1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

John Maynard Smith once said, “Genetics is about how information is stored and

transmitted between generations”. As one of the fields of biology, genetics is an essential

discipline to understand further how traits are inherited and are passed from one generation

to another and to understand how are genes, chromosomes and DNA are important to be

learned with. Thus, a call for science education to strengthen the teaching of genetics is

very important. Teaching will not be successful if the learners fail to understand the things

that are supposed to be learned. Teachers are trying their very best to impart the lessons

clearly and lively. However, even how excellent a teacher is, there are some students who

cannot comprehend the lesson given, especially those concepts which are complicated, and

these might lead the students to misconceptions.

It is known that science is a difficult subject that is why the curriculum for high

school takes more contact hours than other subjects. There is a lecture time to discuss the

concepts and laboratory time to apply the concepts. In public schools, there are 380 minutes

per week allotted for Sciences. It has a unit credit of 1.8 compare to Math and English with

a unit credit of 1.5 respectively. In the Philippines secondary curriculum, there are four

science subjects namely: Integrated Science Biology, Chemistry and Physics.

Genetics is one of the areas in biology which deals on heredity. Based on

experiences, this area is one of the most difficult lessons for students. It is hard to

comprehend because it deals with the molecular structure and functions of genes, the
 2

chromosomal basis of inheritance, the role of DNA (Deoxy Ribonucleic Acid) in the

transmission of traits, the different chromosomal aberrations and other topics related to

genetics.

Results in the National Achievement Test (NAT) for 3 Years, second year students

have shown they have low performance in the Science learning area. Thus, according to

Razo (2012), this area needs improvement. Knowing that one of the difficult topics for

science is genetics, teachers look for teaching strategies and instructional materials to

enhance learning and therefore, avoid misconceptions.

Lev Vygotsky, the founding father of social constructivism, believed that social

interaction is an integral part of learning (Powell & Kalina, 2009). According to Vygotsky,

social constructivism is based on the social interactions of a student in the classroom along

with his personal critical thinking process. Vygotsky's theory involves cognitive dialogue,

the zone of proximal development (ZPD), social interaction, culture and inner speech.

Constructivism Theory is based on observation and scientific study about how people teach

(Brandon & All, 2010). Interactive learning provides a pleasant way for students to build

knowledge and increase understanding (Prakash, 2010). Educators’ view constructivism

as a non-behavioural learning theory. Learners use previous experience and link it with

new ones to construct new knowledge (Anderman & Lynley, 2009)

In a developing country like the Philippines, where the majority of the people are

still struggling to make ends meet, science is reserved only for the few, for Filipinos who

have the financial capability to invest in quality education (Mejia, 2020). Thus, this calls

for attention, both in education sector and even educators that students, in their early years

in secondary education will be orientated already of science concepts specifically concepts

 3

of genetics. There indeed is a gap that needs to be filled in the world of science, but in our

country, unfortunately, this gap grows wider and wider, leaving out those young Filipinos

aspiring to be scientists and those yearning with passion for science’s sake.

Thus, this situation has awoken the researchers to help improve the science

education by focusing on learners’ scientific literacy with regards to some concepts in

Genetics which will benefit the students, the teachers, and the education sector.

Statement of the Problem

This study generally aimed to improve the JHS Students’ Scientific Literacy on

Selected Topics in Genetics in three Public High Schools in the Province of Capiz.

Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions:

1. What are the pre-test performances of the students?

2. What are the post-test performances of the students?

3. Is there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test performance

of the students?

Hypothesis

1. There is no significant difference between the pre-test and post-test performance of

the students.

Theoretical Framework

The theory of Constructionism states that the learners have their own ability to

construct new thoughts and ideas with the use of their existing knowledge. According to
 4

Papert (1991), Constructionism advocates student-centered classroom, wherein there is an

active learning process where knowledge is being constructed through student’s

interaction. Hence, learning should be in a realistic setting where the learners are engaged

in doing tasks or activities that enables knowledge construction.

Situated Cognition Theory emphasizes that people’s knowledge is embedded and

connected to the activity, context and culture in which it was learned. According to Brown

et al., (1989), the pioneers of the Situated Cognition Theory, learning is not hidden, it is

open to everyone as people are socializing and communicating with each other by sharing

their thoughts and ideas as they are discussing the tasks they have learned from each other.

The situated cognition theory has helped the researchers to understand on how the

learners widely understand concepts of genetics in the context of science education in

which they experience in their daily lives and at the same time, the educators know if there

is already an existing knowledge about genetics that will help them in learning new

thoughts and ideas.

Constructivism as a process of learning can explain when an individual encounters

something new for the first time (Kaur, 2001). Thus, constructivism involves actively

creating our own knowledge by asking questions, and exploring and accessing what we

know.

These theories have helped the researchers in viewing the research as a way of

developing activities and materials to be used during the intervention. With these theories,

the researchers were able to test the schema of the students about their knowledge in

genetics.
 5

Conceptual Framework

Teaching with the aid of intervention achieves learning since this method serves as

a continuation of how students acquire knowledge and skills through the intervention being

applied. This describes the cause and effect relationship based on the theoretical

framework.

In this study, the intervention which is Pictonary serves as the independent variable

while the development in JHS students after the intervention is the dependent variable of

the study.

Pre-test Post-test
Pictonary
Performance Performance

Figure 1. This Research paradigm showing the assumed relationship between the
independent and dependent variable

Significance of the Study

The results of this study would help in improving the Junior High School Science

teaching and learning and enabled everyone know how to deal with some concepts in

Genetics which will lead to a well-versed students when it comes to molecular structure

and functions of genes, the chromosomal basis of inheritance, the role of DNA (Deoxy

Ribonucleic Acid) in the transmission of traits, the different chromosomal aberrations

and other topics related to genetics.

 6

This study profited the students, teachers, DepEd in general and the future of our

country as a whole.

Students. The results of this study would help the students gain more awareness

and knowledge about genetics and its impact on the field of science and on our lives. It

also enlightened the students’ consciousness on some terms in genetics which will lead to

a well-versed students not just in field of genetics but in Biology as a whole.

Teachers. The results of this study would equip teachers about the strategies,

activities and materials that will help in the improvement of the Junior High School Science

teaching pedagogy specifically in the concept of genetics, Mendelian and Nonmendelian

inheritance.

Department of Education. The results of this study helped the education

department to develop the curriculum by putting emphasis to prioritize students’ literacy

and knowledge in genetics.

Future researchers. The results gathered from this study served as a basis since

the researchers’ conclusions and recommendations will help other aspiring researchers who

are willing to conduct a similar study.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

This study is limited to the conceptual and contextual scientific knowledge or

literacy of Junior High School Students in genetics. The instrument used in this study was

a researcher-made test and researcher-made intervention. This study was conducted at three

public high schools in the province of Capiz. The number of respondents were randomly

picked. The students were all considered under the experimental group and was exposed
 7

to the intervention. Before the actual conduct of the study, the researchers did a pilot test

at Maayon National High School.

The data obtained from the study were analyzed based on two-paired t-test. The

statistical tools helped the researchers in answering the problems stated. The researchers

utilized two-paired t-test to find out the significant difference.

Definition of Terms

The following terms were defined conceptually and operationally for easy

understanding of this study.

Pictonary is a compound word for picture and dictionary. (Merriam Webster

Dictionary, 2018).

In this study, this pictonary is used as an intervention to see if there will be

impact on student’s literacy regarding some concepts in genetics.

Scientific Literacy is the knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts and

processes required for personal decision making, participation in civic and cultural affairs,

and economic productivity. It also includes specific types of abilities . (National Science

Education Standards, 2018)

In this study, it is the scientific literacy of Junior High School Students being

measured and was given solution through the intervention which is pictonary.

Genetics refers to the study of heredity and variation of inherited characteristics.

(Oxford Dictionary, 2018).

In this study, the scientific literacy of Junior High School Students in Genetics was

measured and was given attention by the researchers.

 8

Literacy refers to competence and knowledge on specified area. (Oxford

Dictionary, 2018).

In this study, the literacy of students in genetics was measured before and after the

intervention.
 9

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents relevant studies and literature regarding scientific literacy of

learners and the development of science teaching in the Philippines, teaching genetics,

difficulties encountered by teachers and learners when dealing with genetics and other

related studies regarding genetics education which will serve as bases of the study being

conducted by the researchers.

Genetics is often thought of as a subject or a topic in biology that is difficult to learn

and understand, especially for novices. De Dios (2013) stated that, “Human learning

requires steps. We learn to walk before we run”. This is a popular quote that expresses a

brief but comprehensive message on the context of process. Or, in this study, could mean

educative process. In all fields of science, learning needs to be systematic or step by step.

We cannot learn complex topics when we were not able to overview and conceive the basic

ones. In this matter, teachers play a much more active role in student’s development

especially in science learning. This demands competency and challenge on part of teachers

to teach genetics through a more diverse and effective strategy. Mentors are essential tool

in the progress of the students (Leu et al., 2004). Subsequently, teaching genetics requires

competent teachers since the topic and the field seem very broad and needs deep

understanding. Traditional strategies for teaching genetics rely on teacher explanation,

textbooks, and problem-solving activities (in which problems are solved by application of

an already known algorithm). These traditional strategies have led students to somehow

misconception, misapprehension and misconstruction of knowledge, skills and values on

 10

some topics in the field of genetics. Studies have showed that teachers who are just using

repeated strategies have produced students who are misinformed by different topics in

genetics.

Consequently, teaching genetics through lecture would result into short term

memory and just allow students to prepare for the quiz and cannot apply what they have

learned on the real life scenario or situation just like tracing heredity and tracing their

family origin (Ayuso, 2000).

Undoubtedly, many would acknowledge that genetics is an important subject to

learn in these days and age where its applications are ubiquitous and even the cause of

many debates. However, due to the nature of the subject matter and the way learning

processes occur and, possibly, the way it is being taught, the understanding of genetics

ideas of the majority of students is thought to be very poor and full of confusions and

alternative views.

Because of this, the researchers decided to think of a strategy and that is an

interactive vocabulary guide which could be adopted by the science teachers in teaching

genetics and could be an instrument to teach genetics in a more authentic and informative

way.

Conceptual Literature

Science as a subject and a discipline

Science has always been defined by its disciplines - by its areas of focus, study,

training, specialties, and subject matters. The concept of a scientific discipline is an

important and enduring one. It implies that there is a body of knowledge to master and

skills to be acquired before one can proclaim disciplinary expertise (Breckler, 2005).
 11

“Is the Earth round?” “Why do we need air?” People from the ages have asked

endless questions and nearly all have been answered by science. As according to Gillis

(2013) science is an important school subject, essential for school students to take. It is in

fact the most important of all subjects as it allows students to question their environment

in order to discover new things. Also, science, as the most important subject, incorporates

the two core subjects Mathematics and English in its curriculum. Not to mention that it

develops social and life skills (Holman, 2013).School students are naturally curious, which

makes science an ideal subject for them to learn. According to Holman (2013), science

allows students to explore their world and discover new things. It is also an active subject,

containing activities such as hands-on labs and experiments. This makes science well-

suited to active younger children. Science is an important part of the foundation for

education for all children.

Firstly, science is the most important school subject because it allows students to

question their environment in order to discover new things. In science classes students are

encouraged to question why things work and how they work, often carrying out

experiments to find out first hand. When students come across new information they cannot

but ask and question how a particular thing works. Carefully using chemicals and observing

reactions, students discover for themselves the effects of different scientific ideas. After

experimenting students often set up their own experiments to discover their “what if’s…”

putting into action their ideas and questions (Duncan, 2018).

Secondly, science itself contains many aspects of the Math’s and the English

curriculum. The four main strands of science are a prime example of this. Biology contains

large vocabulary lists and terms that a student must have a good understanding of. They
 12

use these to answer comprehensive questions just like in English. Physics takes part the

mathematical side of Science, incorporating numbers, calculating rates of reactions, time,

motion and speed. Chemistry develops logical thinking, as students need to grasp the

chemistry ideas and work out reactions to obtain a product as well as Earth Science.

Therefore, as according to Borgo (2018) the four science strands ultimately cover the other

two core subjects; Math and English.

Science Education

Science Education nowadays, refers to the field concerned with sharing science

content and process with individuals not traditionally considered part of the scientific

community. The learners may be children, college students, or adults within the general

public; the field of science education includes work in science content, science process

(the scientific method), some social science, and some teaching pedagogy. The standards

for science education provide expectations for the development of understanding for

students through the entire course of their K-12 education and beyond. The traditional

subjects included in the standards are physical, life, earth, space, and human sciences

(Glavin,2014).

We are surrounded by technology and the products of science every day. Public

policy decisions that affect every aspect of our lives are based in scientific evidence. And,

of course, the immensely complex natural world that surrounds us illustrates infinite

scientific concepts. As children grow up in an increasingly technologically and

scientifically advanced world, they need to be scientifically literate to succeed (Glavin,

2014).

Ideally, Glavin (2014) stated that teaching scientific method to students is teaching
 13

them how to think, learn, solve problems and make informed decisions. These skills are

integral to every aspect of a student’s education and life, from school to career. With a

graduate degree in science education such as the University of Texas at Arlington’s online

Master of Education in Curriculum and Instruction in Science Education, teachers can use

what they learn about science instruction techniques and curriculum design to advance

science education and student learning as a whole.

Science is everywhere. A student rides to school on a bus, and in that instance alone,

there are many examples of technology based on the scientific method. The school bus is

a product of many areas of science and technology, including mechanical engineering and

innovation. The systems of roads, lights, sidewalks and other infrastructure are carefully

designed by civil engineers and planners. The smartphone in the student’s hand is a miracle

of modern computer engineering (Jegstad, 2015). Outside the window, trees turn sunlight

into stored energy and create the oxygen we need to survive. Whether “natural” or human-

derived, every aspect of a student’s life is filled with science — from their own internal

biology to the flat-screen TV in the living room (Jegstad, 2015).

Biology Education

Biology, from Greek bios (life) and logos (word or discourse), is the science of life

and the science of living organisms. Evidences of early human observations of nature were

seen in prehistoric cave art. The history of biology dates as far back as the rise of various

civilizations as classic philosophers had their own ways of using biology as a system of

understanding life. Aristotle, one of the most prolific natural philosophers of antiquity,

made countless observations and classifications of plants and animals in the world around
 14

him. Over the years, in the quest to observe, describe, and explain natural phenomena by

many researchers, there has amassed a great deal of knowledge and facts.

The invention of the microscope in the late 17th century caused a revolution in the

science of life by revealing otherwise invisible and previously unsuspected worlds. It has

broadened and deepened the scope of biology, also creating the science of microbiology.

In 1953, Watson and Crick discovered the chemical structure of DNA and started a new

branch of science, molecular biology. Since then, biology research and its applications have

grown rapidly and developed widely. Since man is a social being, his universal social

currencies are often transmitted from person to person and from generation to generation.

Science as one of the social currencies needs to be thus transmitted.

Science education is designed to develop in learners a rich and full understanding

of the inquiry process, the key concepts and principles of science, and also the skills to

identify and to solve scientific problems based on what is known and even to do research

into new areas of knowledge. According to Willington (1988): Science education is

primarily concerned with transmitting a body of inherited knowledge…In the ‘information

age’ all that matters is that pupils know how to access information and where to acquire

the facts…The most valuable part of a science education is what remain after facts have

been forgotten.

