J Comput High Educ

DOI 10.1007/s12528-017-9139-z

Exploring collaboration in learning by design

via weblogs

Ünal Çakiroğlu1 • Merve Yildiz2 • Ebru Mazlum1 •

Ebru Turan Güntepe3 • Şenay Aydin4

 Springer Science+Business Media New York 2017

Abstract The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore collaborative

activities that were carried out via weblogs according to a ‘‘learning by design’’
approach. During the instructional process, Microsoft Publisher was used for a
series of infographic design activities. The study participants were 33 undergraduate
students who were enrolled in an Arts Education program. The data sources
included weblogs that were used by the participants to discuss the design process, as
well as reflection reports that they provided. The data were analyzed according to
Murphy’s collaboration model, which involved associating the participants’ expe-
riences in the design process with the sub-phases of collaboration outlined in the
model. The results indicated that, through the use of weblogs, the participants were
able to design infographics via a ‘‘learning by design’’ approach. The weblogs

& Ünal Çakiroğlu

cakiroglu@ktu.edu.tr
Merve Yildiz
merveyildiz@erzincan.edu.tr
Ebru Mazlum
ebrumazlum@ktu.edu.tr
Ebru Turan Güntepe
ebru.turan.guntepe@giresun.edu.tr
Şenay Aydin
senayaydin@gumushane.edu.tr
1
Department of Computer and Instructional Technology Education, Fatih Faculty of Education,
Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey
2
Department of Computer and Instructional Technology Education, Faculty of Education,
Erzincan University, Erzincan, Turkey
3
Department of Computer and Instructional Technology Education, Faculty of Education,
Giresun University, Giresun, Turkey
4
Department of Computer Programming, Gümüşhane University, Gümüşhane, Turkey

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allowed students to share their knowledge, and thereby to develop better artifacts. It
is hoped that the study may provide insights concerning the link between weblogs
and the learning by design approach in graphic design activities.

Keywords Weblog
Learning by design
Collaboration
Infographics

Introduction

Weblogs, or blogs, as they are generally called, have often been used in educational
contexts as a means to enhance communication (Deng and Yuen 2011; Kim 2008;
Williams and Jacobs 2004; Winder 2006). Online blog sites allow users to post
messages in the form of texts, videos or multimedia, and they may be specialized
according to a given subject area or issue. As such, they are generally used for
sharing, networking, communication, criticizing, and collaborative learning (Daw-
son 2010; Dickey 2004; Du and Wagner 2007; Hall and Davison 2007; Loving et al.
2007; Luehmann and Tinelli 2008; Ray and Hocutt 2006).
Over the last decade, weblog implementations have increased at the higher
education level (Deng and Yuen 2011; Hernández-Ramos 2004; Hourigan and
Murray 2010; Ray and Coulter 2008; Stiler and Philleo 2003; Wopereis et al. 2010;
Yang 2009) as either supporting tools in a given learning environment (Chai and Kim
2010; Deng and Yuen 2009), or as learning environments themselves (Hsu and Lin
2008; Ladyshewsky and Gardner 2008; Ševelj 2006; Sullivan and Longnecker 2014).
For instance, use of blogs as an educational tool may offer specific benefits in the
context of collaborative student work, such as learning by design activities (Kalantzis
and Cope 2005). Learning by design is an instructional approach in which students are
presented with a design challenge and asked to use their prior knowledge to solve
problems (Kolodner et al. 2003). This enables teachers to develop quality learning
experiences, particularly through the use of collaborative activities. Through the
learning by design approach, students are able either to act individually or to work
collaboratively in small groups, carrying out inquiries or sharing ideas about projects.
Through this process, students develop a deeper conceptual understanding as they
construct new knowledge and improve targeted design skills. Many different types of
artifacts may be created via the learning by design approach, including infographics
which are visual representations of information in the form of texts, diagrams,
graphics, and other visual elements that can be easily understood (Toth 2013). In this
study, we hypothesized that using weblogs to engage students in meaningful
discussions while constructing artifacts according to learning by design approach may
provide a high-quality learning experience.

Educational use of weblogs

Weblogs have been frequently discussed in the educational context in terms of

issues such as learner-centered pedagogy, active learning, interaction, collaboration,
feedback, authentic learning and fostering learning communities (Çakır 2013; Philip

