Crystallography: Classification of Crystal Systems and Defects

Crystallography
1. Write a short notes on crystal systems (3M)

On the basis of values of lattice parameters, crystals are classified into seven
categories
S.No Crystal System Lattice Crystallography Examples

Constants Angles
1 Cubic a=b=c α =β= γ=90o Po, Ag, Au, Cu,Pb,
2 Tetragonal a=b≠c α =β= γ=90o TiO2, SnO2, KH2PO4
Rhombic
3 a≠b≠c α =β= γ=90o KNO3, K2SO4
(Orthorhombic)
Gypsum,
4 Monoclinic a≠b≠c α =β= γ≠90o
K2MgSO4.5H2O
5 Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠β≠ γ≠90o K2Cr2O7, CuSO4.5H2O
Rhombohedral
6 a=b=c α =β= γ≠90o As, Sb, Bi
(Trigonal)
α =β=90o, γ=120
7 Hexagonal a=b≠c o Quartz, Zn, Cd
The Unit cells of all the crystal systems are shown below
2. Explain Bravais lattice (3M)

According to Bravais, there are only fourteen independent ways of arranging points
in three-dimensional space such that each arrangement confirms to the definitions
of a space lattice. Thus there are fourteen (14) possible types of space lattices among
the seven crystal systems and are called Bravais Lattices.
CRYSTAL Bravais
S.NO Name of Bravais Lattice
SYSTEM Lattices
Simple, Body centered and face
1 Cubic 3
centered
2 Tetragonal 2 Simple, Body centered
Simple, Body Centered, face centered
3 Rhombic 4 Base Centered
Simple Base Centered

4 Monoclinic 2
5 Triclinic 1 Simple
6 Rhombohedral 1 Simple
7 Hexagonal 1 Simple
Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

3. Write as short notes on crystal planes and miller Indices (3M)
Crystallographic planes are specified by 3 indices (h k l) called Miller indices.
 The three indices are not separated by commas and are enclosed in open
brackets.
 If any of the indices is negative, a bar is placed in top of that index
 If plane is parallel to that axis, intercept is infinity
Procedure for determining miller indices (h k l):
1. Record the intercept values in order x,y,z.
2. Take reciprocals of the intercept values.
3. Convert the reciprocalsinto the smallest integers by taking L.C.M of denominators
if necessary.
Example:
Plane ABC has intercepts of 2 units along X-axis, 3 units
along Y-axis and 2 units along Z-axis.find the miller
indices for a plane shown in figure.
Solution:
Intercepts are (2 3 2)
Reciprocal of the three intercepts are
Convert reciprocals into small integers by multiplying with LCM of denominators i.e.,
with 6. Then we get miller indices of the plane ABC is (3 2 3).
4
.
4. Derive inter planar spacing in crystals (2M)
Distance of separation between successive (hkl)

planes in cubic systems
Let (h k l) be the miller indices of the plane ABC. Let
ON=d be a normal to the plane passing through the
origin O. Let this ON make angles with
axes respectively.
Then
⁄
Now

Hence ( ) ( ) ( )
(or) √
Let the next plane A’B’C’ parallel to ABC be at a distance OM from the origin. Then
its intercepts are Therefore √
Hence the spacing between the adjacent planes= OM-ON=NM
i.e.,
√
5. Derive Bragg’ s Law (3M)
Consider a set of parallel planes of a
crystal separated by a distance
‘d’ apart. Suppose a beam of
monochromatic X-rays incident at an
angle ‘θ’ on these planes. The beam PA
is reflected from atom ‘A’ in plane-1
whereas beam RB is reflected from atom
‘B’ in plane-2 as shown in figure. These
two reflected rays will be in phase or out of phase with each other depending on
their path difference. This path difference can be found by drawing perpendiculars
AM and AN. It is obvious that second ray travels an extra distance
= MB+BN
Hence the path difference the two reflected beams
=MB+BN=d sinθ + d sinθ= 2d sinθ
Bragg’s law states that the two reflected beams will be in-phase to each other, if this
path difference equals to integral multiple of λ
i.e. 2d sinθ=nλ Where n=1,2,3 for the first order, second order and third order
maxima respectively.
6. Explain powder diffraction method for determination of lattice

constant (5M)

(Debye-Scherrer method)
The experimental arrangement of powder method is shown in figure. The powdered
specimen is kept inside a small capillary tube present at the centre of the camera. A
photographic film strip placed along the drum of the camera. A finepencil beam X-
rays is made to fall on the powdered sample. The powder diffracts the x-rays in
accordance with Bragg’s law to produce cones of diffracted beams. These cones
intersect the photographic film. Due to narrow width of the film only pair of arcs of
the circle are recorded on the film. The non-diffracted rays leave the camera via the
exit port.
The film is removed from the camera, processed and flattened. It shows the
diffraction lines and the holes for the incident and transmitted beams. The distance
between two successive arcs S is measured and using the relation ( ) a list
of θ values can be obtained.
Where ‘R’ is the radius of the camera. Since the wavelength λ is known, substituting
these θ values in Bragg’s formula, a list of inter-planar spacingd can be calculated.
From the ratio of interplanar spacing, the type of the lattice can be identified as well
as lattice constant a can be calculated.
7. Write a short notes on Classification of defects (5M)
1. Point Defects
(a) Vacancies: Vacancies also called Shottky defects
Schottky defect: Ion vacancies are called Shottky defects. A shottky defect is
the combination of one cation vacancy and one anion vacancy. A pair of one cation
and one anion missing from an ionic crystal(a schottky defect) is shown in figure.
These defects are normally generated in equal number of anion and cation
vacancies hence electrical neutrality is maintained in the crystal.
(b) Interstitialcies: Interstitial defect also called Frenkel defect
Frenkel defect:In the case of ionic crystal, an ion displaces from the lattice
into an interstitial site is called a Frenkel defect. A Frenkel defect is the combination
of one cation vacancy and one cation interstial defect.
(C)Impurities: Basically there are two types of impurity defects

2. Line defects
Line defects are called dislocations. These are one-dimensional imperfections in the
geometrical sense. The two basic types of dislocations are a. edge dislocation and b.
screw dislocation.
Edge dislocation: An edge location is created in the crystal by introducing an extra
half plane. The atoms below the edge of the extra plane are squeezed together and
are in a state of compression.
Screw dislocation: Screw dislocation results from a displacement of the atoms in one
part of a crystal relative to the rest of the crystal, forming a spiral ramp around the
dislocation line. .
3. Surface defects The defects that occur along the surface of the crystal is said to
be surface defects. The surface defects are two dimensional defects. The
different types of surface defects are
Grain boundaries: Grain boundaries are those surface imperfections which
Separate crystals of different orientations in a polycrystalline aggregate.
Tilt boundaries: Tilt boundary is another type of surface imperfection and it may
be regarded as an array of edge dislocations. It is also a class of low angle
boundaries.
Twin boundaries: Surface imperfections which separate two orientations that
are mirror images of one another are called twin boundaries. Twin boundaries
occur in pairs, such that the orientaion change introduced by one boundary is
restored by the other as shown in figure.
Stacking faults:A stacking fault is a surface defect that results from the stacking
of one atomic plane out of sequence on another, while the lattice on either side
of the fault is perfect. The stacking fault is a discrepancy in the packing sequence
of the layers of atoms.
4. Volume Defects
Volume defects are 3-dimensional defects. These include pores, cracks, foreign
inclusions and other phases. These defects are normally introduced during
processing and fabrication steps. All these defects are capable of acting as stress
raisers, and thus deleterious to parent metal’s mechanical behavior. However, in
some cases foreign particles are added purposefully to strengthen the parent
material.

8. Derive equilibrium Concentration of vacancy defects in metal
Let Ev = Energy of formation of a vacancy
N = Number of lattice sites
n = number of vacancies
The total number of ways in which n number of vacancies can be formed is given
by
Since disorder increases, the increase in Entropy is given by
[ ]
Applying Stirling Approximation i.e we get
[ ]
[ ]
From the law of thermodynamics, the corresponding change in free energy is given
by (U = )
[ ]
At equilibrium, the change in free energy is minimum, i.e.,
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]

9. Derive equilibrium Concentration of vacancy defects in Ionic
crystal
Let in a perfect crystal
Es = Energy required to create a Schottky defect
N = Number of atoms
n = concentration of Schottky defects
The total number of ways in which n no. of Schottky defects can be formed given
by * +
Since disorder increases, the increase in Entropy is given by
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
From the law of thermodynamics, the corresponding change in free energy is given
by
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
This gives the concentration of Schottky defects in a crystal at

temperature T. The number of defects increases exponentially with the temperature.

10. Derive equilibrium concentration of Frenkel defect
Let in a perfect crystal
Ef = Energy required to create a Frenkel defect
N = Number of atoms
Ni =Number of interstitial atoms
n = concentration of Frenkel defects
The total number of ways in which Frenkel defects can be formed is given
by
Since disorder increases, the increase in Entropy is given
by * +
[ ]
[
]
From the law of thermodynamics, the corresponding change in free energy is given by
[
]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]

√
This gives the concentration of Frenkel defects in a crystal at temperature T. The number of
defects increases exponentially with the temperature.
QUESTIONS FROM PREVIOUS EXAMINATIONS
1. What are point defects? Explain the Schottky and Frenkel defects.
2. The first order diffraction is found to occur at a glancing angle of 90. Calculate the
wavelength of X-rays and the glancing angle of second order diffraction if the spacing
between the adjacent planes is 2.51 A0. [June 2011, 3 marks]
3. i) The Miller indices of a set of parallel planes which make equal intercepts on three axes are
a) (1 2 1) b) (1 1 1) c) (1 0 0) d) (1 0 1) [Jan 2012, 1 marks]
ii) In a simple cubic lattice the ratio of d100 : d110 : d111 is
√ √ √ b) √ √ √ c) 6 √ √ d) 6 [Jan 2012, 2
marks]
4. Show that among S.C, B.C.C, and FCC, FCC has closed packed structure. [Jan 2012, 5 marks]
5. Obtain an expression for the concentration of Schottkey defects in ionic crystals. [Jan 2012,
5 marks]
6. Explain the types of point defects observed in crystals. [June 2012, 3 marks]
7. State and explain Bragg’s law in X-ray diffraction. [June 2012, 3 marks]
8. Describe the powder diffraction method for the determination of lattice constant of a cubic
unit cell. [June 2012, 5 marks]
9. Derive an expression for the equilibrium concentration of Frenkel defects in crystals. [Jan
2013, 6 marks]
10. Define the terms space lattice and unit cell. Explain the crystal systems and corresponding
Bravais lattices. [Jan 2013, 6 marks]
11. Write a short note on point defects in solids. [Jan 2013, 4 marks]

