Prof String Ebook ThinkUKnow Strings

Think You Know Guitar Strings?
A Primer on Guitar and Bass Strings
By
Instruction Level: Beginner, Intermediate, and Arrogant
4th Edition
Limits of Liability / Disclaimer of Warranty:
The author and publishers of this book make no representation or warranties with respect
to the accuracy, applicability, fitness, or completeness of the contents of this program.
They disclaim any warranties (expressed or implied), merchantability, or fitness for any
particular purpose. The author and publishers shall in no event be held liable for any loss
or other damages, including but not limited special, incidental, consequential, or other
damages. As always, the advice of a competent legal, tax, accounting or other
professional should be sought.
2
Copyright © ProfessorString.com - All Rights Reserved www.professorstring.com
VISIT US ONLINE FOR MORE INFORMATION
http://www.professorstring.com
SUBSCRIBE TO OUR NEWSLETTER
If you would like to learn more about drop shipping or retailing on the Internet, please
subscribe to our newsletter:
http://www.professorstring.com/professor_string_newsletter.htm
Copyright ProfessorString.com. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by
any informational storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. The publishers or
author disclaims any personal loss or liability caused by utilization of any information presented herein. Printed in the
United States of America.
3
Table of Contents
About The Author............................................................................................................. 5

Foreword............................................................................................................................ 6
Introduction....................................................................................................................... 8
String Makers.................................................................................................................. 11
How Strings Are Marketed ............................................................................................ 15
History – Where it all began .......................................................................................... 17
Metal Strings ................................................................................................................... 18
Nylon Strings ................................................................................................................... 19
Gauge ............................................................................................................................... 20
Maintenance .................................................................................................................... 20
Wound Strings................................................................................................................. 21
Flat Wound Strings......................................................................................................... 22
Round Wound Strings .................................................................................................... 23
Semi-Round Wound Strings .......................................................................................... 23
Electric versus Acoustic.................................................................................................. 24
String Coatings................................................................................................................ 25
Getting to Know Acoustic Guitar Strings..................................................................... 26
Tuning .............................................................................................................................. 29
Intonation......................................................................................................................... 30
ASI…the untold tuning problem................................................................................... 32
Advanced String Intonation (ASI) ................................................................................ 33
Final Word....................................................................................................................... 39
4
About The Author
I have been teaching, consulting, engineering, and authoring the

principles of magnetics, metallurgy, audio amplification, and
musical instrument string designs for over twenty-five years. Over
the years, I have consulted with many professional instrument
technicians, senior level executives, sales professionals, marketers,
and manufacturers in the string and pick-up business. I have founded several successful
businesses over the years, including an innovation services firm that has helped create a
new way of thinking for many business executives. My formal education is a bachelor
degree in electrical engineering, a masters degree in manufacturing systems, and a
doctorate in management information systems. During my engineering career, I authored
numerous patents in magnetic sensor design. I carried this knowledge into the realm of
electro-magnetic pickup theory, vibrational ferrous targets, and hi-fi musical instrument
design. In short, this is the basis of work that gave me the ability to advise clients in how
to design strings, pickups, sensors, and small vibrating ferrous targets. Some of my
clients have included Shure Brothers, St. Louis Music, Honeywell, Allegro, Ansoft,
Arnold Magnetics, ITW, and Cherry. In addition to my work, I have been a guitarist and
bassist for over thirty years. Along the way, I spent many years performing and teaching
the concepts of guitar and bass. Now, I am sharing my experience and knowledge with
folks like you to use.
Best Wishes!
5
Foreword
This book is not only a guide for navigating through the guitar and bass string jungle, it is
a lesson book. It will teach the lessons about guitar and bass strings. These are the lessons
that most guitar and bass instructors completely ignore, or simply have no in-depth
knowledge about the subject. By request, we have included some written content from
the Professor String website. Specifically, the Strings 101 section was included as a
primer for beginners and intermediate level players.
A word about string brands…

We conducted a survey on the Professor String website about what should be in this
book. One of the questions we asked was about string brands. Specifically, should we
mention any string brands in this book? The results were pretty much down the middle
with half the readers saying “Yes” and the other half saying “No”. In short, we have
minimized any mention of brands in this book for several reasons.
1. If you want to read about different brands of strings, go buy your favorite guitar
or bass magazine. They are loaded with tons of string advertising and hype. This
book is about teaching you how to get beyond the hype and B.S. surrounding
guitar string advertisements and marketing.
2. In marketing terms, a brand is a story or image. It is often the story you tell
yourself about a product. This book is not going to waste your time by discussing
what a string company wants you to know about their product.
3. We do not endorse any particular brand of string. Does the world really need
another musician or expert doing a string endorsement?...Of course not.
One other reason we will not be discussing brands relates to the problem of exclusion. If
we exclude mentioning a particular brand, we would risk this book being accused of
favoritism towards a particular brand or company. So, there you have it…no brands will
be mentioned in this book.
6
To change or not to change?
If you have been loyal to a particular string brand for a long time, then this back-to-basics
book might change your perceptions about strings. We have had many Professor
String.com readers write to us and say something like this:
“I have been playing [mentions brand] strings for over thirty years.
Your columns and teachings have made me switch to something
else. My sound; my playing; and my instrument have totally
changed, and I love it!”
Sticking with the same brand of strings for long periods of time is like being stuck in a
silent rut. Many players do not realized how a simple component like a string can
completely change an instrument. On the other side of the coin, there are many players
who have written to Professor String and said something like this:
“I always try different brands of strings and I’m always looking for
something new. After checking out some of your writings, I no
longer try out just any particular brand of strings. I have a clearer
sense of what I am trying to achieve with my sound…and how to get
it!”
Getting a clear goal in mind of what you are trying to do with your sound and playing
should always be at the top of the list. Most players only have a general idea in their head
of what they want. They continue to endlessly change string brands, guitars, amps,
pedals, picks and pickups spending a ton of money in the process. Their results are often
mixed and sometimes lead to sheer frustration. When it comes to guitar and bass strings,
this book is here to help you avoid that trap.
7
Introduction
When it comes to guitar and bass strings, many will agree with this quote…
“No other component of the guitar has as much impact on the playability and sound of
the instrument.”
Who is being quoted? Well, just about any player who has done their homework. In
addition, the quote could be from any string manufacturer or string representative trying
to convince you to buy their strings. Most musicians do not realize all the steps involved
in designing and manufacturing a string. String production is something taken for granted
by many. They feel it is something simplistic and do not take the time to think about all
the variables involved in creating a wound string.
The point is this, strings make a difference. All sounds created by a guitar or bass begin
at the strings. If you are a new to playing the guitar or bass, then a simple introduction to
various strings is a must. There has never been a book published as a primer or
introduction into guitar strings…until now. Perhaps the most challenging part of
presenting an introduction to strings is not to get polarized towards string brands. One of
the goals of this primer is to give a string overview from an academic standpoint. There
are many sources for string information on the web, but there are pitfalls to the
information provided. Here are four of the most common pitfalls when trying learn about
guitar and bass strings on the Web:
1. Retail websites selling strings - Their focus is on selling strings. Their

