been classified as severe to
very severe towards the disease respectively. Clone
RRIM 2002 was classified as moderate to severe. The
severity of clones RRIM 2001, RRIM 2023, RRIM
2025, RRIM 3001 and PB 260 are moderate towards
the disease. Clones that are low in severity towards
the disease are PB 235 and PB 347 (personal
communication, November 5, 2019).
sustain. At present, no specific virulent strain of O.
heveae has been reported in Malaysia.
Distribution of Disease
The first outbreak of the disease was reported in
1918 affecting rubber trees in Indonesia (Young,
36
1949). The outbreak spread to Malaysia, Brazil,
Papua New Guinea and India (Shaw, 1967). Braun
and Cook (2012) reported that O. heveae was
detected in Asian countries including Malaysia,
Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Indonesia, India, and
Sri Lanka. The pathogen was also detected in some
African countries including Uganda, Tanzania, Ghana
and Congo. Other rubber-growing regions affected
by the disease included Cameroon, Brunei, Myanmar
and Malawi (Liyanage et al., 2016).
Symptoms
Infected young leaves generally shrink, curl, crumple
and with edges rolling inwards. Subsequently, leaves
display blackened, with white mycelia on the
surfaces before finally fall (Liyanage et al., 2016).
White patches of mycelia generally grow on both
sides of matured leaves which later turn yellow and
brown, forming necrotic spots which reduce the
efficiency of the processes of photosynthesis
(Liyanage et al., 2016). At a later stage of infection,
the whole lamina is covered by mycelia. Later, the
foliar parts fall, leaving the petioles attached to the
twigs. After several days, the petioles drop. The
disease causes secondary leaf fall of young leaves
that appear after wintering (Fernando, 1971). This
causes a major defoliation leading to severe
retardation of growth and extensive loss in yield up
to 45% (Liyanage et al., 2016).
Disease Cycle
Conidiospores of O. heveae will landed on the surface
of a leaf. Subsequently, conidia form germ tubes and
thereafter the appressoria at the end of the tubes.
The appressoria adhere spores to the surface of host
tissues and start to invade the host. A feeding
structure, known as haustoria develops in the cells
indicating successful infection. Soon after, secondary
hyphae proceed to branch out on the surface of the
host. Finally, the conidiophores form at top of leaf
stalks, completing a disease cycle (Sun et al., 2015).
Epidemiology
The spores of the pathogen are spread via wind.
Transport of infected planting materials also
contributes to the dissemination of the pathogen
(Ramakrishnan and Radhakrishna, 1963). High
humidity makes the environment more favourable
for the spread of the pathogen (Heng and Joo, 2017).
A temperature of slightly below 30°C was best for
production of O. heveae spores (Liyanage et al.,
1986). Contrarily, the release and dispersion of
spore were reported to be more favourable at high
temperature together with the occurrence of great
air turbulence (Fernando, 1971) and low moisture
(Peries, 1966a). The outbreak is notably severe in
subtropical regions (Liyanage et al., 2016). Powdery
mildew is said to be aggravated by climate change.
For instance, fluctuations in rainfall regimes, rising
J. Current Opinion Crop Sci., 2022; Volume 3(1): 34-47
temperatures, moisture and immense atmospheric
humidity (97 to 100%) were reported to have
increased pathogenicity of the disease (Narayanan
and Mydin, 2012).
Disease Management
An effective method to reduce infection is by sulphur
dusting of four to six rounds on tractor-mounted
mist blower at intervals of 5 to 7 days during bud-
burst (Heng and Joo, 2017). The first application was
proposed to be conducted two days after bud burst
(when 10-15% of leaf buds reach 5mm) and to
continue for at least 80% of the susceptible period. A
minimum of four applications were required within
five to six weeks during a refoliation cycle. Wettable
sulphur at a ratio of 1 kg in 400 L of water was
proposed as suitable and efficient for rubber
seedlings in nurseries (Priyadarshan et al., 2005).