Aims in Learning Biology

One of the important reasons for emphasis on science is the perceived need to

maintain a pool of qualified people from whom the scientists, technologists, engineers, and

technicians of the future may be drawn. However, many facts have showed that most

people who have studied science at school do not go on to use their science knowledge and
 15

skills directly in their future careers.

There is an example about the situation of studying chemistry in Scotland described

by Reid (1999). He noted that, for every 100 pupils at early secondary level (12-13 years

old), 40 pupils are most likely to pursue chemistry at aged 14-15 (40%). By the age of 16-

17 (the top of secondary level), about 20 pupils continue to learn chemistry (20%).

However, Reid cautioned that, despite the popularity of chemistry at secondary level,

perhaps only 1% goes on to a degree related to chemistry, with, perhaps, another 2% taking

a degree heavily dependent on chemistry. These figures are relatively similar to those

associated with physics and biology. On this basis, there is no support for the notion that

secondary school pupils should take science in order to prepare them to be scientists or

related professions. That science to be taught at each level is determined by the requirement

of the level above is the wrong approach, because the population at the next level up is

only a tiny fraction of the level under consideration (Reid, 2000).

In fact, in recent years, science educators and curriculum developers have realised

that science is carried out in school education not only to prepare pupils for university

advanced studies or the future careers in science, but also to cultivate them to be citizens

in the society which is now highly dependent upon scientific and technological advances

Chapter 2 Page 9 (Kesner et al., 1997).

The Scottish Science Advisory Committee (SSAC, 2003) stated the objectives for

science education in Scotland: ˙ Science education is to provide an excellent supply of

young engineers, scientists and trades personnel; and Science education is to raise and to

extend the general level knowledge, understanding and awareness of science and

technology in the population as a whole. In general, the second objective is much more
 16

important in that it applies to everyone. The first objective is for a minority.

However, the minority involves future professionals in science-related activities

and cannot be overlooked. In addition, the importance of awareness of social implications

in science also has been showed up many recent proposals for transforming science

education, which call for increased focuses on debatable, socially relevant issues and the

relevance of science to daily life within the science curriculum (Hodson, 2003; Zeidler,

2003; Kolsto, 2001). Regarding these, education has no higher purpose than preparing

people to lead personally fulfilling and responsible lives.

Similarly, science education should enable students to develop the understanding

and habits of mind they need to become compassionate human beings able to think for

themselves and face life head on (American Association for the Advancement of Science

(AAAS), 1990). Therefore, the goal of learning science can be summed up as scientific

literacy (Hurd, 1998; Cobern, 1996; AAAS, 1989; Anderson et al., 1986; Falayajo and

Akindehin, 1986; Lederman, 1986; Rowe, 1983). The kind of science education implied in

the phrase ‘science for all’ is general and liberal rather than specific and vocational and

moves the learner beyond the role of spectator, as often relegated by traditional science

education, to a position of active participation.

Biological Literacy

Biology is the branch of science dealing with the study of life. During the past two

decades, the knowledge of biology has increased exponentially. We now have a deeper

understanding of life on our planet. Also, scientists have tried to apply the knowledge in

order to benefit our societies, for example, they mapped the human genome, discovered
 17

how to clone animals, and developed new therapies for many diseases, like cancer,

immune-deficiency syndrome, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease. All these

have raised our new hopes. However, for many people, developments in science are no

longer equated with the idea of progress. Concerned about such problems as mad-cow

disease and the associated Creutzfeld-Jacob maladies, avian influenza with illness and

death in humans, asbestos contamination and its carcinogenic potential, transfusion of

contaminated blood, antibiotic loads and hazards of processed food, our societies should

attach great importance to biology and biology education (Sadler et al., 2006).

Moreover, several recent developments are controversial and are the subjects of

heated public debate, such as stem cell research, genetic engineering, therapeutic cloning,

conservation of biodiversity and environmental problems (Sadler et al., 2006). Exclusive

technical solutions are neither possible, nor desirable. Citizenship should be dealt with

through public debates which help to open the ‘black boxes’ and illuminate the political,

socio-economic and ethical nature of scientific arguments. Citizens need to be ‘biologically

literate’ in order to be able to contribute to decision-making about issues that have a

biological dimension, whether these issues are personal or broadly political. One of the

functions of schooling is the development of an informed citizenry, and this is widely

assumed to require that all students receive an education in science/biology (Brock, 1996).

Biology education is important, but simply improving knowledge about the issues

is not the only way in which ideas, problems and questions may be addressed. More

important than increasing merely the mass of scientific knowledge is the question of

developing and enhancing qualities such as an open mind, critical spirit and self-confidence
 18

(Brock, 1996). In the cause to develop biological literacy among citizens, the aims should

be promoted as the following (BioEd, 2004):

 The ability to read about and understand important issues of the day that

are related to biology in any way.

 The ability to take an informed interest in media reports about these issues.

 The ability to express an opinion about these issues.

 An appreciation of the multidisciplinary nature of many of the issues that

may have a biological component as well as ethical, economic, political and

other dimensions.

 An appreciation of biological knowledge that can be helpful to them in the

process of democratic decision-making.

However, school biology is only the beginning of the process of learning to engage

with bioscience as an adult. Individuals will continue to learn biology beyond school age,

via for example, newspapers, broadcast media, and discussions with related professionals.

In addition, the search for scientific information on the internet is becoming increasingly

significant (Lee, 1999). It means biological literacy will expand and deepen over a lifetime,

not just during the years in school.

From this ‘life-long learning’ perspective, the goal of school science education is

to provide students a basic understanding of the key concepts of science, so that they can

develop the confidence to frame questions of science and its applications. Furthermore, it

is also important in school science education to promote a positive attitude towards

engaging with science by giving students a sense that science is a subject that they are
 19

capable of interacting with as adults because attitudes and values established toward

science in the early years will shape a person's development of scientific literacy.

Science Teaching

The job of a science teacher is a tough one. Not only do they have to teach scientific

knowledge, develop the skills of science and foster scientific attitudes, they also have to

convey messages about the nature of science and the work of scientists. Teaching Science

is composed of 9 hours, 4 hours for lecture and 5 hours allotted time for laboratory

(Wellington and Ireson, 2012). However, in Secondary 2002 BEC, the hours per

week in science subject is composed of 6 hours. In contrast to that, in K to 12 Education,

science is minimized to 4 hours per week. According to the research of Almeida et.al,

(2011), Science subject comprises three kinds of classes: lectures, laboratory and tutorials.

Lectures provide the students with an understanding of the context being covered. Lectures

should be seen as hours of active study. However, to be fully effective, students must read

the given material ahead of time. In preparing lectures, teachers should identify

topics that could represent obstacles to learning. To implement lectures effectively,

teachers should identify topics that could raise doubts or questions orally or in written form.

The job of a science teacher is a tough one. Not only do they ha ve t o t e a c h sc i e n t i fi c

knowl e dge , develop the skills of science and foster scientific attitudes, they also have

to convey messages about the nature of science and the work of scientists. Lectures

provide the students with an understanding of the context being covered (Wellington and

Ireson, 2012). Lectures should be seen as hours of active study. However, to be fully

effective, s t u d e n t s must read the given material ahead of time. In preparing lectures,

teachers should identify topics that could represent obstacles to learning. To implement
 20

lectures effectively, teachers should identify topics that could raise doubts or questions

orally or in written form (Wellington and Ireson, 2012).

Scientific teaching is a pedagogical approach used in undergraduate science

classrooms whereby teaching and learning is approached with the same rigor as science

itself. According to a 2004 Policy Forum in Science magazine, “scientific teaching

involves active learning strategies to engage students in the process of science and teaching

methods that have been systematically tested and shown to reach diverse students”. The

2007 volume Scientific Teaching lists three major tenets of scientific teaching like the

active learning which is a process in which students are actively engaged in learning. It

may include inquiry-based learning, cooperative learning, or student-centered learning.

According to Phillip (2014), assessment refers to the tools for measuring progress

toward and achievement of the learning goals. Diversity refers to the breadth of differences

that make each student unique, each cohort of students unique, and each teaching

experience unique. Diversity includes everything in the classroom: the students, the

instructors, the content, the teaching methods, and the context. These elements should

underlie educational and pedagogical decisions in the classroom. The scale up learning

environment is an example of applying the scientific teaching approach. In practice,

scientific teaching employs a "backward design" approach. The instructor first decides

what the students should know and be able to do (learning goals), then determines what

would be evidence of student achievement of the learning goals, then designs assessments

to measure this achievement. Finally, the instructor plans the learning activities, which

should facilitate student learning through scientific discovery (Phillip, 2014).

 21

Scientific Inquiry and Scientific Method

Perhaps even more important than specific examples of science in our lives are the

ways we use scientific thought, method and inquiry to come to our decisions. This is not

necessarily a conscious thing. The human need to solve problems can arise from curiosity

or from necessity. The process of inquiry is how we find answers and substantiate those

answers (Taber, 2011).

In the fields of hard science, the process of inquiry is more direct and finite: Take

a question; use evidence to form an explanation; connect that explanation to existing

knowledge; and communicate that evidence-based explanation. Experimentation based on

the scientific method follows a similar course: Combine a scientific question with research

to construct a hypothesis; conduct experiments to test that hypothesis; evaluate the results

to draw conclusions; and communicate those conclusions (Gillis, 2013).

Although inquiry and the scientific method are integral to science education and

practice, every decision we make is based on these processes. Natural human curiosity and

necessity lead to asking questions constructing a hypothesis, testing it with evidence and

evaluating the result and making future decisions based on that result (Gillis, 2013).

This is problem-solving: using critical thinking and evidence to create solutions and

make decisions. Problem-solving and critical thinking are two of the most important skills

students learn in school (Taber, 2011). They are essential to making good decisions that

lead to achievement and success during and after school.

Yet, although they are nearly synonymous, scientific inquiry in schools is not

always explicitly tied to problem-solving and critical thinking. The process students learn

when creating, executing, evaluating and communicating the results of an experiment can
 22

be applied to any challenge they face in school, from proving a point in a persuasive essay

to developing a photo in the darkroom. In this way, science is one of the most important

subjects students study, because it gives them the critical thinking skills they need in every

subject (Holman, 2013).

The Importance of Science in Early Education

Governmental guidelines and tests often focus on middle and high school-level

STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) education. Yet, according to Jegstad

(2015) many educators believe science education should begin much earlier. Not only does

science education teach young learners problem-solving skills that will help them

throughout their schooling, it also engages them in science from the start.

Kids usually form a basic opinion about the sciences shortly after beginning school.

If this is a negative opinion, it can be hard to engage those students in science as they grow

older. Engaging young students with exciting material and experiences motivates them to

learn and pursue the sciences throughout school (Jegstad, 2015).

Science education is one of the most important subjects in school due to its

relevance to students’ lives and the universally applicable problem-solving and critical

thinking skills it uses and develops. These are lifelong skills that allow students to generate

ideas, weigh decisions intelligently and even understand the evidence behind public policy-

making (Borgo, 2018). Teaching technological literacy, critical thinking and problem-

solving through science education gives students the skills and knowledge they need to

succeed in school and beyond.

 23

Difficulties in Learning Science and Genetics

Science is a way of knowing, discovering and understanding (Abell, 1994). Science

concerns itself with questions which can be answered by reproducible measurements or

abilities to ask questions and to get answers which can be interpreted and built up into a

corpus of meaningful knowledge. Hence we do science to make sense of our surroundings.

Since the 1980’s there has been growing concern about scientific literacy as a high priority

for all citizens helping them to be interested in and understand the world around them, to

engage in the discourses of and about science, to be sceptical and question of claims made

by others about scientific matters, and to make informed decisions about the environment

and their own health and well-being.

However, the fact is that many students claim that science is hard to learn

(Johnstone, 1991) and the understanding of scientific ideas of the majority of students is

thought to be very poor (Gott and Johnstone, 1999). Indeed, there are many common and

persistent misconceptions of basic science ideas (Millar, 1996). During the last few

decades, there have been numerous studies in the science education literature about school

and university students’ difficulties and understanding in learning science and which vary

from the simplistically obvious to the more deeply complex bearing some philosophical

connotations. The difficulties and problems of learning science experienced by students

can be attributed to a variety of reasons (Selepeng, 2000; 1995; Gray, 1997; MacGuire and

Johnstone, 1987; Cassels and Johnstone, 1983):

 Low student aptitudes/ability;

 Ingrained misconceptions;
 24

 The essence of scientific knowledge;

 The abstract nature of science concepts;

 Cognitively ill-equipped for abstract ideas;

 The complexity of the language of science;

 Too large an amount of content presented to the learners;

 Mathematical content; and

 Negativity in attitudes students have for the subject

Narrowing the field of focus from the whole of science to just biology, there are

reasons to feel optimistic. Firstly, the absolute numbers of students doing biology at

advanced level have continued to increase in many countries, like England and Wales. It is

unlike the situation in physics and chemistry (Reiss, 1998). In Scotland, numbers of

students taking biology have grown enormously over the years but physics and chemistry

are not declining. In fact, the three science subjects are the most popular of all elective

subjects at higher grade (university entrance examinations) (Scottish Qualifications

Authority (SQA), 1997-2006).

Secondly, pupils generally described themselves as being more interested in

biology than in physics or chemistry (Jarman and McAleese, 1996). Moreover, we live in

an age where biology seems to be in the ascendancy. This is evident in many of world’s

burning issues (Reiss, 1998), such as biodiversity, human population growth, genetically

modified organisms, reproductive technologies, and prolongation of life. Finally, most

students assumed that biology is easier than the other science subjects (National Science

Board of USA, 2002). However, although the number of students taking biology continues

to increase, biology entries are decreasing (though considerablly less severe ones than in
 25

chemistry, physics and mathematics and certain other subjects) (Science and Technology

Committee Report of Science Education of England and Wales, 2002). Additionally,

research in America had shown that the performances of biology in school are decreasing

and the general levels of understanding of biological concepts may be insufficient for the

average citizen to be able to make informed decisions (National Science Board of USA,

2002). Furthermore, even though pupils thought biology is an easier and more interesting

science subject, it still has some characteristics the same as other science subjects and these

identities cause difficulties and problems in learning.

Topics of high perceived difficulty in school biology and genetics

More than 25 years ago, several studies were published about the learning

difficulties in biology (e.g. Johnstone and Mahmoud, 1980; Johnstone and Mughol, 1976;

Johnstone, 1974). A list of topics of biology was compiled from the published syllabuses

of the Scottish Examination Board at Standard Grade (approximately junior high school

level) and at Higher Grade (university entrance level) (Table 3-1). This list which

comprised 36 topic headings was derived from the most commonly used textbooks.
 26

Johnstone and Mahmoud (1980), Steward (1982a) and Finely et al. (1982) mentioned that

several biological topics were identified by their level of difficulty in terms of instruction

by teachers, as well as the difficulty which students have in learning these topics. These

are:

 Water transport in organisms including osmosis, water potential, and water

balance;

 Energy storage and conversions in photosynthesis, respiration, ATP and ADP;

 Mitosis and meiosis;

 Enzymes structure and function;

 The chromosome theory of heredity;

 Mendel’s laws of genetics; and

 Mechanism of evolution

15 years later, research in Scotland revisited this area to check what changes in

students and teachers perceptions were apparent (Bahar et al., 1999a). The results showed

that five of the six topics which were recorded as difficult were from the field of genetics.

