Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 8 (2020) 103667

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Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jece

Herbicide diuron removal from aqueous solution by bottom ash: Kinetics, T

isotherm, and thermodynamic adsorption studies
Mohamed Zbaira,*, Abdelouahab El Hadramib, Amal Bellarbic, Mohamed Monkadec,
Abdellah Zradbac, Rachid Brahmid
a
Laboratory of Catalysis and Corrosion of Materials, Chouaïb Doukkali University, Faculty of Sciences El Jadida, BP. 20, El Jadida, 24000, Morocco
b
Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Materials (LPCM), Faculty of Science, Chouaib Doukkali University, El Jadida, Morocco
c
Physics of Condensed Matter Laboratory, Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Chouaib Doukkali University, El Jadida, Morocco
d
Laboratory of Coordination and Analytical Chemistry (LCCA), University Chouaïb Doukkali, El Jadida, Morocco

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The current research reports an efficient methodology of valorizing bottom ash waste generated from the
Diuron combustion of coal in a local thermal power plant. Where in this work we have used bottom ash waste (BAW-
Herbicide 200) as an inexpensive adsorbent for herbicide diuron removal. The BAW-200 was characterized by XRD, FTIR,
Adsorption SEM and mapping analyses. The adsorption kinetics, equilibrium isotherms and regeneration potential of diuron
Bottom ash
removal by BAW-200 was investigated in batch tests. Pseudo-first order model described well the kinetic data
Regeneration
and Langmuir model show a high correlation with equilibrium data, which suggested monolayer adsorption of
Wastewater treatment
diuron onto BAW-200 with a higher adsorption capacity (349.52 mg/g) compared to other adsorbents. The
thermodynamic behavior revealed that adsorption phenomenon of diuron onto BAW-200 ensued spontaneously
and endothermic in nature. The regeneration method show that BAW-200 can be recycled easily from waste-
water using ethanol as solvent. The outcomes show that BAW-200 adsorbent could be used in improving the
quality of wastewater as providing a waste disposal option for the industry.

1. Introduction issue. Adsorption approach has been recognized to be superior to other

Diuron (by name IUPAC, 3- (3,4-dichlorophenyl) -1,1-dimethyl-
urea) is a phytosanitary product (pesticide) with an herbicidal effect.
Diuron is usually practiced as a nonselective pre-emergent and post-
emergent herbicide in agricultural and nonagricultural sites [1,2].
Though, once pesticides/herbicides are used in extremely, they would
leach into the soil and also degrade or persist in their original form for a
longer time [3]. Generally, a diuron molecule is a persistent pollutant
present in the soil, surface water and groundwater. It is also slightly
toxic to mammals and birds as well as moderately toxic to aquatic in-
vertebrates and its main product of biodegradation, 3,4-dichloroaniline
(3,4-DCA) has higher toxicity and is also persistent in soil, surface water
and groundwater [4]. Recently, diuron molecule has been identified in
groundwater and surface water [1]. Approximately 70 % of samples
gotten from the European streams had a maximum concentration of
diuron (864 ng/L) [5]. Rendering to the European Union (EU) rules, the
maximum allowed concentration of an herbicide such as diuron in the
drinking water is 0.1 μg/L [6]. Henceforth, concurrent removal of this
noxious pollutant from wastewater is an imperative environmental
methods for wastewater treatment due to its low-cost, highly proficient
and the simplicity of process [7–15]. Quite a lot of research has been
explored the use of different adsorbents for diuron removal through
adsorption, a surface phenomenon in which the diuron molecules ad-
here to the surface of the adsorbent [16,17]. Generally, the adsorbents
used in these works are derived from waste biomass. The use of dif-
ferent industrial wastes has gained attractiveness in latest years such as
eggshell [18], sepia shell [19], marine algal [20], fly and bottom ash
[21,22], slag [23,24], tailings [25], have been explored in the uptake of
contaminants. The value related to industrial by-products is their
abundance as wastes and hence gamely available and inexpensive. Lack
of utilization of these resources causes waste disposal problems. Con-
sequently, using these available wastes as adsorbent materials is a
substantial step to resolving the problem produced by high levels of
diuron in wastewaters.
The bottom ash waste (BAW-200) that concerns the present work,
are from the combustion of coal in a local thermal power plant. Their
high adsorbent capacity has been proven in industrial and domestic
wastewater filtration systems, particularly in the removal of certain