information typically concentrates on the basics about strings, or it is simply
non-existent. Also, they tend to be a little biased towards the brands they carry.
2. A string manufacturer's website - A nice source of information, BUT the

information has a bias towards their own product. Here is the reality check: Have
8
you ever seen a string manufacturer's site talk in-depth about the problems of
their own product? Of course not. In addition, many of these sites are crammed
full of marketing sales hype and testimonials by musicians being paid big bucks
to endorse the product.
3. Someone's guitar instruction website - Their focus is on teaching people how

to play. Again, the information covers the basics such as how to change the
strings and tune them. Most music instructors do not have the formal science
background, or the credentials, to teach the topic in-depth beyond the basics.
4. Musician's magazines and publications - Their business is advertising. There

is good information to be found in the major magazines. However, the
information is not subjective enough, and is a little biased towards the string
manufacturers who advertise with them. Their product reviews would never
trash a string manufacturer who gives them millions of dollars every year to
advertise in their magazine. Think about it. Remember, their business is
advertising. They do not want to bite the hand that feeds them.
We felt it was time to get a formal electronic book put together on the subject. Enjoy!
The Selection Overload

Strings are no longer a simple purchase as they were many years ago. The string market
has turned into a serious jungle of choices, technologies, and hype. Think about it. The
string choices Charlie Christen and Chuck Berry had back in the day were nothing like
the choices we have today. The choices today are overwhelming. For the technical super
tone geek, it’s heaven. For the simple beginner, it is hell. There is one question about
strings that was not included on our list above, and it is asked more times than any
question about strings. You can hear this question being asked almost every time you step
foot in a music store and a customer is trying to buy strings. A customer will ask the
employee behind the counter, “What strings do you recommend?” At that moment, the
employee will pause, sigh, look at the massive array of string packages and start their
9
sentence with, “Well…Uh…” Everytime I see a music store employee take on that
question, I sympathetically think to myself, “Poor bastard.”
The First Lesson About Strings

Most guitar and bass instructors do not spend much time explaining how to select strings.
Students are there to learn how to play songs, scales, chords, picking, slapping, and
plucking. They are not paying instructors to hear about how alloy densities will affect
string performance in certain positions. “If the string does not ring out just press behind
the fret harder,” is what one of my early guitar instructors said. I would press hard, and it
would still made a muted “clunk” noise on my Gibson ES-175, but when I played my
other guitar (the beat up hand-me-down Sears Roebuck guitar), the strings rang out
perfectly. Something was clearly different. I had convinced mom and dad to help me
spend a bunch of money on a “good” guitar. I was very serious about playing
professionally and had convinced them to help me get an ES-175. Now that expensive
guitar was not doing too good compared the cheap Sears Roebuck hand-me-down that
dad said, “It plays fine, and will do the job.” I was afraid to say anything. If I started
playing the hand-me-down guitar all the time, they would get suspicious of me not liking
the new “expensive” guitar. One day at lessons, I asked a guitar technician at the music
store to take a look at why the ES-175 did not ring out like the hand-me-down guitar. He
checked the frets, checked the neck, and checked the bridge. Everything looked good. He
asked me how old the strings were on the guitar. I said they were fairly new since the
guitar was bought just a couple of months ago. He asked if they were the original strings
that came with the guitar. I said “Yes.” He started shaking his head with a smile. He said,
“I’ll tell what’s going on with your guitar...” At that point, I was about to get my first
lesson in guitar strings…and it was not coming from a guitar instructor. He changed the
strings on my guitar, and did not have to make any adjustments. The guitar sounded and
played perfect. I was stunned. What was wrong with the strings? The answer was not
straightforward or simple. So, for the next thirty plus years I spent many hours studying
various strings and the companies that make them.
10
String Makers
How many companies make their own strings? This is a question that has come up
frequently over the years. The question is posted all over the Web with somebody
responding to it with an incorrect answer. Most of the commonly incorrect answers
usually focused on saying, “There are only a few companies that wind their own strings.
Everybody else buys strings from them and puts their own brand label on them.” Of
course, this is totally incorrect. The confusion is mostly about “private labeling” versus
manufacturing. If you are not familiar with the term private labeling, it means have one
company make goods for another company to resell under their own name. It is a very
common practice in business. The string market is no different.
How Many?
Let’s set the record straight right now. As of this writing there are 31 string makers in the
USA who wind and manufacture their own guitar strings (I have personally visited over
half of them myself). Some of you reading this article might be in shock and disbelief to
see such a high number. Keep in mind that the number includes everybody from a one-
man operation to a big corporation. Some string makers have been very successful in the
particular niche they serve such as harp strings or other various orchestral instruments.
They may offer guitar strings, but their majority customer base niche might be something
else like autoharp. In most instances, they don’t have a large marketing machine to
participate competitively in the guitar and bass string business. Another thing to mention,
the 31 string makers include the makers of nylon strings, catgut, composite, and exotic
metal strings.
Private Labeling
Of the 31 string makers, less than half offer private labeling. Not everyone’s private
labeling business is booming. Many of the major string manufacturers have private
labeling programs that are highly successful with many customers. One major string
maker could have countless different labels they are supplying. Other string makers may
only have a couple of labels they are working with in low volume quantities. These are
usually strings made in special batch runs for a luthier.
11
I believe this is where many people get confused between a manufacturer and a private
labeler. Most folks are familiar with the larger string manufacturers who make their own
brand, AND also supply to other private labels in high volumes. High volume private
labeling is the point of confusion. It is true, that there are only a handful of string
companies who fit in that high volume, and highly marketed, business category. But, that
does not mean they are one of the few companies who make their own guitar strings.
There are many more that make their own strings, but do not have a large private labeling
business, if any.
While we are on the topic of large volume, let’s ask the question. If a mass producing
string company is large, well known, and has a large private labeling business, does that
mean they make the best strings? As a frame of reference: Toyota is a big manufacturer
that makes lots of cars in many different categories. Bentley is a small manufacturer that
makes very few cars in one or two categories. Is the bigger company better? Which
company can make a better car? You be the judge.
String Making Equipment