The employment of disease-resistant clones appears
to be the simplest and most economical way of
managing Oidium secondary leaf fall. Malaysian
clones RRIM 929, RRIM 928, RRIM 2025, PB 350 and
PB 260 have been grouped as moderately resistant
clones, while RRIM 2001, RRIM 2002, RRIM 2023,
RRIM 2024 and RRIM 3001 were grouped as
resistant clones towards Oidium secondary leaf fall
(Anon, 1998).
COLLETOTRICHUM SECONDARY LEAF FALL
The Pathogen
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is the causal
pathogen of Colletotrichum secondary leaf fall
disease in rubber. At present, there is no virulent
strain reported in Malaysia.
Distribution of Disease
Colletotrichum secondary leaf fall disease has been
observed in most rubber-growing regions of
Southeast Asia (Brown and Soepena, 1994), Sri
Lanka (Jayasinghe et al., 1997), India (Saha et al.,
2002) and China (Liu et al., 1987).
Symptoms
The disease establishes on rubber plants from the
period of refoliation causing extensive damage on
leaves at copper brown and light brown stages
(Manju et al., 2014). Beyond light brown stage, the
disease does not cause leaf fall (Manju et al., 2014).
Severe deformation of leaves has been reported to
occur in light green stage and beyond. As a result of
leaf deformation, active leaf area is substantially
reduced. The pathogen affects the development of
rubber trees causing stunted growth, dieback,
secondary leaf fall, dieback and death of trees at
nursery stage and in the field. Moreover, the
production of latex in mature rubber trees will be
reduced due to the disease (Sabu et al., 2000).
Disease Cycle
37
C. gloeosporioides initiates interaction with rubber
trees through production of melanised
appressorium by spores that germinate on host
surfaces penetrating the host cuticle. Soon after
penetration, infection vesicles and primary hyphae
are formed. Subsequently, secondary hyphae
develop and colonize neighbouring cells. Eventually,
visible lesions can be seen at the sites of infection
(Munch et al., 2008).
Epidemiology
The main elements that influence infection rate
particularly during refoliation are temperature,
humidity and rainfall (Sailajadevi et al., 2005).
Pathogen favours cloudy weather, more rainy days,
slight sunshine and temperature of 29 °C. Pathogens
persevered on and in seeds, trash and also weed
hosts. Spores are spread by infected seeds, air
currents, water splash and insects. Serious
outbreaks make trees bare of leaves or with
unhealthy foliage and retarded growth, hence
lengthen the plants immaturity period (Manju et al.,
2014).
Disease Management
The present method used to control Colletotrichum
secondary leaf fall is by application of fungicides
such as chlorothalonil and propineb, once a week
until the leaves matured (MRB, 2018). The size of
matured rubber trees has been noted as the limiting
factor for controlling the disease. Although aerial
treatment has been documented to be necessary for
efficient control, the method raises environmental
and health concerns. Artificial defoliation technique
is another method of controlling Colletotrichum
secondary leaf fall disease (Guyot et al., 2001). The
process takes advantage of the time of natural
wintering of the rubber trees. The technique
involves the removal of entire leaves by chemical
defoliation before the start of natural wintering. New
leaves refoliate and mature earlier, and this
coincides with the dry season where C.
gloeosporioides is not active. Hence, secondary leaf
fall is avoided. The technique accelerates leaf
senescence and fall, and initiates rapid refoliation.
The method was established in Asia, then in
Cameroon and Gabon. In Malaysia, the technique was
well-tested in 1968 and from 1974, and was adopted
on large-scale to control the disease. Herbicides such
as MSMA, merphos or sodium cacodylate were used
in this technique. Application of the herbicides was
documented to cause early refoliation, generally
occurring before the rainy season, which helps
rubber trees to avoid fungal infection (Guyot et al.,
2001). Rubber clone PB 260 was reported as less
susceptible to the disease (Guyot et al., 2001). To
date, no recent literature listing the revised list of
susceptible or resistant clones toward the disease.