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zbair.mohamed@gmail.com (M. Zbair).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.103667
Received 12 November 2019; Received in revised form 26 December 2019; Accepted 5 January 2020
Available online 23 January 2020
2213-3437/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Zbair, et al.
Fig. 1. (a) XRD pattern of adsorbent and (b) FTIR spectra of BAW-200.
heavy metals and dyes [22,26]. Their valorization in different fields
remains a major challenge, given their huge quantity, the problems
related to their storage and their impact on the environment. In this
sense, the present work proposes the reuse of these by-products in
solving the problem posed by the high levels of diuron in wastewater.
This is a new way that will importantly benefit the environment.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample preparation
Bottom ash waste (BAW) was randomly collected and mixed from
landfill sites at the El Jadida region. The BAW was washed with hot
distilled water to remove any materials loosely adhered to particles and
any soluble materials. After washing and drying at 90 °C for 12 h, the
BAW was calcined at 200 °C for 1 h (Water content has been found
equal 0.2 %). The treated material was labeled: BAW-200.
2.2. Characterization methods
XRD patterns of BAW-200 were collected using a Bruker eco D8
Advance diffractometer operating at 45 kV/35 mA, using CuKα radia-
tion, with a step size of 0,02. Data were collected over a range of 05-
70°. The morphological characteristics of BAW-200were analyzed using
a Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy ZEISS ULTRA plus. The
PZC (point of zero charges) of BA-200 was determined using the pH
drift method [7,10,27]. BAW-200 (0.20 g) was mixed with 50 mL of
0.01 M NaCl solution. The pH of the starting solutions (2.0–12.0) was
attuned using HCl and NaOH. After 24 h, the final pH was measured.
The functional surface groups of BAW-200 were determined using a
Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR–8400S, Shimadzu).
2.3. Adsorption experiments
The adsorption tests of diuron onto BAW-200 were performed in a
batch mode. The effect of BAW-200 mass on diuron removal was car-
ried out by changing the adsorbent dosage in the range (10–100 mg)
blended with 100 mL of dye solutions separately (C0 20 mg/L) at
20 ± 1 °C for 180 min. To investigate the solution pH effect, 100 mL of
20 mg/L of diuron solution at different initial pH values (1–12) was
individually mixed with 10 mg of BAW-200 sorbent for 180 min at 20
°C ± 1 °C, and the stirring speed was adjusted at 150 rpm using a re-
ciprocal agitator. pH values were controlled by the addition of 0.1 M
HCl and 0.1 M NaOH solutions. Kinetic studies were done with a fixed
amount of 10 mg of BAW-200 and an initial diuron concentration of 20
mg/L. The volume of 100 mL diuron solutions was agitated (200 rpm)
at different temperatures (20, 30, and 40 °C) for 180 min and the
2
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 8 (2020) 103667
solution was filtered to remove the BAW-200. Residual diuron con-
centrations were determined by spectrophotometry at the maximum
absorbance wavelength (λmax) of 248 nm. For adsorption isotherms,
10 mg of BAW-200 sorbent was mixed with 100 mL of diuron solution
at different initial concentrations (C0, ranging between 5 and 40 mg/L)
at 20, 30, and 40 °C for 180 min. After solid/ liquid separation, the
residual concentrations of diuron were determined.
2.4. Regeneration protocol
The regeneration studies were executed after completion of the
adsorption process by separate contact of 10 mg of BAW-200 with 100
mL of diuron solution (C0 20 mg/L) at 20 ± 1 °C for 180 min. The
loaded adsorbent was collected from diuron solution by centrifugation
and washed by deionized water. Then, it was mixed with 30 mL of