Unit-I Band Theory of Solids
1. Discuss Classical free electron theory (5m)
Introduction: In 1900 Drude proposed electron gas model to explain the electrical
conduction in metals. It was extended by Lorentz in 1909 and become known asDrude-
Lorentz theory or classical free electron theory.
Postulates:
1. In a metal, the valence electrons of the atoms are assumed to be completely detached
from their ions forming an free electron gas.
2. The free electrons are treated equivalent to gas molecules, and thus are assumed to
obey the laws of kinetic theory of gases.
3. electron-electron interactions are completely neglected
4. A metal is imagined as a structure of 3-D array of ions in between which, there are freely
moving valence electrons confined to the body of the metal.
5. The potential inside the metal is considered constant. Hence, free electrons are moving
in a completely uniform potential field due to ions which are fixed in the lattice. But in a
particular direction the resultant velocity of the free electron is zero.
6. When we apply the potential difference across the metal, the free electrons slowly drift
towards the positive potential even though they continue to collide with each other and
positive ions.
Success:
1. It is used to verify ohm’s law
2. It is used to explain the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals
3. It is used to explain the optical properties of metals
4. It is used to explain Ductility and malleability of metals.
Failures:
1. According to classical free electron theory, resistivity √ But from experiments
2. According to classical free electron theory, the paramagnetic susceptibility is inversely

proportional to the temperature. But it is observed that it is nearly independent of
temperature.
3. With the help of this model, we can not explain the electrical conductivity of
semiconductors and insulators.
4. Ferromagnetism cannot be explained by this theory.
5. Photoelectric effect, Compton effect and black body radiation cannot be explained by
this theory

2. Explain Kronig- Penney Model (5M)
In 1930, Kronig and Penney proposed a simpler potential in the form of an array of square
wells as shown in figure. The schrodinger wave equation for one dimensional periodic
potential field denoted by V(x) can be written as [ ]
where V(x)=V(x+a) -----(1)
The solutions of this equation have the form
where
-----(2)
In order to simplify the computations, an assumption is made regarding the potential barrier
shown in figure. As V0 increases the width of the barrier w decreases so that the product
V0w remains constant. It turns out that solutions are possible only for energies given by the
relation, -----(3)
√
Where and (P is referred to as scattering power of the potential
barrier)
The left hand side of eq.(3) imposes a limitation on the values that the right side function
can have, namely, a maximum value of +1 and a minimum value of -1. Hence only certain
range of values of are allowed. This means that energy E is restricted to lie within certain
ranges which form the allowed energy bands. This concept is best understood by
considering the plot of the right side of the equation against as in figure.
Following interesting conclusions can be drawn from the figure
1. Allowed ranges of which permit a wave mechanical solution to exist are shown by
the shadow portions. The motion of electrons in a periodic lattice is characterized by the
bands of allowed energy bands separated by forbidden regions.
2. As the value of increases the width of the allowed energy bands also increases and
the width of the forbidden band decreases.
3. If the potential barrier strength P is large, the function described by
the right hand side of the equation crosses +1 and -1 region at a

steeper angle. Thus the allowed bands become narrower and forbidden bands become
wider.
4. If , the allowed band reduces to one single energy level

corresponding to the discrete energy level of an isolated atom.
5. In the other extreme case,when , no energy levels exist. The

particle is completely free.
Thus by varying P from 0 to we find that the completely free electron becomes
completely bound.
3. Write as short notes on Fermi Level (2M)
For a metal containing N free electrons, there will be N allowed energy levels. These
energy levels are separated by energy differences which are characteristics of the
material. According to Pauli’s exclusion
principle, each energy level can
accommodate a maximum of two electrons,
one with spin up and the other with spin
down as shown in figure.
It is obvious from figure that a pair of

electrons occupies the lowest energy level.
The next pair of electrons occupies the next higher level, and so on, till all the electrons
in the metal are accommodated. However, there still remain many higher energy levels
vacant as shown in figure.
The energy of the highest occupied level at 0K is called as Fermi energy and the
energy level is referred to as the Fermi level. Thus at T=0K, all the energy levels lying
above Fermi level are empty while those lying below are completely filled.
4. Derive fermi energy of electrons in a metal (5M)

The number of free electrons per unit volume between energy interval E and E+dE is given
by ----- (1)
Where is the density of electron states in the energy interval E and E+dE
It’s expression is
and is Fermi-Dirac distribution function. It gives the probability that an electron

occupies the state at energy E.It’s expression is
The number of electrons per unit volume of the material n is obtained by integrating
equation (1)
∫ ∫

∫
This is the expression for free electron density at any temperature in metals.
Using the method of integration by parts and Taylor’s series we get
[ ( ) ]
This is the expression for Fermi energy of electrons at any non-zero temperature.
At absolute zero, the upper occupied level is EF and for all the levels below EF , F(E)=1.
Let . Then equation (2) can be written as
⁄
[ ]
⁄
( )
This is the expression for electron density in metals at absolute zero.
We can also turn this around and express it as

⁄
⁄
( )( )
This is the expression for Fermi energy of electrons at absolute zero.
5. Explain Classification of materials into conductors,

semiconductors and insulators on the basis of band theory (5M)

Based on the band theory, and on the basis of the presence of forbidden band gap,
the materials are classified into three categories.
1. conductors 2. Semi-conductors and 3.Insulators.
1. conductors
In conductors, there is no forbidden band gap. Here the valence and conduction band
overlap each other as shown in figure. In metals the availability of free electrons is very
high. Due to overlapping of conduction band and valence band, a small amount of
energy is sufficient for movement of electrons from valence band to conduction band.
Examples: Copper, Aluminium, Iron etc.
2. Semi-conductors
In semi-conductors, the forbidden band gap is very small, in the order of 0.5eV to 1.5eV.
Generally, in semiconductors the availability of free electrons in conduction band is less
compared to conductors, due to the presence of forbidden band gap between the
valence band and conduction band.
Examples: Silicon, Germanium etc.
3. Insulators
In insulators, the forbidden band gap is very wide, in the range of 3eV to 5.5eV and
hence there will be a very large gap between the valence band and conduction band as
shown in figure. Since the forbidden band gap energy is very very high, very large
amount of energy is required for conduction to occur.
Examples: Diamond, dielectrics etc.
Questions from previous examinations

1. Discuss the free electron theory of metals. [June 2011, 5 marks](Dec-2013, 5)
2. Explain the salient features of Kronig-Penny model and its conclusions for formation of
energy bands in solids [June 2011, 5 marks] [June 2012, 10 marks] (June-2013, 6)
3. Classify the solids into conductors, insulators and semiconductors on the basis of band
theory of solids. [Jan 2013, 2 marks]

Dr. Kareem Ahmed 2017
Magnetic Materials
1. Discuss classification of magnetic materials (5M)
Diamagnetic materials: The materials which when placed in a magnetic field acquire feeble
magnetism opposite to the direction of the magnetic field are known as diamagnetic
materials.
Bismuth (Bi), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag), Gold(Au), Salt(NaCl), Water(H2O),
Mercury(Hg), Hydrogen(H2) are the examples of diamagnetic materials.
Properties:
1. When a bar of diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, it tries to repel the
lines of force away from it as shown in figure. This shows the magnetic induction B in it
is less than the applied field H. So the permeability ( ) is less than one.
2. When a bar of diamagnetic material is suspended freely between two magnetic poles,
the axis of the bar becomes perpendicular to magnetic field.
3. The magnetic susceptibility is negative and is independent of temperature.
Paramagnetic materials: The materials which when placed in a magnetic field, acquire
feeble magnetism in the direction of magnetic field are known as paramagnetic materials.
Examples: Aluminium (Al), Platinum (Pt), Manganese (Mn), copper chloride (CuCl2), Oxygen
(O2)
Properties:
1. When a bar of paramagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, it tries to attract the
lines of force towards it as shown in figure. This shows the magnetic induction B in it is
greater than the applied field H. so, the permeability is greater than one.
2. When a bar of paramagnetic material is suspended freely between two magnetic poles,
its axis becomes parallel to magnetic field as shown in figure. Moreover, the poles
produced at the ends of the bar are opposite to nearer magnetic poles.
3. The molecules of paramagnetic material possess permanent magnetic dipole moments.
In the absence of external magnetic field, the dipoles are randomly
oriented. Hence, the net magnetic moment is zero.In the presence
of magnetic field, the dipoles tend to align along the field direction.
This leads to magnetization in the direction of field. However, this
tendency is opposed by thermal agitation. Therefore, only partial
alignment takes place.
4. The paramagnetic susceptibility is positive and depends greatly on
temperatureas per Curie’s law ,where C is curie constant.
Ferromagnetic materials:
The materials which when placed in a magnetic field become strongly magnetized in the
direction of field are known as ferromagnetic materials.
Examples: Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Magnetite (Fe3O4), etc
Properties:
1. When a ferromagnetic material is placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic
lines of forces very strongly as shown in fig.
2. They acquire relatively high magnetization in a weak field. Further
even in the absence of applied field, the magnetic moments are
enormous. This is called spontaneous magnetization.
3. The magnitude of susceptibility is very large and positive.
4. The susceptibility of a ferromagnetic substance decreases steadily with
the rise of temperature in accordance with Curie-Weiss Law.
,where C is curie constant and is curie’s temperature.
5. Above certain temperature, called Curie temperature, ferromagnetic
material changes to paramagnetic.
2. Weiss molecular field theory of ferromagnetism (5M)