J. Current Opinion Crop Sci., 2022; Volume 3(1): 34-47
CORYNESPORA SECONDARY LEAF FALL
The Pathogen
The disease is caused by fungus, Corynespora
cassiicola which produces a toxin, cassiicolin. C.
cassiicola grows very well under high humid
conditions with temperature range of 28 to 30°C and
long sunshine hours. The fungus is recognized as a
necrotrophic pathogen that invades host through
secretion of phytotoxic compounds (Breton et al.,
2000). In Malaysia, there are multiple virulent
strains of this fungus with different levels of
virulence. Studies have shown that Strain CKT05D is
virulent towards rubber tree causing severe
infection, while Strains CSB16 and CLN23 showed
moderate to low levels of infectivity. The least
aggressive strain was recorded as Strain CKT05F
which caused mild necrotic lesions (Siti Shuhada et
al., 2015).
Distribution of the Disease
The fungus was first isolated from rubber trees in
1936 in Sierra Leone, later in India and in budwood
nurseries in Malaysia during 1960 (Newsam, 1960).
The disease has spread to most other rubber-
producing countries in Asia which include Indonesia,
Thailand, India and Sri Lanka. African countries
were also affected by the disease at the end of 1980s
(Déon et al., 2012b).
Symptoms
The disease exhibits different symptoms in over 80
host plants under wide environmental conditions
(Jayasinghe, 2000a). The variety of symptoms often
posed difficulties in early identification and control
of the disease (Umoh and Fashoranti, 2018). The
most familiar symptom was described by Jinji et al.
(2007) as circular amphigenous lesions of different
sizes with brown or white papery centre, encircled
by brown margins and yellow halo surrounding the
ring (Manju, 2011). The centre of the lesions may
disintegrate, leaving holes. The shot holes effects
which appear on leaves were said to be due to
breakdown in the centre of the spots (Jinji et al.,
2007). Frequently, the primary vein or mini veinlets
adjacent to the spot becomes dark in colour giving
rise to ‘fishbone’ or ‘railway-track’ appearances (Jinji
et al., 2007). The fungus has been observed to cause
the fall of young and old leaves. Repeated
defoliations of a tree cause die-back of shoots and
death of the affected tree. Under natural conditions,
it was observed that the disease was more severe at
the stage when a greater portion of the canopy was
covered with light green leaves (Manju et al., 2014).
Disease Cycle
After the pathogen infects a rubber tree, the disease
progresses rapidly. The conidia germinate and germ
tubes are produced and infect leaves via wounds and
38
extended into leaf veins. Within 24-hour period, the
mycelia extend through host cells including
intercellular spaces. After two days, the surfaces of
lesions are covered with mycelia. Soon after,
conidiophores with conidia protrude from the lesion
spots (Liu et al., 2014). Toxin cassiicolin is vital in
the initial phase of infection. According to Déon et al.
(2012a), one or two days after inoculation, before
the appearance of the first symptoms, a peak of
cassiicolin transcripts occurred regardless of the
susceptibility of the rubber clones. The main enzyme
involved in pathogenesis of the C. cassiicola was
reported as pectin lyase. Cellulolytic enzymes also
take part in the later stage of infection (Jayasinghe et
al., 1998a).