They are meiosis, gametes, alleles, and genes and genetic engineering, along with

monohybrid and dihybrid crosses and linkages. It indicated that the general area of genetics

is still posing problems. The importance is that this is not just the opinions of students, but

also supported by the experienced teachers and the national examiners of countries (Bahar

et al., 1999a; Finley et al., 1982).

Mach science education literature of the past two decades has dealt with learning

and teaching genetics. Findings showed a poor understanding of the processes by which
 27

genetics information is transferred, a lack of basic knowledge about the structure involved

(e.g. gene, chromosome, cell), and there appeared to be widespread uncertainty and

confusion among students of various levels and among the population in general (Marbach-

Ad, 2001; Lewis and Wood-Robinson, 2000; Lewis et al., 2000a; b; c; Marbach-Ad and

Stavy, 2000; Wood-Robinson, 2000; Lock et al., 1995; Wood-Robinson, 1994; Kindfield,

1991; Longden, 1982).

Knippels et al. (2000) had interviewed biology teachers and ten meaningful

problem categories were extracted.

1. Abstract nature

o Alienation from real biological phenomena due to lack of connection

between inheritance and sexual reproduction in general, and meiosis in

particular.

2. Complexity

o Inheritance has to do with all levels of biological organization and an

adequate understanding of genetics require ‘to-and-fro’ thinking between

molecular, cellular, organism, and population level. Simplification of

inheritance easily leads to conceptual problems.

3. Probabilistic reasoning

o Students who perform poorly in mathematics often also do so when solving

genetic problems; see also differences between students (10).

4. Image

o Inheritance may be perceived as a difficult topic in biology, resulting in

poor motivation or a tendency to give up.

 28

5. Examinations

o Mendelian genetics is just a small part of the final exam; consequently not

much time is allotted to this difficult subject, although spending some extra

time would be advantageous. Current practice is to teach and learn ‘tricks’

instead of insightful problem-solving behaviour.

6. Terminology

o Genetics is rich in terminology, but not all terms are necessary for adequate

understanding. Furthermore, students are unwilling to memorise relevant

terms; see also image (4). In addition, teachers and authors of curriculum

materials do not always use terms consistently and explicitly. Inadequate

translation of terms from English into other language can also result in

misunderstanding.

7. Pedigrees

o Punnett Square diagrams and symbolising Students face problems in

representing and reading genetics knowledge in schemes and symbolising

and symbols.

8. Problem-solving

o Students not only have difficulties with the representation of problems but

they also lack problem-solving and reading skill.

9. Cell division

o Students have an inadequate understanding of the process of meiosis, and

do not always understand the differences between mitosis and meiosis.

Consequently, students acquire a poor conceptual basis of genetics.

 29

10. Differences between students

o Relevant prior knowledge and cognitive maturity is required for an adequate

understanding of genetics. Students may differ in these respects.

Teaching Approaches and Strategies in Science

The biggest challenge before a teacher is how to teach Science lessons. If this

teaching – learning activities are effective, students can reach the goals of life by

acquisition of knowledge, skills and values in Science. As defined by Dr. Rosalyn Yalon,

a Nobel Laureate in Medicine, science is not simply a collection of facts. It is a discipline

of thinking about rational solutions to problems after establishing the basic facts derived

from observations. It is hypothesizing from what is known to what might be and then

attempting to test the hypothesis, logical thinking must come first; the facts can come later

(Beichner, 2004).

Knowledge, Process Skills and Attitudes are very important in considering science

lessons. Knowledge is sometimes labeled as the products of science. It generally refers to

facts, concepts, principles, laws, and theories. Process skills are the empirical and analytic

procedures used by scientists in solving problems. Scientific attitudes refer to the general

predispositions that characterize the work of scientists. Some of the important attitudes

students will have to learn and demonstrate in science include Curiosity honesty objectivity

openness perseverance skepticism withholding judgment (Borland, 2005).

Learners learn and develop as a whole person. The learners’ cognitive, affective,

physical, social and emotional areas are intricately intertwined. Learners as according to

Price (2008) cannot grow in one area without affecting the other areas. Learners grow
 30

through the same predictable stages but at different rates. This means that children of the

same age group may not exhibit uniform characteristics. Some may be more intellectually

or socially advanced than the others in the same age group.

Learners learn best through active involvement with concrete experiences.

Research studies show that the use of hands-on activities can result in significant

improvements in academic performance and attitude of students towards science. Learners

are curious and eager to learn. When the teacher fits the learning environment to learners’

interests, needs and their levels of maturity, they become highly motivated. Learners have

different learning styles. Learning styles are preferred ways that different individuals have

for processing and responding to environmental stimulus (Kuchuck and Eggen, 1997).

Learning styles are also referred to as cognitive styles.

Teaching will be more effective if a typical teacher will present science as a way of

finding out rather than as a body of facts to be memorized. Allowing learners to discover

and to organize the information, equip them with problem-solving and decision-making

skills. It also results in knowledge that is more easily remembered and recalled than rote

teaching (Rutherford, 1997). It is better also if one will emphasize learning by doing a

number of researches show that learners learn better when they are personally involved in

physical or hands- on activities.

Next, a teacher can also encourage interactions among learners Give opportunities

for students to work together in groups. Students who work together learn more from each

other. They also develop their social and communication skills in the process. Also, adapt

science experiences to the learners’ developmental levels Learners differ on how they

operate mentally. Therefore, you must arrange experiences that fit what they can do. Use a
 31

variety of approaches in teaching science Students have different learning styles. To be

more effective as according to Hurd (1991), you must be aware of their learning styles and

you must consider them in choosing which teaching methods to use.

According to Dr. Rita Dunn, Director, International Learning Styles Network,

“Students can learn any subject matter when they are taught with methods and approaches

responsive to their learning styles”. Strategy is the art and science of directing and

controlling the movements and activities of the army. If strategy is good, we can get victory

over our enemies. In teaching this term is meant those procedures and methods by which

objectives of teaching are realized in the class.

An Inquiry Approach teaches students to handle situations they meet in the physical

world (Bernard, 2010). To use the inquiry approach in the teaching of science, you need to

prepare activities that will allow students to develop the following skills: a. recognizing

problems; b. asking questions; c. applying laboratory procedures; and d. providing

consistent descriptions, predictions and explanations.

The 5-E Learning Cycle as cited in Carleton University Journal about Teaching

Strategies is a model that promotes scientific inquiry. Each “E” represents part of the

process of helping students sequence their learning experiences to develop a connection

between prior knowledge and new concepts. The teacher serves as a facilitator as students

construct new knowledge based on thoughtful inquiry and decision making. The 5-E’stands

for Engage, Explain, Explore, Elaborate and Evaluate.

Other teaching strategies in science includes reflective teaching, journal writing,

portfolio and self-analysis. Reflective teaching can be carried out in several ways.

Salandanan (2000) suggested four strategies— journal writing, portfolio, self-analysis, and
 32

on-the-spot observation of students’ response. Journal writing allows the students to reflect

or process their thoughts about science concepts. Journals may be in the form of

workbooks, diaries, logs, or progress profiles. Journals make students look back over their

recent learning. The portfolio is a personal record which includes honest to goodness

account of experiences - thoughts, behavior and reactions. Self-analysis is a record of

incidents, problems and issues that transpired while doing a science task/lesson.

Classroom Management in Science Teaching

Classroom management is commonly mentioned as the most intricate aspect of

teaching and effectively managed classrooms are essential for construction of effective

learning environments (Lemov, 2014). From the beginning of the teaching experience,

teachers commonly express their concern about controlling students; creating a disciplined

environment and maintain it to create a proper atmosphere for learning. Although

classroom management affects students’ success directly, managing student behavior and

solving the problems have always been a stubborn task for teachers.

Classroom management in science is still an increasing problem for teachers in

primary schools. There is a common perception of problems in classrooms such as side

talking, interrupting teachers, incomplete assignments, giving students the opportunity to

express their opinions, involving students in decision making processes, designing

appropriate seating arrangement and so on Martin, Yin & Baldwin (2013) indicate that

classroom management skills in science can be categorized under 3 independent

dimensions: instructional management, people management and behavior management.

Although novice teachers had been taken into account in different studies in terms of

classroom management, variables of teaching experience were not adequately specialized

 33

in classroom management.

Although teaching experience is a continuous variable, it is designed as categorical

variables based on Huberman’s Teacher Career Cycle Model. Teachers with 0-3 years of

teaching experience (Career Entry Stage), 4-6 years of teaching experience (Stabilization

Stage), 7-18 years of teaching experience (Experimentation-Diversification Stage), 19-30

years of teaching experience (Serenity Stage) and 31 or more years of teaching experience

(Disengagement Stage) constitute the five categories (Baldwin, 2013).

Lemov (2014) also added some ways to manage a science classroom like having

entry routine wherein there is a daily routine in teaching. Next is the do now strategy where

an activity should be included in every discussion to engage learners in random activities

and even to develop cooperation and lastly, non-verbal intervention wherein a learner will

be engaged in nonverbal actions to accurately discipline learners.

Nature of Scientific Knowledge

Biology is one of the most dynamic research disciplines within the natural sciences.

New research discoveries are published almost daily as research papers in scientific

journals (Brill et al., 2003). Many of them quickly reach the mass media and subsequently

influence our everyday lives. In time, the quantity of biological knowledge that people

should update increases and also the gap between the accumulated knowledge in biology

and the knowledge that is taught in schools increases (Brill et al., 2003).

As Ravetz (1997) mentioned: The course of science as revealed by historians and

philosophers is far from a steady accumulation of facts, punctuated by the occasional

revolution among theories. Indeed, much of the development of the most basic sciences in
 34

this century has involved grappling with the unsolved problems and paradoxes at their

foundations. On the other hand, Durkhein (1994) noted that: Truth cannot be immutable

because reality itself is not immutable; hence truth changes in time and truth cannot be one

because this oneness would be incompatible with the diversity of minds; hence truth

changes in spaces.

In essence, the change in scientific knowledge has always existed and will continue

to occur as a result of the developments that the way things are viewed at present might

change to accommodate new ways of reasoning. For instance, Darwin’s theory evolution

has been subject to continue revision and adjustments with a lively ongoing debate (Ravetz,

1997). These adjustments and re-examinations to this theory and many other theories need

be made to suit newly evident circumstances.

Besides, with the construction of a body of knowledge aimed at explaining what is

‘really’ going on in the world both within and around us, by different people all over the

world, there have always been debates on the validity of explanations. This controversial

and conflicting nature sometimes makes it difficult to handle in classroom situations, for

both teachers and students. In sum, the nature of science knowledge is multifaceted and an

important component of scientific literacy (Meichtry, 1993).

Selepeng (2000) noted, science has been characterised as social, cultural, personal,

and contextual versus external and ‘out there’; simple and straight-forward versus complex

and abstract; coherent and unproblematic versus fragmented and chaotic; limited in its

ability to provide answers versus the only answer to every problem; absolute versus

debatable; continuously changing versus steady and constant; and speculative versus true

and real. These make science even more interesting and yet intimidating.
 35

Instructional Materials used in Science Teaching

Every science teacher needs supplies and resources in order to have a successful

classroom. Writing utensils, paper, and inspirational wall signs are all useful objects in a

classroom, but they are not instructional materials. Instructional materials are the tools used

in educational lessons, which includes active learning and assessment. Basically, any

resource a teacher uses to help him teach his students is an instructional material. There are

many types of instructional materials, like the traditional, graphic organizers and teacher

made resources (Kaspar, 2017).

Traditional resources according to Global Dictionary (2018) include any textbooks

and workbooks in science used in the classroom. For example, language arts classrooms

almost always have literature textbooks, writing textbooks, and even vocabulary and

spelling workbooks. In addition to these, traditional resources also include any

supplemental reading material, like novels or poems outside of the textbook.

These materials can really help to introduce new concepts to your students. For

example, when learning the concept of theme, a literature textbook can provide numerous

reading materials all displaying theme in different types of literature. In the same way,

workbooks can give some useful basic practice activities for a new vocabulary words or

even writing activities that might be difficult for students. Then, when mastery is shown

on a basic level, a teacher can introduce more challenging material related to that concept

(Kaspar, 2017).

To evaluate these traditional resources, Borgerding (2017) stated that the most

important aspect is to make sure you choose material within the resource that appropriately

relates to your learning objective. Most textbooks and workbooks have already been
 36

designed to align with certain educational standards and are therefore very reliable in

regards to addressing classroom goals. Still, it is important to be sure to choose material

within the textbooks that matches your specific learning objective.

A second type of instructional material is the graphic organizer, which is any type

of visual representation of information. Diagrams, charts, tables, flow charts, and graphs

are all examples of graphic organizers. For instance, in a math classroom, it is essential to

use graphs on a coordinate plane when learning about the equation of a line so that students

can actually see how a line is graphed. In language arts, Venn diagrams and plot diagrams

are clear instructional tools to use when comparing or analyzing events in a piece of

literature. All of these graphic organizers allow students to physically see relationships

between ideas. This is imperative for learning, especially for students who are more

visually oriented. Seeing a clear relationship is always easier than an abstract idea in your

mind (Kaspar, 2017).

According to Lindsay (2013), having students create their own graphic organizers

can be a great way to incorporate active learning. For instance, you can have students read

a short story or even an informational article and then create their own visual representation

of the information. This pushes students to internalize and apply the information, which

requires more thought than simple recall.

To evaluate your graphic organizers, the most important aspect is to make sure they

support learning and are not merely creative distractions. Some materials can be very fun

and interesting, but if they do not support learning, they should not be included in your

lesson. For instance, a Venn diagram on two characters in the novel, A Tale of Two Cities,

can be a nice visual, but this is a higher-level novel and needs a more in depth type of
 37

graphic organizer. At this level, a Venn diagram is just too simple. Teacher made resources

on the other hand are being constructed by the teacher for the materials to be suited to the

lesson or topic (Lindsay, 2013).

Common Misconceptions in Learning Biology and Genetics

From birth, the infant knows nothing of science, and so has no ideas or attitudes to

it. An early acquisition might be an image obtained from a picture book, or an idea picked

out from stories or a conversation between parents. The most likely source these days is

television, where it is a matter of chance whether a right or wrong, positive or negative

view of science is observed (White, 1988). Another source is the real world, where the

child’s experiences are often interpreted for him/her by adults. However, they are

sometimes in conflict with accepted scientific ideas (Alparslan et al., 2003). Children try

to make sense of the world around them, by assimilating their observations and experiences

into their own meanings and explanations (Johnstone, 1991).