Another point of confusion is the myth surrounding the equipment that makes guitar
strings. Some folks believe string companies are the only ones who know how to build a
string winding machine. Not true. There are string companies who may have started in
their early years building their own string winding contraptions. But as the business grew,
and sales volumes increased, they looked for outside help. There are companies who’s
business is machine building. They build machines and tools for automation. Many string
manufacturers have their equipment built for them by somebody else. Once the
equipment is in house, it is string manufacturers’ task to perform the necessary
maintenance on it to keep it running properly. This means they have a maintenance group
that can fix the machine. The difference here is machine maintenance versus machine and
tool building. Virtually anyone can go out (with business financing) and buy an
automated string winding machine today. They cost less than a small farm tractor. Over
12
night, you can be a string manufacturer. The lesson is this: Making a product is easy.
Convincing somebody they should buy it is the real mountain to climb.
An Example
If you want to find out who is making their own strings, one place to start is to find who
makes string winding equipment. As an example, in Europe you can find a machine
builder such as Birkmaier GmbH who is well known for their top notch string building
equipment.
Photo Courtesy of Birkmaier Photo Courtesy of Birkmaier
Computerized string winding machine

made by Birkmaier features fully A ball-end machine my Birkmaier is
functional operator station controls with able to do both single and double ball-
micro-controlled servos. end strings.
Photo Courtesy of Birkmaier
Ball-ends can come in many different sizes,

shapes, colors and materials. Birkmaier makes
equipment that can generate virtually any type
of ball-end a string company may desire. The
photo on left shows a sample of the various ball-
ends Birkmaier machinery has created over the
years. Some of them might look familiar to you.
This single company has supplied string making equipment to at least sixteen string
manufacturers in Europe alone. Birkmaier has supplied string making equipment for
many clients over the years. They were founded by a father and son team of Paul and
13
Wolf Birkmaier in Germany. They have been engineering and building tools since 1902.
Here is a list of some of their European string making clients (you might be using their
strings right now!):
Emuzin Pyramid Rotosound Real-Jimmy Wess
Giannini-Strings Gornati-Giorpa Solez-Groove Wintrade
Sakis-Mastro Belson Font & Company Picato-Strings
Concertina Gato-Strings Alhambra Musik-Knobloch
14
How Strings Are Marketed
To all you players from an older generation: Strings are no longer a simple purchase as
they were many years ago.
To all you players from a younger generation: Strings are no longer a simple purchase as
they were many years ago.
As mentioned earlier, the string market has turned into a serious jungle of choices,
technologies, and hype. Most guitar and bass instructors do not spend much time
explaining how to select strings. If you are a guitarist or bassist, then you know there are
a number of things that can create this problem. Most guitarist will blame the neck, the
frets, the action, or themselves for not getting the notes to ring out. Seldom do we
consider the strings as the first cause of this problem. For many, the logic is simple…if
the string sounds crisp and clear when played open, then the string is okay. Experienced
players know this is not always true. What’s the point? Strings are critical to sound and
playability, but are often overlooked and over simplified. Here is the question that starts
to address the secret mentioned earlier: How does someone select a new set of strings?
Buying strings presents an interesting problem. It involves buying a product you cannot
actually try out until you hand over the money. You do not know what you have
purchased until you actually install them on your guitar or bass. If you have used one
particular type of brand before, you may have some kind of expectation from your past
experience with that brand. However, if you have never purchased a particular brand, and
you are trying something completely new, then your historical data is limited. What are
you going to do? Some of you guitarist might be thinking, “It’s not a big deal as strings
can be just a few bucks, and it’s not a big loss of money if a particular brand does not
work out for me.” Others of you, particularly bassists who play aggressive slap, might be
thinking, “It is a tough decision as a 5-string set can cost over $40, and they go dead after
a few weeks of getting slapped up and funked over. The whole thing can be an expensive
funk’n mess.”
15
The Secret Never Explained
So, do the string companies know about this issue? Absolutely! They have marketing
folks studying:
1. How do we buy strings?