Epidemiology
The severity of the disease was reported to be aided
by water stress, poor soil fertility and unbalanced or
not enough nutrient supply (Rao, 1975). Spores’
liberation is by wind (Jayasinghe, 2000a). The
dispersion of spores has been observed to peak
during mid-day. It was observed that spore dispersal
was at its peak during dry season with temperatures
between 25 to 30°C (Jayasinghe, 2000a). However,
the disease occurs when the surface of leaf is damp
(Jayasinghe, 2000a). The epidemic has been
reported to be more serious during refoliation
(Reshma et al., 2016). Even though the pathogen
infects at all phases of leaf growth, the most
vulnerable phase was reported to be at the light
green phase (Umoh and Fashoranti, 2018). C.
cassiicola causes delay in maturation of young
rubber trees, dieback and yield reduction of about
45% in matured trees (Ogbebor, 2010). It was
reported that Sri Lanka uprooted and withdrawn
their popular high yielding rubber clone RRIC 103 as
a recommended planting material due to its
susceptibility and serious outbreak of Corynespora
secondary leaf fall disease (Jayasinghe et al., 1997).
Disease Management
Suppression of C. cassiicola during its severity period
is crucial to maintain well-being of trees in
subsequent seasons. Control approaches have
suggested efficient management of the disease to
begin both in nurseries and fields. These included
the application of fungicides, cultural practices and
integrated management of disease, focusing on
planting of resistant clones, eradication of
susceptible clones, restriction for introduction of
clones, multiclonal planting, and use of biological
and chemical controls (Manju et al., 2019). Chemical
control is commonly applied while plants are still in
polybags and or in budwood nursery. Generally,
most researchers suggested a combination of
application of fungicides as an effective control
(Umoh and Fashoranti, 2018). It is recommended to
spray fungicides in nursery polybags during rainy
J. Current Opinion Crop Sci., 2022; Volume 3(1): 34-47
season because all rubber clones are highly prone to
the disease at young age (Jayasinghe, 2000b).
Various water-based fungicides have been suggested
by Joseph and Manju (2002) for control of diseases,
describing that a mixture of mancozeb (0.2%),
carbendazim (0.5%) and a combination of metalaxyl
+ mancozeb (0.2%) were normally efficient in
nurseries. In addition, it was recommended to spray
mancozeb weekly, as it was the most efficient
fungicide available at a reasonable price. According
to a study by Fernando et al. (2010) combining
overhead shading and use of fungicide mancozeb
was recorded as the best approach to manage
Corynespora secondary leaf fall disease. The timing
of sprhaying of fungicide appears to be very crucial,
the best being at the stage of light green during
refoliation (Manju et al., 2016). According to Chee
(1988), the most promising approach of combating
the disease is to prevent planting of susceptible
clones. Susceptible clones need to be detected early
during selection and breeding processes. Most
susceptible clones in Malaysia have been identified,
and these included RRIC 103, followed by KRS 21, FX
25 and RRIM 725. Clones GT 1 and RRIM 600 were
classified as moderately susceptible.
FUSICOCCUM LEAF BLIGHT
The Pathogen
Fusicoccum leaf blight of rubber was first reported
by Radziah and Chee (1989) in February 1987. The
disease was infecting four-year-old rubber trees at
FELDA Lok Heng Selatan, in Johor. The disease
pathogen was identified as a Fusicoccum species.
Based on taxonomic and sequence data, Nyaka
Ngobisa et al. (2013) identified Neofusicoccum ribis
as the primary causal agent of leaf blight disease in
H. brasiliensis in commercial plantations in Malaysia.
Study conducted by Nyaka Ngobisa et al. (2015)
revealed that all isolates were pathogenic to
immature leaves of rubber trees and seedlings.
Nevertheless, the virulence of the fungus differs
according to the rubber clones (Nyaka Ngobisa et al.,
2015).
Distribution of Disease
In 2003, Fusicoccum leaf blight disease outbreak was
reported to have spread to Perak and Selangor and
was recently classified as one of the five major
rubber canopy diseases in Malaysia (Hashim et al.,
2010).
Symptoms
The pathogen causes large lesions with concentric
brownish zones and rusty brown pin-head size spots
on foliar parts of the rubber tree. Subsequently,
infected young leaves drop off after four months of
infection (Nyaka Ngobisa et al., 2012). The following
are rubber clones that could be affected by the
39
disease: PR 261, PB 260, PB 217, PB 255, RRIM 600,
RRIM 2023, RRIM 2024, RRIM 2025, RRIM 3001 and
PB 350 (Radziah and Chee, 1989; Murnita et al.,
2008).