Everyday evidence of biology is commonplace and can be experienced by most

young people from an early age. Discussions with relatives and with peers may often centre

on this evidence, and thus some knowledge of biology is likely to be possessed by most

children by a relatively early age (Ramorogo and Wood-Robinson, 1995). Again many of

these ideas may be different to those generally accepted by scientists. Several investigators

(Wood-Robinson, 1994; Karbo et al., 1980) had shown that young people use their own

intuitive ideas to explain some aspects of inheritance, even before they receive tuition on

these subjects. By the time a child receives formal science education, his/her

preconceptions are already well established working theories, and problems arise when

these ‘naive’ theories disagree with the presented science concepts in the classroom.
 38

These preconceptions then interfere with new learning and lead to the establishment

of misconceptions or alternative conceptions (Driver and Oldham, 1986; Arnaudin and

Mintzes, 1985; Fisher, 1985). These can be very stable and highly resistant to change

(Driver and Bell, 1986). Obviously, these ideas should be taken into account by teachers

when planning and teaching; if they are not, and if they are erroneous, they can easily

interfere with the acquisition of scientifically acceptable knowledge about genetics (Wood-

Robinson, 1994). On the other hand, many misconceptions are formed in the way

unscientific everyday language used. Confusion is caused between the everyday uses and

scientific meanings of words, for example: alive and animal leading to the idea that

inanimate objects which ‘move’ are alive and that animals are large land mammals or pets

(Bell and Freyberg, 1985; Simpson and Arnold, 1982; Tamir et al., 1980).

Also Seymure and Longden (1991) proposed that misconceptions such as

respiration is the same as breathing, and that respiration occurs in the lungs, are already

implemented in the minds of the students and are resistant to change over time. Class

inclusion is another problem: the idea that an insect is an animal and that grass, trees and

flowers are plants are difficult for pupils to grasp (Bell and Freyberg, 1985; Freyberg, 1985;

Ryman, 1974). Students’ ideas concerning evolution may be either naturalistic, because

they are aware of their own needs and desires, or they believe that repeated use induces

changes which can be inherited (Deadman and Kelly, 1978). Other misconceptions can

arise if the topic is completely new to the child because there are no prerequisite ideas to

build upon, or if the cognitive demand of the topic is greater than the conceptual

development of the child.

 39

Many scientific concepts require abstract thinking (Lawson and Renner, 1975).

Examples are such as photosynthesis, respiration, enzyme, mitosis and meiosis, gametes,

alleles, and genes and genetic engineering. They claim students’ ability to deal with

abstract concepts in meaningful learning is correlated with their level of cognitive

development as defined by Inhelder and Piaget (1958). In relation to this view, Lawson

and Renner (1975) reported that, unless the pupils have reached the Piagetian level of

formal operational thinking, they will not be able to cope adequately with these ideas.

According to Shayer and Adey (1981), only some of fourteen-year-old pupils have reached

this level, yet they need to be able to understand the concepts of mitosis and meiosis in

order to comprehend topics such as Mendelism of genetics. Therefore, one can assume that

students’ difficulties in dealing with scientific ideas may originate in the abstract level of

the concepts as well as the pupils’ cognitive developmental stages.

In genetics, many researchers have shown that students have serious

misunderstandings, even after instruction, concerning the basic scientific content related to

biological inheritance. For instance, research has shown that students do not fully

understand chromosomes, genes, or alleles (Collins and Stewart, 1989; Albaladejo and

Lucas, 1988); they cannot adequately interpret some concepts such as homozygous or

heterozygous (Slack and Stewart, 1990); they have alternative views of some processes

such as mitosis and meiosis (Kindfield, 1994; Brown, 1990; Stewart et al., 1990); and they

do not understand the meanings of probability in relation to genotype and phenotype

frequencies in offspring (Browning and Lehman, 1988; Cho et al., 1985). As a

consequence, when they are not able fully to understand these matters, students depend on

rote learning to pass examinations.

 40

A thorough analysis of the results showed that the traditional teaching strategies

have effect on students’ meaningful understanding of genetics (Pashley, 1994a; Stewart,

1982a). In the light of Johnstone and Mahmoud’s (1981) work, considerable changes were

made in the Scottish syllabuses which had also resulted in the difficult topic becoming

accessible to students. Moreover, it is believed that teaching which takes students’ existing

ideas into account will be more effective than teaching which ignores them. Starting from

their own common sense ideas, learners become aware of and reason about conceptual

relations, or as a process of conceptual refinement, and then replace existing conceptual

relations (Cem et al., 2003).

Importance of Vocabulary in Genetics

At one level, the importance of language in science education has always been

recognised: in order to understand science topics especially in biology, in which Latin and

Greek words are heavily used, pupils need to become familiar with a wide range of

specialist vocabulary (Bahar, 1996; Selepeng, 1995). As Vygotsky (1962) pointed out,

when a child uses words he/she is helped to develop concepts. Language development and

conceptual development are inextricably linked. Thought requires language, language

requires thought. Viewed from a negative angle, difficulty with language causes difficulty

with reasoning (Byrne et al., 1994). However, though obviously important, this aspect of

language is only part of the story. Understanding science is more than just ‘knowing the

meaning’ of particular words and terms, it is about ‘making meaning’ through exploring

how these words and terms relate to each other (Sutton, 1996).

One of the biggest problems of language in science is the vast technical vocabulary

with which pupils need to become familiar in order to be able to make sense of what they
 41

hear, read and have to use when writing in their lessons. Willington (1983) proposed a four

level taxonomy of words in science. Through doing this, science teachers can become more

aware of the language they use in the classrooms.

 The first category is called naming words, which denote identifiable, observable,

real objects or entities, such as eyes and flowers. Many of these are simply

synonyms for everyday words already familiar to pupils.

 ˙The second is process words that denote processes that happen in science, e.g.

photosynthesis and mitosis.

 The third is concept words, e.g. heredity and evolution. This area of learning in

science is the one where most learning difficulties are encountered because these

are abstract, also these are part of a network of other words. The understanding of

one word depends on prior understanding of other words. Moreover, some may

have both every day and scientific meanings, such as consumer and energy.

 Finally, the language of mathematics, its words or symbols, is the fourth and highest

level of abstraction.

Genetics is an area with a complex and large vocabulary. Bahar et al. (1999) found

that students are often not confident about the definitions of the genetics-related words,

such as allele, gene and homologous. There is confusion because terms which look and

sound very similar, e.g. homologous and homozygous, mitosis and meiosis, and

chromosome and chromatid (Cassels and Johnstone, 1978). Moreover, students have the

problem of learning the new and abstract words, and at the same time learning new

concepts in that vocabulary (Ramorogo and Wood-Robinson, 1995). According to

Johnstone (1991), an unfamiliar word or known word in an unfamiliar context takes up

 42

valuable working memory space. Therefore, students cannot process or store the new

information and then tend to learn by rote rather than meaningfully.

In school practice, the genetic vocabulary is introduced to students by three sources:

the teachers, the textbook, and requirements of examinations (Pearson and Hughes, 1988a;

b). Unfortunately, the vocabulary of genetics is not always used consistently by these three

different sources, and, therefore, a source itself can induce confusion and error. Some

situations are worse. Genetics’ basic concepts are used incorrectly in the textbook and in

the classroom (Cho et al., 1985), they are used with a different meaning in colloquial

language (Albadalejo and Lucas, 1988), or inappropriate metaphors are used (Martins and

Ogborn, 1997).

Moreover, the genetics terminology is extensive, so textbooks and teachers need to be

selective and specific in their use of genetics terms, and avoid using too many synonyms.

Students can be easily overwhelmed by the number of new genetics terms. The discussion

among authors on the genetics terminology have showed that using the genetics

terminology appropriately is not easy, not even for genetics education researchers

(Browning and Lehman, 1991; Smith, 1991).

Pearson and Hughes (1988a; b) suggested that an adequate selection in the use of

genetic terms in education should be made to prevent extensive terminology and avoid

confusion. On the other hand, teachers could encourage pupils to explain their own words,

in order to avoid the mere ‘parroting’ of rote-memorised teachers’ language. Through this,

pupils and teachers can arrive at shared meaning (Johnstone and Selepeng, 2001).
 43

Mathematical content of Mendelian Genetics

Genetics is almost unique among the sciences, in that its fundamental law,

Mendelism, has been built through many experimental processes and were stated as

probability laws. Most students, whether non-science majors or life-sciences majors, have

difficulty in using what they learn of basic Mendelian genetics to deduce the underlying

genetic rules from the results of crosses (Charlotte, 1998). Although students often

understand the probabilistic nature of real-life problems and have no difficulties in

determining the chances, they fail when they have to apply the same chance events in the

context of genetics (Kinnear, 1983).

It seems that students have difficulties in transferring the mathematical knowledge

and insights from one context to another. Bahar et al. (1999a) noted that mathematical

expressions, which are symbolic, cause problems that learners face. In addition, the

symbols were not used consistently by teachers or textbook writers, and the notation in

mathematical genetics is a cause of confusion in the mind of many learners.

Moreover, some research found that students are able to answer the genetic

probability questions using algorithms and Punnett square, even though when they do not

really understand (Kindfield, 1991; Moll and Allen, 1987). Students often manipulate

symbols and adjust algorithms without correct insight into the underlying genetics laws

(Thomson and Stewart, 1985). Punnett square is also often used routinely by students in

solving a genetic problem without considering the probabilistic nature of meiosis and

genetics (Kinnear, 1983; Longden, 1982).

 44

Importance of Vocabulary in Science Learning

A major component of literacy is "vocabulary," or the words employed by a

language or in a field of knowledge. Understanding novel words and concepts is important

for young students as they are confronted with a great deal of new terminology in the

passages they read, especially in content areas such as science. Science is a discipline that

relies heavily on students' ability to understand new terms and concepts ( Cohen, 2012).

A strong focus on vocabulary helps students understand and communicate using

appropriate terminology, and the incorporation of imagery makes learning fun. Research

has shown that words and text which enable the formation of images facilitate recall. This

article discusses the relationship between science and literacy, vocabulary instruction

within the science classroom, and the use of imagery to enhance this instruction (Cohen,

2012).

Related Studies

Teaching and Learning Genetics

In the study conducted by Yu Chien Chu (2015) entitled, “Learning Difficulties in

Genetics and the Development of Related Attitudes in Taiwanese Junior High Schools”

which has an overall aim which is to explore learning difficulties and problems in genetics

and then to develop and test ways by which the situation might be improved.

The research for this thesis was carried out in three stages. In the first stage, the

adolescent learners’ preconceptions about genetics were explored before they move to the

formal course. The result indicated that the essential foundational concepts, such as

structure and function of cells and its organelles, cell divisions (mitosis and meiosis),
 45

reproduction, and basic mathematical requirements and the concept of probability, are

generally vague and misconceptions are widespread. In the second stage, factors that might

affect the learning of genetics for adolescent learners were investigated.

The factors were prior knowledge related to genetics and the effects of the limitation

of learners’ psychological characteristics (namely, perceptual fields or the degree of field

dependence and the working memory space). Results showed Abstract Page II that

students’ performance in genetics examination revealed a significant correlation with their

prior knowledge, the working memory capacity and the degree of field dependence. Based

on the findings from the first and second stage of the research, a set of teaching material of

genetics course for the first year of junior high school students was developed in the third

stage. The teaching material was deliberately constructed not only to minimise demands on

the working memory, but also to encourage attitude development. The performance of

students was found to be significantly better than for those who had been taught by the

traditional approaches.

Numerous comparisons of attitudes between the two groups revealed that attitudes

of social awareness as well as attitudes towards aspects of the learning processes involved

were more positive for those who had used the new materials It should be pointed out that

all conclusions derived from this study must be treated tentatively. Inevitably, any new

approach will have a novelty factor which may enhance performance. Nonetheless, the

evidence taken together does support the hypothesis that learning arranged in line with

information processing insights is more effective. In addition, the strategies used were

designed in line with understandings of the ways attitudes develop and the effectiveness of

these approaches has been demonstrated.

 46

Overall, the study has highlighted several problems and, on the basis of the evidence

obtained, suggests possible ways forward for a better approach to genetics learning.

In the study entitled, “Teaching Genetics: Past, present and future”, by Smith(2016)

it showed that genetics teaching at the undergraduate level has changed in many ways over

the past century. Compared to those of 100 years ago, contemporary genetics courses are

broader in content and are taught increasingly differently, using instructional techniques

based on educational research and constructed around the principles of active learning and

backward design. Future courses can benefit from wider adoption of these approaches,

more emphasis on the practice of genetics as a science, and new methods of assessing

student learning.

Ayuso (2015), in his study entitled, “Teaching Genetics at Secondary School: A

strategy for teaching about location of inheritance information”, stated that traditional

strategies for teaching genetics rely on teacher explanation, textbooks, and problem-solving

activities (in which problems are solved by application of an already known algorithm).

This study examines: (a) the knowledge that secondary school students have concerning

some basic aspects related to the location of inheritance information before they are taught

about genetics; (b) the effects of traditional instruction (in Spain) on students' learning

about these subjects; (c) the characteristics of the teaching programs that are implemented

in Spain; (d) the characteristics of a teaching program on the location of inheritance

information based on constructivism; and (e) the learning achieved as a consequence of the

implementation of this program (compared with what is learned by pupils who study

genetics in a more traditional way). The results demonstrate that many students involved in

this program restructure their initial misunderstanding of the location of inheritance

 47

information and acquire a knowledge that is more in keeping with scientifically accepted

principles. He concluded by pointing to some implications for the teaching of genetics at

the secondary school level.

In the study of Peklaj (2010) entitled, “ Teaching genetics with multimedia results

in better acquisition of knowledge and improvement of comprehension”, which the main

goal of this study was to explore whether the use of multimedia in genetics instruction contributes

more to students' knowledge and comprehension than other instructional modes. We were also

concerned with the influence of different instructional modes on the retention of knowledge and

comprehension. In a quasi-experimental design, four comparable groups of 3rd and 4th grade high

school students were taught the process of protein synthesis: group 1 was taught in the traditional

lecture format (n = 112 students), group 2 only by reading text (n = 124 students), group 3

through multimedia that integrated two short computer animations (n = 115 students) and group

4 by text supplemented with illustrations (n = 117 students). All students received one pre-test

in order to estimate their prior knowledge, and two post-tests in order to assess knowledge and

comprehension immediately after learning and again after 5 weeks. Results showed that students

comprising groups 3 and 4 acquired better knowledge and improved comprehension skills than the

other two groups. Similar results were observed for retention of acquired knowledge and improved

comprehension. These findings lead to the conclusion that better learning outcomes can be obtained

by the use of animations or at least illustrations when learning genetics.

Science Teaching

In the study entitled, “The Challenges of Teaching and Learning about Science in

the 21st Century: Exploring the Abilities and Constraints of Adolescent Learners”, by Eric

M. Anderman, of Ohio State University and Gale M. Sinatra of University of Nevada, they

have argued that adolescents have extraordinary cognitive abilities, and that these cognitive
 48

abilities need to be acknowledged and understood by science educators. We have attempted

to integrate research from different domains of educational psychology, to demonstrate that

science education can be tailored to the needs of adolescents. Science educators must

understand developmental processes. High school science teachers need to understand not

only how their students learn, they need to understand where their students came from (i.e.,

typical cognitive development of middle grade students), and where they are going (i.e.,

continued cognitive development during early adulthood). We contend that it is the

intersection of teachers' knowledge about adolescent cognition and teachers' knowledge

about creating effective classroom environments that will lead to enhanced scientific

learning for adolescents. Most important, we are at a critical point in terms of encouraging

adolescents to consider careers in science. Many American jobs are being shipped overseas

to highly qualified individuals who are well trained in science.

Many American students turn away from science-related disciplines because they

have had bad experiences in science classes during high school. Young women and

minorities are under-represented in science careers in the academy and in business and

industry. We strongly argue that many of negative experiences associated with the learning

of science in schools can be avoided if science educators are cognizant of both the cognitive

abilities of all adolescent learners, 35 and the types of learning environments that are most

conducive to fostering the use of these abilities.