2. What strings do we buy?
3. When do we buy strings?
4. How often do we buy strings?
5. How much do we usually spend when we buy strings?
The string market is a very competitive business. These businesses must do their
homework in order to survive. It can be like selling books. Book publishers know that the
book’s cover can get someone to notice their book and pick it up. The cover must get
attention, and keep it to succeed. The title, the picture, and the vibrant colors all play a
role in grabbing the reader’s emotions. The book cover by itself is talking and telling us a
story. Once the reader decides to pick up the book, he or she will open the book and
sample a few chapters at a glance. At that moment, they will decide on whether to buy.
Here is the secret: Strings are not much different. If the guitarist has not sworn allegiance
to a particular brand, then they will have a melting pot of choices coming at them. What
is going on when a guitarist walks up to the counter at the music store, and starts looking
at the string selection? If the selection is decent, at least eighty different sets will be on
display. The larger national music stores sometimes have over two-hundred different
string sets on display. With so many sets on display, it’s a sensory overload on the eyes.
Tons of colors, pictures, and titles are being thrown at you during your first glance…just
like a large shelf of flashy books! Now, the real test comes. Which set is going to get that
potential buyer’s attention the most? It is a complex answer that is beyond the scope of
this article. Whatever one gets their attention, the person behind the counter can hand
them the set. As soon as the set is handed to the customer, there is a very likely chance
they will turn it over to check out what is on the backside of the package. Again, back to
the book analogy, this is like opening the book to checkout what it is about. The
appearance on the backside of the string package is just about anyone’s guess. If the
16
marketing folks have done their work correctly, the backside of the string package will
present something compelling to the buyer. The backside might have the following:
1. The brand story including company history and heritage.

2. A story about how the strings are made.
3. A testimonial. Some popular guitarist saying they use these strings.
4. A picture or cool graphic.
5. Facts such as gauge info, alloy composition, type of winding…etc.
6. Company website information.
Like the old business saying goes: Facts tell, but stories sell. Popular marketing guru Seth
Godin once pointed out that customers buy because of the story they create in their own
mind. The secret is that stories sell strings. Not just any story, but the story we tell
ourselves. The information on the front and backside of the string package is a story. It is
a story that we interpret to our own version. As an example, let’s say Carlos Santana had
his testimonial on the backside of the string set. The marketing folks are hoping this will
mean something to the potential string buyer. Although the company will not print “our
strings are good because Carlos uses them” the buyer might concluded that in their own
head. The story in the buyer’s head would go something like this, “Heck, they must be
good strings if Carlos is using them.” Today, there are more string endorsements by
artists than ever before. Why? Because it works. Many young players are easily swayed
when they see their guitar hero using a particular brand of strings. It’s a trap that can get
players started on the wrong foot. Use a set of strings that works best for YOU. Be an
individual. Make your own statement. In a word, you are the self-respected celebrity.
Whatever you are using, is what you endorse, and that is what matters the most.
History – Where it all began

The whole concept of the guitar began many centuries ago, but the concept of a musical
string began before the guitar. The earliest stringed instruments date as far back as the
Egyptian dynasty. Eastern instruments such as the rebab and other lute family
instruments have existed since the early part of the 8th century. These instruments were
17
based on the concept of having strings made of various materials such as hair and various
livestock parts (mostly intestines). As time progressed, the preference towards animal
intestines became the defacto string for most early stringed instruments. In the 13th
century, an early instrument referenced by historians as a "guitar" emerged with sheep
intestines as the strings.
The number of strings used on the instrument changed over the years. The original
"guitar" string set consisted of a quadra-pairing set. This meant four pairs of strings,
giving eight in total. In the 16th century, the string sets started to expand with penta-
pairings (ten strings), quadra-pairing plus one (nine strings), and so on. The challenge
was getting tonal range and volume. Thicker strings were introduced in the 17th century,
borrowing the construction features of overspun piano strings. This eliminated the need
to have various pairings to emulate extended range and fullness for the instrument. By the
late 18th century and early 19th century a six string set started to become more frequent
in guitar construction.
The 20th century made considerable gains in guitar string construction. The string
material preferences shifted towards steel and nylon. These materials expanded just about
every tonal aspect of the guitar. The electrification of the guitar also made manufactures
start to focus on the magnetic properties of strings. Other string features such as micro-
gauge strings and higher tensile strengths were put into production.
Today in 21st century, string makers continue to improve upon the guitar string by
introducing anti-tarnishing technologies and improved string packaging technologies.
Metal Strings
Metal strings have become the foundation of strings for the electric guitar and bass. Their
construction comes in basically two varieties: plain and wound. Their metal composition
varies greatly with many different alloys as plating. Much of the history about metal
strings evolved through innovations with the piano. The first wound metal strings were
used in a piano. However, when it came to getting super small diameter strings with good
18
elastic properties, the electric guitar took the metal string to the next level. Much of the
metal string design efforts have focused on several things:
1. Enhancement of the magnetic signature with electromagnetic pickups
2. Durability and overall product lifecycle
3. Corrosion resistance
Nylon Strings
Nylon strings are the string of choice for classical style guitars. Most nylon strings do not
have a ball-end and require their ends to be tied to the bridge. However, more recent
nylon string designs have incorporated a ball on the end. Nylon strings made there debut
during the Second World War. The war had placed a demand on resources such as
surgical thread, which at that time was made from gut. At the time, DuPont had
developed a new synthetic material called Nylon. It was being used in the textile industry
and for fishing lines. The war was also finding a new use for nylon in parachutes as the
material was lightweight and extremely durable. Many guitarist were struggling find cat
gut strings during the war. Albert Augustine was a luthier at the time who decided to try
the new nylon thread as an alternative guitar string to cat gut. The results were impressive
and very different from the traditional classical guitar sound. Nylon was lightweight and
did not have the same density as cat gut strings. In effect, nylon was less brighter
sounding but had better strength and surface texture.
19
Gauge
The gauge is a measurement of the average string diameter. Many guitarist buy their
strings by the gauge. However, the gauge only tells part of the story about at string. Other
parameters such as alloy, silks, nylons, and wrapping are just as much a critical factor. In
the very early days of guitar, towards the later part of the nineteenth century, gauge did
not receive the attention as it does today. There is not much documentation about gauging
from the early years, but most historians believe the guitar gauges were derived from the
same gauges used on the violin.
String gauge plays a factor in the frequency, playability, volume, tone and strength of a
string. In general, heavier gauge strings will be louder and fuller sounding than a thinner
string. Heavier gauge strings tend to work better with acoustic and archtop guitars as they
have more mass per unit length. This additional string mass allows for better energy
transfer between the string-to-bridge-to-top configuration. Thinner gauge strings will not
be louder as their mass per unit length is small, but will give considerable ease in
playability for bending and pressing against the frets. Many of today's electric guitars
come with highly sensitive pickups that enable guitarist to get the desired volume they
need from a thin string.
Bass guitar string sets do not typically offer as many choices in string gauges like
standard guitar sets. In addition, their gauge differences are less incremental than
standard guitar sets. Heavier bass strings have a much fuller sound and are more
responsive to thumbing. Thinner gauge strings will result in a thinner sounding bass with
less tonal depth. Some players like the thinner gauges for a brighter sounding bass, and
ease of certain string popping techniques.
Maintenance
There are some basic things that can be done to enhance string performance. Here are the
basics:
20
1. First and foremost is keeping the strings clean. This means getting a clean cotton cloth
and wiping the string down after every playing session. The cloth will help remove sweat
moisture from the string's surface. Moisture is one of the biggest enemies of a metal
string as it creates oxides that build up on a string. The build-up of oxide adds low
density mass to the string that deadens its sound. Another component that is removed
from the strings is dead skin. Microscopic views of strings have shown a considerable
amount of skin being left on wound strings. Similar to oxide build up, skin adds low
density mass to the string. Again, a cotton cloth can be very effective in removing the
dead skin.
Pictured to the left, are string windings magnified to show residual moisture
droplets and skin deposits. Wiping strings frequently with cotton cloth can
remove these tone robbing contaminates.
2. Wipe strings once a week with a good string cleaner. There are some string cleaners on
the market that are effective at removing oil build up. As an alternative, isopropyl alcohol
is also very effective at breaking down oils left on the strings. Be careful not to let the
alcohol make contact with the fretboard or other parts of the instrument.
3. String lubricants can be a nice way of keeping strings, and hands in good playing
shape. Some lubricants are made from ultra lightweight mineral oil. Also, silicon based
lubricants are not preferred as the silicon is nearly impossible to remove once it is on an
instrument. Use lubricants with a direct applicator as aerosol based lubricants can destroy
guitar finishes.
Wound Strings
Although wound strings (or wrapped strings) have been around for many years, their
design represents one of the biggest breakthroughs in string design. The first known
wound string was noted in the later half of the seventeenth century. Wound strings are
21
also known as "overspun" strings. The problem with early stringed instruments, including
the piano, was a problem of tonal range. Getting lower frequency from a string was
challenging due to a string having a small mass associated with it. If the string was made
thicker, it became too stiff and rigid to maintain it's playability for a musician. Before the
invention of wound strings, earlier strings were intertwined together to get the necessary
string mass needed. The results were not very good as the vibrational energy would not
remain stable each time the string was struck (See the String Physics section for more
details on how string mass works.) Upon the arrival of alternative string materials such as
steel, the wound string came into being. The first wound string came into being around
the later half of the seventeenth century. The string consisted of a core string made of gut,
with a thin wire wound around it with multiple turns. This construction is still
predominating in today's wound strings with variations on core shapes and materials.
Core materials can be silk, nylon, kevlar, Perlon, steel and cat gut.
Flat Wound Strings
A classic string that produces warm buttery tone is the best way to describe the flat
wound string. It's construction is a flat metal ribbon wrapped around a core.
22
Flat Wound Cross Sectional View
Round Wound Strings