ethanol at 20 ± 1 °C for 5 h in order to desorb diuron. The regenerated
sorbent was carefully washed by deionized water for reuse in the next
cycle. The procedure was repeated for 5 cycles.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
(FTIR)
The XRD spectra of the BAW-200 (Fig. 1a) reveals different mineral
phases that were present in the BAW-200 namely quartz (SiO2; JCPDS
5-0490) and mullite (Al6Si2O13; JCPDS 15-0776). Furthermore, we
identified the presence of anorthite (Ca Al2 Si2 O8), calcite (JCPDS 86-
2334), belite (Ca2SiO4; JCPDS 9-351), hematite (Fe₂O₃; JCPDS 33-
0664), and wustite (FeO; JCPDS 43-1312).
FTIR spectra of BAW-200 (Fig. 1b) show a broadband at about 3363
cm−1 result from hydration water. In addition, a strong Si-O stretching
vibration at about 1080−1100 cm−1 and SieO bending vibration at
about 450−470 cm−1. Moreover, the bands between 600−800 cm−1
are due to Al-O-Si vibrations [28]: in particular, the peak at 1045 cm−1
which corresponds to the Si–O–Si asymmetric vibration and due to the
greater ionic character of the Si–O group [29,30]. The bands at 798
cm−1 are due to Al-O stretching vibrations. while Si-OH bending vi-
brations, at 879 cm−1.The absorption bands at ∼1427 cm−1 corre-
spond to stretching vibrations of C]O, confirming the presence of
carbonate groups [31,32]. The bands at 451 and 559 cm−1are also
characteristic of stretching vibrations of Si–O bonds.
3.2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
The SEM images of BAW-200 (Fig. 2) display a porous structure and
various shapes like sphere agglomerate, angular, and also some non-
M. Zbair, et al.
Fig. 2. SEM image and mapping analysis of BAW-200.
uniform particles. The elemental analysis of BAW-200 enabled by SEM-
EDS elemental mapping show that BAW-200 contains a significant
amount of C (74.84 %), O (16.14 %), and Si (4.2 %) and low amount of
N (0.92 %), S (0.53 %), and P (0.38 %) (Table 2S).
3.3. Effect of BAW-200 mass
Adsorbent mass is an essential parameter in wastewater treatment
processes as this factor determines the capacity of an adsorbent (BAW-
200) for a given initial concentration of the adsorbate (Diuron) [33].
Fig. 3a illustrates the effect of BAW-200 mass on adsorption effective-
ness of diuron. Diuron uptake proficiency on BAW-200 decreased with
the increasing of BAW-200 mass. The highest Diuron uptake ability
3
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 8 (2020) 103667
looked when the BAW-200 mass is about 10 mg as shown. So, under a
low mass of BAW-200, the BAW-200 presented good adsorption prop-
erties toward diuron due to the availability of an active site on BAW-
200. However, the adsorption removal of diuron weakened progres-
sively with the increasing of BAW-200 mass, it's maybe recognized to
the increase of unsaturated adsorption active sites during the uptake of
diuron. Therefore, 10 mg of BAW-200 was selected and used in the
subsequent batch experiments.
3.4. Effect of pH
The effect of pH values on the uptake ability of BAW-200 for diuron
was measured in distinct solutions with pH values ranging from 1 to 12.
M. Zbair, et al.
The adsorption removal of Diuron by BAW-200 (Fig. 3b) remains stable
between pH = 6.7 and pH = 12.0 analogous to a yield of 80.28 % and
decreases below pH = 6.7. Indeed, Diuron is a cationic molecule at pH
lower than 6.7 and is a neutral molecule at pH superior to 6.0 [7].
Whereas, the surface of BAW-200 is charged positively at pH lower than
the pHPZC (Fig. 3c). So, at pH < 6.7, repulsive electrostatic interactions
occurred between the surface of BAW-200 and Diuron molecules, which
explain the decrease in uptake efficiency of diuron. Additionally, at a
pH = 6.7, the BAW-200 and diuron are neutral, which favors non-
electrostatic interactions. At higher pH, the BAW-200 is negatively