In the study of Montebon (2018) of Philippine Normal University, entitled,

“Science Pre-Service Teachers Experience on Teaching beyond Subject Expertise”, it

showed that pre-service teachers were challenged in teaching their assigned topic because

of the misalignment of their expertise. Such results agree with the finding of Schemp et al.
 49

(1998). The result implies that teacher education institutions must prepare a programme to

help bridge the gap between the pre-service teachers’ knowledge on content expertise and

the challenges of the new K12 curriculum. The dilemma faced by the pre-service teachers

could have been encountered by in-service teachers as well. Programmes such as peer

tutoring, content update seminars, and teaching strategy workshops need to be done. Also,

a new scheme such as ‘teacher-rotation’ programme could be tried out to help address such

problem. However, the attitude of the pre-service teachers towards the misalignment of

their expertise to the K12 programme is remarkable. They do not see it as a problem but as

a challenge that they are determined to overcome. They generally do not even see it as a

factor that will hinder their ability to obtain a teaching job. Common sense would indicate

that a person with the right attitude can always survive a problematic situation. Teacher

education institutions should help the pre-service teachers sustain the attitude and perhaps

provide them with enrichment programmes to nurture their determination to take on the

challenge.

Teaching Methods in Science Education

There are different teaching methods employed in science education in Nigerian

tertiary institutions. Miles (2015) asserted that it is expected of a teacher to implement a

range of instructional strategies that will bring academic success to all the science students.

For any method to be able to bring good result in the present age, it should be a method

that promote maximum social interaction. Social interaction between students and between

teacher and student plays a crucial role in learning (Nguyen, Williams, and Nguyen, 2012).

These authors further stressed the need for the students to be provided with a supportive,

open and interactive environment as this could help them discover knowledge. The
 50

teaching methods commonly used in science education classes are lecture and

demonstration method. These methods shall be briefly discussed. Lecture method is often

used to deliver a large amount of information to the students in a short period (Berry, 2008).

According to Gehlen-Bauum and Weinberger (2014), lectures are designed to deliver a

new information to a large group of students. This method is known to be effective in

dealing with a large class. However, it could also be used for a small class. Research

indicates that this method dominates most of the tertiary institutions (Deslauriers, Schelew

and Wieman, 2011). Research shows that students’ retention in a lecture-based science

courses is weak. According to Bok (2006), an average students only retains 42% of what

he or she learned after the end of the lecture and 20% one week later. Research shows that

teaching method like the lecture method commonly used does not help the students to

acquire sufficient functional understanding (Bernhard et al., 2007). Berry (2008) argued

that lecture method lacks the effectiveness of an active learning approach. In the opinion

of Fagen and Mazur (2003), lecture method causes the bad reading habit among the

students. Franklin, Sayre, and Clark (2014), students taught in lecture-based classes learn

less than those taught with activity based reformed methods. Lecture method is frequently

a one – way process unaccompanied by discussion, questioning or immediate practice that

makes it a poor teaching method (Hatim, 2001; Al-Rawi, 2013). Lecture method

concentrates on information rather than learners (Al-Rawi, 2013). In the lecture method

the teacher tell the students what to do instead of activating them to discover for themselves

(Miles, 2015).
 51

Teaching Resources for Genetics

In the study conducted by Venville (2010) entitled, “Teaching Strategies for

Developing Students Argumentation Skills About Socioscientific Issues in High School

Genetics”, An outcome of science education is that young people have the understandings

and skills to participate in public debate and make informed decisions about science issues

that influence their lives. Toulmin’s argumentation skills are emerging as an effective

strategy to enhance the quality of evidence based decision making in science classrooms.

In this case study, an Australian science teacher participated in a one-on-one professional

learning session on argumentation before explicitly teaching argumentation skills to two

year 10 classes studying genetics. Over two lessons, the teacher used whole class

discussion and writing frames of two socioscientific issues to teach students about

argumentation. An analysis of classroom observation field notes, audiotaped lesson

transcripts, writing frames and student interviews indicate that four factors promoted

student argumentation. The factors are: the role of the teacher in facilitating whole class

discussion; the use of writing frames; the context of the socioscientific issue; and the role

of the students. It is recommended that professional learning to promote student

argumentation may need to be tailored to individual teachers and that extensive classroom

based research is required to determine the impact of classroom factors on students’

argumentation.
 52

Synthesis

Almost 100 years after the coining of the terms ‘genetics’ (William Bateson in

1906) and ‘gene’ (Wilhelm Johansen in 1909), the field of genetics has much expanded to

cover many areas beyond merely the study of inheritance (Chattopadhyay, 2005).

Many science education researchers advocate that genetics instruction raises

important political, economic, ethical, and educational questions. Members of society must

receive an effective education and develop an adequate understanding of the concepts and

processes involved in genetics in order to appreciate these questions and their answers

(Sadler et al., 2006; Brock, 1996). Also, they will be better able to understand subjects

discussed in the media and be better prepared to participate in major decisions.

In this study, the reviewed literature on science education has indicated several

major reasons as being problematic when learning genetics. It has been noticed that these

different problems are not isolated, but are in a way all related to one another and can

reinforce the difficulties students experience (Knippels et al., 2005).

Students face problems in the abstract and complex nature of science knowledge,

their own ingrained misconceptions, and the large amount of content. Knowledge of the

extensive genetic terminology is required for understanding a classic genetic problem.

Moreover, they have to do mathematical calculations with those symbols in solving the

problem, and to connect these probabilities with biological phenomena (Knippels et al.,

2005). However, students’ ability to deal with formal concepts in a meaningful manner is

connected with their level of intellectual and cognitive development.

 53

Because of this foregoing scenario where in teaching genetics seem to be

challenging as to the approaches that need to be given attention in teaching and the

strategies that need to be diverse in order for the learners to absorb much idea and apply

what they have learned, the researchers decided to design an interactive vocabulary guide

named pictonary which aims to be one of the strategies to uplift the teaching of genetics

and its outcome. Therefore, the researcher decided to conduct a study entitled, “Pictonary:

Improving Junior High School Students’ Literacy on some Selected Topics in Genetics”.
 54

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the research design, locale and participants of the

study, sample size and sampling technique, research instrument, validity and

reliability of the instrument, data gathering procedure, and data analysis

procedure.

Research Design

This study employed an experimental research design specifically pre/posttest

design. This method allowed the researchers to distinguish the academic performance of

the students after being exposed to the intervention. Students were given pre-test and post-

test to determine the level of students’ scientific literacy on selected topics in Genetics.

Locale of the Study

This study was conducted at three public high schools in the province of Capiz

during the school year 2020-2021.

Participants of the Study

The participants of this study were the 60 randomly picked Grade 7 to Grade 10

Junior High School students who were officially enrolled in three public high schools in

the province of Capiz during the school year 2020-2021.

 55

Sample size and Sampling Technique

The participants were randomly picked through random sampling design with the

use of Cochran’s proportional allocation formula. The participants were given pre-test

where the scores obtained was recorded. The intervention then was given to the same

number of students which was followed by a post-test.

Research Instruments

The data needed for the study were gathered through a test which included five (5)

main topics namely: (1) Mendelian Genetics, (2) Non Mendelian Genetics, (3)

Chromosomal Aberrations, (4) Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance and (5) DNA

Replication, which was prepared by the researchers and was subjected to item analysis,

validity and reliability test. The test was validated by 3(three) science teachers.

Validity of the Research Instrument

The test was subjected to face validation zeroing on its content. Face validation was

done by examining the items on the test one by one to make sure that the statements are

appropriate and significant in gathering the necessary data. The validators were secondary

Science teachers who were considered experts.

Reliability of the Questionnaire

To test the reliability of the instrument, it was subjected to a pilot test. The pilot test

was administered to 100 Grade 10 students of Maayon National High School who were not

included or participants in the actual study. Guttman split-half coefficient was used to

determine the reliability of the instrument since the research instrument used was a multiple
 56

choice type of test and showed a 0.845 reliability coefficient and was interpreted as very

high correlation or very reliable.

Data Gathering Procedure

After establishing the validity and reliability of the test, the instruments were

reproduced according to the number of respondents. The researchers requested permission

from the Principal of the school wherein the respondents were officially enrolled to

administer the test and to conduct the intervention. After the permission was approved, the

researchers personally distributed the test to the parents or guardians of the respondents

during the module distribution to ensure a hundred percent return rate.

The pre-test was personally distributed and administered to the guardians of the

respondents during the module distribution. After which, researcher-designed pictionary

were administered to the respondents. After the implementation of intervention, post-test

was given to both groups.

In this study, the researchers used the action-research design which allowed the

development of knowledge or understanding as a part of a practice. Action-research is

suited in situations where a researcher wish to bring action in the form of change, and at

the same time develop an understanding which informs change and is an addition to what

is known.

On the next page is the action-research flow chart used in this study.
 57

Diagnostics of
students’ content
knowledge
(Pre-test)

Design and
Data Collection development of
and Reflection
the intervention

Evaluation
(Post-test)

Figure 2. Action-research Flow Chart

Intervention

In this study, the researchers administered a Pictonary (compound name for picture

and dictionary) to the guardians of the students during the scheduled school module

distribution.

The following topics were included in the intervention: (1) Mendelian Genetics, (2)

Non Mendelian Genetics, (3) Chromosomal Aberrations, (4) Chromosomal Basis of

Inheritance and (5) DNA Replication. After the implementation of intervention, post-test

was given.

Table 1 on the next page shows the action research work plan and timeline.
 58

Table 1 Action Research Work Plan and Timeline

STRATEGIES ACTIVITIES TIMELIME

Parents Involvement Conduct orientation 1st Week of May
with parents regarding
the action research to
be conducted.

Dissemination of Inform parents to 2nd Week of May

Pretest provide support and
cooperation in
monitoring their
children’s assigned
task at home.

Dissemination of Coordinate with 3rd Week of May

Researcher made parents regarding the
Pictonary (picture and pictonary being given
dictionary) to the children. Inform
parents to remind the
students regarding
their tasks stipulated
on the pictonary.
Dissemination of Post- Inform parents to 4th Week of May
test provide support and
cooperation in
monitoring their
children’s post-test at
home.

Categorization and Scoring of Variables

The researchers arbitrarily categorized the pre-test and post-test scores as follows:

Score Verbal Description Interpretation

39-50 High Have little to no misconceptions

about the topic
26-38 Average Have few misconceptions about
the topic
 59

25 and below Low Have lots of misconceptions and

poor understanding about the
topic

Statistical Data Analysis Procedure

The data that were gathered were encoded, processed and analysed using the

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics such as Mean and

Standard Deviation were used to describe the level of knowledge of the learners on topics

about selected topics in genetics. On the other hand, t-test was used to determine the

significant difference between the groups and the alpha was set to 0.05 level of

significance.

The statistical tools used were:

Mean and Standard Deviation. These were used to describe the overall level of

performance of the students in both groups.

T-test for Dependent Samples. This was used to determine if there is a significant

difference in the pre-test and post-test performance of students in each of the groups.
 60

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

This chapter covers the presentation and analysis of the data. The data gathered are

presented and interpreted preceded by a textual discussion to clearly expound its intent and

implications.

Pre-test Performance of the Learners

In terms of the pretest result of the participants, students from East-Villa Flores

National High School had a Mean Percentage Score (MPS) of 47%, Putian National High

School had a Mean Percentage Score (MPS) of 37%, and San Antonio National High

School had a Mean Percentage Score (MPS) of 48%. It was found out that participants

from three selected schools had pretest MPS result less than 50%, this implies that

respondents had a little idea about the topic before the intervention.

The results conforms to the Situated Cognition Theory (Brown et., al, 1989) which

emphasized that people’s knowledge is embedded and connected to the activity, context

and culture in which it was learned, thus making the students’ conceptual knowledge about

genetics is “low” since they do not have enough information about the topics.

Table 2. Pre-test performance of learners

School Frequency Percentage Mean(Pretest) MPS

East-Villa Flores 20 33.33 23.50 47%

NHS

Putian NHS 20 33.33 18.50 37%

 61

San Antonio 20 33.33 23.80 48%

NHS

TOTAL 60 100

Materials Utilized during the Intervention

The researchers have designed a Pictonary as an intervention which is composed of

the following topics. (Table 3).

Table 3. Topic included in Pictonary

TOPIC MATERIAL STRATEGY

UTILIZED

Mendelian Genetics Pictonary Visualization,

Comprehensive
Reading and
bridging prior
knowledge

Non Mendelian Pictonary Visualization,

Genetics Comprehensive
Reading and
bridging prior
knowledge

Chromosomal Pictonary Visualization,

Aberrations Comprehensive
Reading and
bridging prior
knowledge

Chromosomal Pictonary Visualization,

Basis of Inheritance Comprehensive
Reading and
 62

bridging prior
knowledge

DNA Replication Pictonary Visualization,

Comprehensive
Reading and
bridging prior
knowledge

Visualization of illustration presented, comprehensive reading and connecting prior

knowledge to what the students will learn based on the Pictonary as intervention are the

teaching strategies that were found to be most suited for the topics in this pandemic

situation to still address the problems underlying science education specifically in genetics.

Visualization is a teaching strategy that brings dull academic concept to life with

visual experiences and it helps students to understand topics and how these topics can be

applied in the real world.

Since learners are not allowed to go outside and see the real-world setting,

illustration images can still aid in developing and improving their knowledge in genetics.

Another strategy is comprehensive reading which encourages learners to have deep

understanding of different concepts in genetics while connecting what they are reading to

the corresponding illustration will develop and improve learners’ precept on some terms in

genetics.

Bridging the gap between learner’s prior knowledge and new acquired knowledge

will totally develop learner’s understanding in genetics. This intervention will help learners

to improve their academic performance and understanding in genetics despite the COVID
 63

-19 situation that we are facing right now. They can still improve and learn genetics despite

the situation that the whole world is facing.

Post-test Performance of Learners

The learners who were exposed to the intervention who had pretest MPS result less

than 50%, which had a little idea about the topic was found to have high MPS result above

50% after the intervention (Table 4).

Table 4. Post-test performance of the learners

School Frequency Percentage Mean(Posttest) MPS

East-Villa Flores 20 33.33 42.45 85%

NHS

Putian NHS 20 33.33 40.50 81%

San Antonio 20 33.33 44.85 90%

NHS

TOTAL 60 100

Results showed that the utilization of the researcher-made pictonary which included

strategies, activities and materials mentioned above helped the learners gain knowledge

about the concepts related to genetics such as mendelian inheritance, non mendelian

inheritance, chromosomal aberrations, chromosomal basis of inheritance and DNA

Replication.

This implies that the gaps on the learners’ knowledge about genetics can be

addressed through Pictonary (illustration and meaning) of the said topics to the learners
 64

and will help them add and strengthen their content knowledge on the aforementioned

topics.

The results conforms to the theory of Constructionism wherein there is an active

learning process where knowledge is being constructed through student’s prior knowledge.

During the intervention, the topics were presented through illustration and definition where

the learners were engaged in simple activities that enable knowledge construction.

Therefore, presenting learners with specific definition coupled with illustration through

engaging material will make learners performances higher in the post-test than the pre-test.