Today, round wound string are by far the most popular on today's market. It's
construction is a round metal wire wrapped around a core string.
Round Wound Cross Sectional View
Semi-Round Wound Strings

Semi-round wound strings are hybrid style of construction. They are wound strings that
combine the tone of a round wound string and a flat wound string. The semi-round
23
wound string is sometimes called a "ground-round" or "ground-wound" string. There are
several different styles of wrap shapes that have evolved over the years. Style 1 uses a
half-circle shaped winding. These strings can be easily confused for a flat wound string
as their surface is smooth like a flat wound string. However, below the surface is a
winding that makes a tangential contact with the core string, similar to a round wound
string. Style 2 uses a winding that is flattened on two sides. The result is a winding that
makes a surface-to-surface contact with the core string, similar to a flat wound string. The
surface of this string is rougher than a flat wound string, but less abrasive than a round
wound string. Style 2 is gives the darkest sounding tone of the semi-round construction
styles. Style 3 is the brightest sounding type of semi-round string. It is very similar to a
round wound string with exception of one side being slightly flattened. Similar to a round
wound string, it has a tangential contact area with the core. Overall, semi-round strings
are not very popular in today's market, but they do have their uses.
Style 1 Style 2
Style 3
Electric versus Acoustic

What it the difference between electric and acoustic guitar strings? In a word…Metal.
Electric guitar strings utilize ferromagnetic metals, namely steel, to allow the pickup to
sense it. Electric guitar pickups are based on variable reluctance technology. They rely on
24
a magnetic field to be interrupted by a metal target (aka. Guitar string). The interruption
is in the form of a vibration from the string. Acoustic guitar strings do not need
ferromagnetic metals. Amplification is often not a focus of the acoustic guitar. Strings
with clarity, brilliance and volume are preferred. The technology used to amplify an
acoustic guitar does not rely upon strings having ferromagnetic properties. Transducing
an acoustic guitar is more about picking up a signal via piezo effects, or sound pressure
being picked up by a microphone. This opens up the door to a wider variety of string
selections.
String Coatings
Perhaps one of the biggest breakthroughs in acoustic string development is the ability to
leverage polymer coatings. A micro-layer of elastic polymer is applied to the wound
strings during the manufacturing process. This polymer coating prevents corrosive salts,
moisture, and atmosphere from attacking the winding surfaces. The improvement in the
tonal lifecycle of a string is dramatically improved with this type of coating. However,
the coatings come with a slight performance degradation in the tonal spectrum of the
string. This degradation happens due to several reasons. First, the coating adds additional
mass to the string, much like dirt build-up. Second, the polymer itself acts like a
vibrational damper with its elastic properties. Both of these issues slightly deaden the
string. The secret to getting a good coated string with a broad tonal spectrum resides in
the coating thickness. Getting the coating as thin as possible is the trick for string makers.
Some manufacturers have been able to get the coating down to several microns in
thickness. The super thin coating enhances string performance considerably. Again, there
is a trade-off happening as super thin coatings wear away faster. This is particularly a
problem in the fret regions. Overall, coated strings are something to consider and have
been very successful in the acoustic string market.
25
This is a coated string
magnified sixty times. You
can see the polymer coating
covering the winding gaps.
Getting to Know Acoustic Guitar Strings

