In Chapter 7, you learned how managers use flexible budgets and variance analysis to help

plan and control the direct-cost categories of direct materials and direct manufacturing labor. In this
chapter, you will learn how managers plan for and control the indirect-cost categories of variable
manufacturing overhead and fixed manufacturing overhead.

Planning of Variable and Fixed Overhead Costs

LEARNING
1
We use the Webb Company example to illustrate the planning and control of variable and
fixed overhead costs. Webb manufactures jackets it sells to distributors, who in turn sell them OBJECTIVE
to independent clothing stores and retail chains. Because we assume Webb’s only costs are
Explain the similarities
manufacturing costs, for simplicity we use the term “overhead costs” instead of “manufactur-
and differences in planning
ing overhead costs” in this chapter. Webb’s variable overhead costs include energy, machine variable overhead costs
maintenance, engineering support, and indirect materials. Webb’s fixed overhead costs include and fixed overhead costs
plant leasing costs, depreciation on plant equipment, and the salaries of the plant managers.
. . . for both, plan only
essential activities and be
Planning Variable Overhead Costs efficient; fixed overhead
To effectively plan variable overhead costs, managers focus on activities that create a supe- costs are usually
rior product or service for their customers and eliminate activities that do not add value. For determined well before
the budget period begins
example, customers expect Webb’s jackets to last, so Webb’s managers consider sewing to
be an essential activity and plan variable overhead costs to maintain the sewing machines.
To reduce costs of maintenance, managers schedule periodic equipment maintenance rather
than wait for sewing machines to break down. Many companies use sensors embedded in
machines to gather data about machine performance and feed these data into machine learn-
ing algorithms to schedule the precise preventive maintenance each machine needs at exactly
the right time. Many companies are also seeking ways to reduce energy consumption, both
to cut variable overhead costs and to be environmentally friendly. Webb installs smart meters
in order to monitor energy use in real time and steer production operations away from peak
consumption periods.
Planning Fixed Overhead Costs
Planning fixed overhead costs is similar to planning variable overhead costs—only spend on
essential activities and be efficient. But there is an additional strategic issue when planning
fixed overhead costs: choosing the appropriate level of capacity or investment that will benefit
the company in the long run. Consider Webb’s leasing of sewing machines, each of which has
a fixed cost per year. Leasing too many machines will result in overcapacity and unnecessary
fixed leasing costs. Leasing too few machines will result in an inability to meet demand, lost
sales of jackets, and unhappy customers. Consider AT&T, which did not initially foresee the
iPhone’s appeal or the proliferation of “apps” and consequently did not upgrade its network
sufficiently to handle the resulting data traffic. AT&T subsequently had to impose limits on
how customers could use the iPhone (such as by curtailing tethering and the streaming of
Webcasts). This explains why, at one point following the iPhone’s release, AT&T had the low-
est customer satisfaction ratings among all major carriers.
The planning of fixed overhead costs differs from the planning of variable overhead
costs in another regard as well: timing. At the start of a budget period, management will
have made most of the decisions determining the level of fixed overhead costs to be in-
curred. But it’s the day-to-day, ongoing operating decisions that mainly determine the level
of variable overhead costs in a period. For example, the variable overhead costs of hospi-
tals, which include the costs of disposable supplies, doses of medication, suture packets,
and medical waste disposal, are a function of the number and nature of procedures carried DECISION
out, as well as the practice patterns of the physicians. However, most of the costs of pro- POINT
viding hospital service are fixed overhead costs—those related to buildings, equipment, How do managers plan
and salaried labor. These costs are determined at the start of a period and are unrelated to variable overhead costs
a hospital’s volume of activity.2 and fixed overhead costs?

2
Free-standing surgery centers have thrived because they have lower fixed overhead costs compared to traditional hospitals. For an
enlightening summary of costing issues in health care, see A. Macario, “What Does One Minute of Operating Room Time Cost?”
Journal of Clinical Anesthesia, June 2010.
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