charged and diuron is neutral, which does not favor electrostatic in-
teractions and therefore maintains the relatively constant diuron ad-
sorption rate [16,34].
3.5. Effect of temperature and time
The evolution with time of diuron uptake by BAW-200 was eval-
uated using constant BAW-200 amount (10 mg; Diuron concentration
=20 mg/L) and various temperatures. Fig. 3d shows that in the first 30
min the diuron adsorption rate increased upon an increase in tem-
perature of reaction from 20 to 40 °C. The uptake amount of Diuron
increased from 156.85 mg/g (20 °C) to 198.60 mg/g (40 °C). This can
be explained by the fact that the adsorbed Diuron molecule moves
easily at a higher temperature. Then, the contact area between diuron
and BAW-200 increases, which results in increases in the uptake ca-
pacity and the removal efficiency of BAW-200 for diuron.
3.6. Adsorption kinetics
To further study the rate-controlling mechanism in the uptake of
diuron onto BAW-200, four kinetic models including the pseudo-first-
order model (PFO), the pseudo-second-order model (PSO), the intra-
particle diffusion model (IPD), and Elovich model were employed to fit
the experimental data (Fig. 4). As shown in Table 1, the agreement
4
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 8 (2020) 103667
Fig. 3. (a) Effect of BAW-200 mass on adsorp-
tion efficiency (T 20 ± 1 °C; C0 20 mg/L; con-
tact time 180 min), (b) pH effect on adsorption
capacity (T 20 ± 1 °C; C0 20 mg/L; adsorbent
mass 10 mg; contact time 180 min), (c) Point of
zero charges of the BAW-200, and (d) Effect of
temperature and contact time (C0 20 mg/L;
adsorbent mass 10 mg; contact time 180 min;
pH 6.7).
between experimental data and applied models was assessed by de-
termination of coefficient (R2) as well as standard deviation (SD) to
evaluate the best models describing diuron adsorption on the BAW-200
adsorbent. By comparing the calculated R2 and SD values of diuron
adsorption, it can be noted that the best coefficient of determination
and the smallest SD value agreed with the PFO model compared to the
PSO model. Besides, the amount of diuron adsorbed onto BAW-200
noticeably increased as temperature increased. However, the adsorp-
tion rate (K1) increased as a function of temperature, with the following
order: 0.165 (1/min) at 20 °C > 0.249 (1/ min) at 30 °C > 0.395 (1/
min) at 40 °C.
For more insight about the adsorption mechanism, intraparticle
diffusion and Elovich models were used to understand the adsorption
process and its rate-controlling step. In the solid-liquid adsorption
system, mass transport can be defined by three steps: (i) external mass
transfer from the solution matrix to the adsorbent surface, (ii) in-
traparticle diffusion, and (iii) adsorption onto adsorbent surface
binding sites [19]. The graphical illustration of the adsorption of diuron
onto BAW-200 shows that linear plots did not pass through the origin,
signifying that the intraparticle diffusion steps of diuron are not the
rate-controlling step. It may be related to other effects such as a
boundary layer effect [19]. The C parameter gives an idea about the
thickness of the boundary layer surrounding the adsorbent surface. The
larger the value of C, the greater the effect of the boundary layer on the
adsorption process [19]. Finally, the kinetic model proposed by Elovich
was studied. The Elovich equation assumes that active sites of the ad-
sorbent are heterogeneous in nature and possess different adsorption
energies [35]. The parameters resulting from the Elovich equation are
reported in Table 2. This confirms the availability of numerous binding
sites on the BAW-200 surface for the removal of diuron.
3.7. Adsorption isotherm
In this study, we applied three commonly useful adsorption
M. Zbair, et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 8 (2020) 103667