Fundamentally, acoustic guitar strings have been around longer than any other type of
guitar string. They have evolved into one of the most critical components of the acoustic
scene. Technology has taken the tone capabilities of the acoustic guitar string to new
levels. There are many choices, sometimes leaving musicians confused at times. We are
going to discuss one aspect of acoustic guitar strings in this writing…Metal.
From a visual perspective, most

wound acoustic strings are
based on a bronze alloy
composition. This gives them a
gold color.
There are many different flavors that acoustic guitar strings come in these days. A series
of alloys exist at the most basic level. Interestingly, I find players of all ages and
experience who do not know the differences in string metals. Some have a rough idea,
while some have no idea. Copper, zinc and tin are metals seldom discussed by guitarist.
As soon as a number like 92/8 or 80/20 is mentioned in reference to alloy sets,
26
bewilderment can start. If you are thinking, “Yeah, what the hell do those numbers mean
to my tone?” You are about to find out.
Here is the breakdown of acoustic string metals.
Bronze – Of all the strings manufactured, bronze has got to be the brightest and most
articulate string available. There are no strings that are “pure” bronze, per say, but a mix
of several different alloys including tin-phosphor, zinc and copper. The core is typically
steel. Bronze strings can make virtually any acoustic guitar come alive with highly
penetrating tone, versus their steel string counterparts. Bronze metal is known for its
shimmer and brassy sound, but a deep rich low end can also be attained. Since string
coatings have become popular, many of the previously highly corrosive bronze sets have
become popular again. Uncoated bronze sets can lose their brilliance after a few hours of
playing, as they can be highly corrosive. Many players used to use them for recording
sessions for their short lived brassy sound. String coatings in general, have pumped new
life into acoustic bronze sets. The brassy sound can last for many weeks, or months,
without decaying.
80/20 Bronze – Here is one of those numbers we mentioned earlier. What does 80/20
mean? It is the ratio of copper to zinc in the wrap wire. The wrap wire is 80% copper
while the other 20% is zinc. Again, the core is steel. Since copper is highly corrosive, the
zinc component helps slows down the aging process and adds additional hardness.
However, since the advent of string coatings, the corrosion issue has all but disappeared
as a primary concern. Although, poorly coated 80/20 strings, or strings with worn away
coating will corrode. Tone wise, the 80/20 mix is excellent for creating a string that
yields fantastic tonal range. The 80/20 strings are known for their brilliance and crisp
highs. Uncoated versions of this string can lose brilliance after a few hours of playing
sessions. In fact, this string has gotten a bad rap over the years for being “dead” sounding
due to its high corrosion rate. Super old sets exposed to high humidity can turn light
green from the copper content. Again, coating technologies have completely changed this
factor.
27
85/15 Bronze – This string has a tonal spectrum in between an 80/20 bronze and a
phosphor bronze string. It retains much of the brilliance found in an 80/20 bronze but
captures the warmth and fullness of phosphor bronze strings. The 85/15 was the initial
development of the more popular 80/20. However, 85/15 still remains a popular choice
for finger style playing. It helps add volume to finger style articulation and give clarity
similar to a plectrum.
Phosphor Bronze – The phosphor bronze strings were developed to have a longer lasting
life cycle. In other words, the phosphorus content helped preserve the brilliant tone
longer than the 80/20 and 80/15 bronze strings. Phosphor bronze strings are the darkest
sounding of the bronze string family. They have about 75-80% the brilliance of a fresh
set of 80/20 bronze. Phosphor adds a warm pleasing tone that give a tonal softness not
found in other strings. They tend to have a little less “pick noise” as a plectrum sweeps
across the strings. In fact, some sets have been known to yield a soft “brushing” type of
pick noise.
92/8 Phosphor Bronze – The 92/8 is a ratio represents a blend of 92% copper and 8% tin
phosphide in the wrap wire. The tin phosphide helps preserve the tonal range over time.
Again, since the advent of coatings, the role of phosphor in coated string is purely tone
versus longevity.
Gold Plated – In an effort to prevent corrosion, some strings utilize a micro layer of gold
plating on the wrap wire. The gold plating gives a less brighter sound than the non-plated
80/20 bronze string sets and non-plated phosphor bronze sets. The gold is often plated on
80/20 bronze wrap wire and phosphor bronze sets. The gold plating is a good alternative
for players who feel the poly-resin coating on strings impact string performance.
Titanium – Acoustic string sets based on titanium compositions and cores have been
cited for their corrosion resistance abilities. The non-ferromagnetic properties of titanium
strings inherently put them in the acoustic class of strings. The tonal range of titanium is
28
somewhere between steel and bronze sets with a very unique sounding clarity and
richness. Titanium is a bit of an exotic metal and can be over thirty times the cost of
stainless steel.
Stainless Steel – Stainless steel strings bring their own tonal uniqueness to the acoustic
world. Their high tension requirements make them less friendly to acoustic designs, but
still give exceptional performance. Steel give a much softer sound with less volume than
their bronze counterparts. They make a good choice for the hard strumming, open style
chord players. Players on a budget will appreciate their availability in low price points. In
addition, their stainless properties give them good corrosion resistance.
Silk Steel – Don’t own a classical guitar? No problem. For players seeking the soft sound
of classical guitar strings, silk steel strings deliver the classical tonal range. This string is
constructed of a center wrap of silk with a steel winding. The combination of silk and
steel bring a classical tone to finger-style players wanting to keep their traditional
dreadnaught or concert auditorium acoustic guitar. Unlike classical strings, the silk steel
strings come with a ball end to anchor in a bridge made for metal strings.
Tuning
When it comes to tuning, the sky is the limit on the variations of tuning patterns. In fact,
an entire book could be written about the various tunings of guitar, bass, banjo,
violin…etc. For this section we are going to stay focused on the standard most widely
used for tuning a guitar. A440 has become the standard for musical pitch. Most guitar and
bass string sets (over 97%) on the market today are manufactured with A440 tuning (E-
A-D-G-B-E or B-E-A-D-G) being the primary usage. What does A440 exactly mean? It
is the A note, four and one half steps above middle C. The A440 standard was originally
proposed in the late 1930’s and later formally established with the International
Organization for Standards (ISO) under the ISO 16 standard. The typical frequency
breakdown for a six string guitar is as follows:
29
String Note Frequency
1 (Highest String) E 329.6 Hz
2 B 246.92 Hz
3 G 196.0 Hz
4 D 146.8 Hz
5 A 110 Hz
6 (Lowest String) E 83.4 Hz
Intonation
The principle of how string intonation works can be heard every time you play a chord or
more than two strings at a time. If the multiple notes sound out of tune with each other,
then there is an adjustment needed to the string’s intonation. This means special
compensation will be in need at the bridge saddle or nut. With the advent of the tunable
bridge, guitarists have been able to achieve better intonation. There are many different
styles of bridge that have evolved.
Early archtop guitars,
and present day archtop
guitars started with the
solid wood bridge with
intonation steps carved
into the wood. The
bridge also “floats” on
the top of the guitar
which allows guitarist
to make further
intonation adjustments.
The popular adjustable
Tune-O-Matic style
allows for more
precision intonation
tuning by having the
saddles screw
adjustable.
30
As a further
improvement to
intonation stability, the
bridge saddles were
replaced with a roller.
The roller allows the
string to move more
freely across the
saddle. Many bass
bridges use roller
saddles, or blunt
saddles with no crown.
The Floyd Rose style
bridge gained
popularity with its
versatility in
adjustments for tuning
on tremolo bridges.
Intonation adjustments
are done on each saddle
by an Allen set bolt.
Many classical style
guitars often have no
intonation
compensation on their
bridges. The bridge is
sometimes made from
straight pieces of bone,
plastic or ivory.
Acoustic steel string