Difference between the Pre-test and Post-test

Performance of the learner

Data for the test of significant difference between the pre-test and post-test

performance of the students who were exposed to the intervention (Table 5) shows that

there is a highly significant difference between (t =-22.310; p = 0.000) their pre-test and

post-test performance.

Table 5. Dependent sample test for the pre-test and post-test performance of the
learners

PERFORMANCE
t-value SIG (2-TAILED)

PRETEST & -22.310 0.000

POSTEST

**Significant at 0.05
 65

This revealed that the students who were exposed to the intervention performed

better in the post-test than in the pre-test, implying that the exposure to the intervention

resulted to a highly significant change in their performance.

Topics on genetics should be accompanied by supplementary material like

Pictonary. This will help the learners in gaining awareness on some concepts in genetics.

Results presented in table 5 conforms to the findings of Schiefele et al., (1996),

wherein he mentioned that scenarios being demonstrated as intervention had an impact on

the conceptual knowledge of students in achieving success in their academic performance.

Students who have a great deal of background knowledge in a subject area were likely to

learn new information readily and quite well. This explains why the learners performed

better after the exposure to developed intervention.

 66

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter discusses the summary of the salient features of the study. It

presents the participants, instruments used, statistical tool used, results of the data

analysis, and the recommendations based on the conclusions made in the study.

Summary

This study was conducted to develop a Junior high school science pedagogy in

teaching and learning genetics despite COVID 19 pandemic. It aimed to find the gaps in

the knowledge/understanding of the learners in the concepts related to mendelian, non

mendelian inheritance, chromosomal aberrations and chromosomal basis of inheritance as

well as DNA replication, develop strategies and activities through an intervention that

aimed to narrow the gaps in learners’ knowledge on some concepts in genetics, describe

the pre-test and post-test performance of the learners after being exposed to intervention,

and determine if there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test

performances of the learners.

This study utilized the experimental research design specifically pre/posttest design

with the learners as experimental group. The respondents of the study were 60 Junior High

School students of local Public High Schools in the province of Capiz during the school

year 2020-2021. A fifty-item researcher-made test was used to determine the pre-test

performance of the respondents. The same test was used for the post-test, with reshuffling

of the items. After the pre-test, intervention was conducted using researcher-made
 67

pictonary with various activities regarding topics about genetics considering the situation

we are facing right now.

In the analysis of data, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used

to process the data gathered; mean and standard deviation were used to describe the overall

level of performance of the learners in both groups and t-test was used to find the significant

difference between the groups.

Findings of the Study

After the study was conducted, the following findings were gathered:

1. In the pre-test, both groups have “low” level of knowledge about some concepts in

genetics as shown in the mean percentage scores of their pretest performances which is less

than 50%.

2. The learners have many misconceptions and poor understanding on topics about

mendelian genetics, non mendelian genetics, chromosomal aberrations, chromosomal basis

of inheritance and DNA replication.

3. The researcher-made pictonary included illustrations and definitions of some terms

in genetics as well as activities was utilized during the intervention.

4. The pre-test and post-test performance of the learners vary from each other. The

results were:

a. Pre-test performance of the learners who were exposed to the intervention was

less than the mean percentage score of 50% indicating that the learners have

lots of misconceptions and poor understanding about the topic;

 68

b. Post-test performance of the learners who were exposed to the intervention was

greater than the mean percentage score of 50% indicating that the learners have

understood the topic after the intervention;

5. There is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test performance of

the learners since the significant difference is less than 0.05. This means that the

intervention is very effective.

6. The intervention of the researchers can be considered a developed output of the

study.

Conclusions

From the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:

1. Learners showed many misconceptions and poor understanding about the topic.

Therefore, the researchers must find ways to address the low pretest performance of the

learners.

2. Learners have prior knowledge about mendelian and non mendelian genetics,

chromosomal aberrations, chromosomal basis of inheritance and DNA replication but they

have a little idea on how these things are further understood.

3. Pictonary, a vocabulary guide in genetics which includes illustration and definition

of some of the terms in genetics is used to narrow the gaps in the learners’ knowledge on

some concepts in genetics and showed improvement on the learners’ performance.

Therefore, a vocabulary guide aside from the usual classroom activities can be an effective

tool in addressing the gaps on the knowledge of the learners on some topics in genetics.
 69

4. The learners gained knowledge about some concepts in genetics from the developed

intervention. Therefore, the researchers conclude that the utilization of the intervention,

can help the learners in improving their knowledge on genetics.

5. The pictonary introduced to the learners is an effective tool to narrow the gaps in

the knowledge of the learners on some topics in genetics, since a highly significant

difference between the pre-test and post-test performance of the said learners was revealed

after the intervention was introduced.

6. The pictonary of the researchers which served as an intervention can be a useful

output for this study.

Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions, the researchers forwarded the following

recommendations:

1. The teachers must include vocabulary guide with illustrations in their Science classes

since the learners showed little to no knowledge about the topics on some concepts in

genetics for they might have less understanding of some concepts.

2. The department of education may include enhancement/supplemental topics on

genetics to the Science curriculum for the students to be aware of the heredity and variation.

3. Teachers are encouraged to utilize the various teaching strategies including a

vocabulary guide to enhance the learner’s understanding of science topics especially in the

field of genetics.

4. The intervention can be used in order to narrow the gaps of the learners’ knowledge

on genetics.
 70

5. Future researchers may examine the efficacy of this study in a longer time frame in

a larger number of respondents.

 71

REFERENCES

AAAS (1990). What is Genetics?. Retrieved from STS Research Network Missive,2(3),

18-23.

Abell, S. K. (1994) What is science? Persevere elementary teachers’ conception of

the nature of science. International Journal of Science Education, 16(4), 475

485.

Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. (1980) Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social

Behaviour, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Alamolhodaei, A. (1996) A Study of Learning Calculus in Higher Education and

Students’ Learning Styles, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Glasgow.

Albaladejo, C. and Lucas, A. M. (1988) Pupils’ meaning for ‘mutation’. Journal of

Biology Education, 22(3), 215-219.

Al-Enezi D. (2004) Difficulties Associated with Teaching and Learning Mathematics:

A Study of Psychological Factors Affecting Pupils’Performance, M.Sc. Thesis,

University of Glasgow.

Almeida et.al, (2011). Teaching Science .Retrieved from https://books.google.com.ph

Anderson, H. O., Harty, H. and Samuel, K. V. (1986) Nature of science, 1969 and

1984:Perspectives of pre-service secondary science teachers. School

Science and Mathematics,86(1), 43-50.

Ausubel, D. P. and Robinson, F. G. (1969) School Learning: An Introduction to

Educational Psychology, New York, USA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Ayuso (2015). Science Teaching. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.ph

Baddeley, A. D. (1986) A Working Memory, London, UK: Oxford University.

 72

Bahar, M. (1996) A Diagnostic Study of Concept Difficulties in Secondary School

Biology Courses, M.Sc. Thesis, University of Glasgow.

Bahar, M. (1999) Investigation of Biology Students’ Cognitive Structure through Word

Associated Tests, Mind Maps, and Structural Communication Grids, Ph.D.

Thesis,University of Glasgow.

Bell, B. and Freyberg, P. P. (1985) Language in the science classroom. In Osborn, R. and

Freyberg, P. P. Learning in Science: The Implications of Children Science,

Heinemann,29-40.

Bliss, J. (1995) Piaget and after: The case of learning science? Studies in Science

Education, 25, 139-172.

Boersma, K. T. (1999) The Janus face of developmental research. Review of some

designs of biology-didactical research. In Jong, O., Kortland, K., Waarlo, A.

Botero, A. L. (1997) Scientific and technological literacy and economic development.

Innovation in Science and Technology Education, 6, 201-214.

Bradley, J. and Hutchings, D. (1973) Concepts of science and scientists as factors

affecting subject choice in secondary schools. School Science Review, 55, 8-15.

Brill, G., Falk, H. and Yarden, A. (2003) Teachers’ journal club: Bridging between

the dynamics of biological discoveries and biology teachers. Journal of

Biological Education, 37(4), 168-170.

Brown, J.S., Collins, A. & Duguid, P. (1989). “Situated Cognition and the Culture for

Learning” Volume 18. Retrieved from

https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA204690.pdf
 73

Browning, M. E. and Lehman, J. D. (1988) Identification of student misconceptions

in genetic problem solving via computer program. Journal of Research in

Science Teaching,25, 747-761.

Bruner, J. (1996) The Culture of Education, USA: Harvard University Press.

Bybee, R. W. (1985) Science-Technology-Society. 1985 NSTA Yearbook, Washington,

DC: National Science Teachers Association.

Byrne, M. S. and Johnstone, A. H. (1987) Critical thinking and science education. Studies

in Higher Education, 12(3), 325-339.

Byrne, M. S. and Johnstone, A. H. (1988) How to make science relevant. School

Science Review, 70(251), 43-46.

Cem, A., Ceren, T. and Omer, G. (2003) Using the conceptual change instruction to

improve learning. Journal of Biology Education, 37(3), 133-137.

Charlotte K. O. (1998) Learning Mendelian genetics through a simple coin toss game.

American Biology Teacher, 60(8), 608-612.

Chattopadhyay, A. (2005) Understanding the genetic information in higher secondary

students in Northeast India and the implications for genetics education. Cell

Biology Education, 4, 97-104. Cheek, D. W. (1992) Evaluating learning in STS

education. Theory into Practice, 31(1), 64-72.

Cho, H., Kahle, J. B. and Nordland, F. H. (1985) An investigation of high school

biology textbooks sources of misconceptions and difficulties in genetics and

some suggestions for teaching genetics. Science Education, 69, 707-719.

Cobern, C. C. (1996) Worldview theory and conceptual change in science education.

Science Education, 80(5), 579-610.

 74

Collins, A. and Stewart, J. H. (1989) The knowledge structure of Mendelian

genetics. The American Biology Teacher, 51, 143-149.

Danili, E. (2001) New Teaching Materials for Secondary School Chemistry: A Study

of Psychological Factors Affecting Pupil Performance, M.Sc. Thesis,

University of Glasgow.

Driver, R. and Bell, B. (1986) Students’ thinking and the learning of science: A

constructivist view. The School Science Review, 67(240), 443-456.

Driver, R., Newton, P. and Osborne, J. (2000) Establishing the norms of scientific

argumentation in classrooms. Science Education, 84, 287-312.

El-Banna, H. (1987) The Development of a Predictive Theory of Science Education

based upon Information Processing Theory, Ph.D. Thesis, Universitym of Glasgow.

Fensham, P. J. (1988) Approaches to the teaching of STS in science education.

International Journal of Science Education, 10(4), 346-356.

Fensham, P. J. (1992) Science and technology. In Jackson, P. W. (Ed) Handbook of

Research on Curriculum, New York: Macmillan.

Finely, F., Steward, L. and Yaroch, L. (1982) Teachers’ perception of important and

difficult science content. Science Education, 66(4), 531-538.

Fisher K. M. (1985) A misconception in biology: Amino acids and translation. Journal

of Research in Science Teaching, 22, 53-62.

Gardner, P. L. (1975) Attitude to science: A review. Studies in Science Education,2,

1-41.
 75

Gerard, H. B. and Orive, R. (1987) The dynamics of opinion formation. In Berkowitz L.

(Ed) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, San Diego: Academic

Press.

Germann, P. J. (1988) Development of the attitude towards science in school

assessment and its use to investigate the relationship between science

achievement and attitude towards science in school. Journal of Research in

Science Teaching, 25(8), 689-703.

Gott, R. and Johnson, P. (1999) Science in schools: Time to pause for taught. School

Science Review, 81(295), 21-28.

Hanrahan, M. (1999) Rethinking science literacy: Enhancing communication and

participation in school science through affirmational dialogue journal

writing. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36, 699-717.

Hart, E. P. (1989) Toward renewal of science education: A case study of curriculum

policy development. Science Education, 73(5), 607-634.

Hassard, J. (2000) Backup of Meaningful Learning Model. From

http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/mos.html.

Hodson, D. (2003) Time for action: Science education for an alternative future.

International Journal of Science Education, 25, 645-670.

Holbrook, J. B. (1992) Teaching science the STS way. In Yager, R. E. (Ed) The Status

of STS: Reform Efforts Around the World, ICASE 1992 Yearbook, Knapp

Hill, South Harting, Petersfield, UK: International Council of Associations

for Science Education.

Hurd, P. D. (1998) Scientific literacy: New minds for a changing world. Science
 76

Education, 82, 407-416.

Hutchings, D. W. (1967) Girls’ attitude to science. New Society, 6 November.

Johnstone, A. H. and Al-Naeme, F. (1991) Room for scientific thought? International

Journal of Science Education, 13, 187-192.

Johnstone, A. H., and El-Banna, H. (1986) Capacities, demands and processes: a

predictive model for science education. Education in Chemistry, 23(3), 80 84.

Johnstone, A. H., and Wham, A. J. B. (1982) Demands of practical work. Education

in Chemistry, 19(3), 71-73.

Kahtz, A. W. and Kling, G. (1999) Field dependent and field independent

conceptualisations of various instructional methods: A qualitative analysis.

Educational Psychology, 19, 413-429.

Kapteijn, M. (1990) The functions of organizational levels in biology for describing

and planning biology education. In Lijnse, P. L., Licht, P., Vos, W. and Vaarlo,

A. J. (Ed)

Kindfield, A. C. H. (1994) Understanding a basic biological process: Expert and novice

models of meiosis. Science Education, 78, 255-283.

Knippels, M. C. P. J., Waarlo, A. J. and Boersma, K. T. (2005) Design criteria for

learning and teaching genetics. Journal of Biology Education, 39(3), 108 112.

Kogan, N. (1976) Cognitive Styles in Infancy and Early Childhood, New Jersey:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Kolsto, S. D. (2001) Scientific literacy for citizenship: Tools for dealing with the science

dimension of controversial socio-scientific issues. Science Education, 85, 291

310.
 77

Korpan, C. A., Bisanz, G. L., Bisanz, J., and Henderson, J. M. (1997) Assessing literacy

in science: Evaluation of scientific news briefs. Science Education, 81, 515-532.

Kyle, W. C., Jr. (1995b) Scientific literacy: Where do we go from here? Journal of

Research in Science Teaching, 32, 1007-1009.

Lawson, A. E. and Renner, J. W. (1975) Relationships of science subject matter and

developmental levels of learners. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 12,

347-358.

Lee, O. (1997) Scientific literacy for all: What is it, and how can we achieve it? Journal

of Research in Science Teaching, 34, 219-222.

Lee, O. (1999) Science knowledge, world views, and information sources in social

and cultural contexts: Making sense after natural disaster. American

Lewis, J., Leach, J., and Wood-Robinson, C. (2000a) Chromosomes: The missing link

Young people’s understanding of mitosis, meiosis, and fertilization.

Lewis, J., Leach, J., and Wood-Robinson, C. (2000b) All in the genes? – Young

people’s understanding of the nature of genes. Journal of Biology Education,

34(2), 74-79. Lewis, J., Leach, J., and Wood-Robinson, C. (2000c) What’s in a

cell? -Young people’s understanding of the genetic relationship between cells,

within an individual. Journal ofBiology Education, 34(3), 129-132.