Disease Cycle
To date, no literature describing the disease cycle
specifically on Neofusicoccum ribis is available.
Epidemiology
Infection of the genus Neofusicoccum was generally
believed to develop via spores and through seeds. It
has the capability of colonizing the host without
producing any visible symptoms and remains as
endophytes in the host (Slippers and Wingfield,
2007). Transition into pathogenic phase was cited to
be associated with environmental stresses such as
nutrient deficiencies, extreme temperature
fluctuations, drought and mechanical injuries (Lopes
et al., 2016).
Disease Management
The current method used to control this disease is by
application of fungicides, carbendazim,
propiconazole and benomyl by continuous weekly
spraying until no symptoms appear (MRB, 2018).
Based on Percentage of Disease Intensity (PDI),
rubber clones used in the study were classified into
three groups according to their capability to endure
infection following artificial inoculation. Group 1
consists of susceptible clones (PDI > 10%) which
comprises of clones PB 350, RRIM 2024 and RRIM
2023. Group 2 consists of moderately resistant
clones (PDI > 5%) which include RRIM 2025 and PB
260 while Group 3 are resistant clones (PDI < 5%)
including RRIM 2007 and RRIM 2002 (Nyaka
Ngobisa et al., 2015).
PHYTOPHTHORA ABNORMAL LEAF FALL
The Pathogen
The genus Phytophthora causes disease in nearly all
components of a rubber tree excluding roots.
Abnormal leaf fall disease caused by Phytophthora
spp. is one of the most damaging infections of a
rubber tree. P. palmivora, P. botryosa and P. meadii,
have been reported to cause abnormal leaf fall in
Malaysia (Krishnan et al., 2019). Currently, there is
no report describing any specific virulent strain of
the pathogen infecting Malaysian rubber trees.
Distribution of the Disease
It has been reported that Phytophthora diseases are
present in rubber growing countries including
Malaysia, Costa Rica, India, Venezuela, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Liberia and Vietnam
(Krishnan et al., 2019).
Symptoms
J. Current Opinion Crop Sci., 2022; Volume 3(1): 34-47
In the early stages of the disease outbreak, leaves of
infected plants generally remain healthy and green.
The colour of the lamina of fallen leaves gradually
change colour from green to yellow. Fruits of
infected rubber trees remain intact and turn dark in
colour. In severe infection, the fruits rot. Falling of
leaves negatively affects timber output besides
reducing crop yield (Krishnan et al., 2019).
Disease Cycle
Phytophthora sp. favours tropical climate with
prolonged damp conditions. The establishment and
dispersal of disease occur during damp rainy season
when there is enough moisture (Krishnan et al.,
2019). Fundamentally, Phytophthora is a soil-borne
organism although some species can be spread by
other methods (Drenth and Guest, 2004). Epidemics
begins when the environmental conditions are
favourable for the germination of primary inocula.
Primary inocula exist as chlamydospores and
mycelia in infected soils, bark cankers, roots and
mummified pods or fruits. Asexual reproduction of
Phytophthora species may have up to three asexual
spore forms, which are chlamydospores, sporangia
and zoospores (Drenth and Guest, 2004). Asexual
sporangia are spread either by water or wind
(Krishnan et al., 2019). Sporangia germinate by
establishing germtubes or invasive hyphae or evolve
into biflagellate zoospores. The flagella of the
zoospores play a part in the spread and epidemics of
Phytophthora species (Cline et al., 2008). After the
zoospores get attached to a host surface, they
germinate and form germtubes which subsequently
develop over the plant surface and finally form
appressoria. Consequently, the appressoria
penetrate the epidermis of the host (Latijnhouwers
et al., 2003).