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and Nicholls 2009; Williams and Jacobs 2004). While weblog posts may play a
critical role in the learning process as an instructional resource, as a collaborative
tool, and as showcase for student projects, Ray and Hocutt (2006) additionally
stresses their utility as a means for communication. For instance, weblogs may serve
as a forum for discussions about complex issues, as well as providing a medium for
interaction in individual study group projects (Woods and Baker 2004). In this
sense, Holzberg (2003) points out that weblogs can enhance learning, motivate
students, foster collaboration and communication among learners, and encourage
experimenting and risk-taking.
Hsu and Lin (2008) point to the benefits of weblogs in terms of attitudes,
reporting that ease of use, enjoyment, and knowledge sharing were positively
related to blogging; while a study by Williams and Jacobs (2004) likewise indicated
positive perceptions about blogging with respect to the learning process. Namely,
exchanging views with instructors and peers, as well as accessing information
beyond the classroom, had contributed positively to student learning. Another study
carried out by Tekinarslan (2008) involved the application of weblogs in the
instructional process. In this case, most of the students reflected that weblogs are
user-friendly, convenient tools for publishing and sharing studies. In this sense,
Harris (2006) pointed out that access to a wider audience than the traditional
student–teacher relationship is more likely to reinforce collaboration and feedback.
Similarly, Sullivan and Longnecker (2014) found that weblogs contributed
positively to students’ information searching and writing skills.
Focusing on other benefits of blogging, Lin et al. (2006) implemented a blog
system in an international distance course between Japan and Taiwan and
determined that blogs motivated students to generate reflective conversations.
Ducate and Lomicka (2008) similarly reported that using blogs in a language
learning class fostered both ownership and creativity and allowed students to
experiment with language. Another study carried out by Wassell and Crouch (2008)
found that using blogs in a multicultural education course fostered students’ critical
thinking, encouraging dialogue in the class community; while in Thailand,
researchers using weblogs as a part of the teaching environment found a significant
improvement in creativity at the end of a trial period, with weblogs being perceived
as enhancing both group learning and the creative process (Auttawutikul et al.
2014).
In another study, Çakır (2013) found that student motivation, reasons for using a
blog in a course, and the level of challenge perceived by students affected their
engagement with weblog use; while Du and Wagner (2007) stressed the utility of
weblogs as tools for social learning and knowledge construction. Additionally, they
found that students’ weblog performance was a significant predictor of learning
outcomes.
In contrast, other studies have presented negative outcomes with respect to the
use of weblogs. For instance, Yunus et al. (2013) explored their use in terms of
motivational contributions for promoting students’ writing skills. Their results
indicated some challenges concerning weblogs, such as lack of time, deficiency in
skills and poor rates of participation. In addition, Tekinarslan (2008) reported that,
although weblogs contributed positively to students’ research and writing skills,

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only about half of their participants had opportunities to access the Internet off
campus. In another study, Reupert and Dalgarno (2011) investigated the effective-
ness of blogs in facilitating reflection on behavior management in a compulsory
subject. Their results indicated that some students had negative views concerning
weblogs due to limited support and feedback. Furthermore, Robertson (2011)
analyzed design diaries written by 113 computer science students concerning their
creative projects. Although the students in this case used the commenting feature of
weblogs effectively for encouraging their peers and shared problem-solving
knowledge, they were unable to coach each other on higher order skills. Demirel
et al. (2008), on the other hand, confirmed that prospective teachers enjoyed using
weblogs and felt that they enriched their learning, but they had negative perceptions
about limitations such as templates and memory fields.
Overall, although a considerable number of studies reflect positive results about
using weblogs in education, a few studies have found negative effects. In particular,
conclusions about the use of blogs in collaborative learning have not been
accurately described. Thus, discussion of the features of weblogs in learning
environments in which collaboration takes place is still necessary.

Study framework

In consideration of the small body of research related to the use of weblogs in

design activities, the current study focused on two main issues: online learning
through weblogs and learning by design through collaboration. Learning by design
is an approach that supports meaningful learning by enhancing conceptual
knowledge and design skills (Kolodner et al. 1998). In this study, we implemented
a learning by design approach with the support of weblogs in consideration of the
theoretical aspects of online collaboration. Accordingly, we examined the contri-
butions of weblogs to the infographics design process.

Analyzing online collaboration

Weblogs provide for collaboration in online environments and encompass various

types of discussions. In order to address collaboration in online asynchronous
discussions, Murphy (2004) developed a model that conceptualizes collaboration in
the instructional process, including socialization through production of an artifact.
Within his model, he described six stages for identifying and measuring
collaboration levels during the instructional processes, defining specific indicators
at each stage.
According to this model, online learning collaboration begins with an
understanding of the concept; the model goes on by describing how collaboration
takes place in an online context. Throughout the six stages of the model, Murphy
emphasizes social presence for collaboration as a key point, considering how
individuals reflect their perspectives about a subject and how they inquire about

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others’ ideas. Additionally, he provides a framework for establishing common

meanings from various perspectives to provide an artifact.
Murphy’s model has been used by a number of researchers in their investigation
of asynchronous discussions. For instance, Xie et al. (2006) applied the model in
defining collaborative learning among students outside the classroom, while
Garrison and Arbaugh (2007) suggested using the model to understand problems,
build knowledge, and suggest and evaluate solutions. In addition, Zorko (2009)
reported that Murphy’s model was useful for developing solutions for a problem in
an asynchronous interactive environment by including individual perspectives to
reach a shared goal, as well as constructing artifacts via the exchange of knowledge
or skills. Furthermore, Garrote Jurado (2007) used a learning management system
for unemployed academics, using Murphy’s model to discuss the interaction and
socialization that occurred during the process. In line with these studies, we applied
Murphy’s model in the present study to classify and analyze students’ posts in
weblogs with the aim of defining their collaborative activities.