Lewis, J. and Kattmann, U. (2004) Traits, genes, particles and information:

Revisiting students’ understanding of genetics. International Journal of

Science Education, 26(2),

Marbach-Ad, G (2001) Attempting to break the code in students’ comprehension of

genetic concepts. Journal of Biology Education, 35(4), 183-189.

 78

Miller, G. D. (1956) The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on

our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.

Miller, J. D. (1983) Scientific literacy: A conceptual and empirical review Daedalus,

112(2), 29-48.

Moll, M. B. and Allen, R. D. (1987) Student difficulties with Mendelian genetics

problem. The American Biology Teacher, 49(4), 229-233.

National Academy of Sciences in USA (1995) National Science Education Standards in

USA. From http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses.

National Research Council in USA (NRC) (1996) National Science Education

Standards,Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.

National Science Education Standards (2018). Scientific Literacy. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.ph

Norman, O. (1998) Marginalised discourses and scientific literacy. Journal of

Research in Science Teaching, 35, 365-374.

Oberauer, K., Heiz-Martin, S. Wilhelm O. and Wittman, W. (2003) The multiple faces

of working memory: Storage, processing, supervision and coordination.

Intelligence, 31(2), 167-193.

Opdenacker, C., Fierens, H., Van Brabant, H., Sprut, J. and Johnstone, A. H. (1990)

Academic performance in solving chemistry problems related to student

working memory capacity. International Journal of Science Education

Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (1998). Special Price Edition. New York: Oxford

University Press. Queens University. (2008) Genetics and Literacy

 79

Papert, S. & Harel, I. (1991). “Situating Constructionism”. Constructionism, 1-11.

Retrieved from

https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.691.4506&rep=rep1&type=pd

Pascual-Leone, J. (1970) A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget’s

development stages. Act Psychological, 32, 301-345.

Pashley, M. A. (1994b) A chromosome model. Journal of Biology Education, 28(3), 157

Pearson, J. T. and Hughes, W. J. (1988a) Problems with the use of terminology in

genetics: 1 - A literature review and classification scheme. Journal of

Biology Education, 22(3), 178-182.

Piaget, J. and Inhelder, B. (1969) The Psychology of The Child, New York, USA:H.

Weaver and Trans.

Reid, N. (2000) The presentation of chemistry logically driven or application-led?

Chemistry Education: Research and Practice in Europe, 1(3), 381-392.

Reid, N. (2006) Thoughts on attitude measurement. Research in Science and

Technological Education, 24(1), 3-27.

Reid, N. and Skryabina, E. (2002b) Gender and physics. International Journal of

Science Education, 25(4), 509-536.

Roberts, D. A. (1988) What counts as science education? In Fensham, P. J. (Ed)

Development and Dilemmas in Science Education, New York: Flame Press.

Rodefeld, R. D. (1967) The Generalized Attitude of Members Toward their General

Farm Organization, M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin.

Sadler, T. D., Amirshokoohi, A., Kazempour, M. and Allspaw, K. M. (2006)

 80

Socioscience and ethics in science classrooms: Teacher perspectives and

strategies.Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43(4), 353-376.

Simpson, M. and Arnold, B. (1982) The inappropriate use of subsumers in biology

learning. European Journal of Science Education, 4(2), 173-182.

Sirhan, G. and Reid, N. (2001) Preparing the mind of the learner - Part 2. University

Chemistry Education, 5, 52-58.

Slack, S. J. and Stewart, J. H. (1990) High school students’ problem-solving

performance on realistic genetics problems. Journal of Research in Science

Teaching, 27, 55-67.

Solomon, J. (1993) Teaching Science, Technology and Society, Buckingham, UK:

Open University Press.

Steward, J. H. (1982a) Difficulties experienced by high school students when

learning basic Mendelian genetics. The American Biology Teacher, 44(2), 80-84.

Sutman, F. X. (1996) Scientific literacy: A functional definition. Journal of

Research in Science Teaching, 33, 459-460.

Tolman, R. R. (1982) Difficulties in genetics problem solving. The American

Biology Teacher, 44, 525-527.

Witkin, H. A. (1974) Psychological Differentiation: Studies of Development, New

York,USA: Wiley.

Yager, R. E. (1992a) Science-technology-society as reform. In Yager, R. E. (Ed) The

Status of STS: Reform Efforts Around the World, ICASE 1992 Yearbook,

Knapp Hill,South Harting, Petersfield, UK: International Council of Associations

for Science Education.

 81

Yang, M. (2000) Problem Solving in Chemistry at Secondary School. Ph.D. Thesis,

University of Glasgow.

Zajonc, R. B. (1968) Attitudinal effects of mere repeated exposure. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology Monograph Supplement, 9(2), 1-27.

Zehavi, N. (1995) Integrating software development with research and teacher

education. Computer in the Schools, 11(3), 11-24.

Zuckerman, D. M., Singer, D. G. and Singer, J. L. (1980) Children’s television

viewing, racial and sex-role attitudes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,

10, 281-294.
 82

APPENIDCES
 83

Appendix 1. Letter for the Validation of Instruments

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ARTS AND SCIENCES

Graduate School

May 3, 2021

Ms. MARYJANE DONGOR

Faculty
Maayon National High School

Madam:

We, the MA- GENSCI students of Capiz State University- Pontevedra Campus are presently conducting a
research study entitled, “Pictonary: Improving Junior High School Students’ Scientific Literacy on Selected
Topics in Genetics” in partial fulfilment for our course in Sci 216 (Genetics).

In line with this, we would like to ask your valuable time and expertise in validating our research instrument.

Thank you so much for your valuable time, services and support to this endeavor.

Very truly yours,

(SGD) RICHEL I. DARADAR

(SGD) AINNE D. DORDAS

(SGD) RENELYN R. MONDIA

(SGD) ERGIL V. ROMUALDO

(SGD) MICHELLE C. TENORIO

Researchers

Accredited: Accrediting Agency Chartered and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP)

Member: Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
Agricultural Colleges Association of the Philippines (ACAP)
 84

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ARTS AND SCIENCES

Graduate School

May 3, 2021

Ms. CARMEN SITJAR

Faculty
Maayon National High School

Madam:

We, the MA- GENSCI students of Capiz State University- Pontevedra Campus are presently conducting a
research study entitled, “Pictonary: Improving Junior High School Students’ Scientific Literacy on Selected
Topics in Genetics” in partial fulfilment for our course in Sci 216 (Genetics).

In line with this, we would like to ask your valuable time and expertise in validating our research instrument.

Thank you so much for your valuable time, services and support to this endeavor.

Very truly yours,

(SGD) RICHEL I. DARADAR

(SGD) AINNE D. DORDAS

(SGD) RENELYN R. MONDIA

(SGD) ERGIL V. ROMUALDO

(SGD) MICHELLE C. TENORIO

Researchers

Accredited: Accrediting Agency Chartered and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP)

Member: Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
Agricultural Colleges Association of the Philippines (ACAP)
 85

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ARTS AND SCIENCES

Graduate School

May 3, 2021

Mrs. LORENA D. PANUNCIO

Faculty
Maayon National High School

Madam:

We, the MA- GENSCI students of Capiz State University- Pontevedra Campus are presently conducting a
research study entitled, “Pictonary: Improving Junior High School Students’ Scientific Literacy on Selected
Topics in Genetics” in partial fulfilment for our course in Sci 216 (Genetics).

In line with this, we would like to ask your valuable time and expertise in validating our research instrument.

Thank you so much for your valuable time, services and support to this endeavour.

Very truly yours,

(SGD) RICHEL I. DARADAR

(SGD) AINNE D. DORDAS

(SGD) RENELYN R. MONDIA

(SGD) ERGIL V. ROMUALDO

(SGD) MICHELLE C. TENORIO

Researchers

Accredited: Accrediting Agency Chartered and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP)

Member: Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
Agricultural Colleges Association of the Philippines (ACAP)
 86

Appendix II. Letter for Pilot Testing

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ARTS AND SCIENCES

Graduate School

May 10, 2021

Ma. Lea O. Dais

Principal
San Antonio National High School

Madam:

We, the MA- GENSCI students of Capiz State University- Pontevedra Campus are presently conducting a
research study entitled, “Pictonary: Improving Junior High School Students’ Scientific Literacy on Selected
Topics in Genetics” in partial fulfilment for our course in Sci 216 (Genetics).

In line with this, we would like to ask permission from your good office to allow us to conduct pilot test of
our research instrument in your school. We will be utilizing the randomly selected Grade 10 students who
are officially enrolled this S.Y 2020-2021. Rest assured that whatever we can generate from this endeavor
will be treated with utmost confidentiality and will be used for research purposes only.

Your kind accommodation of this request will be deeply appreciated. Thank you very much.

Very truly yours,

(SGD) RICHEL I. DARADAR

(SGD) AINNE D. DORDAS

(SGD) RENELYN R. MONDIA

(SGD) ERGIL V. ROMUALDO

(SGD) MICHELLE C. TENORIO

Researchers

Accredited: Accrediting Agency Chartered and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP)

Member: Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
Agricultural Colleges Association of the Philippines (ACAP)
 87

Appendix III. Letter for the Conduct of the study

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ARTS AND SCIENCES

Graduate School

May 31, 2021

Mr. ELMER CONCEPCION

Teacher In- Charge
East Villaflores National High School

Sir:

We, the MA- GENSCI students of Capiz State University- Pontevedra Campus are presently conducting a
research study entitled, “Pictonary: Improving Junior High School Students’ Scientific Literacy on Selected
Topics in Genetics” in partial fulfilment for our course in Sci 216 (Genetics).

In line with this, we would like to ask permission from your good office to allow us to conduct our research
study in your school. We will be utilizing the randomly selected Junior High School students who are
officially enrolled this S.Y 2020-2021. Rest assured that whatever we can generate from this endeavour will
be treated with utmost confidentiality and will be used for research purposes only.

Your kind accommodation of this request will be deeply appreciated. Thank you very much.

Very truly yours,

(SGD) RICHEL I. DARADAR

(SGD) AINNE D. DORDAS

(SGD) RENELYN R. MONDIA

(SGD) ERGIL V. ROMUALDO

(SGD) MICHELLE C. TENORIO

Researchers

Accredited: Accrediting Agency Chartered and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP)

Member: Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
Agricultural Colleges Association of the Philippines (ACAP)
 88

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ARTS AND SCIENCES

Graduate School

May 31, 2021

LIZA JEAN A. PEDROSO

Principal
Putian National High School

Madam:

We, the MA- GENSCI students of Capiz State University- Pontevedra Campus are presently conducting a
research study entitled, “Pictonary: Improving Junior High School Students’ Scientific Literacy on Selected
Topics in Genetics” in partial fulfilment for our course in Sci 216 (Genetics).

In line with this, we would like to ask permission from your good office to allow us to conduct our research
study in your school. We will be utilizing the randomly selected Junior High School students who are
officially enrolled this S.Y 2020-2021. Rest assured that whatever we can generate from this endeavour will
be treated with utmost confidentiality and will be used for research purposes only.

Your kind accommodation of this request will be deeply appreciated. Thank you very much.

Very truly yours,

(SGD) RICHEL I. DARADAR

(SGD) AINNE D. DORDAS

(SGD) RENELYN R. MONDIA

(SGD) ERGIL V. ROMUALDO

(SGD) MICHELLE C. TENORIO

Researchers

Accredited: Accrediting Agency Chartered and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP)

Member: Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
Agricultural Colleges Association of the Philippines (ACAP)
 89

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ARTS AND SCIENCES

Graduate School

May 31, 2021

SHIELA SOLIVA
Principal
San Antonio National High School

Madam:

We, the MA- GENSCI students of Capiz State University- Pontevedra Campus are presently conducting a
research study entitled, “Pictonary: Improving Junior High School Students’ Scientific Literacy on Selected
Topics in Genetics” in partial fulfilment for our course in Sci 216 (Genetics).

In line with this, we would like to ask permission from your good office to allow us to conduct our research
study in your school. We will be utilizing the randomly selected Junior High School students who are
officially enrolled this S.Y 2020-2021. Rest assured that whatever we can generate from this endeavour will
be treated with utmost confidentiality and will be used for research purposes only.

Your kind accommodation of this request will be deeply appreciated. Thank you very much.

Very truly yours,

(SGD) RICHEL I. DARADAR

(SGD) AINNE D. DORDAS

(SGD) RENELYN R. MONDIA

(SGD) ERGIL V. ROMUALDO

(SGD) MICHELLE C. TENORIO

Researchers

Accredited: Accrediting Agency Chartered and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP)

Member: Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
Agricultural Colleges Association of the Philippines (ACAP)
 90

Appendix 4: Research Instrument (Pretest)

Republic of the Philippines

CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
PONTEVEDRA CAMPUS
Bailan, Pontevedra, Capiz

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ARTS AND SCIENCES

Graduate School

Direction: Read each item carefully and choose the correct letter of the best answer.

1. What is genetics?
A. It studies fungi.
B. It deals with heredity and variation.
C. It deals with microscopic forms of life.
D. It studies rocks and minerals.
2. Genetic makeup: genotype ____________:phenotype
A. chromosomes B. traits C. physical appearance D. none of these
3. DNA stands for______________.
A. Deoxyribonucleic Acid B. Deoxyacid C. Deoxyribo Acid D. Ribonucleic Acid
4. Mendel's _________________ states that the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes
independently of one another.
A. Law of Segregation
B. Law of Dominance
C. Laws of Heredity
D. Law of Independent Assortment
5. Is a square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a particular cross or breeding experiment.
A. Monohybid Cross
B. Dihybrid Cross
C. Punnett Square
D. ABO blood typing
6. He is the father of Genetics.
A. Punnett B. Aristotle C. Mendel D. Crick
7. The sugar present in ribonucleic acid is ____________.
A. ribose
B. deoxyribose
C. fructose
D. glucose
8. Which of the following is an example of codominance.
A. roan B. mirabilis jarapa C. alas cuatro plant D. none of the above
9. This branch of genetics deals with the laws and principles adapted from the study of Gregor Mendel.
A. Population Genetics B. Mendelian Genetics C. Non-mendelian Genetics D. None of the above.
10. _______________is a specific, fixed position on a chromosome where a particular gene or genetic marker is located.
A. genes B. locus
 91

C. chromosomes D. DNA

11. DNA is a nucleic acid while RNA is a _____________.

A. nucleic acid B. protein C. carbohydrate D. lipids
12. It is a cross which involves two traits and explains for independent assortment.
A. Test cross B. dihybrid cross C. monohybrid cross D. none of these
13. Hair color is controlled by_________.
A. codominance B. multiple alleles C. polygenic traits D. jumping genes
14. DNA:_________ RNA: single stranded
A. Double stranded
B. stranded
C. single stranded
D. no strand
15. Down syndrome is also known as __________.
A. Trisomy 21 B. Trisomy 18 C. Trisomy 12 D. none of these
16. It is the process of pairing and ordering all the chromosomes of an organism, thus providing a genome-wide
snapshot of an individual's chromosomes.
A. Blood typing
B. Immunoassays
C. Hematopoiesis
D. Karyotyping
17. What is the correct order of cell cycle?
A. Interphase-Prophase- Telophase- Metaphase- Anaphase
B. Prophase-Metaphase-Anaphase- Telophase
C. Interphase-Mitosis-Meiosis-Cytokinesis
D. Either A or B
18. Blending of traits can be explained by___________.
A. Incomplete dominance B. Polygenic traits C. Codominance D. Multiple alleles
19. When the alleles are HH, they are called ___________.
A. Homozygous dominant B. Homozygous recessive C. Heterozygous D. None of these
20. Watson and Crick discovered the RNA double helix model in year 1953.
A. True B. False C. Maybe D. none of these
21. It is the production or development of an ovum.
A. spermatogenesis B. oogenesis C. gametogenesis D. none of these
22. Eukaryotes:________ Prokaryotes: Nucleoid region
A. chromosome B. nucleolus
C. nucleus D. nucleid
23. Which of the following disorders is not brought by chromosomal aberrations?
A. Pleural effusion B. Down syndrome C. Warkany syndrome D. Jacob syndrome
24. Which of the following is heterozygous gene?
A. GG B.gg C. Gg D. GGgg
25. The longest arm of chromosome is ________.
A. p arm
B. q arm
C. telomere
 92