Epidemiology
If infection succeeds, secondary inocula are
produced and trigger the disease epidemic. The
sporangia can also be released and spread by wind,
water and through contact with vectors (Drenth and
Guest, 2004). Sexual reproduction results in the
production of oospores. The germination of
oospores from previous season is the beginning of an
inoculum development (Drenth and Guest, 2004).
The oospores live in twigs, leaves, infected dried
pods and also on the soils (Drenth and Guest, 2004).
Infection is more frequent on petioles of leaves often
seen with an exudation of latex. Water-soaked
lesions exhibited on leaf petioles turn dark brown or
black in colour (Krishnan et al., 2019). A drop of
coagulated latex often exudes from a lesion. Lesions
could also be seen on foliar parts exhibiting dull
green colour which later changes to black. The
pathogen also infects young twigs and growing
shoots which later cause rotting and dieback of
shoots. The petioles, leaves, pods and tender shoots
40
can also be infected causing massive defoliation and
crop loss (Krishnan et al., 2019). The disease causes
leaves to fall and shoots to rot leading to major
dieback. Consequently, growth becomes stunted and
this delays maturation of the rubber trees. Extensive
defoliations of matured rubber trees cause great loss
in terms of economy. The disease also reduces
growth of rubber trees which results in decreased
latex yield (Krishnan et al., 2019). When climatic
conditions are ideal for the pathogen, leaf fall can be
more extensive particularly in vulnerable clones.
Leaf falls also result in fallen leaves covering the
entire ground forming a carpet (Krishnan et al.,
2019). Phytophthora abnormal leaf fall of rubber
becomes outstanding during the monsoon season
(Krishnan et al., 2019).
Disease Management
The current method used to control Phytophthora
abnormal leaf fall in rubber is through the
application of fungicide, copper oxychloride in
mineral oil by spraying before the monsoon season
begins. The method has been used widely in
Malaysia, Sri Lanka and India (MRB, 2018). The best
alternative method apart from chemical control is by
planting tolerant or resistant clones. Formerly
famous rubber clone RRIM 600 and PR 107 were
susceptible to this disease in most rubber growing
countries in Southeast Asia. Conversely, GT 1, PR
261, PR 255 and RRIM 712 are tolerant clones
suggested for Southeast Asian regions (Anon, 1986).
CONCLUSION
There are five major leaf diseases of rubber tree in
Malaysia. The diseases include secondary leaf falls of
Oidium, Colletotrichum, Corynespora secondary leaf
fall, Fusicoccum leaf blight and Phytophthora
abnormal leaf fall. A new epidemic of leaf disease
known as Pestalotiopsis secondary leaf fall also
significantly affects Malaysian rubber plantations.
Table 1 summarizes all the major diseases reviewed
in this paper. Generally, the causal pathogens cause
defoliation of leaves which eventually disrupt
physiological processes such as photosynthesis,
resulting in stunted growth rate and yield loss. These
catastrophic leaf diseases most significantly affect
smallholders as they depend solely on latex yield as
their source of income. Malaysia was once the
biggest producer of rubber; however, Thailand and
Indonesia have over-taken the place as the leading
rubber producer in the world. To curb the declining
J. Current Opinion Crop Sci., 2022; Volume 3(1): 34-47
rubber production, effective management on
existing and current rubber diseases is a matter of
prime importance. Lack of information on the
virulent strains of pathogens infecting rubber trees
in Malaysia has been a constraint in developing
preventive or curative measures. Recent literature
updating the list of susceptible or resistant clones
towards particular diseases is scarce. Researchers
should also update on the distribution of the disease
so that better precaution could be implemented to
control the spread and movement of the pathogen
particularly in international trade. For each disease
discussed in the present review, much information is
still lacking. Further study needs to be carried out in
order to provide comprehensive information, better
understanding and to develop sustainable methods
to combat the diseases for a brighter future of
natural rubber industry in Malaysia.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project was supported by the Fundamental
Research Grant Scheme (FRGS), administered
through the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia
(Grant No: FRGS/1/2018/WAB01/UPM/02/31).