Fig. 4. Kinetics Non-linear models for fitting diuron adsorption onto BAW-200 data at a different temperature. (C0 20 mg/L; adsorbent mass: 10 mg; pH 6.7).

isotherm models to describe the diuron uptake characteristics onto Table 2

BAW-200 (Fig. 5). Exactly, the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin- Parameters of Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin–Radushkevich Isotherms of
Radushkevich models (Table 1S). The matching parameters of those diuron (C0 5−40 mg/L; contact time 180 min; adsorbent mass 10 mg; pH 6.7).
models are abridged in Table 2. Rendering to the coefficient determi- Langmuir isotherm Freundlich isotherm
nation and standard deviation (SD), the experimental data of diuron
2
uptake equilibrium were better described by the Langmuir model (R2 = Qmax (mg/g) KL (L/mg) R KF ((mg/g)/(mg/L)n) n R2
0.95–0.97) and Dubinin-Radushkevich model (0.92–0.95) than the
20 232.02 ± 8.86 0.65 0.975 99.19 ± 9.14 3.39 0.919
Freundlich model (0.81–0.91), respectively. Because the Langmuir 30 339.94 ± 12.63 7.89 0.956 285.83 ± 15.12 5.13 0.889
model has a higher coefficient determination and lowest standard de- 40 349.52 ± 13.10 90.63 0.970 329.27 ± 28.42 6.63 0.811
viation as presented in Table 2. Suggesting that homogenous active sites
existed on the BAW-200 surface and adsorption of Diuron was mono- Dubinin Radushkevich isotherm
layer [7]. Noticeably, the uptake amount of diuron increased when the
QDR (mg/g) KDR(mol2/kJ) R2 E (kJ/mol)
temperature increased. The Langmuir adsorption capacity of BAW-200
presented the increasing order as follows: 232.02 mg/g (20 20 193.41 ± 15.45 1.09 0.923 0.67
°C) < 339.94 mg/g (30 °C) < 349.52 mg/g (40 °C). 30 327.53 ± 15.02 0.13 0.951 1.96
40 360.36 ± 16.35 0.03 0.955 4.08
The Dubinin–Radushkevich (D–R) isotherm model was suitable to
differentiate between the physical and chemical uptake of diuron on
BAW-200, as exposed in Table 2. The values of E (mean energy of ad-
sorption) ranging between 1 and 8 kJ mol−1 from DR isotherm

Table 1
Parameters of PFO, PSO, Elovich, and Intraparticle diffusion models for the adsorption of diuron (C0 20 mg/L; adsorbent mass: 10 mg; pH 6.7).
T(°C) Pseudo-First-Order (PFO) Pseudo-Second-Order (PSO)

2
Qe,exp (mg/g) Qe,cal (mg/g) K1 (1/min) R Qe,cal (mg/g) K2 (g/mg.min) R2

20 156.85 154.78 ± 1.77 0.165 0.988 163.86 ± 2.90 0.002 0.986

30 186.04 184.95 ± 0.58 0.249 0.999 192.46 ± 2.84 0.003 0.991
40 198.60 198.61 ± 0.76 0.395 0.998 202.61 ± 1.66 0.007 0.997

Elovich model Intra-particle diffusion model (IPD)

T(°C) α (mg/g.min) B (g/mg) R2 Kip C R2

20 421.65 ± 579.61 0.064 ± 0.01 0.966 8.61 ± 2.77 75.64 0.489

30 2.77 ± 1.22 0.090 ± 0.02 0.963 8.82 ± 3.75 105.35 0.408
40 4.96 ± 6.86 0.194 ± 0.07 0.988 8.34 ± 4.30 124.84 0.319