Learning by design

There is a wide range of technologies available that support learning by facilitating

communication and collaboration among students (Barnes 2003). In this regard,
learning by design emerges from the constructionist theory that emphasizes the
value of learning through creating or participating in design activities (Fesakis et al.
2008), wherein students develop new knowledge via sharing, reflecting and
collaborating in order to overcome challenges during the design process. A learning
by design framework provides guidelines for orchestrating and facilitating hands-on
classroom activities that promote transfer of knowledge (Kolodner 2002), as well as
the creation of artifacts that represent meaningful outcomes (Barab and Squire
2004).
Learning by design activities require interaction between students and teachers,
as students help each other and exchange ideas, while the teacher guides their
interactions as they work toward the final artifacts. In this manner, the learning by
design approach may allow students to use their design failures as opportunities, to
integrate content with necessary skills, and to test new instructional techniques
through designing, as well as motivating them throughout the process.
Various researchers have reported positive outcomes of applying a learning by
design approach in online settings, as students interact through a variety of
communicative tools. For instance, Makri et al. (2014) found that a learning by
design approach supported teacher trainees in collaborating to formulate, negotiate
and articulate pedagogical scenarios through the meaningful use of technology;
while Kolodner et al. (2003) provided some examples of learning by design
activities through which students who are exposed to a learning by design
environment worked collaboratively to promote transfer of information. According
to their findings, the learning environment facilitated the application of science
skills.

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Infographics design

In recent years, infographics have become increasingly prominent; figures and

diagrams representing various types of information can be found in schools,
businesses and other organizations. The creation of infographics promotes students’
development of skills such as filtering and associating information and communi-
cating through visual media (Fowler 2005). Recently, in the context of design
courses, instructors have begun using infographics while teaching relatively new
research problems through the application of visual design principles (Krauss 2012).
In this sense, Smiciklas (2012) asserts that in creating infographics, designers
should take into account the visual or conceptual unity of elements to give them the
appearance of belonging together. As such, designers should deal with the
hierarchy principle between items, as well as the space principle among visual
elements. Furthermore, the principles of balance should also be addressed with
respect to the distribution of elements in a composition, while the principles of
contrast or center of interest are used for distinguishing or drawing attention. In
addition, proportion, the relationship of two or more elements in a design and how
they compare with one another, should also be considered; while harmony and
rhythm are applied to create the illusion of movement (Vanichvasin 2013).
Furthermore, the principles of scale, alignment and repetition are implemented in
terms of association and consistency. On the other hand, Freberg (2014) asserted
that in designing infographics, in particular, focus should be given to only one main
idea, including data and explanations and mixing visualization styles jointly in one
infographic. Illustrations and photographs may be used to make an infographic
visually more interesting, while symbols may make it easier to understand. As with
other types of design projects, the targeted viewers should be considered in
producing an infographic (Bojko 2009).
Overall, the literature indicates that the use of weblogs in education may have
positive outcomes. On the other hand, some limitations have also been encountered.
Furthermore, while a number of studies have focused on learning by design
activities, only a few have considered these in the context of using weblogs. In one
such study, Fesakis et al. (2008) found that blogs, combined with a learning by
design approach, enabled teachers to offer high-quality learning experiences in
geometry activities. Since weblogs contribute to collaborative learning, and the
learning by design approach has potential in the teaching of design-based topics, we
hypothesized that weblogs can be effectively used when integrated with various
instructional methods. In this regard, while some scholars are already working on
weblogs, a need exists for more research in order to better understand how weblogs
work within design courses. Thus, we used two approaches (namely, weblogs and
learning by design) in teaching the design of infographics.
In this study, most of the principles of learning by design, as well as the
principles for infographic design, were presented to the participants prior to
delivering the instructional package. The main principles concerning size, color and
proportion, as well as variants of these principles, were taken into consideration in
this study, guiding us in the analysis of the students’ weblog discussions concerning
their collaborative designs.

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Research problem

The purpose of the study was to explore the contribution of weblogs to collaboration
in a learning by design activities. The learners’ experiences and perspectives
relating to the collaborative activities were assessed using Murphy’s (2004)
conceptualization of online collaboration. Accordingly, the following research
questions were formulated in consideration of infographics design through the
support of weblogs:
• How did collaboration take place on weblogs within the conceptualization of
Murphy’s Model?
• According to the perspectives of the learners, how did weblogs affect the quality
of the final infographics artifacts they produced?

Method

Participants

The participants were 33 undergraduate students (15 male and 18 female, between
the ages of 18 and 24) enrolled in the Arts Education department at a public
university in Turkey. Most of the participants attended the classes regularly. They
had little prior knowledge about infographics design and limited experience in using
weblogs. Only a few had used blogs for general discussions, but none had used them
for educational purposes. All of the participants had basic computer literacy skills,
but only a few of them were able to use design software. They had specific prior
knowledge about the principles and elements of design.