COMPETING INTERESTS
The authors declare that they have no competing
interests
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The raw data used to support the findings of this
study are available from the corresponding author
upon request.
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41
Table 1. Summary of major leaf diseases of rubber in Malaysia
ASPECTS OF DISEASES
DISEASE
Distribution Symptoms Disease cycle Epidemiology Disease Management
Oidium Malaysia, Infected young 1) Conidiospores 1) High humidity Sulphur dusting.
secondary leaf Thailand, leaves will shrink, reach surface of leaves and temperature
fall Vietnam, curl, crumple and and conidia form germ between 25°C to
Cambodia, edges roll tubes, and thereafter 28°C are favourable
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Colletotrichum Malaysia and in Spots and 1) Spores germinate and 1) Cloudy weather, Application of fungicides
secondary leaf most rubber deformation on produce melanised rainy days, slight such as chlorothalonil and
fall growing countries mature leaves. appressorium which sunshine and propineb once a week until
of Southeast Asia, penetrate host cuticle. temperature of 29°C the leaves are matured.
Sri Lanka, India favour spread of
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splash and insects.
hyphae develop and
colonize neighbouring
cells.

J. Current Opinion Crop Sci., 2022; Volume 3(1): 34-47 42

Corynespora Sierra Leone, 1) Circular 1) The conidia 1) High moisture, Fungicide combination is
secondary leaf India, Malaysia, amphigenous germinate and germ water stress, poor an effective control;
fall Indonesia, lesions with tubes produced and soil fertility and mixture of mancozeb
Thailand, Sri brown or white infect leaves via wounds insufficient nutrient (0.2%), carbendazim
Lanka and African papery centre and extended into the increase severity of (0.5%) and a combination
countries. encircled by veins. disease. of metalaxyl and mancozeb
brown margins (0.2%).
2) Within 24 hours, the 2) Spores are spread
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mycelia extend through via wind.
halo surrounding
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veinlets adjacent
2 days.
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‘railway-track’
appearances.
Fusicoccum Malaysia Large lesions with To date, no literature 1) Infection via Application of fungicides
leaf blight concentric describing the disease spores and through carbendazim,
brownish zones cycle specifically on seeds. propiconazole and
and rusty brown Neofusicoccum ribis benomyl by spraying
2) Neofusicoccum
pin head size spots available. continuously once a week
ribis may remain as
on rubber leaves. until no symptom appears.
endophytees in host
and transit into
pathogenic phase
when triggered by
environmental
stress, nutrient
deficiencies, extreme
temperature
fluctuations, drought
and mechanical
injuries.

J. Current Opinion Crop Sci., 2022; Volume 3(1): 34-47 43

Phytophthora Malaysia, Costa 1) The colour of 1) Sporangia germinate 1) Spread by wind, Application of fungicide
abnormal leaf Rica, India, lamina of fallen by establishing water and other copper oxychloride in
fall Venezuela, Sri leaves gradually germtubes or invasive vectors. mineral oil by spraying
Lanka, Thailand, change from green hyphae or evolve into before a monsoon season
2) Severe during
Myanmar, to yellow. biflagellate zoospores. begins.
monsoon seasons.
Cambodia, Liberia
2) The fruits of 2) Zoospores become
and Vietnam
rubber persist on attached
tree and turn to
dark in colour. In
severe case, the
fruits rotted.
Pestalotiopsis Indonesia, Circular spots No information available 1) Wet, high Spraying with fungicides
secondary leaf Malaysia, India, with brown on disease cycle of humidity and rainy such as chlorothalonil,
fall Thailand, Sri necrotic lesions on pathogen. season favour spread mancozeb, propineb,
Lanka matured rubber of pathogen. propiconazole and
leaves hexaconazole.
2) Spread through
water and air.

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