5
M. Zbair, et al.
Fig. 5. Non-linear adsorption isotherms models for fitting diuron adsorption onto BAW-200 data at a different temperature (C0 5−40 mg/L; contact time 180 min;
adsorbent mass 10 mg; pH 6.7).
postulate that the adsorption is due to physical nature between ad-
sorbent and adsorbate [36,37]. In our situation, the value of E was
ranged from 0.6 to 4.0 kJ mol−1 signifying that weak physical inter-
actions are the driving force of diuron onto BAW-200 which might be
hydrogen bond formation and π–π interactions as elucidated by Har-
nish et al. [36].
By comparing our results with previous works, the BAW-200 ad-
sorbent (232.02 mg/g (20 °C), 339.94 mg/g (30 °C), and 349.52 mg/g
(40 °C)) exhibited a relatively higher maximum adsorption capability
compared to granular activated carbon (316 mg/g) [16], powder acti-
vated carbon (279.4 mg/g) [17], and wheat carbon (34.1 mg/g) [17].
Therefore, BAW-200 is a talented and low-cost adsorbent for removing
toxic contaminants.
3.8. Thermodynamics study
Thermodynamic examination acting a crucial part in the forecast of
adsorption mechanisms (i.e., physical or chemical) [38,39]. The ther-
modynamic parameters (ΔG°, ΔH°, and ΔS°) can be intended according
to the thermodynamic laws through the Van’t Hoff and Gibbs free en-
ergy equations presented in Table 1S. Principally, the equilibrium
constant (KC) requisite be dimensionless. In this work, the KC derived
from the Langmuir constant (KL) was employed for calculation of the
thermodynamic parameters of diuron uptake. The KC can be obtained as
a dimensionless parameter by multiplying KL by the molecular weight
of Diuron (233.1 g/mol), 1000, and then 55.5 [38,40]. The R2 value is
higher than 0.99, indicating that the diuron uptake data fitted well the
Van’t Hoff equation (Fig. 6a). The thermodynamic parameters for
6
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 8 (2020) 103667
adsorbing diuron onto the BAW-200 are presented in Table 3S. The
equilibrium constant (KC) increased considerably with an increase in
the diuron solution temperature, which endorses that the adsorption
process of diuron onto BAW-200 was more favorable at a higher tem-
perature and endothermic in nature. This conclusion matches well with
the outcomes obtained from adsorption isotherms, the maximum
Langmuir adsorption amount of diuron designated an increasing ten-
dency at a higher temperature. Additionally, the negative values of ΔG°
at all examined temperatures advise that the diuron adsorption phe-
nomenon onto BAW-200 happened spontaneously. In the meantime, the
positive ΔH° (188.196 kJ/mol) reveals the endothermic nature of the
diuron adsorption process, which was verified by an increase in the
diuron adsorption capacity (Fig. 5 and Table 2) and the equilibrium
constant Kc (Table 3S) at a higher temperature. Moreover, the positive
ΔS° (0.774 kJ/mol) values propose that the organization of diuron
molecules at the solid/solution interface becomes more random during
the adsorption process.
3.9. Regeneration and recyclability
Fig. 6b shows the removal efficiency of BAW-200 for the uptake of
diuron after five stages of recycling. The removal proficiency of BAW-
200 in the first cycle was found to be 99.05 %. The adsorption removal
of BAW-200 slightly decreased with an increase in the number of cycles:
after four cycles of diuron uptake onto BAW-200, the adsorption effi-
ciency for diuron was around 96.45 %. This indicates that the BAW-200
can be used at least five times with high adsorption proficiency. It can
be deduced that the BAW-200 has excellent desorption ability and can
M. Zbair, et al.
Fig. 6. (a) Linear dependence of ln Kc on 1/T based on the adsorption thermodynamics; (b) Regeneration and recyclability of BAW-200 over five cycles of use.
be recycled easily from wastewater using ethanol as solvent. All these
deductions illuminate that the BAW-200 can be used as a high-perfor-
mance adsorbent for application in the field of removal of herbicides
molecules.
4. Conclusion
The proficiencies of waste clinker ash (BAW-200) in the removal of
diuron from aqueous solutions were investigated. The results displayed
that BAW-200 had a higher diuron removal capacity (349.52 mg/g).
The analysis of the kinetic data gotten in this work advises that diuron
uptake fitted well by the pseudo-first-order model. Intra-particle dif-
fusion was not the solely rate controlling mechanism of diuron uptake
onto BAW-200. Equilibrium data followed Langmuir isotherm model
signifying monolayer adsorption of Diuron on the surfaces of BAW-200.
For practical purposes, the regeneration of BAW-200 shows an inter-
esting result, therefore BAW-200 can be used several times before re-
placement, reducing replacement and disposal costs. In conclusion,
BAW-200 exposed a better potential to be used as an economical al-
ternative for diuron removal than commercial activated carbon.
Author contributions
Mohamed Zbair: Conceived and designed the analysis, Collected the
data, Performed the analysis, Wrote the paper
Abdelouahab El Hadrami: Performed the analysis, Wrote the paper
Amal Bellarbi: Contributed data or analysis tools
Mohamed Monkade: Provision of study materials, reagents, mate-
rials
Abdellah Zradba: Wrote the paper, Other contribution
Rachid Brahmi: Supervision, Reviewing and Editing
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the
online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.103667.
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