Process

The study was carried out in a Basic Information and Communication Technologies
(ICT) course delivered in the second term of 2015. The participants received an
instructional package including theoretical knowledge and practical activities about
the use of Microsoft Publisher software. In addition, they worked on projects, both
at school and at home, over a 5-week period. In the classroom activities, one of the
researchers, as the course instructor, guided the students in the use of the software
for creating infographics projects. First, the instructor introduced the subject of
infographics design from a theoretical perspective, including the general principles
of visual design. In addition, the students were guided in the use of weblogs as a
collaborative tool. The participants were then separated into groups of 3–4 to work
collaboratively on a design project. The instructor assigned deadlines for the tasks
and provided formative feedback for each group concerning their designs. In
addition, she followed the students’ discussions on the weblogs, and when their
posts became irrelevant to the project, she redirected them. The process was planned
according to Krauss’s (2012) five-step approach for creating an infographic. These

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steps are as follows: 1-Get an idea; 2- Sketch it out; 3- Collect the data/information;
4- Develop proof of concepts; 5- Create a layout. This five-step process was carried
out over a 5-week period. The schedule for the 5-week instructional process, which
was carried out both in the classroom and through extracurricular activities, is
outlined in Fig. 1.

Data collection

The qualitative data for the study were drawn from the students’ posts on the weblog
discussions, as well as from reflection reports. The posts on the weblogs included
students’ perspectives about the infographics design process, the elements used
during the design (including typical infographics design principles) and the
collaborative activities carried out during the study. All of the groups shared their
weekly revisions for their infographics (from draft to artifact) on the weblogs.
Members of the groups discussed each other’s artifacts and offered ideas for
improving the designs.
At the end of the process, all of the participants were asked to provide individual
reflection reports. These included open-ended questions addressing the effects of
weblogs on the quality of the final infographics. The questions encompassed the role
of the students in the process, such as how they used basic design elements in their
artifacts, how collaboration took place among the group members, and what their
perspectives were about the design process and the usage of the weblog during the
process.
A brief description of the data collection tools is provided in Table 1.

Analysis

Both the reflection reports and the weblog posts were analyzed through qualitative
analysis. All of the entries in the discussions, as well as the reflections in the reports,
were analyzed by four researchers. The researchers coded the statements
individually, and then they discussed these together until they come to an exact
agreement about the placement of the codes according to Murphy’s model.

Analysis of the weblog posts

During the instructional process, 32 students provided a total of 537 weblog posts,
as well as comments related to the posts. The design tasks were carried out within
small groups, and ideas and skills were exchanged collaboratively both within and
between the groups throughout the process. The weblog posts were analyzed
according to Murphy’s collaboration model, which consists of six stages and
twenty-two sub stages. These were used to classify the discussions in terms of the
meanings of the posts. In the analysis, we focused on the sub-stages of the model
and coded the posts according to the indicators of the stages. It was observed that
students’ perspectives about the infographic design process were appropriate for
analysis using this model, as the developments of their perspectives about the design

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Exploring collaboration in learning by design via weblogs

Fig. 1 Instructional process of infographics design

Table 1 Data collection tools

Research Data collection Purpose
question tools of use

1 Reflection Evaluate the collaborative activities in the process

reports
2 Weblog posts
Interpret and evaluate the quality of the final infographics via
participants’ reflections
Reveal students’ perspectives about the role of the weblog
Evaluate the collaborative activities via students’ experiences in using
weblogs
Explore perspectives on the design of infographics through the
principles of visual design

process had a similar hierarchical structure to its stages. The sub-stages of

collaboration in Murphy’s model are outlined in Table 2.

Analysis of the reflection reports

Deductive content analysis is suggested for coding data on the basis of previous
knowledge (Elo and Kyngäs 2008), especially when the aim of an analysis is to
examine a previous theory or model in a new context. Accordingly, deductive
content analysis was carried out in coding the perspectives evidenced in the
students’ reflective reports, and the basic design elements identified in their
perspectives were associated with the stages of Murphy’s collaboration model.
When conducting the content analysis, the following steps were carried out: to
prepare the data for analysis, we justified the context according to what we wanted

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Table 2 Stages of collaboration in Murphy’s model

Producing shared artifacts (A) Document or other artifact produced by group members
working together (AD)

Building shared goals and purposes (B)
Co-constructing shared perspectives and
meaning (C)
Accommodating or reflecting the
perspectives of others (P)
Articulating individual perspectives (I)
Social presence (S)
Proposing a shared goal or purpose (BP)
Working together towards a shared goal (BW)
Sharing information and resources (CI)
Asking for clarification/elaboration (CA)
Posing rhetorical questions (CQ)
Soliciting feedback (CF)
Provoking thought and discussion (CP)
Responding to questions (CR)
Sharing advice (CS)
Directly disagreeing with/challenging statements made by
another participant (PD)
Indirectly disagreeing with/challenging statements made by
another participant (PI)
Introducing new perspectives (PN)
Coordinating perspectives (PC)
Statement of personal opinion or beliefs making no reference
to perspectives of others (IO)
Summarizing or reporting on content without reference to the
perspectives of others (IS)
Sharing personal information (SP)
Recognizing group presence (SR)
Complimenting/expressing appreciation towards other
participants (SC)
Expressing feelings and emotions (SF)
Stating goals or purposes related to participation (SG)
Expressing motivation about project or participation (SM)