D. centromere
26. It is a sequence of three nucleotides which together form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule.
A. genetic code
B. codon
C. code
D. genome
27. It is a physical or chemical agent that permanently changes genetic material, usually DNA, in an organism and
thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural background level.
A. antigen B. antibody C. mutagen D. colchicine
28. Are a family of basic proteins that associate with DNA in the nucleus and help condense it into chromatin.
A. Histone B. Genome C. Genetic Code D. Proteomics
29. Is the interaction involving a hydrogen atom located between a pair of other atoms having a high affinity for
electrons.
A. Phosphate bond B. nitrogen bond
C. Hydrogen bond D. none of these
30. He is the father of biology.
A. Mendel B. Aristotle C. Morgan D. All of the above
31. Genetics: Heredity ________: birds
A. Ichthyology B. Ornithology C. Embryology D. Entomology
32. DNA is ___________.
A. conservative B. semi-conservative C. helix D. none of these
33. It is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.
A. replication B. duplication C .inversion D. deletion
34. Are phenotypic traits that are determined, jointly with the environment, by many genes of small effect.
A. Polygenic B. Qualitative C. Quantitative D. Multiple
35. DNA replication is part of cell cycle specifically in___________.
A. prophase B. metaphase
C. anaphase D. interphase
36. What happens when homozygous trait is crossed with homozygous trait also?
A. The offspring will be hybrid.
B. The offspring will be homozygous.
C. The offspring will be heterozygous.
D. None of these
37. It is the state of being diploid, that is having two sets of the chromosomes (and therefore two copies of genes),
especially in somatic cells.
A. Monoploidy
B. Diploidy
C. Aneuploidy
D. Euploidy
38. It is a genetic mutation caused by a deletion or insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the way the sequence is
read
A. Frameshift mutation B. Inverse mutation
C. Point mutation D. Duplication
39. It is a trait that is controlled by a gene or an allele located on the sex chromosome.
A. Sex limited trait B. Sex linked trait C. Polygenic trait D. Sex influenced trait
 93

40. It is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division.
A. nondisjunction
B. recombination
C. diffusion
41. Means a change in location. It often refers to genetics, when part of a chromosome is transferred to another
chromosome. Chromosomes are structures that carry genes, our units of heredity.
A. inversion B. translocation C. deletion D. duplication
42. It is a process of cell duplication, in which one cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells. In the
various stages of mitosis, the cell's chromosomes are copied and then distributed equally between the two new
nuclei of the daughter cells.
A. metaphase B. mitosis C. meiosis D. anaphase
43. Cytokinesis is the division of ____________.
A. cytoplasm B. nucleus C. ribosome D. ER
44. A gene that is being masked by the dominant one.
A. recessive B. dominant C. lethal D. all of the above.
45. Is a distinguishing quality or characteristic, typically one belonging to a person.
A. trait B. gene c. chromosome D. chromatin
46. Is a type of chromosome having the centromere situated so that one chromosomal arm is much shorter than the
other.
A. acrocentric B. submetacentric
C. metacentric D. heliocentric
47. Cytokinesis occurs after___________.
A. metaphase B. telophase
C. anaphase D. prophase
48. It is the formation of sperm.
A. spermatogenesis B. diploidy
C. oogenesis D. gametogenesis
49. Humans are prokaryotes.
A. true B. false C. none of these
50. The cross which involves only one trait.
a. monohybrid cross
b. dihybrid cross
c. test cross
d. none of these
 94

Appendix 5: Research Instrument (Posttest)

Republic of the Philippines

CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
PONTEVEDRA CAMPUS
Bailan, Pontevedra, Capiz

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ARTS AND SCIENCES

Graduate School

Direction: Read each item carefully and choose the correct letter of the best answer.

1. Means a change in location. It often refers to genetics, when part of a chromosome is transferred to another
chromosome. Chromosomes are structures that carry genes, our units of heredity.
A. inversion B. translocation C. deletion D. duplication
2. It is a process of cell duplication, in which one cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells. In
the various stages of mitosis, the cell's chromosomes are copied and then distributed equally between the
two new nuclei of the daughter cells.
A. metaphase B. mitosis C. meiosis D. anaphase
3. Cytokinesis is the division of ____________.
A. cytoplasm B. nucleus C. ribosome D. ER
4. A gene that is being masked by the dominant one.
A. recessive B. dominant C. lethal D. all of the above.
5. Is a distinguishing quality or characteristic, typically one belonging to a person.
A. trait B. gene c. chromosome D. chromatin
6. Is a type of chromosome having the centromere situated so that one chromosomal arm is much shorter than
the other.
A. acrocentric B. submetacentric
C. metacentric D. heliocentric
7. Cytokinesis occurs after___________.
A. metaphase B. telophase
C. anaphase D. prophase
8. It is the formation of sperm.
A. spermatogenesis B. diploidy
C. oogenesis D. gametogenesis
9. Humans are prokaryotes.
A. true B. false C. none of these
10. The cross which involves only one trait.
a. monohybrid cross
b. dihybrid cross
c. test cross
d. none of these
11. Genetics: Heredity ________: birds
A. Ichthyology B. Ornithology C. Embryology D. Entomology
12. DNA is ___________.
 95

B. conservative B. semi-conservative C. helix D. none of these

13. It is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA
molecules.
A. replication B. duplication C .inversion D. deletion
14. Are phenotypic traits that are determined, jointly with the environment, by many genes of small effect.
A. Polygenic B. Qualitative C. Quantitative D. Multiple
15. DNA replication is part of cell cycle specifically in___________.
A. prophase B. metaphase
C. anaphase D. interphase
16. What happens when homozygous trait is crossed with homozygous trait also?
E. The offspring will be hybrid.
F. The offspring will be homozygous.
G. The offspring will be heterozygous.
H. None of these
17. It is the state of being diploid, that is having two sets of the chromosomes (and therefore two copies of
genes), especially in somatic cells.
E. Monoploidy
F. Diploidy
G. Aneuploidy
H. Euploidy
18. It is a genetic mutation caused by a deletion or insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the way the sequence
is read.
B. Frameshift mutation B. Inverse mutation
D. Point mutation D. Duplication
19. It is a trait that is controlled by a gene or an allele located on the sex chromosome.
B. Sex limited trait B. Sex linked trait C. Polygenic trait D. Sex influenced trait
20. It is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division.
D. nondisjunction
E. recombination
F. diffusion
21. It is the production or development of an ovum.
B. spermatogenesis B. oogenesis C. gametogenesis D. none of these
22. Eukaryotes:________ Prokaryotes: Nucleoid region
B. chromosome B. nucleolus
D. nucleus D. nucleid
23. Which of the following disorders is not brought by chromosomal aberrations?
B. Pleural effusion B. Down syndrome C. Warkany syndrome D. Jacob syndrome
24. Which of the following is heterozygous gene?
B. GG B.gg C. Gg D. GGgg
25. The longest arm of chromosome is ________.
E. p arm
F. q arm
G. telomere
H. centromere
26. It is a sequence of three nucleotides which together form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule.
 96

E. genetic code
F. codon
G. code
H. genome
27. It is a physical or chemical agent that permanently changes genetic material, usually DNA, in an organism
and thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural background level.
B. antigen B. antibody C. mutagen D. colchicine
28. Are a family of basic proteins that associate with DNA in the nucleus and help condense it into chromatin.
B. Histone B. Genome C. Genetic Code D. Proteomics
29. Is the interaction involving a hydrogen atom located between a pair of other atoms having a high affinity for
electrons.
B. Phosphate bond B. nitrogen bond
D. Hydrogen bond D. none of these
30. He is the father of biology.
B. Mendel B. Aristotle C. Morgan D. All of the above
31. DNA is a nucleic acid while RNA is a _____________.
B. nucleic acid B. protein C. carbohydrate D. lipids
32. It is a cross which involves two traits and explains for independent assortment.
B. Test cross B. dihybrid cross C. monohybrid cross D. none of these
33. Hair color is controlled by_________.
B. codominance B. multiple alleles C. polygenic traits D. jumping genes
34. DNA:_________ RNA: single stranded
E. Double stranded
F. stranded
G. single stranded
H. no strand
35. Down syndrome is also known as __________.
B. Trisomy 21 B. Trisomy 18 C. Trisomy 12 D. none of these
36. It is the process of pairing and ordering all the chromosomes of an organism, thus providing a genome-wide
snapshot of an individual's chromosomes.
E. Blood typing
F. Immunoassays
G. Hematopoiesis
H. Karyotyping
37. What is the correct order of cell cycle?
E. Interphase-Prophase- Telophase- Metaphase- Anaphase
F. Prophase-Metaphase-Anaphase- Telophase
G. Interphase-Mitosis-Meiosis-Cytokinesis
H. Either A or B
38. Blending of traits can be explained by___________.
B. Incomplete dominance B. Polygenic traits C. Codominance D. Multiple alleles
39. When the alleles are HH, they are called ___________.
B. Homozygous dominant B. Homozygous recessive C. Heterozygous D. None of these
40. Watson and Crick discovered the RNA double helix model in year 1953.
B. True B. False C. Maybe D. none of these
 97

41. What is genetics?

E. It studies fungi.
F. It deals with heredity and variation.
G. It deals with microscopic forms of life.
H. It studies rocks and minerals.
42. Genetic makeup: genotype ____________:phenotype
B. chromosomes B. traits C. physical appearance D. none of these
43. DNA stands for______________.
B. Deoxyribonucleic Acid B. Deoxyacid C. Deoxyribo Acid D. Ribonucleic Acid
44. Mendel's _________________ states that the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes
independently of one another.
E. Law of Segregation
F. Law of Dominance
G. Laws of Heredity
H. Law of Independent Assortment
45. Is a square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a particular cross or breeding experiment.
E. Monohybid Cross
F. Dihybrid Cross
G. Punnett Square
H. ABO blood typing
46. He is the father of Genetics.
B. Punnett B. Aristotle C. Mendel D. Crick
47. The sugar present in ribonucleic acid is ____________.
E. ribose
F. deoxyribose
G. fructose
H. glucose
48. Which of the following is an example of codominance.
B. roan B. mirabilis jarapa C. alas cuatro plant D. none of the above
49. This branch of genetics deals with the laws and principles adapted from the study of Gregor Mendel.
B. Population Genetics B. Mendelian Genetics C. Non-mendelian Genetics D. None of the above.
50. _______________is a specific, fixed position on a chromosome where a particular gene or genetic marker is
located.
B. genes B. locus
D. chromosomes D. DNA
 98

Appendix 6: Pictures during the dissemination of Pilot Test

 99

Appendix 7: Pictures during the dissemination of Pretest

 100

Appendix 8: Pictures during the dissemination of Pictonary

 101

Appendix 9: Pictures during the dissemination of Posttest

 102

Appendix 10: Results of the Study

FREQUENCIES VARIABLES=EVNHS PRETEST EVNHS POSTTEST SANHS PRETEST SANHS

POSTTEST PNHS PRETEST PNHS POSTTEST
/STATISTICS=MEAN
/ORDER=ANALYSIS.

Frequencies

[DataSet0]

Statistics

EVNHS EVNHS SANHS SANHS PNHS PNHS

PRETEST POSTTEST PRETEST POSTTEST PRETEST POSTTEST

Valid 20 20 20 20 20 20
N 0 0 0 0 0 0
Missing

Mean 23.5000 42.4500 23.8000 44.8500 18.5500 40.5000

Frequency Table
EVNHS Cumulative
PRETEST Frequency Percent CumCnt Percent
12 1 5.00 1 5.00
13 1 5.00 2 10.00
14 1 5.00 3 15.00
15 3 15.00 6 30.00
18 1 5.00 7 35.00
20 2 10.00 9 45.00
24 2 10.00 11 55.00
25 1 5.00 12 60.00
26 1 5.00 13 65.00
27 1 5.00 14 70.00
28 1 5.00 15 75.00
30 1 5.00 16 80.00
34 1 5.00 17 85.00
35 1 5.00 18 90.00
36 1 5.00 19 95.00
39 1 5.00 20 100.00
N= 20
 103

EVNHS
POSTTEST Frequency Percent CumCnt CumPct
38 1 5.00 1 5.00

39 2 10.00 3 15.00

40 5 25.00 8 40.00

43 3 15.00 11 55.00

44 4 20.00 15 75.00

45 3 15.00 18 90.00

46 1 5.00 19 95.00

47 1 5.00 20 100.00

N= 20

SANHS
PRETEST Count Percent CumCnt CumPct
12 1 5.00 1 5.00
15 1 5.00 2 10.00

16 1 5.00 3 15.00
18 2 10.00 5 25.00
20 1 5.00 6 30.00
23 4 20.00 10 50.00

24 3 15.00 13 65.00
25 2 10.00 15 75.00
27 1 5.00 16 80.00
28 1 5.00 17 85.00
34 2 10.00 19 95.00
40 1 5.00 20 100.00
N= 20
 104

SANHS
POSTTEST Count Percent CumCnt CumPct
40 1 5.00 1 5.00

44 7 35.00 8 40.00

45 7 35.00 15 75.00

46 2 10.00 17 85.00

47 2 10.00 19 95.00

48 1 5.00 20 100.00

N= 20

PNHS PRETEST Count Percent CumCnt CumPct

12 1 5.00 1 5.00
13 2 10.00 3 15.00

14 4 20.00 7 35.00
15 1 5.00 8 40.00
18 1 5.00 9 45.00

20 2 10.00 11 55.00
21 2 10.00 13 65.00

22 2 10.00 15 75.00
23 3 15.00 18 90.00
24 1 5.00 19 95.00

25 1 5.00 20 100.00
N= 20
 105

PNHS
POSTTEST Count Percent CumCnt CumPct
33 1 5.00 1 5.00
34 2 10.00 3 15.00
35 3 15.00 6 30.00
38 2 10.00 8 40.00
39 1 5.00 9 45.00
43 1 5.00 10 50.00
44 5 25.00 15 75.00
45 4 20.00 19 95.00
46 1 5.00 20 100.00
N= 20
*= 1

T-TEST PAIRS=pretest WITH posttest (PAIRED)

/CRITERIA=CI(.9500)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS.

T-Test

[DataSet0]

Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
pretest 21.9500 60 6.50633 1.456
Pair 1
posttest 42.6000 60 3.01533 .6750

Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences t df Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Pair pretest - - 4.76083 1.06550 - 83 .000
1 posttest 32.2750 22.310