In 1907, Weiss proposed the molecular field theory to explain qualitatively the salient features
of ferromagnetism. He suggested that the field experienced by a given dipole in ferromagnetic
material is not only due to the applied field (H) but also due to a contribution from the neighbouring
dipoles.
In ferromagnetic material, spontaneous magnetization is due to internal molecular field and these
internal molecular fields tend to align the atomic dipoles in the same direction as its neighbours.
According to Weiss, internal molecular fields are directly proportional to intensity of

magnetizations. or
Where is molecular field constant known as Weiss constant.
The effective magnetic field on the atomic dipole
----- (1)
The eq(1) explains the Curie-Weiss lawby assuming that ferromagnetics are essentially paramagnetic
materials having a very large molecular field.
Curie-Weiss law from molecular field theory:
Let us consider a system with N spins per cubic meter, each giving rise to a magnetic moment of 1
Bohr magneton, which may be either parallel or antiparallel to an external applied magnetic field.
The magnetization of such a system is given by *( )( )+ ----- (2)
Even in the case of ferromagnetic materials, at very high temperatures (T>Tc), the thermal agitations
are so great that internal field is not sufficient to maintain alignment of magnetic dipole moments.
The behavior becomes analogous to paramagnetism, except that the field acting on the dipole is the
internal field given by equation (1).
At sufficiently high temperatures, the term in square brackets in equation(2) will become small
compared to unity. Then since for we may approximate equation(2) by
( )
( )
( )
⁄
⁄
This is in the form of Curie-Weiss law . Where ⁄ and ⁄
Thus ferromagnetic materials behave in the same fashion as paramagnetic material for T>>Tc.
3. Weiss domain theory of ferromagnetism

According to Weiss, a virgin specimen of ferromagnetic material consists of a number of small
regions called domains. These domains have spontaneous magnetization due to the parallel
alignment of spin magnetic moments in each domain. But the direction of spontaneous
magnetization varies from domain to domain and are oriented in such a way that the net
magnetization of the specimen is zero as shown in figure(1).
When the magnetic field is applied, the magnetization occurs in the specimen by two ways.
(i) By the motion of domain walls and (ii) By rotation of domain walls
The motion of domain walls takes place in weak magnetic field. The volume of domains oriented in the
direction of magnetic field increases at the cost of those that are unfavorably oriented as shown in
figure(2).
The rotation of domain walls takes place in strong magnetic fields. When the external field is
high(strong) then the magnetization changes by means of rotation of the direction of magnetization
towards the direction of applied magnetic field as shown in figure(3).
4. Explain Hysteresis Curve on the basis of domain theory (5M)

When a ferromagnetic material is made to
undergo through a cycle of magnetization, the
variation of B(magnetic induction) with respect
to H(applied field) can be represented by a
closed hysteresis loop (or) curve. i.e., it refers to
the lagging of magnetization behind the
magnetic field.
Explanation on the basis of domain theory:
When a field is applied, domains where the

magnetization is parallel or at a small angle with the field grow at the expense of those where the
magnetization is antiparallel so that the boundary between domains is displaced.
Initially OA the magnetization of the substance as whole proceeds by small reversible boundary
displacement but the steeper part AB of the magnetization curve is due to larger, irreversible
displacements. Above the knee of the curve BS magnetization proceeds by rotation of the direction
of magnetization of whole domains and such a process is rather difficult and the increase in
magnetization is relatively slow.
When the applied field is reduced, there is a little change in the domain structure so that the
magnetic induction or magnetization remains quite high, until high reverse fields are applied.
Further even when the external field is zero, there is a residual magnetization in the specimen and
that can be destroyed by applying a high reverse field. Thus the reversible and irreversible domain
wall movements give rise to hysteresis in the ferromagnetic materials.
5. Differentiate Hard and soft magnetic materials (5M)

Soft Magnetic Materials Hard Magnetic Materials
Soft magnetic materials are easy to magnetize Hard magnetic materials are difficult to
and demagnetize. magnetize and demagnetize.
Hence these materials are used for making Hence these materials are used for making
temporary magnets. permanent magnets.
They have low hysteresis loss due to small They have large hysteresis loss due to large
hysteresis loop area. hysteresis loop area.
Susceptibility and permeability are high. Susceptibility and permeability are low.
Coercivity and retentivity values are less. Coercivity and retentivity values are large.
Magnetic energy stored is less. Magnetic energy stored is high.
The eddy current loss is less. The eddy current loss is high.
Examples:Iron, silicon alloys, Ferrites, Garnets Examples: Carbon steel, Tungsten steel, Cu-Ni-
etc. Fe(Cunife), Cu-Ni-Co(Cunico), Al-Ni-Co(Alnico)
6. Explain properties and application of Ferrites (5M)

Ferrimagnetic materials are also called as Ferrites. Ferrites are the modified structures of
iron with no carbon and are composed of two or more sets of different transition metals. These
materials have anti parallel magnetic moments of different magnitudes. In the absence of
external magnetic field there is a net magnetization. In the presence of external magnetic field
large magnetic moment arises. This property of the materials is called ferri magnetism and the
materials which exhibit this property are called ferri magnetic materials.
Examples: Manganese-zinc ferrite, Nickel-zinc ferrite, Cobalt ferrite…
Properties
The susceptibility () is very large and positive. It is represented by,
When T<TN, they behave as ferrimagnetic materials
These materials have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis
Applications of Ferrites
1. Ferrite is used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity and
selectivity of the receiver.
2. Ferrites are used as cores in audio and TV transformers.
3. Ferrites are used in digital computers and data processing circuits.
4. Ferrites are used to produce low frequency ultrasonic waves by magnetostriction principle.
5. Ferrites are widely used in non-reciprocal microwave devices. Examples for non-reciprocal
microwave devices are Gyrator, Isolator and Circulator.
6. Ferrites are also used in power limiting and harmonic gyration devices.
7. Ferrites can also be used in the design of ferromagnetic amplifiers of microwave signals.
8. The rectangular shape ferrite cores can be used as a magnetic shift register.
9. Hard ferrites are used to make permanent magnets.
10. The permanent magnets (hard ferrites) are used in instruments like galvanometers,
ammeter, voltmeter, flex meters, speedometers, wattmeter, compasses and recorders.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. A paramagnetic material has a magnetic field intensity of 104 A/m. If the susceptibility at
room temperature is calculate the magnetization and flux density inthe material.
Solution: We know that
Flux density B= [ ] [ ]=0.012612 Wb/m2
2. A magnetic field strength of ampere/m is applied to a paramagnetic material with

relative permeability of 1.01. Calculate the values of B and M
Solution:
We know that
[since ]
Therefore magnetic flux density
We know that and
Therefore or
Therefore Magnetization [ ] =[1.01-1] =2000 ampere/m
Questions from previous papers
1. Draw the nature of magnetic dipole moments and variation of susceptibility with
temperature graphs in Ferro, Ferri and anti-ferromagnetic materials. [June 2011, 3 marks]
2. Distinguish between soft and hard magnetic materials.[June-13,Jan 12, Dec-07&08, June-08, 4 marks]
3. Describe Weiss molecular field theory of Ferromagnetism. [June 2012, 5 marks]
4. Distinguish between Ferro, anti-Ferro and Ferri magnetic materials. [Jan 2013, 2 marks]
5. Explain Weiss molecular field theory of Ferro magnetism and obtain the Curie-Weiss law. [Jan 13, 5
m]
6. Explain Weiss molecular field theory and obtain the Curie-Weiss Law [April/May-2007,
3mark]
7. What are ferrites? Explain its spinal and inverse spinal structure. [June-2013, 5marks]
Superconductivity
1. What is superconductivity explain (5M)
Before the discovery of superconductivity, it was thought that the electrical resistance of a
conductor becomes zero only at absolute zero. But, it is found that, in some materials the
electrical resistance becomes zero, when they are cooled to very low temperatures.
For example, the electrical resistance of pure mercury
suddenly drops to zero, when it is cooled below 4.2
kelvin. This phenomenon was first discovered by
H.K.Onnes in 1911. This phenomenon of losing the
resistivity absolutely, when cooled to sufficiently low
temperature is called superconductivity.The material
which shows this behavior is called superconductor. The
temperature at which a normal conductor loses its
resistivity ( ) and becomes a superconductor is known as transition or critical temperature
Tc.
2. Write general properties of superconductors (3M)

1. The transition temperature is different for different substances.
2. For a chemically pure and structurally perfect specimen, the superconducting transition is very
sharp. For chemically impure and structurally imperfect, the transition range is broad.
3. Superconductivity is found to occur in metallic elements in which the number of valence
electrons lies between 2 and 8.
4. Superconducting elements, in general lie in the inner columns of the periodic table.
5. Transition metals having odd number of valence electrons are favourable to exhibit
superconductivity while metals having even number of valence electrons are infavourable.
6. Materials having high normal resistivities exhibit superconductivity.
7. Ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials are not superconductors.
8. In superconducting state materials exhibit Meissner effect.
9. The current in a superconducting ring persists for a very long time.
10. In superconducting state there are small changes in thermal conductivity and the volume of the
material.
3. What is Meissner effect (3M)

When a superconducting material is placed in a weak magnetic field of
flux density B, the magnetic lines of force penetrates through the
material as shown in figure(a).When the material is cooled below its
transition temperature (T<Tc), the magnetic lines of forces are expelled
as shown in figure(b). We know that a diamagnetic material have the
tendency to expel the magnetic lines of forces. Since the
superconductor also expels the magnetic lines of forces it behaves as a
perfect diamagnet. This behavior was first observed by Meissner and
hence called as Meissner effect.
When the strength of the magnetic field applied reaches a critical value Hc the
superconductivity disappears. The dependence of the critical field upon the temperature is
given by
  T 2 
H c  H 0 1    
  Tc  
4. What are Type-1 and Type-II superconductors

Based on magnetic behavior, the superconductors are classified into following two
categories:
Type-I superconductors Type-II superconductors
The Type-I superconductor becomes a Type-II superconductor loses its

normal conductor abruptly at critical superconducting property gradually, due to
magnetic field Hc. increase in magnetic field.
There is only one critical magnetic field There are two critical fields i.e., Lower
Hc critical field Hc1 and upper critical field Hc2
Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Type-II superconductors show complete
Meissner effect Meissner effect below Hc1 and allow the flux
to penetrate the superconductor between
Hc1 and Hc2. Between Hc1 and Hc2, the
material shows a region of mixed state.
Above critical field Hc, the Between Hc1 and Hc2, the superconductor
superconductor becomes normal exist in a mixed state called vortex state and
conductor above Hc2, it comes in normal state.
These are known as soft These are known as hard superconductors
superconductors
The critical field Hc is relatively low The value of Hc2 is very large.
Examples: Al, Zn, Ga, etc. Examples: Lead-Indium alloy, etc.
5. Discuss BCS theory of superconductivity