guitars have an
intonation
compensation similar
to the archtop style
bridge. Unlike archtop
bridges, this bridge is
fixed in place on the
guitar’s top. In
addition, the strings
anchor close to the
bridge crown.
A simple adjustment of the saddle position can flatten or sharpen a string’s intonation. An
intonation adjustment is about slightly changing a string’s literal scale length. Literal
31
scale adjustment is determined by measuring the distance from the center of the 12th fret
to the edge of the nut on the neck. If you double the measurement, you will have the
actual scale length of the string. If you just tuned your guitar’s open strings on a digital
tuner, and it still sounds out of tune when you play higher up on the neck, odds are the
intonation is out.
ASI…the untold tuning problem.

There has been a real surge in young players publishing their recordings on the Web in
recent years. Websites such as MySpace and YouTube have seen tons of users upload
many homemade recordings of their guitar. At the same time, and more importantly,
younger players are learning about the issues of recording a guitar or bass. They realize it
is important to tune their guitar with a digital tuner. So, they do the right thing, and tune
their guitar digitally prior to recording. They also make adjustments to get the intonation
correct. Yet, during playback, the guitar or bass sounds completely out of tune. Why?
Before we jump into our final discussion of intonation, it’s time to expose something
many advanced players do not know about. So, for you beginner’s out there you are in for
a real treat! Here we go…
There is a secret seldom discussed about guitar strings or seldom published. What’s the
secret? Advanced String Intonation (ASI). This is a term that has not been formally
introduced into the guitar and bass vocabulary. ASI is about the real dynamics of getting
a guitar into perfect pitch. Many long time professional players believe perfect intonation
can be achieved by adjusting the bridge saddles to get the 12th harmonic to match the 12th
fretted tone. Not so! Intonation issues do not merely stop at the bridge and nut. They can
persist up and down an entire neck. Many players in expensive recording studios have
spent thousands of dollars over the years in studio time trying to understand why their
instrument still sounds out of tune during playback. Yet, their bridge intonation is set and
the instrument open tuning is perfect according to a digital tuner. They are in fact,
experiencing ASI issues. Let’s now turn our attention to the aspects of ASI.
32
Advanced String Intonation (ASI)
There are many factors that affect a string’s intonation performance. The issues are not
solely related to the nut and saddle positions. For example, the differences in the string’s
tension, length and mass all affect intonation. The fretting stretch can also play a factor in
your intonation. Every time a string is pressed against a fret, the string is slightly
stretched. This slight stretch will make every fretted note sound slightly sharp. All of
these issues are related to Advanced String Intonation (ASI) problems. Most ASI
problems are common, but often overlooked. They are over looked due to their
magnitude being on a “micro” level in terms of intonation tuning. In fact, it might take
several ASI problems added together to hear the actual impact on tuning. It is important
to have an awareness of ASI problems when you have “done everything” to get a guitar
in tune…and it STILL sounds out of tune on playback.
As a breakdown, here is a list of the most common ASI problems that can cause poor
intonation performance:
1. String Quality (Defects) – Strings with gauge run-out and inconsistent wrap tension
can cause chronic intonation problems. Often times, string manufacturers miss the mark
when it comes to keeping wrap tension consistent from string to string. A string might
actually have good intonation at the 12th fret and open position, but the frets in between
will be slightly off-pitch. This is characteristic of a wound string made with poor wrap
tension.
2. String Alloy Impurities – Often times the metal extrusion process used to create music
wire does not lend itself to attaining metal purity throughout the entire length of a string.
As a result, the string’s molecular density will vary. In fact the sectional weight (per unit
length) of the string can vary from one end to another. The difference in alloy density
will create intonation issues as the denser sections of the string will conduct vibrational
energy differently than other sections of the string.
33
3. Worn Strings – As strings stretch from regular playing and bending, they will stretch.
Unfortunately, a string will not stretch evenly and uniformly up and down it’s length. In
addition, round wound strings can develop flat spots in each fret location. The flat spots
will change the stretch patterns of the string. In the end, stretch spots and flat spots will
create intonation issues.
String wear is apparent on this round wound string magnified 60x. Notice the windings
with flat sides caused by a fret.
4. Imbalanced String Plating – This issue affects intonation on a nano-scale, but we