to find out; then we defined the unit of analysis and unitized the content before it
was coded. In using themes as coding units, we first looked for expressions of ideas
(Minichiello et al. 1990). Taking their relevance to the research questions into
account, we assigned codes to segments of text that reflected a single theme. Since
we used a model as the basis for the analysis, we generated a list of categories
following the model, and then tested our coding scheme on a sample of text. As
Weber (1990) suggests, we checked for coding consistency, and then revised the
coding rules until sufficient consistency was achieved. Since four coders were
involved, in order to ensure the consistency of the coding, we prepared a document
detailing the category names and characteristics, then applied a constant compar-
ative approach, using this document as a guide. When sufficient consistency was
achieved, we applied the coding rules to whole text. After coding the entire text, we
again checked for consistency.

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As both the weblog posts and the reflection reports were analyzed through
Murphy’s model, the analysis process was mainly similar for the two data sources.
In the discussions, the posts generally reflected the perspectives of the groups, so the
posts were banded together, and the codes were extracted from text blocks of 1–6
sentences. However, the analysis of the reflection reports was carried out on the
answers to each item. Thus, the flow of the analysis mainly proceeded from the
reflection reports, where the stages of collaboration were addressed, to the text of
the posts, which were primarily used to provide detailed data about determining the
design principle used in the stage of the model.
The elements of balance, harmony, center of interest, simplicity, direction, color,
emphasis, and others were assigned to the stages in the model by considering how
the students identified these elements in the collaborative activities. For instance,
the reflection: ‘‘I think we have chosen a relevant theme, and there are good notes
that will be useful for us on the final exam,’’ was considered as related to
appreciation, praising, acknowledging and so forth, in terms of the sub-stage of
complimenting/expressing appreciation towards other participants (SC), in connec-
tion with the social presence stage (S). Another comment, ‘‘It looks good, but the
red font at the back attracts attention. It would be better if you had used a different
color or a down stroke,’’ was placed in the CS and PD categories, because the
statement reflected both sharing of advice and direct disagreement. On the other
hand, students’ responses toward others’ opinions on their artifacts were considered
in the category of CR. For example, ‘‘We didn’t amplify the color vibrancy very
much, because the neoclassicism movement advocates simplicity. I presented the
largeness or the smallness of the pictures on purpose to create balance.’’ In addition,
some student evaluations were related to the basic elements of design; e.g., ‘‘You
have evinced the concept of the Rococo period very well.’’ Similarly, another
reflection, ‘‘The background pattern is very good; also, colors were appropriately
used. It would be better if you added some more pictures’’ related to contrast
elements; and since this demonstrated both the providing of advice and of
appreciation, it was considered under the sub-categories CS and SC.

Results

The results section is organized to first provide evidence for understanding the
collaborative activities, and then to report basic themes from the students’ reflection
reports, as a means to address the effect of weblogs on the design quality of the
infographics.

Collaborative activities within Murphy’s model

To provide a clear picture of the collaboration, the students’ discussions were coded
according to the sub-stages of Murphy’s Model. The groups were coded as Gn, and
the students in each group were coded as Gn_m. The design elements that were
emphasized in the students’ posts were associated with the sub-stages. Table 3
reflects the stages in which the students addressed the design elements intensively.

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 Table 3 Analysis of students’ posts according to Murphy’s model
Groups Producing Building shared Co-constructing shared Accommodating or reflecting Articulating Social presence (S)
shared artifacts goals, purposes (B) perspectives and meaning the others’ perspectives (P) individual

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(A) (C) perspectives (I)