In 1957, Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer gave a theory to explain the phenomenon of
superconductivity, which is known as BCS theory.
1. The BCS theory is based upon the formation of Cooper pairs, which is purely a quantum
mechanical concept. During the flow of current in a superconductor, when an electron
comes near a positive ion core of the lattice, it experiences an attractive force because of
the opposite charge polarity between electron and the ion core. The ion core will be
displaced from its position due to this interaction, which is called lattice distortion. Now,
an electron which comes near that place will also interact with the distorted lattice,
which tends to reduce the energy of the electron. This process is looked upon as
equivalent to interaction between the two electrons via the lattice.
2. The lattice vibrations are quantized in terms of what are called phonons. Thus the
process is called “electron-lattice-electron interaction via the phonon field.
3. Cooper pair is a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons
with opposite spin and momenta in a phonon field.
4. When the electrons flow in the form of Cooper pairs in materials, they do not encounter
any scattering and the resistance factor vanishes or, in other words, conductivity
becomes infinity which is named as superconductivity. This is the essence of BCS theory
6. Write a short notes on High temperature superconductors

In 1986, a real breakthrough in superconductivity took place. Bednorz and Muller discovered
metallic, oxygen deficient copper oxide compounds of the Ba-La-Cu-O system with transition
temperature of about 35 K. Chu and co-workers formed Y-Ba-Cu-O system with transition
temperature of 90 K. Any superconductor with a transition temperature above 10K is in general
called high TC superconductor. The transition temperature above 10K is in general called high TC
superconductor. The high TC superconductors developed so far belong to five chemical systems
having th following general formulae.
1. BaPb1-xBixO3
2. La2-xMxCuO4-x (M = Ba, Sr)
3. Ba2MCu3O7-x.(M = Y or rare earth metals such as Gd, Eu, etc.)
4. Ba2-xLa1+xCu3O 
5. Bi2CaSr2Cu2O 
It is difficult to state the mechanism of high T superconductivity. It has been realized that the role of
oxygen is essential for high TC oxide superconductors. The unit cell of high T superconductors has
complicated structure. If the cell contains one atom of rare earth metal, two barium atoms, three
copper atoms and seven oxygen atoms, then such compounds are named 1-2-3 superconductors.
7. Explain application of superconductors with Josephson junction

and SQUIDS.
Josephson junction
The quantum nature of superconductivity was provided by so called weak
superconductivity, or Josephson Effect. The term weak superconductivity refers to situation
in which tow superconductors are coupled together by a weak link. The weak link can
provide by a tunnel junction of a thin film. More generally, this can simply be a weak
contact between two superconductors over a small area.
There are two Josephson effect distinguish stationary (the dc Josephson effect) and
non-stationary ( ac Josephson’s effect ) .
In dc Josephson Effect a sufficiently small dc current passes through the junction

(insulator) as result all the superconducting electrons on both the side of the weak link are
described by the same wave function. The ac Josephson Effect is even more remarkable.
Let us increase the dc current through the weak link until a finite voltage appears across the
junction.
SQUIDS
Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDS) is a double junction quantum
interferometer. Two Josephson junctions mounted on a superconducting ring forms this
interferometer. The SQUIDs are based on the flux quantization in a superconducting ring.
The total magnetic flux passing through the ring is quantized. Very minute magnetic signals
are detected by these SQUID sensors. The SQUIDs are used to study tiny magnetic signals
from the brain and heart. SQUID magnetometers are used to detect the paramagnetic
response in the liver. This gives the information about the amount of iron held in the lever
of the body accurately.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. Superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7K at zero magnetic field and a critical
field of 0.0306 Tesla at 0K. find the critical field at 2K.
Solution:
Critical Field ( ) ( )* += * +
2. Calculate the critical current for a wire of lead having a diameter of 1mm at 4.2K. Critical
temperature for leads is 7.18K and Hc(0)=
Solution:
Critical Field ( ) ( )* += * +
Critical Current
3. The critical temperature for a metal with isotopic mass 199.5 is 4.185K. Calculate the
isotopic mass if the critical temperature falls to 4.133K.
Solution:
We know that isotopic effect is given by
Hence,
204.536
4. The critical temperature for Hg with isotopic mass 199.5 is 4.184K. Calculate the critical
temperature when its isotopic mass changes to 203.4K.
Solution:
We know that isotopic effect is given by
Hence,
4.1435 K

1. Write a note on Type I and Type II superconductors. [June 2011, 4 marks]
2. Write a note on High temperature superconductors. [Jan 2012, 5 marks]
3. Distinguish between type I and type II superconductors [June 2012, 2 marks]
4. What is superconductivity? Explain the general properties of superconductors. [Jan 2013, 5
marks]
5. What are type II superconductors? Explain their importance [June-2013, 3marks]

6. What is superconductivity? Describe the preparation of high Tc superconductors[June-2013,
4marks]
7. The superconducting transition temperature of a metal is 7.26K. The critical field at 0 K is

64 X 103 A/m. Calculate the critical field at 5K. [Jan 2013, 3 marks]
Unit-III Semiconductors
1. Discuss creation of hole and electron Intrinsic semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which impurities are not present and are therefore are called
pure semiconductors. When a semiconductor is taken at 0K, then it behaves as an insulator and
conduction occurs at higher temperature due to thermal excitations of electrons from valence band
to the conduction band. The best examples of intrinsic semiconductors are Silicon and Germanium.
At 0K, all the valence electrons of Si atoms are participating in covalent bonding. So at 0k valence
band is full and conduction band is empty of electrons. The allowed band of energies above valence
band is called conduction band.
As the temperature increases, electrons will come out by breaking their covalent bonds and they
move freely inside the crystal. The emitted electrons participate in electrical conduction. As an
electron come out from valence band a vacancy is created in valence band called hole.
Thus at temperature T K, in an intrinsic semiconductor, if ‘n’covalent bonds are broken per unit
volume of the material, then there will be n electrons in the conduction band and same number of
holes in the valence
band. Usually the
number of electrons
present in the
conduction band
per unit volume of
the semiconductor
is called electron
concentration (n).
Similarly the number of holes present in the valence band per unit volume of the semiconductor is
called hole concentration (p). Both the free electrons and holes present in the material participate
in electrical conduction. The free electrons and holes present per unit volume of the semiconductor
is called carrier concentration (ni).
2. Discuss creation of hole and electron in Extrinsic (impure)

semiconductors
Extrinsic or doped semiconductors are classified into two main types according to the type of charge
carriers that predominate. They are the n-type and the p-type.
n-type semiconductors: when a pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb) is doped into an intrinsic
semiconductor, four valence electrons of impurity atom make four covalent bonds with four intrinsic
Si atoms and the fifth electron of the impurity atom, left out of the covalent bonds is loosely bound
to the atom as shown in figure.
The energy level of penta-valent impurity lies just below the conduction band. Hence, fifth electron
of impurity atom excites into conduction band very easily. This electron is free to move any wherein
the crystal and is known as conduction electron, which is donated by penta-valent impurity. Hence
penta-valanet impurity is known as donor impurity.
At very low temperature, most of the donor level electrons are excited into conduction band and at
high temperature electrons from valence band also excited to conduction band leaving behind holes.
The semiconductor prepared in this way will have more electrons than holes. Since excess
charge(electrons) is negative, these are named as n-type semiconductors.
p-type semiconductors:when a trivalent impurity such as (B, Al, Ga, In)is doped into an intrinsic
semiconductor, three valence electrons of impurity atom make three covalent bonds with the
surrounding three intrinsic atoms. To attain stability it completes fourth covalent bond by accepting
an electron from silicon atom as the energy level of impurity atom lies just above the valence band
and the silicon atom acquires a hole.
Therefore trivalent impurity is called acceptor impurity. At very low temperatures, most of the
acceptor atoms get ionized by taking electrons from the valence band and thus giving rise to holes in
the valence band for conduction. At high temperature, in addition to above process, electron-hole
pairs are generated due to breaking of covalent bonds. Thus holes are more in number than
electrons. Thus these are called p-type semiconductors.
3. Derive carrier concentration ni in Intrinsic semiconductors

In intrinsic semiconductor number of holes is equal to number of electrons
n=p= ni, where ni is called intrinsic carrier

concentration
Electron concentration (n) is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
Hole concentration (P) is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
Multiply above two equation i.e n=p= ni,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
4. State and derive Hall Effect

When a piece of conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying current is placed in a
transverse magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction
normal to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as the Hall
effect and the generated voltage is known as Hall voltage.
Let B be the magnetic field applied at right angles to the direction of current flow. If the
material is N-type, and ‘v’ is the velocity of electrons then the electrons experience a force
‘Bev’ due to magnetic field at right angles to both flow direction and B. This causes the
electron current to be deflected causing a negative charge to accumulate on the face(1) of
the slab as shown in figure. A potential difference is therefore established across the
faces(1) and (2) causing a field called Hall electric field
‘EH’.
This field gives rise to a force ‘eEH’ on electrons in the

opposite direction.
At equilibrium, eEH=Bev
EH=Bv ----- (1)
If J is the current density, then J=nev v=J/ne
Therefore eq(1) can be written as

Where is the Hall coefficient.
For n-type semiconductors, Hall coefficient where n is the density of

electrons
For p-type semiconductors, Hall coefficient where p is the density of holes.
If ‘w’ is the width of sample across which Hall voltage VH is measured EH =
Hence,
If ‘t’ is the thickness of the sample, then its cross-section is wt and current density
Hence
‘VH’ will be opposite for N-type and P-type semiconductors.
Applications of Hall Effect
i) Determination of type of semiconductor

For an N-type semiconductor, the hall coefficient is negative whereas for a P-type it
positive. Thus from the direction of Hall voltage developed we can find out the type
of semiconductor
ii) Calculation of carrier concentration
Once the Hall coefficient RH is measured, the carrier concentration n can be obtained
from
iii) Determination of mobility
We know that conductivity
iv) Measurement of magnetic flux density
Using a semiconductor sample of known Hall coefficient, the magnetic flux density
can be deduced from the formula
5. What is Thermistor ? Discuss its different types

We know that the resistance of a conductor increases with the increase in temperature
whereas in semiconductor resistance decreases with the increase in temperature. It is
further found that the variation in the resistance is more in semiconductors than in
conductors. The device whose resistance is very sensitive to temperature variation is
called thermistor.
Thermistors can be classified into two types:

Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor:-resistance increase with increase in
temperature.
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor:-resistance decrease with increase in
temperature.
NTC thermistors are normally very small in size, but are complex in construction and
material composition. They come in variety of sizes and shapes like beads, washers, rods
etc.
The resistance of a thermistor as a function of temperature is given by R=A exp(E/kT)
Where A is constant and E is the activation energy for the

conduction process. The resistance of a thermistor falls off
exponentially with temperature as shown in figure(1).
It is observed that at low potential difference, a thermistor obeys

ohm’s law. At high currents it exhibits negative resistance due to
self heating as shown in figure(
If we plot a graph between current and time it can be observed that

there is a time delay to reach the maximum current at a particular
temperature as shown in fig. These characteristics help in
introducing a time delay in an electronic circuit.
Uses: NTC Thermistor can be used as temperature sensors,

temperature controllers, pressure meters and flow meters.
6. Explain I-V characteristics of PN junction diode

P-N junction diode is the most fundamental and the simplest electronics device. When, one
side is made p-type by doping with n-type material, a p-n junction diode is formed. This is a
two terminal device. It appeared in 1950’s. P-N junction can be step graded or linearly
graded. In step graded the concentration of dopants both, in n - side and in p - side
are constant up to the junction. But in linearly graded junction, the doping concentration
varies almost linearly with the distance from the junction.
When the P-N diode is in unbiased condition that is no voltage is applied across it, electrons
will defuse through the junction to p-side and holes will defuse through the junction to n-
side and they combine with each other. Thus the acceptor atom near the p-side and donor
atom near n-side are left unutilized. An electron field is generated by these uncovered
charges. This opposes further diffusion of carriers. So, no movement of region is known as
space charge or depletion region.
If, we apply forwards bias to the p-n junction diode. That means if positive side of the
battery is connected to the p – side, then the depletion regions width decreases and carriers
flow across the junction. If the bias is reversed the depletion width increases and no charge
can flow across the junction.
Let's a voltage V is applied across a p-n junction and total current I, flows through the
junction.
It is given as. I = IS [exp(eV/ɳKBT) - 1] Here, IS = reverse saturation current e = charge of

electron ɳ = emission co-efficient KB = Boltzmann constant T = temperature
The current voltage characteristics plot is given

below. When, V is positive the junction is forward
biased and when V is negative, the junction is
reversing biased. When V is negative and less than
VTH, the current is very small. But when V exceeds
VTH, the current suddenly becomes very high. The
voltage VTH is known as threshold or cut in voltage.
For Silicon diode VTH = 0.6 V. At a reverse voltage
corresponding to the point P, there is abrupt
increment in reverse current. The PQ portion of the
characteristics is known as breakdown region.
7. Derive Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductors

Fermi level can be considered to be a hypothetical energy level of an electron. In
semiconductors, Fermi level exists exactly mid-way of the energy gap.
In intrinsic semiconductor n=p= ni
Electron concentration (n) is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
Hole concentration (P) is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
Equate equation 1 and 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
Taking on both sides
( )
( )
( ) ( )
If the effective mass then ( )
1. The intrinsic carrier density at 300K in silicon is . If the electron and hole
Mobilities are 0.13 and 0.06 m2V-1S-1 respectively. Calculate the conductivity of intrinsic silicon.
[June-2013, 3marks]
Solution:
Conductivity ( ) ( )
2. For an intrinsic semiconductor having band gap Eg= 0.7eV, calculate the density of holes and
electrons at room temperature (27 0C). Given K=1.38 X 10-23 J/K and h=6.62X10-34 J. [June 2011,
3 marks]
Solution:
( ) ( ) ( )
Assuming
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
3. Mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic Ge at 300 K are 0.36 m2V-1S-1 and 0.17
m2V-1S-1 respectively. If the resistivity of the specimen is 2.12 ohm –m, compute the intrinsic
concentration of carriers for Ge. Where me*=0.5 m0 and mh*=0.37 m0. [Jan 2012, 3 marks]
Solution:
Resistivity ( )
( ) ( )
4. Write a note on Concept of Fermi level in semiconductors. [June 2011, 2 marks]

5. What is Hall Effect? Deduce the expression for Hall coefficient in case of a semiconductor. [June
2012, 5 marks]
6. Write any two short note on Thermistor [June 2012, 10 marks]
7. Explain the nature of conductivity in intrinsic semiconductors. [Jan 2013, 3 marks]
8. Obtain an equation for carrier concentration in the case of intrinsic semiconductor [Dec-2008,
4marks] & [May/June-2008, 5marks] [Dec-2007, 6marks]
9. Explain Hall effect and deduce the expression for Hall coefficient, mobility and carrier
concentration
Dr. Kareem 2017
Unit-III DIELECTRICS MATERILAS
1. Explain different types of Dielectric polarization
Electronic Polarization
The electronic polarization is due to the displacement of

the positively charged nucleus and the negative electrons
of an atom in opposite directions, on application of an
electric field. On applying a field, the electron cloud
around the nucleus readily shifts towards the positive
end of the field. As the nucleus and the center of the electron cloud are separated by a
certain distance, dipole moment is created within each atom. The extent of this shift is
proportional to the field strength. This type of polarization is independent of
temperature.
Ionic Polarization
The ionic polarization is due to the displacement of

cations and anions in opposite directions. This occurs
in ionic solids. This polarization is independent of
temperature. It does not occur in covalent crystals.
Orientational Polarization
When an external field is applied to polar dielectrics, they

tend to align themselves in the direction of external
applied field. The polarization due to such alignment is
called Orientation polarization. The Orientational
polarization is strongly temperature dependent. With
increase of temperature, the thermal energy tends to
randomize the alignment. An expression for Orientational polarization can be obtained
by following the same procedure adopted in Langevin theory of paramagnetism. Here,
instead of magnetic field, electric field is used.
Space- charge Polarization
Space charge polarization occurs due to accumulation of

charges at the electrodes or at the interfaces in
multiphase dielectrics. As shown in figure, the ions diffuse
over appreciable distance in response to the applied field.
This gives rise to redistribution of charges in dielectric
medium. The space charge polarization is not an important factor in most common
dielectrics. It is found in ferrites and semiconductors.
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Dr. Kareem 2017
2. Derive expression for Electronic polarization
The displacement of the positively charged nucleus

and the (negative) electrons of an atom in opposite
directions, on application of an electric field, result
in electronic polarization
From above diagram nucleus of charge Ze is

surrounded by an electronic cloud –Ze distributed
in a sphere of radius R. The charge density  is
given by
 Ze  3  Ze 
 
4  R 3 
--------- (1)
4 / 3R 3
When an external field of intensity E is applied, the nucleus and the electrons experience Lorentz
forces of magnitude ZeE in opposite directions. Hence the nucleus and electron cloud are pulled
apart. When they are separated a coulomb force develops between them, which tend to oppose
the displacement. When these forces are equal and opposite, equilibrium is reached. Let x be the
displacement Since nucleus is much heavier than the electron cloud it is assumed that only the
electron cloud is displaced when external field is applied.
Lorentz force = -ZeE
1  Charge enclosedin the sphere of radius x 

Coulomb force = Ze   
4 0  x2 
The charge enclosed in the sphere after applying the field is given by = density X Area
4
  x 3  (substitue equ 1)
3
4   3  Ze  
  x3   3 
= 3  4  R  
Zex 3
 3
R
Ze  Zex 3  Z 2e2 x

Hence Coulomb force is  
4 0 x 2  R 3  4 0 R 3
Under equilibrium conditions, these two forces are equal and opposite. Therefore,
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Dr. Kareem 2017
or
Thus the displacement of the electron cloud is proportional to the applied field. Thus
the two electric charges +Ze and –Ze are separated by a distance x under the action of
the applied field thus constituting induced dipoles. Induced dipole moment is given
by
----- (3)
But from the definition of electronic Polarizability ----- (4)
Comparing (3) and (4) we get
Thus electronic Polarizability is directly proportional to the volume of the atom.
3. Explain frequency and temperature dependence of dielectric polarization
Frequency dependence of the dielectric Polarizations:

On application of an alternating field across the material, the polarization process
occurs as a function of time. Electronic polarization is extremely rapid and is
complete at any instant of time even when the frequency of the voltage is very high in
the optical range. Thus it occurs at all frequencies. But ionic polarization is slower
and the ions do not respond at all when the voltage is corresponds to optical
frequencies. That is, the electric field here is changing too rapidly for the ions to
reorient themselves in
response to the field.
Therefore, ionic
polarization does not occur
at optical frequencies
where as it occurs at
infrared frequencies. The
Orientational polarization
is slower than the ionic
polarization and occurs
only at microwave
frequencies which are
smaller than the infrared
frequencies. Space-charge polarization is slowest process and occurs at power
frequencies (50-60 per sec).
Thus at low frequencies, the value of total polarization is very high and at high
frequencies (optical frequencies) the value of total polarization is very small.
Above 1015 Hz, None of the polarization mechanisms are able to switch rapidly
enough to remain in step with the field. The material no longer possess the ability to
polarize, and the dielectric constant drops to 1, the same as that of vacuum.
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Dr. Kareem 2017
Temperature dependence of the dielectric Polarizations:
Electronic and Ionic polarizations do not depend on temperature and remains
constant at all temperatures. However Orientation polarization depends strongly on
temperature and it is inversely proportional to the temperature. Normal
temperatures oppose the permanent dipoles to align in the field direction. But
higher temperatures facilitates the movement of ions and molecules so that a given
polarization process which is not possible at higher frequencies at normal
temperature can occur at higher frequencies at high temperatures.
4. Determine dielectric constant by Schering bridge method
Principle: It is based on the measurement of the capacitance of the capacitor without

the dielectric (C1) and capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric material (C1’ )
A circuit diagram of a general Schering bridge is shown in

Figure.
C1=capacitor whose capacitance is to be measured.