decided to mention it. Similar to string alloy impurities, plating inconsistency will change
how various sections of the string will conduct vibrational energy. The differences will
create a variation in intonation.
34
Poor plating quality is seen on the top string of this photograph
5. Fret Spacing – Not all guitar necks are created equal, and nothing demonstrates this
fact more than the fretting. Typically, mass produced instruments and cookie cutter
guitars do not always have the frets placed in the exact proper mathematical position. As
a result, the guitar is unable to ever achieve proper intonation.
6. Fret Profile – If the crown of a fret wears, the fret will become wider. The increased
width will change where the string makes actual contact with the fret. As the contact
point changes over time, the intonation will surely change.
The continuous wear from a string has created the flat spot on this fret.
35
7. High action – Here is one problem many guitarists do not consider as part of string
intonation. High action will mean the string will have to stretch more to achieve contact
with the fret. As the string has to stretch more, the fretted notes in each position will be
slightly sharper in pitch.
8. Saddle Lash – Mechanical bridges like the Tune-O-Matic style bridge utilize a screw
to move each saddle. The backlash in the threads and saddle seat will introduce slop into
the scale length. Again, this will be another cause of intonation problems.
This Tune-O-Matic style bridge utilizes a threaded saddle.
9. Worn Nut – Nuts that develop deeper grooves or simply did not get channeled properly
will exhibit intonation problems. See below.
36
A close-up of this guitar’s nut reveals the channel wear occurring.
10. Worn saddle – The crown of a saddle is susceptible to wear, particularly wooden
bridges. As the saddle wears, the crown can become wider or develop a groove in it. This
change in saddle crown profile will have and affect on intonation.
The saddle in this picture has gained some extensive wear in its notch. The notch has
widened and deepened from its original dimensions.
11. Saddle Burrs – Ideally the crown of the saddle should not have any excess from
casting flash when it is manufactured, but sometimes there is excess flash in the form of a
37
metal burr on the seat. If it is not filed down, it can create not only standard tuning
problems, but intonation problems.
12. Unnotched Saddle – Some bridges like the Nashville style Tune-O-Matic bridge does
not come with notches in each saddle. This lack of a notch can allow the string to drift
around on the crown of the saddle. The drifting can result in a variance in the intonation.
Not all Tune-O-Matic style saddles are created equal. The saddle on the left is
unnotched, while the one on the right is notched.
13. High/Low Frets – Similar to the High Action problem with intonation, a higher or
lower profiled fret will change intonation. As the string has to stretch more for lower
frets, the fretted notes in each position will be slightly sharper in pitch. If the fret is high
in its profile the string will not have to stretch as much as an adjacent fret. The intonation
on a high fret will be less sharp in pitch than a lower adjacent fret.
14. Neck Flex & Offset – Depending on how a player has their guitar positioned and
gripped, the neck can twist in either direction. As a result the scale length dynamically
changes as you go across the neck until the neck is released. Guitars, particularly acoustic
guitars, that have been in storage for many years lying on their side will exhibit a slight
neck offset. The offset will have an impact on their intonation.
The results will vary on intonation with regard to the previous twelve ASI issues just
outlined. Some of these attributes are more on a micro level, while others will contribute
38
to a greater intonation issues than others. If we were to assume a 1 cent error for each
error, we would have potentially a ±14 cent tuning error off of 440Hz on a digital tuner.
From string-to-string that is a very recognizable amount to even an untrained ear.
Final Word
No matter what strings you play, there should be a goal associate with them. Get clear
about your goals for playing. Get clear about your goals for tone. Finally, get clear about
what great guitar strings should do for you.
Best Wishes,
39
ATTENTION: Advanced Guitarists, Bassists, and Professionals
Do you want to dig deeper into the secrets of guitar and bass strings?
Then…
Check out the Professor’s String Lab at:
http://www.professorstring.com/string_secrets.htm
40

Prof String Ebook ThinkUKnow Strings

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Prof String Ebook ThinkUKnow Strings

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Think You Know Guitar Strings?

A Primer on Guitar and Bass Strings

Instruction Level: Beginner, Intermediate, and Arrogant

SUBSCRIBE TO OUR NEWSLETTER

About The Author............................................................................................................. 5

I have been teaching, consulting, engineering, and authoring the

A word about string brands…

1. Retail websites selling strings - Their focus is on selling strings. Their

2. A string manufacturer's website - A nice source of information, BUT the

3. Someone's guitar instruction website - Their focus is on teaching people how

4. Musician's magazines and publications - Their business is advertising. There

The Selection Overload

The First Lesson About Strings

String Making Equipment

Computerized string winding machine

Photo Courtesy of Birkmaier

Ball-ends can come in many different sizes,

Emuzin Pyramid Rotosound Real-Jimmy Wess

Giannini-Strings Gornati-Giorpa Solez-Groove Wintrade

Sakis-Mastro Belson Font & Company Picato-Strings

Concertina Gato-Strings Alhambra Musik-Knobloch

1. How do we buy strings?

1. The brand story including company history and heritage.

History – Where it all began

Flat Wound Strings

Round Wound Strings

Round Wound Cross Sectional View

Semi-Round Wound Strings

Electric versus Acoustic

Getting to Know Acoustic Guitar Strings

From a visual perspective, most

Here is the breakdown of acoustic string metals.

Acoustic steel string

ASI…the untold tuning problem.

4. Imbalanced String Plating – This issue affects intonation on a nano-scale, but we

This Tune-O-Matic style bridge utilizes a threaded saddle.

Check out the Professor’s String Lab at:

You might also like