Group1 CS PD SC
Color, line, contrast Color, line, contrast Contrast
Group2 CS, CR PD SC, SF
Balance, harmony, center of interest, simplicity, color, Unity, balance, proportion,
emphasis, rhythm harmony
Unity, proportion
Group3 CI, CS, CR PI, PD SC
Rhythm, Balance, harmony, unity, rhythm, contrast, color, proportion IS Rhythm, contrast color,
proportion, color, Line, space emphasis
unity
Group4 CS, CR PD, PC IO SC
Proportion, unity, color, size, emphasis, contrast Proportion
Group5 CS, CR, CF PI, PD IS SC
Proportion, unity, color, contrast, balance, repetition Contrast, unity Proportion, unity, color,
contrast, balance,
repetition
Group6 CS, CR PI, PD IO SC
Scale, color, contrast, unity, emphasis Contrast, balance
Hierarchy, direction, balance, rhythm,
Group7 CS, CR PD SC
Contrast, balance, proximity, color, proportion Contrast, balance, color,
proportion
Ü. Çakiroğlu et al.
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For each group, the students’ posts were examined through text blocks, which
generally consisted of several sentences. The frequencies with which the various
design elements were referenced in these sentences were identified, and the most
frequently mentioned elements were noted. Then the related elements were coded
on the basis of the meaning of the text blocks in which they were used. For example,
in Group1, the ‘‘color’’ element was specified 4 times, the ‘‘line’’ element was
mentioned 3 times, and the ‘‘contrast’’ element was referenced 3 times in the text
blocks reflecting the CS sub-stage of the Co-constructing shared perspectives and
meaning stage.
Table 3 demonstrates that the students posts intensely reflected the Co-
constructing shared perspectives and meaning (C) and Accommodating or reflecting
the perspectives of others (P) stage. The aspects of the sub-stages of sharing advice
(CS), responding to questions (CR), and directly disagreeing with/challenging
statements made by another participant (PD) were the most frequently identified
sub-stages (n = 108) in the C and P dimensions. In this sense, while working in
groups, the students tended to provide suggestions on their peers’ designs like, ‘‘I
agree with G1_3, too. I think it would be better if you gave visual data in order to
make it more attractive’’ (G3_4). In addition, (G2_4) expressed that, ‘‘Your design
is nice, but there are some lines at the back that make it overly complex’’.
Furthermore, a number of the students showed direct disagreement (PD) in their
posts. For instance, G4_1 pointed out that, ‘‘These are both inadequate and poorly
composed. There is complexity, and the picture, text and background are
independent of each other.’’ In another assessment considered in this stage, G3_5
commented, ‘‘Thanks for your good job; but I didn’t find your way of placing the
pictures in the shape of the ellipse correct, because there were divisions in the
pictures that occurred in the proportions of the images.’’
On the other hand, it was seen that SC was the dominant subcategory (n = 64) in
students’ discussions related to the S stage. For instance, some of the students
responded to their peers’ suggestions, as with G2_2’s explanation that, ‘‘We thought
if we used light tones, they might blend together, and a complex composition might
occur. That’s why we did it in dark tones.’’ Thus, SC reflects that many of the
students tended to compliment and express appreciation towards others’ artifacts. In
this respect, two of the students’ comments relating to the SC sub stage were as
follows: ‘‘I agree with my friend. The contrast colors provide a movement and
direction effect to the design, and it’s also a well-balanced composition’’ (G2_5).
Similarly, G1_2 expressed that, ‘‘Blogging and sharing comments on the blogs have
taught me to act in unity and solidarity as a group and to respect the opinions of
others.’’ It was also interesting that none of the students’ perspectives addressed the
category of Producing shared artifacts—(A); and furthermore, only a limited
number of statements (n = 8) were provided in the context of Building shared goals
and purposes—(B).
Overall, the elements of contrast, unity, proportion, color, size and emphasis
were mentioned most frequently in the dimensions of Co-constructing shared
perspectives and meaning–(C) and Accommodating or reflecting the perspectives of
others—(P). Balance and rhythm were two other properties which were most often
identified in the discussions.

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Using weblogs in the infographic design process

With respect to the basic design elements, the groups G2, G3 and G6 addressed
multiple types of elements in their posts, but the other groups kept it simpler.
Contrast, balance, color, proportion, emphasis and harmony were the most
frequently considered elements. A noteworthy example of this was expressed by
G1_5, concerning appreciation for an accomplished design highlighting the
elements of unity and contrast: ‘‘The background is a little darker, but I think
there is no need for numbering the pictures. The sufficiency of information and the
attractive appearance have made it special… something positive about the design.’’
In addition, the comment, ‘‘It looks like a pizza; including four slices of different
colors has made it whole. The colors are very vibrant. It is nice to have their
meanings, too,’’ was interesting in that the design elements of balance, contrast and
color were all mentioned. In fact, it was observed that the students often referred to
the basic visual elements in assessing other groups’ designs, both in positive and
negative respects. For instance, one of the students pointed out the discordance of
the design in terms of unity: ‘‘It looks like the pictures and texts are visually distant
from each other. You used various colors behind the text; that is confusing.’’
On the other hand, in the reflection reports, only a few of the students noted that
some conflicts occurred in the peer assessments about the contribution of the
weblogs to the design process. While most of the students emphasized that using
weblogs affected their designs as a means for communicating with both their friends
and the instructor, some of them found that the weblogs decreased the need to reach
out to the instructor. For instance, G6_1 pointed out that, ‘‘Sharing on the blog made
our work easier. Otherwise, we would always need to find the instructor to get
feedback.’’
In addition, the students reported that using weblogs encouraged them to consider
others’ ideas, share information, and socialize. Thus, the weblogs were seen as a
useful platform for the development of alternative ideas. For example, one of the
reflections mentioned that, ‘‘Thanks to sharing on the blog, I checked whether my
ideas were right or wrong. Also, I have gained experience with some design
principles, and it made me social.’’
Moreover, the features of providing visibility and sharing on the blog were
perceived as valuable in the reflections; and the weblogs were seen as playing a
constructive and corrective role during the design process. In this regard, G1_2
expressed that, ‘‘Other groups made us see the missing parts in our infographics
design with their comments about our design principles and elements. I realized that
I should take more pains with my work.’’
The revisions that students provided based on these evaluations contributed to the
design of their artifacts. Also, the majority of the students’ perspectives reflected
that the final artifacts were at an acceptable level of quality. Their evaluations were
made according to the expectations of the researchers, which had been presented to
them at the beginning.
Examples from the first and final versions of two artifacts that had been revised
on the basis of the discussions are shown in Fig. 2.