R1= a series resistance representing the loss in the capacitor C1
C2=Standard capacitor
R3=Non-inductive variable resistance
R4=Non-inductive Resistance
C4=Variable capacitor
D= A.C. Null detector
HFO=High Frequency Oscillator
(i) First without inserting dielectric inside C1, the bridge is balanced by varying
C4 and R3. When current flowing through the detector becomes zero,
)
[ ]
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get
and
Since R4 and C2 are fixed, the dial of R3 is calibrated to read the capacitance C1
directly.
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Dr. Kareem 2017
(ii) The dielectric specimen should be in the size of C1 (in its area) and inserted
between the plates C1. Now once again the bridge is balanced. Now the dial
reading in R3 will give the value of new capacitance C1’
Then the dielectric constant can be calculated using the formula
5. Discuss ferroelectricity in dielectrics

Ferroelectricity refers to the creation of enormous value of
induced dipole moment in a weak electric field as well as
existence of electric polarization even in the absence of applied
electric field.Ferroelectricity is a result of dielectric hysteresis.
When a ferroelectric material is subjected to electric field, the

polarization P versus electric field E describes a closed loop
called as hysteresis loop as shown figure. Let initially, the
material has polarization equal to zero. When the electric field is
applied, the polarization increases along the path OA. After the
point A, the polarization will not increase even if E is increased. This polarization is
called saturation polarization Ps.
When E is reduced gradually such that E=0, the curve traces the path AB. It is
observed that certain amount of polarization called remnant polarization P r is still
present. This is the polarization that exists in the absence of external electric field.
Therefore this is called spontaneous polarization.
In order to reduce the polarization to zero, a field in reverse direction must be

applied. This is denoted by Ec called as coercive field. Further increase of field brings
the material to saturation state. When the field is brought to zero and increased in
the positive direction, a curve FGA is traced. Now, the hysteresis cycle is completed.
The area bounded within the curve represents the loss of electrical energy per cycle.
6. Write a short notes on Barium titanate
The structural changes in Barium titanate

(BaTiO3) crystal due to lattice variation give rise
to Ferroelectricity. Above Curie temperature
(approx. 120oC), BaTiO3 has a cubic crystal
structure withBarium ions are at the corners the
titanium ions exactly at the body centre, and
Oxygen ions are at the face centres. At those
temperatures, there is no spontaneous dipole
moment.
When the crystal is cooled below 120oC, one axis (axis C) stretches and the other axes
shrink and turn into a tetragonal crystal structure. In this case, polarization happens
as a result of the unit shift of axially elongated Ti- ion crystal. This polarization occurs
without applying an external electric field or pressure, and is known as "spontaneous
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Dr. Kareem 2017
polarization." This characteristic is called “ferroelctricity”. The displacements of
titanium ions create electric dipoles and all the dipoles of the adjacent unit cells get
aligned in the same c-direction. Similarly at 5oC spontaneous polarization direction
corresponds to the face diagonal direction and at -80oC the direction corresponds to
a body diagonal. At those temperatures there is an enormous value for dielectric
constant.
7. Write Applications of ferroelectric materials

 Capacitors
 Non-volatile memory
 Piezoelectrics for ultrasound imaging and actuators
 Electro-optic materials for data storage applications
 Thermistors
 Switches known as transchargers or transpolarizers
 Oscillators and filters
 Light deflectors, modulators and displays

1. Explain the phenomenon of Ferro-electricity and discuss how dielectric constant
of Barium titanate changes as its temperature is decreased. [June 2011, 7 marks]
2. Write few applications of ferroelectrics. [June 2011, 3 marks]
3. What are dielectrics? Explain various electrical polarization mechanisms.
[Jan 2012, 6 marks]
4. Draw the crystal structure of Barium titanate above 393 K and explain how its
structure and polarization changes with decreasing temperature.
[Jan 2012, 3 marks]
5. Derive the expression for electronic Polarizability in case of dielectrics.
[June 2012, 5 marks]
6. Explain the concept of spontaneous polarization in Ferro-electrics.
7. Explain the experimental method of Schering Bridge for determination of
dielectric constant. [Jan 2013, 5 marks][April/May-2007,5marks]
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Dr. Kareem 2017
UNIT-IV Thin Films
1. Explain Thin film preparation by Thermal evaporation techniques
Thin film: A thin film is a layer of material on a substrate ranging from fractions of a
nanometer to several micrometers (100 to 1000nm) in thickness.
When bulk material is heated to a high temperature, it vaporizes and the condensation of
the vapor onto a cold substrate yields thin films.
(a) Simple Thermal Evaporation: Thermal
evaporation technique requires vacuum up to
10-5 torr. Fix the boat with material which is
to be evaporated between two electrodes
and arrange and fix the substrates to
substrate holder over the boat at the
distance of 30 to 40 cm from the boat. Then
place the bell jar on these and create the
vacuum up to 10-5 torr. After achieving the
required vacuum, switch on the electrodes
and heat the boat slowly. Material in the boat
starts to evaporate and condense on the substrate resulting thin film formation on
substrate as shown in figure.
(b) Simultaneous Evaporation: This is

similar to the above method with little
modification. Here two or three sets of
electrodes are required and each set is used
to evaporate particular material. After setting
the voltages to each set of electrodes, simply
switch on the dimmerstats of all sets
simultaneously as shown in figure till the
material in each boat is evaporated. Materials
from different boats evaporate
simultaneously and film formation takes place.
(c) Sequential Evaporation:This is similar to the above method with little
modification in the operation. In this method materials get evaporated one after the
other sequentially for a few seconds and continue this process until the entire material in
each boat gets evaporated.
(d) Laser Evaporation: Most intensive laser
beam may be used to heat and vaporize
materials by focusing the beam onto surface of
the material to be evaporated as shown in
figure. (here boat is not connected to power
supply) and film formation takes place on
substrates. These films can be heated and
annealed to get uniformity.
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Dr. Kareem 2017
(e) Electron Beam Evaporation:In general in thin film

preparation, little contamination in film may take place due
to heating boat. In turn the properties of the film will be
different from expected. In order to avoid this electron
bombardment heating techniques were developed in
which material is heated by focusing high intense electron
beam onto material and gets evaporated as shown in
figure.
2. Explain applications of Thin Films
Field Examples
Optics Antireflection coating; on lenses or solar cells,
Reflection coatings for mirrors.
Coatings to produce decorations (color, luster,
Interference filters.
CD's, DVD's and upcoming D's.
Chemistry Diffusion barriers.
Protection against corrosion / oxidation.
Sensors for liquid / gaseous chemicals.
Mechanics "Hard" layers (e.g. on drill bits).
Adhesion providers.
Friction reduction.
Magnetics "Hard" discs.
Video / Audio tape.
"SQUIDS"
Electricity Insulating / conducting films; e.g. for resistors, capacitors.
(without Piezoelectric devices
semiconductors)
Semiconductor high-speed transistors, solar cells, solid-state lighting, sensors, information
Technology storage devices, etc.
3. Explain construction and working of Solar
It is a p-n junction diode, which converts light energy into electrical energy. This effect is
called photovoltaic effect and the device is called photovoltaic cell or solar cell.
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Dr. Kareem 2017
Construction: It consists of heavily doped P-N junction, the top layer forming the
N-region usually made very thin to allow the solar radiation to fall onto the junction.
To avoid the electron hole recombination before reaching their end point, prepare a
comb shaped grid structure on the upper part.
The gap between successive vertical lines should
be less than the mean free path of the particle
generated between them. An anti reflecting
coating on the top is made to prevent light losses
due to reflection from the surface of the solar
cell. To get the desired voltage, several solar
cells are connected in series and to get desired
current, several solar cells are connected in
parallel. After completion of above all, finally the cell is encapsulated in a plastic material.
Working: When a solar cell is exposed to solar radiation a photon has energy less than
the band gap Eg makes no contribution to the cell output. A photon having energy
greater than Eg contributes an energy Eg to the cell output and energy greater Eg
is wasted as heat. The absorbed energy of photon excites valence electron to the
conduction band leaving holes in the valence band. So electrons are collected on N-side
and holes are collected on P-type of a P-N solar cell. An electric field within the
photovoltaic cell acts to force the electrons in a certain direction. A metal grid on either
side of the solar cell allows the electrons to collect and, if connected to an external
circuit, a current will flow.
I-V Characteristics:To draw I-V characteristics of solar cell, complete the circuit as shown
in figure.Switch on the light on cell and the maximum voltage measured between the two
ends of the cell is called open circuit voltage (VOC). If the minimum load is connected to
the cell, the charge carriers moves in the circuit
creating the maximum current called short circuit
current(ISC).
Now increase the potentiometer, voltage increases
but current decreases. Note down these readings
upto maximum value of voltage where the current
will be minimum. Repeat the experiment for two or
three light intensities and draw the graph as shown.
Now select a point on each graph such that if the
perpendiculars are drawn on X-axis and Y-axis from this point, then the maximum area
formed by the rectangle. That indicates the maximum power extracting. Then note down
Vm on X-axis and Im on Y-axis.
Fill factor(FF):It is defined as the reliable and maximum extracting power of the cell and
is given by
Efficiency
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Dr. Kareem 2017

1. Write notes on solar-cells. [June 2011, 5 marks]
2. Distinguish between bulk, thin film and nano-scale materials. [Jan 2012, 3 marks]
3. Explain the thermal evaporation method of depositing thin films.
[Jan 2012, 7 marks]
4. Explain in detail thermal evaporation technique to prepare a thin film
5. What is thin film and explain the thermal evaporation method for preparation of
thin film? [Jan 2013, 6 marks]
6. Distinction between bulk, thin films and nano materials (June-2013, 3)
7. Describe the working of a thin film solar cell. (Dec-2013, 5)
10
Dr. Kareem 2017
UNIT-IV Experimental Techniques
1. Explain priciple of X-ray Fluorescence
X-ray fluorescence is a non-destructive method for elemental analysis of solids and
liquids. The process of emission of characteristic X-rays is called X-ray fluorescence.
In X-ray fluorescence the following steps are involved
1. In most cases, the innermost K and L shells are involved.

2. An electron in the K shell is ejected from the atom by an external excitation x-ray,
creating a vacancy.
3. An electron from the L or M shell "jumps in" to fill the vacancy. In the process, it
emits a characteristic x-ray ( or ) unique to this element and in turn,
produces a vacancy in the L or M shell.
4. When a vacancy is created in the L shell by either the primary excitation x-ray or
by the previous event, an electron from the M or N shell "jumps in" to occupy the
vacancy. In this process, it emits a characteristic x-ray unique to this element and
in turn, produces a vacancy in the M or N shell.
A typical X-ray spectrum from an irradiated sample will

display multiple peaks of different intensities from which
elements present in the sample can be identified. The key
part here is that the energy levels of atoms are very
specific to each element.
2. Explain RAMAN effect
Raman scattering or the Raman effect is the inelastic scattering of a photon by molecules
which are excited to higher vibration or rotational energy levels. It was discovered by C.
V. Raman and K. S. Krishnan
When photons are scattered from an atom or molecule, most photons are elastically
scattered (Rayleigh scattering), such that the scattered photons have the same energy
(frequency and wavelength) as the incident photons. A small fraction of the scattered
photons (approximately 1 in 10 million) are scattered by an excitation, with the scattered
photons having a frequency different from, and usually lower than, that of the incident
photons. In a gas, Raman scattering can occur with a change in energy of a molecule due
11
Dr. Kareem 2017
to a transition to another (usually higher) energy level. Chemists are primarily concerned
with the transitional Raman effect.
According to quantum theory, the Raman effect may be regarded as the outcome of the
collision between the light photons and molecules of the substance.
Applications
1. Raman spectroscopy is commonly used in chemistry, since vibration information
is specific to the chemical bonds and symmetry of molecules. Therefore, it
provides a fingerprint by which the molecule can be identified.
2. Raman gas analyzers have many practical applications. For instance, they are used
in medicine for real-time monitoring of anesthetic and respiratory gas mixtures
during surgery.
3. Raman spectroscopy has also been used to confirm the prediction of existence of
low-frequency phonons in proteins and DNA greatly stimulating the studies
of low-frequency collective motion in proteins and DNA and their biological
functions
4. Raman scattering by an anisotropic crystal gives information on the crystal
orientation. The polarization of the Raman scattered light with respect to the
crystal and the polarization of the laser light can be used to find the orientation of
the crystal, if the crystal structure known.
3. Explain principle of Electron microscope (SEM) with neat diagram
Accelerated electrons in an SEM carry significant amounts of kinetic energy, and this
energy is dissipated as a variety of signals produced by electron-sample interactions
when the incident electrons are decelerated in the solid sample.
These signals include secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, diffracted
backscattered electrons, photons (characteristic X-rays that are used for elemental
analysis and continuum X-rays), visible light, and heat. Secondary electrons and
backscattered electrons are commonly used for imaging samples: secondary
electrons are most valuable for showing
morphology and topography on samples and
backscattered electrons are most valuable for
illustrating contrasts in composition in
multiphase samples (i.e. for rapid phase
discrimination).
X-ray generation is produced by inelastic
collisions of the incident electrons with
electrons in discrete orbital (shells) of atoms in
the sample. As the excited electrons return to
lower energy states, they yield X-rays that are of
a fixed wavelength (that is related to the
difference in energy levels of electrons in
different shells for a given element). Thus,
characteristic X-rays are produced for each
element in a mineral that is "excited" by the
electron beam.
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Dr. Kareem 2017
SEM analysis is considered to be "non-destructive"; that is, x rays generated by
electron interactions do not lead to volume loss of the sample, so it is possible to
analyze the same materials repeatedly.
Applications
1. The SEM is routinely used to generate high-resolution images of shapes of
objectss and to show spatial variations in chemical compositions:
2. Acquiring elemental maps or spot chemical analyses using EDS
3. Discrimination of phases based on mean atomic number (commonly related to
relative density) using Back scattered elections
4. Compositional maps based on differences in trace element "activitors" (typically
transition metal and Rare Earth elements) using CL.
5. The SEM is also widely used to identify phases based on qualitative chemical
analysis and/or crystalline structure. Precise measurement of very small features
and objects down to 50 nm in size is also accomplished using the SEM.
Backscattered electron images (BSE) can be used for rapid discrimination of
phases in multiphase samples. SEMs equipped with diffracted backscattered
electron detectors (EBSD) can be used to examine micro fabric and
crystallographic orientation in many materials.
4. Explain principle of AFM with neat diagram
The atomic force microscope (AFM) was
invented by Binning et al. in 1986. The AFM
measures the forces acting between a fine tip
and a sample. The tip is attached to the free end
of a cantilever and is brought very close to a
surface.
Attractive or repulsive forces resulting from
interactions between the tip and the surface will
cause a positive or negative bending of the
cantilever. The bending is detected by means of
a laser beam, which is reflected from the back
side of the cantilever. Figure shows the basic
concept of AFM. The working principle of AFM is Hooks law.
Contact mode imaging: cantilever’s tip is brought in contact with the surface of the
sample. The force between the tip and the sample causes the cantilever to deflect in
accordance with Hooke's Law.The amount of deflection is measured by reflecting light
from a laser diode off the back of the beam, and onto an array of position-sensitive
photo detectors.
Non-contact imaging employs a small piezo element mounted under the cantilever to
make it oscillate at its resonance frequency. When this oscillating cantilever is brought
down to within 10-100 nm from the sample surface, the oscillation gets modified
by interaction forces (Van der Waals, electrostatic, magnetic, or capillary
forces) between the tip and the sample.
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Dr. Kareem 2017
The advantages of AFM over electron microscopy include the following:
1) it generates true, 3-dimensional surface images;
2) it does not require special sample treatments that can result in the sample's
destruction or alteration; and
3) it does not require a vacuum environment in order to operate (it can operate in both
air and liquid).
On the other hand, itsdisadvantages include the following: 1) the image size that it
provides is much smaller than what electron microscopes can create; and 2) it is slow in
scanning an image, unlike an electron microscope which does it in almost real-time.

1. Explain the basic principle used in atomic force microscopes. [Jan 2012, 2
marks]
2. Explain the principle of X-ray fluorescence. [Jan 2013, 2 marks]
3. Explain the construction & working of SEM . [Jun11, 4 m] (June-13, 6m)
4. What is the principle of X-ray fluorescence and mention its applications
(Dec-13, 5)&(June-13, 5)
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Dr. Kareem 2017
UNIT-V Nanomaterials
1. What are Nano materials

Nano means 10-9. A nano meter (nm) is one thousand millionth of a meter
(i.e.,10-9m). Atoms are extremely small and the diameter of a single atom can vary
from 0.1 to 0.5 nm depending on the type of the elementThe materials which have at
least one external dimension in the size range from approximately 1nm to 100 nm
are called nanomaterials.
If one dimension of the material is reduced to nano range while the other two
dimensions remain large, then the material or structure is called quantum well.
Quantum well is also called nanolayers.
If two dimensions are reduced to nano size while the third dimension remains large,
then the resulting structure is called quantum wire. A quantum wire is a one
dimensional nanostructure.
If all the three dimensions lie between ‘1’ to ‘100’ nm they are considered as zero
dimensional nano structures. These are also called as nano particles or nano
powders.
A number of physical phenomena become noticeably pronounced as the size of the

system decreases. For example opaque substances become transparent (Copper);
inert materials become catalysts (Platinum & gold); stable materials turn
combustible (Aluminum); solids turns into liquids at room temperature (Gold);
insulators become conductors (Silicon).
2. Explain Properties of Nano materials

As the size of the nanoparticle is very very less, these materials exhibit peculiar physical,
electrical, magnetic, mechanical and chemical properties. Some of them are discussed
below.
1. Physical properties
(a) Since the size of the particle is very less, the particles are very close to each other
and hence the inter-particle spacing is very less in nanomaterials.
(b) The melting point of nanomaterials will be very less.
2. Electrical properties
(a) The energy bands in these materials will be very narrow
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Dr. Kareem 2017
(b) In nano-ceramics the electrical conductivity increases with reduction in particle
size where as in metals electrical conductivity decreases.
3. Magnetic properties
(a) In nanomaterials a large number of atoms will be present at the surface. These
atoms will have less co-ordination number and hence possess local magnetic
moment within them.
(b) The nanomaterials show variation in their magnetic property, when they change
from bulk state to nano-particle state. Some of the examples are listed in table
S.No Material Bulk state Nano-Phase state
1 Iron, Ni, Cobalt Ferro-magnetic Super para-magnetic
2 Sodium, Potassium Para-magnetic Ferro-magnetic
3 Chromium Anti-ferromagnetic Frustrated para-magnetic
4. Mechanical properties
(a) The hardness of nano-phase materials varies from material to material. This may
be due to the phase transformation, stress relief, density and grain boundaries.
(b) They exhibit super plastic behavior
5. Chemical properties
(a) The ionization potential is found to be higher for nanomaterial.
(b) Nanomaterials are capable of storing hydrogen atoms.
3. Explain surface to volume ratio

Increase in surface area to volume ratio:
Nanomaterials have a relatively larger surface area when compared to the larger form of
the material of same volume or mass.
Let us consider a sphere, its surface area=4πr2 ; Its volume =
Surface area to volume ratio =
Thus, when the radius of the sphere decreases, its surface area to volume ratio increases.
Let us consider another example: Cube
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Dr. Kareem 2017
Thus we find that when the given volume is divided into small pieces, the surface area
increases. Hence as material size decreases, a greater proportion of atoms are found at
the surface compared to those inside. This makes materials more chemically reactive.
This also effects strength and electrical properties.
4. What is Quantum confinement

Metals in general are characterized by their electronic bonding system differing from
non-metals and semiconductors. When dimensions are decreased to a certain extent,
this special behaviour of metals no longer possible. The electrons are trapped in a too
small volume and they behave very differently and consequently change their
physical and chemical properties.
In small nano-crystals the electronic energy levels are not continuous as in the bulk
but discrete, because of the confinement of the electronic wave-function to the
physical dimensions of the particles. This phenomenon is called quantum
confinement.
5. Explain different types preparation techniques of nano materials.

There are two approaches to the synthesis of nanomaterials and the fabrication of
nanostructures; viz top-down and bottom-up.
Top down approach involves the breaking down of the bulk material into nano sized
structures or particles. An example of such a technique is high-energy ball milling.
The alternative approach, which has the potential of creating less waste and
hence the more economical, is the ‘bottom- up’. Bottom up approach refers to the
build up of a material from the bottom: atom-by-atom, molecule-by-molecule, or
cluster-by-cluster. Many of these techniques are still under
development or are just beginning to be used for commercial
production of nano powders
Ball Milling Method:

This method is preferred mainly in the preparation of metal
oxide nano crystals.In this method, small balls are allowed to
rotate inside a drum and are made to fall on a solid with high
gravitational force, which crushes the solid into nano crystals.
Examples: Ni and Al based nano-crystals,Iron Nitriles nano-crystals can be made

using ammonia gas.
Sol-Gel method:
Sol-Gel is a chemical process
used to make ceramic and glass
materials in the form of thin
films, fibers or nano
powders.Sol-Gel process
17
Dr. Kareem 2017
involves the formation of a colloidal suspension (Sol)and gelation of the sol to form
nano-powders in a continuous liquid phase (Gel).
A sol is a dispersion of the solid particles (20 to 100nm) in a liquid. The gel is a state
where both liquid and solid are dispersed in each other, which presents solid
networking containing liquid components. The transformation to a gel is often
achieved by changing the PH or the concentration of the solution. The following four
steps are involved in sol-gel method
1. The desired colloidal particles are dispersed in a liquid to form a sol.