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Entries in the Weblog

Artifact Preliminary Version Last Version
about the Artifact
Example from Group 3
Example from Group 6

Fig. 2 Revisions based on students’ comments in the discussions

In the weblog posts, the students generally discussed the basic elements of
infographic design. For instance, G4_2 addressed these in the comment that,
‘‘Criticisms on the weblog helped me to understand what I should take into
consideration about unity, color, harmony etc.…. what is right and wrong, and I
believe I have improved myself.’’ Similarly, G5_2 noted that, ‘‘Using weblogs, we
have learnt to pay attention to basic elements of design like color, composition, and
so on. Besides, this practice is a beneficial way to design, and I believe it contributes
a lot to the process.’’ On the whole, the comments related to the design elements
primarily involved the properties of color, harmony and unity, specifically in terms
of infographics design. The basic elements emphasized in the discussions, such as
contrast, unity, proportion, color, size and emphasis, were similar to the common
elements also mentioned in the discussions.

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Overall, the results reflected that the design activities facilitated collaboration
during the process; and the perspectives of the students indicated that the weblogs
were a useful tool for collaboration. Using weblogs also supported the design of
quality infographics by contributing to constructive assessments among the
students.

Discussion and conclusions

This study evaluated the students’ discussions and perspectives during the design of
infographics through a learning by design approach. In this sense, Oravec (2002)
points out that blogs have many dimensions that are suited to students’ unique
voices, empowering and encouraging them to become more critical analytical
thinkers. While weblogs are generally used for creating ideas or knowledge in
educational settings, in this case, the weblogs also served to increase student
interaction. These results reflect those of Sullivan and Longnecker (2014) who used
weblogs for working on assignments as class blogs in four science communication
classes. Likewise, the weblogs in the current study facilitated the exchange of
knowledge between students, and knowing that other students were reading the
posts motivated the participants to think and write more effectively.
Moreover, the students benefited simply from reading other students’ posts, as
with Blau et al. (2009), who reported that using educational weblogs can enrich
online learning by creating a peer dialogue. Hong (2008) also found that reading
other students’ posts was beneficial in terms of understanding content. The results
also indicated that the feeling of closeness transmitted by students via their posts
interacted with different behavior variables (i.e., choosing post content type, calling
for feedback, responding to peers’ comments) and positively affected students’
interpersonal online interactions. Namely, they not only shared design experiences
and learning, but also personal feelings; and as such, their dialog was enhanced.
Furthermore, most of the students were able to provide assessments via the weblog
medium, as with Çakır’s (2013) assertion that blogs can be utilized to expand class
discussions for all students.
Many existing studies have looked at individual blogs, rather than blogs
maintained by a whole class. This study, by exploring the potential of weblogs for
collaboration, provided some crucial evidence about its contribution to the design
process of artifacts such as infographics. This case is supported by Fesakis et al.
(2008), who used group blogging in a geometry course that included learning by
design activities. In that study, analysis of content and log files indicated that
weblogs, combined with a proper pedagogical approach, offered high quality
learning experiences.
On the other hand, the findings also reflect that students’ collaborative activities
may be explained in accordance with the stages of Murphy’s model. In this context,
regarding the sub-stage Social Presence, the students’ entries reflected their feelings
and emotions in terms of social presence in the design process. As the students were
able to express favorable or unfavorable perspectives, their courtesy in written
evaluations of the designs appeared to enhance communication and bonds of

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friendship among the group members. In favor of bringing infographics design to

the forefront, performing according to group perception was a significant influence
relating to social presence. The students mainly exhibited their initial impressions in
relation to the designs, and it is noteworthy that they did not hesitate, although they
knew that others were to take these ideas into consideration. Their views generally
reflected how basic elements like contrast, unity, proportion, color, size, and
emphasis appeared in infographics; and in this regard, only a few of the students
received negative criticism that caused them to feel inadequate. Furthermore, it was
observed that students who were not actively involved in the classroom expressed
themselves more freely in the weblogs, and in general, most of the students were not
persistent in transferring different ideas to their artifacts.
The discussions assessed in relation to Articulating individual perspectives
concerned experiences with summarizing or reporting on someone’s design without
reference to others’ perspectives. For the sub-stage of indirectly disagreeing with/
challenging statements, it was seen that some participants’ posts affected other
groups in a positive way by focusing on the design elements; the most emphasized
of these were color, contrast, balance, unity and proportion. Exchanging ideas and
transferring information about their products were considered in the sub-stage of
provoking thought and discussion. Questions related to the process of designing
infographics were considered in the sub-stage of responding to questions.
Furthermore, statements about inappropriate aspects of designs were placed in the
sharing advice sub-stage. Within the sub-stage of soliciting feedback, the groups
generally developed their critiques about the designs in the frame of contrast,
balance, unity and proportion. While students were working together towards a
shared goal, collaboration in which they mostly dealt with the elements of rhythm,
proportion, color, and unity came to the fore. Although reaching a shared goal is
considered most important by Murphy (2004), a few individual perspectives were
also noted.