2. The deposition of the sol solution on the substrates by spraying, dipping or
spinning.
3. The particles in the sol are polymerized through the removal of the stabilizing
components and produce a gel.
4. The final heat treatments pyrolyze the remaining organic or inorganic
components and form an amorphous or crystalline nano particles coating on the
substrate.
The chemical deposition method (CVD)
In this method nanoparticles are

deposited from gas phase.
Material is heated to form a gas
and then allowed to deposit on a
solid surface, usually under high
vacuum. It involves pyrolysis of
vapours of metal organic
precursors in a reduced pressure
atmosphere. In the simplest form
shown in Figure , a metal-organic precursors is introduced into the hot zone of the
reactor using mass flow controller. The precursor is vaporized either by resistive or
inductive heating. The carrier gas such as Ar or Ne carries the hot atoms to the
reaction chamber. The hot atoms collide with cold atoms and undergo condensation
through nucleation and form small clusters. In side reaction chamber other reactants
are added to control the reaction rate. Then these clusters are allowed to condense
on a moving belt arrangement with scrapper to collect the nanoparticles. The particle
size could be controlled by rate of evaporation (energy input), rate of cluster
formation (energy removal rate) and rate of condensation
CVD method of synthesis of nanoparticles has many advantages
(a) the increased yield of nanoparticles

(b) a wider range of ceramics including nitrides and carbides can be synthesized
(c) more complex oxides such as BaTiO3 or composite structures can be formed
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Dr. Kareem 2017
6. What are carbon nano tubes and explain its different types
Carbon nano tubes

A Carbon Nanotube is a tube-shaped material, made of carbon, having a diameter
measuring on the nanometer scale. Carbon nanotubes are thought to be the material
of the future. Based on number of layers nanotubes are classified into two types. 1.
single-walled nanotubes and 2. Multi-walled nanotubes.
Single-wall Nanotubes (SWNT): SWNT are tubes of graphite that are normally
capped at the ends. They have a single cylindrical wall. The structure of a SWNT can
be visualized as a layer of
graphite, a single atom thick,
called graphene, which is rolled
into a seamless cylinder.
Most SWNT typically have a
diameter of close to 1 nm. The
tube length, however, can be
many thousands of times
longer.SWNT are more pliable yet
harder to make than MWNT. They can be twisted, flattened, and bent into small
circles or around sharp bends without breaking.
SWNT have unique electronic and mechanical properties which can be used in
numerous applications, such as field-emission displays, nanocomposite materials,
nanosensors, and logic elements. These materials are on the leading-edge of
electronic fabrication, and are expected to play a major role in the next generation of
miniaturized electronics.
Multi-wall Nanotubes (MWNT):Multi-wall nanotubes can appear either in the form

of a coaxial assembly of SWNT similar to a coaxial cable, or as single sheets of
graphite rolled into the shape of a scroll.
The diameters of MWNT are typically in the range of 5 nm to 50 nm. The interlayer
distance in MWNT is close to the distance between graphene layers in graphite.
MWNT are easier to produce in high volume quantities than SWNT. However, the
structure of MWNT is less well understood because of its greater complexity and
variety. Regions of structural imperfection may diminish its desirable material
properties.
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Dr. Kareem 2017
7. Write benefits and applications of nano technology.
Everyday materials and processes
 Nanoscale additives in polymer composite materials for baseball bats, tennis

rackets, motorcycle helmets, automobile bumpers, luggage, and power tool
housings can make them simultaneously lightweight, stiff, durable, and resilient.
 Nanoscale thin films on eyeglasses, computer and camera displays, windows, and
other surfaces can make them water-repellent, antireflective, self-cleaning,
resistant to ultraviolet or infrared light, antifog, antimicrobial, scratch-resistant,
or electrically conductive.
 Nano-engineered materials in the food industry include nanocomposites in food
containers to minimize carbon dioxide leakage out of carbonated beverages, or
reduce oxygen inflow, moisture outflow, or the growth of bacteria in order to
keep food fresher and safer, longer.
 Nano-engineered materials in automotive products include high-power
rechargeable battery systems; thermoelectric materials for temperature control;
lower-rolling-resistance tires; high-efficiency/low-cost sensors and electronics;
thin-film smart solar panels; and fuel additives and improved catalytic converters
for cleaner exhaust and extended range.
Electronics and information technology applications
 Nanoscale transistors that are faster, more powerful, and increasingly energy-
efficient; soon your computer’s entire memory may be stored on a single tiny
chip.
 Magnetic random access memory (MRAM) enabled by nanometer‐scale magnetic
tunnel junctions that can quickly and effectively save even encrypted data during
a system shutdown or crash, enable resume‐play features, and gather vehicle
accident data.
 Displays for many new TVs, laptop computers, cell phones, digital cameras, and
other devices incorporate nanostructured polymer films known as organic light-
emitting diodes, or OLEDs. OLED screens offer brighter images in a flat format, as
well as wider viewing angles, lighter weight, better picture density, lower power
consumption, and longer lifetimes.
Sustainable energy applications
 Prototype solar panels incorporating nanotechnology are more efficient than
standard designs in converting sunlight to electricity, promising inexpensive
solar power in the future. Nanostructured solar cells already are cheaper to
manufacture and easier to install, since they can use print-like manufacturing
processes and can be made in flexible rolls rather than discrete panels.
 Nanotechnology is improving the efficiency of fuel production from normal and
low-grade raw petroleum materials through better catalysis, as well as fuel
consumption efficiency in vehicles and power plants through higher-efficiency
combustion and decreased friction.
Environmental Remediation applications
 Nanotechnology could help meet the need for affordable, clean drinking water
through rapid, low-cost detection of impurities in and filtration and purification
of water.
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Dr. Kareem 2017
 Nanoparticles will someday be used to clean industrial water pollutants in
ground water through chemical reactions that render them harmless, at much
lower cost than methods that require pumping the water out of the ground for
treatment.
 Researchers have developed a nanofabric "paper towel," woven from tiny wires
of potassium manganese oxide, that can absorb 20 times its weight in oil for
cleanup applications.
Medical and Health applications
 Quantum dots are semiconducting nanocrystals that can enhance biological
imaging for medical diagnostics.
 Nanotechnology has been used in the early diagnosis of atherosclerosis, or the
buildup of plaque in arteries.
 Gold nanoparticles can be used to detect early-stage Alzheimer’s disease.
 Molecular imaging for the early detection where sensitive biosensors constructed
of nanoscale components (e.g., nanocantilevers, nanowires, and nanochannels)
can recognize genetic and molecular events and have reporting capabilities,
thereby offering the potential to detect rare molecular signals associated with
malignancy.

1. Write few applications of nano materials. [June 2011, 2 marks]
2. What are carbon nano tubes? Explain [Jan 2012, 2 marks] (Dec-2013, 2)
3. Explain the ball milling method of preparing nano-materials.
4. What are carbon nanotubes? Explain their applications.
[Jan 2013, 3 marks]
5. What is sputtering? Explain the advantages of sputtering deposition.
(June-2013, 3)
6. Explain the preparation of nano materials by sol-gel method
(June-2013, 5)
7. Explain in detail the preparation of a nano material using sol-gel method.
(Dec-2013, 5)
21

Crystallography: Classification of Crystal Systems and Defects

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Crystallography: Classification of Crystal Systems and Defects

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Crystallography

1. Write a short notes on crystal systems (3M)

S.No Crystal System Lattice Crystallography Examples

2. Explain Bravais lattice (3M)

Simple Base Centered

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

4. Derive inter planar spacing in crystals (2M)

Distance of separation between successive (hkl)

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

Hence the spacing between the adjacent planes= OM-ON=NM

6. Explain powder diffraction method for determination of lattice

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

7. Write a short notes on Classification of defects (5M)

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

Applying Stirling Approximation i.e we get

At equilibrium, the change in free energy is minimum, i.e.,

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

Applying Stirling Approximation i.e we get

At equilibrium, the change in free energy is minimum, i.e.,

This gives the concentration of Schottky defects in a crystal at

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

Applying Stirling Approximation i.e we get

At equilibrium, the change in free energy is minimum, i.e.,

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

QUESTIONS FROM PREVIOUS EXAMINATIONS

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

2. According to classical free electron theory, the paramagnetic susceptibility is inversely

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

The solutions of this equation have the form

Following interesting conclusions can be drawn from the figure

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

4. If , the allowed band reduces to one single energy level

5. In the other extreme case,when , no energy levels exist. The

It is obvious from figure that a pair of

4. Derive fermi energy of electrons in a metal (5M)

and is Fermi-Dirac distribution function. It gives the probability that an electron

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

Using the method of integration by parts and Taylor’s series we get

This is the expression for electron density in metals at absolute zero.

We can also turn this around and express it as

This is the expression for Fermi energy of electrons at absolute zero.

5. Explain Classification of materials into conductors,

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

Questions from previous examinations

Dr.Kareem Ahmed Shaik 2017

2. Weiss molecular field theory of ferromagnetism (5M)

According to Weiss, internal molecular fields are directly proportional to intensity of

Where is molecular field constant known as Weiss constant.

The effective magnetic field on the atomic dipole

Curie-Weiss law from molecular field theory:

This is in the form of Curie-Weiss law . Where ⁄ and ⁄

3. Weiss domain theory of ferromagnetism

4. Explain Hysteresis Curve on the basis of domain theory (5M)

Explanation on the basis of domain theory:

When a field is applied, domains where the

5. Differentiate Hard and soft magnetic materials (5M)

6. Explain properties and application of Ferrites (5M)

Examples: Manganese-zinc ferrite, Nickel-zinc ferrite, Cobalt ferrite…

When T<TN, they behave as ferrimagnetic materials

Solution: We know that

Flux density B= [ ] [ ]=0.012612 Wb/m2