Weblogs within learning by design

Weblogs offer the opportunity to interact with others and to learn in a natural
environment as part of everyday life (Ladyshewsky and Gardner 2008; Ševelj
2006). To that end, considering visual design as an important aspect of art
education, the results indicated that weblogs can also be used in the design process,
due to the nature of design-based activities. In the present study, the students’
activities usually took place in the stages of accommodating or reflecting the
perspectives of others, as well as of co-constructing shared perspectives and
meanings. Since infographics comprise the components of visual design, the
participants’ comments on the weblogs generally took place within the framework
of the basic elements and principles of design, as they discussed how the designs
could be improved, and then restructured or revised their designs on the basis of the
comments of their peers.
The success of academic blogs depends on the participation and engagement of
students. In this case, the shared experiences or feelings related to learning were
helpful for almost all of the participants. These features enabled them to consider

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their artifacts from different points of view, resulting in optimization of their

designs. In this sense, one advantage of weblogs is that visible records of artifacts
may be shared, and comments about the artifacts may be taken into consideration
by any groups experiencing similar problems. Thus, working together for a
common goal provided group regulation and encouraged students to construct
better designs and as a consequence of their collaboration, participation between
students was enhanced, and the best possible infographics relating to the selected
topics emerged.
This study has certain limitations that should be enumerated. For instance, since
the context concerned the use of the Microsoft Publisher program, the objectives of
the course were limited to the required tasks relating to infographics design. Thus,
collaboration could only be assessed through these tasks. Furthermore, the
discussions took place among the 7 groups participating in the study. Although
the number of posts was thus partially limited, the current study methodologically
applied a new approach in order to reveal the level of collaboration that took place.
Namely, we focused on the units (text blocks) that were appropriate for analysis by
analyzing them according to a particular model. Since various models may be used
in this type of analysis, one of the main contributions of this study was matching the
activities to the phases of the model or level of collaboration.
The current study was based on discussions on weblogs, and the collaboration
between students was interpreted within this scope. While it was not possible to
narrow down in-class student interactions in this manner, provisions were made
for classroom discussions on the weblogs. In this manner, the discussions on the
weblogs were enhanced within the framework of developing artifacts, which
involved the entire process. Rather than the instructor providing information
directly, the students could discuss their designs in terms of the design principles,
and then revise them according to their peers’ comments. In this respect,
Mortensen and Walker (2002) pointed out that writing a blog forces students to
confront their own opinions and contemplate how their views might be interpreted
and reflected upon by others. With this in mind, the developments from the
preliminary to the final versions of the artifacts may be considered acceptable in
all groups.
Consequently, on the basis of Murphy’s model, this study provides evidence to
confirm that weblogs have the potential to scaffold online collaborative activities.
The study posited that the nature of the design activities has the potential to provide
for meaningful discussions, through which students may become motivated to
develop the best possible artifacts. It is hoped that this study provides insight for the
presentation of infographics or similar computer-based design topics through the
support of weblogs. In this process, course instructors may play a guiding role,
offering a means through which learners can take responsibility for their learning
and share knowledge in a collaborative context. Given that many efforts have been
put forth to apply weblogs in the classroom, this study demonstrates that blogs may
serve to facilitate a series of extended discussions beyond in-class meetings. In
future studies, the potential of weblogs can be explored through other design
activities with appropriate learning by design implementations.

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Compliance with ethical standards

Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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Ünal Çakiroğlu is currently an associate professor at the Department of Computer Education and
Instructional Technologies at Karadeniz Technical University. His academical qualifications were in
Computer Engineering (B.Sc.), in Computer Engineering (M.S.) and Technology of Education (Ph.D.).
He teaches computer programming, operation systems, and other IT related courses. His research interests
include e-learning applications, social networking in education, technology integration and distance
education.

Merve Yildiz is currently a research assistant at the Department of Computer Education and Instructional
Technologies at Erzincan University. Her academical qualifications were in Computer Education and
Instructional Technologies (B.Sc. and M.S.). She is a Ph.D. candidate in the same field. Her research
interests include distance education, e-learning, educational social networks and computer programming
skills.

Ebru Mazlum is currently a research assistant at the Department of Mathematics and Science Education
at Karadeniz Technical University. Her academical qualifications were in Science Education (B.Sc. and
M.S.). She is a Ph.D. candidate in the same field. Her research interests are primary science education,
peer learning and pedagogical content knowledge of science teachers.

Ebru Turan Güntepe is currently a research assistant at the Department of Computer Education and
Instructional Technologies at Giresun University. Her academical qualifications were in Computer
Education and Instructional Technologies (B.Sc. and M.S.). She is a Ph.D. candidate in the same field.
Her research interests include technology integration, designing technology supported learning
environments, game based learning and e-learning.

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Şenay Aydin is currently an instructor at the Department of Computer Technologies at Gümüşhane

University. Her academical qualifications were in Computer Education and Instructional Technologies
(B.Sc. and M.S.). She is a Ph.D. candidate in the same field. Her research interests include e-learning,
designing technology supported learning environments, virtual envirounments and computer
programming.

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